Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

13.1 The Displacement Current

In Chapter 9, we learned that if a current-carrying wire possesses certain symmetry, the

magnetic field can be obtained by using Ampere’s law:

∫ B⋅d s = µ I0 enc (13.1.1)

The equation states that the line integral of a magnetic field around an arbitrary closed
loop is equal to µ0 I enc , where I enc is the conduction current passing through the surface
bound by the closed path. In addition, we also learned in Chapter 10 that, as a
consequence of the Faraday’s law of induction, a changing magnetic field can produce an
electric field, according to

d
∫ E ⋅ d s = − dt ∫∫ B ⋅ dA
S
(13.1.2)

One might then wonder whether or not the converse could be true, namely, a changing
electric field produces a magnetic field. If so, then the right-hand side of Eq. (13.1.1) will
have to be modified to reflect such “symmetry” between E and B .

To see how magnetic fields can be created by a time-varying electric field, consider a
capacitor which is being charged. During the charging process, the electric field strength
increases with time as more charge is accumulated on the plates. The conduction current
that carries the charges also produces a magnetic field. In order to apply Ampere’s law to
calculate this field, let us choose curve C shown in Figure 13.1.1 to be the Amperian loop.

Figure 13.1.1 Surfaces S1 and S2 bound by curve C.

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If the surface bounded by the path is the flat surface S1 , then the enclosed current
is I enc = I . On the other hand, if we choose S2 to be the surface bounded by the curve,
then I enc = 0 since no current passes through S 2 . Thus, we see that there exists an
ambiguity in choosing the appropriate surface bounded by the curve C.

Maxwell showed that the ambiguity can be resolved by adding to the right-hand side of
the Ampere’s law an extra term
dΦE
Id = ε0 (13.1.3)
dt

which he called the “displacement current.” The term involves a change in electric flux.
The generalized Ampere’s (or the Ampere-Maxwell) law now reads

dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
= µ0 ( I + I d ) (13.1.4)

The origin of the displacement current can be understood as follows:

Figure 13.1.2 Displacement through S2

In Figure 13.1.2, the electric flux which passes through S2 is given by

Q
ΦE = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA = EA = ε
S 0
(13.1.5)

where A is the area of the capacitor plates. From Eq. (13.1.3), we readily see that the
displacement current I d is related to the rate of increase of charge on the plate by

d Φ E dQ
Id = ε0 = (13.1.6)
dt dt

However, the right-hand-side of the expression, dQ / dt , is simply equal to the conduction

current, I . Thus, we conclude that the conduction current that passes through S1 is

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precisely equal to the displacement current that passes through S2, namely I = I d . With
the Ampere-Maxwell law, the ambiguity in choosing the surface bound by the Amperian
loop is removed.

13.2 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

We have seen that Gauss’s law for electrostatics states that the electric flux through a
closed surface is proportional to the charge enclosed (Figure 13.2.1a). The electric field
lines originate from the positive charge (source) and terminate at the negative charge
(sink). One would then be tempted to write down the magnetic equivalent as

Qm
ΦB = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = µ
S 0
(13.2.1)

where Qm is the magnetic charge (monopole) enclosed by the Gaussian surface. However,
despite intense search effort, no isolated magnetic monopole has ever been observed.
Hence, Qm = 0 and Gauss’s law for magnetism becomes

ΦB = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
(13.2.2)

Figure 13.2.1 Gauss’s law for (a) electrostatics, and (b) magnetism.

This implies that the number of magnetic field lines entering a closed surface is equal to
the number of field lines leaving the surface. That is, there is no source or sink. In
addition, the lines must be continuous with no starting or end points. In fact, as shown in
Figure 13.2.1(b) for a bar magnet, the field lines that emanate from the north pole to the
south pole outside the magnet return within the magnet and form a closed loop.

13.3 Maxwell’s Equations

We now have four equations which form the foundation of electromagnetic phenomena:

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 Law Equation Physical Interpretation
Q
Gauss's law for E ∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ε
S 0
Electric flux through a closed surface
is proportional to the charged enclosed

dΦB Changing magnetic flux produces an

Faraday's law ∫ E⋅d s = − dt electric field

Gauss's law for B ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0

S
The total magnetic flux through a
closed surface is zero
dΦE Electric current and changing electric
Ampere − Maxwell law ∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt flux produces a magnetic field

Collectively they are known as Maxwell’s equations. The above equations may also be
written in differential forms as

ρ
∇⋅E =
ε0
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t (13.3.1)
∇⋅B = 0
∂E
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0
∂t

where ρ and J are the free charge and the conduction current densities, respectively. In
the absence of sources where Q = 0, I = 0 , the above equations become

∫∫ E ⋅ dA = 0
S

dΦB
∫ E⋅d s = − dt
(13.3.2)
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S

dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ ε 0 0
dt

An important consequence of Maxwell’s equations, as we shall see below, is the

prediction of the existence of electromagnetic waves that travel with speed of light
c = 1/ µ 0ε 0 . The reason is due to the fact that a changing electric field produces a
magnetic field and vice versa, and the coupling between the two fields leads to the
generation of electromagnetic waves. The prediction was confirmed by H. Hertz in 1887.

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