Food Science

Balanced Diet
A diet which contains seven essential factors carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,
minerals, fibers and water in a right amount is called balanced diet. A moderately active woman
should have 1,800-2,200 calories a day. An active average-sized man should have 2,200-2,800
calories. A balanced diet should offer around 60-70% of total calories from carbohydrates,
10-12% from proteins and 20-25% of total calories from fat.

Organic components
(Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Fibers and Vitamins)
Diet

Inorganic Components
(Minerals and Water)

Types of Diets
i. The Paleo Diet
This is a natural way of eating, one that almost abandons all intake of sugar. The only sugar
in a Paleo diet comes from fruit. A Paleo diet consists of fish, fowl, vegetables, fruits, nuts, oils,
sweet potatoes, eggs and meat, so long as that meat is grass-fed and not grain-fed.

ii. The Blood Type Diet

Some doctors have started to research diets that coincide with particular blood types. The
premise of these diets attempts to match people with their common dietary needs based on their
blood type. For example, individuals with type O blood are recommended to eat lots of food that
are high in protein. Those with type A blood are recommended to avoid meat and place an
emphasis on turkey, tofu, and fruit.

iii. The Vegan Diet

This diet is a form of a vegetarian diet as it eliminates meat and animal products. One of
the primary effects of this diet is that it reduces the intake of cholesterol and saturated fat. To

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compensate for a lack of meat, vegans must find a way to incorporate more sources of protein and
vitamin B-12 into their diets.

iv. The Mediterranean Diet

This is another kind of vegetable-heavy diet that avoids a lot of meat, but does not eliminate
it altogether. This diet has been proven to help with depression, in addition to controlling blood
sugar levels and helping with weight loss.. It also emphasizes adding vegetables to each meal and
favors fish over chicken. Whole grains, nuts and herbs are also used in larger amounts.

v. Raw Food Diet

This is a diet that places a premium on eating uncooked and unprocessed foods. The diet
eliminates the intake of any foods that have been pasteurized or produced with any kind of
synthetics or additives.

1. Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds which are continually required by human body due to
depletion of existing vitamins.

Types

Water Soluble Vitamins Fat Soluble Vitamins

i. Vit. C (Ascorbic acid) i. Vitamin A (Retinol)

ii. Vit. B Complex ii. Vitamin D (Calciferol)
 B1 (Thiamine) iii. Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
 B2 (Riboflavin) iv. Vitamin K (Menaquinone)
 B3 (Niacin)
 B5 (Pantothenic acid)
 B6 (Pyridoxine)
 B7 (Biotin)
 B9 (Folic acid)
 B12 (Cynocobalamin)

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 Food Science

Fat Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin Importance/Functions Deficiency Sources
(Chemical Name)
Vit. A Essential for eye health  Night blindness  Carrots
 Keratomalacia: Causes the  Cod liver oil
(Retinol, Retinal,
clear front layer of the eye to  Vegetabls
Beta carotene)
grow dry and cloudy)  Eggs
 Broccoli
 Milk

Vit. D Important for  Rickets (children)  Sunlight

development of teeth’s  Osteomalacia (adults)  Fish
(Ergocalciferol, and bones (Softening of the bones)  Eggs
Cholecalciferol)  Meat
 Beef liver
 Mushrooms

Vit. E (30mg/day)  Antioxidant activity  Sterility  Kiwis

(prevent oxidative stress)  Hemolytic anemia in  Almonds
(Tocopherol,  Antiaging newborns. This condition  Eggs
Tocotrienol)  Anti-infections destroys blood cells.  Nuts (Dry fruits)
 Anticancer  Leafy greens
 Blood purifier  Aloe vera
 Essential for sexual
health

Vit. K Vit. K3 (Menadione)  Bleeding diathesis  Turnip

anticoagulant  Haemophilia  Tomato
(Phylloquinone, (inability to clot blood)  Spinach
menaquinone)  Eggs

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 Food Science

Water Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin Importance/Functions Deficiency Sources
(Chemical Name)
Vit. C (40mg/day)  Collagen (muscle) production  Scurvy  Citrus fruit
 Wound healing (bleeding gums)  Vegetables
(Ascorbic acid)  Loss of teeth
 Bone formation but cooking
 Strengthens blood vessels  Poor tissue growth destroys
 Supports the immune system and wound healing vitamin C
 Helps the body to absorb iron
 Acts as an antioxidant
 Facilitate nerve action
Vit. B1 Carbohydrate metabolism (break  Beriberi  Yeast
down blood sugar) (damage in the  Cereal
(Thiamine) nervous system and grains
heart)  Sunflower
 Wernicke-korsakoff seeds
syndrome  Brown rice
(neurodegenerative  Potatoes
disorder: vision  Oranges
problems, confusion  Eggs
difficulty walking)
 Gums Bleeding
Vit. B2 Protein metabolism  Ariboflavinosis  Bananas
(sore in mouth,  Cheese
(Riboflavin) edema of the mouth  Milk
and throat)  Yogurt
 Cheilosis  Meat
(swollen, cracked  Eggs
lips)  Fish

Vit. B3 Nucleic acid metabolism  Health issue  Chicken

called pellagra  Beef
(Niacin, (causes diarrhea,  Milk
Niacinamide) skin changes, and  Eggs
intestinal upset)  Tomatoes
 Leafy
vegetables
 Carrots
 Nuts

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 Food Science

Vit. B5  Fat metabolism  Paresthesia  Meats

 Necessary for producing energy (feeling of “pins  Broccoli
(Pantothenic acid) and hormones and needles”)  Avocados
 Anxiety  Yogurt
 Depression
 Metabolic disorder

Vit. B6  Formation of red blood cells  Anemia (red blood  Meat

 Regulation of CNS (Brain and cells circulating in  Vegetables
(Pyridoxine, Spinal Cord) the body decreases.  Bananas
Pyridoxamine,  Peripheral
Pyridoxal.) Neuropathy
(Nervous disorder).
Vit. B7 Hair growth  Hair fall  Raw egg
 Dermatitis yolk
(Biotin) (skin inflammation)  Peanuts
 Enteritis  Leafy green
(small intestine vegetables
inflammation)
Vit. B9  RBC formation  Abnormal birth  Leafy Veg.
 Essential during pregnancy  Anemia (RBC  Cereal
(folic acid ) defect-undersupply
of oxygen)
Vit. B12  RBC formation  Anemia  Meat
 Muscular action (adequate quantity  Poultry
(Cyanocobalamin, of RBC not  Fish
Hydroxocobalamin produced)  Eggs
Methylcobalamin)  Muscular cramps  Milk

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 Food Science

Biopolymers
These are the polymers which are formed by the combination of the biological compounds.
The most important biological compounds are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic
acids.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the heterogeneous organic compounds which are the most abundant
biomolecules on the earth. Carbohydrates contain carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen and having an
empirical formula of Cx(H2O)y.

Classification:

These are classified as:

i. Monosaccharides (single sugar residue) Sugar Carbohydrate:
ii. Disaccharides (2 monosaccharides) Soluble in water
iii. Oligosaccharides (3-10 monosaccharide) Sweet in taste
Crystalline solid

iv. Polysaccharides (more than 10 monosaccharides). Also called Non-sugar

carbohydrates having following properties:
 Insoluble in water
 Tasteless
 Amorphous solid

i. Monosaccharides
These are the simple sugars which cannot be hydrolyzed. Monosaccharides have
single sugar residue such as glucose, fructose, galactose etc. They have an empirical
formula of (CH2O)n where n = 3 or some large number. Monosaccharides can be aldoses
or ketoses. Common examples are glyceraldehyde, glucose, fructose etc.

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 Food Science

Glucose: Glucose is a 6-C aldehydic sugar. Glucose is present in free and combined form.
In free form, it is present in the most of sweet fruits, honey, human blood and urine. In
combined form, it is component of many disaccharides and polysaccharides. It is source of
energy in our body.

CH2OH CH2OH

O H O OH CH2OH H
H H
O
H H
H OH
OH H OH H

OH OH H OH CH2OH
OH
OH H
H OH H OH

-D-glucose -D-glucose Fructose

Glucose and fructose are isomers of each other. Glucose and fructose have the same
molecular formula of C6H12O6 but their structures are different. Glucose has aldehyde and
fructose has ketone functional group. So these are functional group isomers.

CHO CH2OH

H C OH C O

HO C H HO C H

H C OH H C OH

H C OH H C OH

CH2OH CH2OH

D-glucose Fructose

ii. Disaccharides
Disaccharides are formed when 2 monosaccharides (single sugar residue) units are
combined together by the elimination of water molecules. This linkage is called glycosidic
linkage. For example maltose, lactose and sucrose. Sucrose is formed by the combination
of glucose and fructose.
Glucose + Glucose Maltose
Glucose + Galactose Lactose

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Glucose + Fructose Sucrose

CH2OH

O H CH2OH H
H
O
H
H H OH
OH

OH OH OH CH2OH
OH H
H OH

-D-glucose Fructose

CH2OH

O H CH2OH H
H
O
H
H H OH
OH

OH O CH2OH
Glycosidic linkage
OH H
H OH
Sucrose

iii. Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are formed when 3 to 10 monosaccharides (single sugar residue)
units are combined together by the elimination of water molecules. The linkage formed
between monosaccharides is called glycosidic linkage. For example raffinose (galactose-
glucose-fructose), stachyose, verbascose.

Galactose + Glucose + Fructose Raffinose

iv. Polysaccharides
These are the carbohydrates of high molecular mass. The molecular formula for
these is (C6H10O5)n. like starch, cellulose. Chitin (fungus cell wall) and glycogen. These
are amorphous solids, insoluble in water and tasteless.
Use:
These are used for the storage of energy and for building of structural elements of cells.
The examples are starch, cellulose and glycogen. Plants store energy (carbohydrate) in the
form of starch and animals store energy (carbohydrate) in the form of glycogen.
i. Starch
Starch is the polymer of α – D – Glucose. It consists of 10 to 20% amylose and 80 to 90%
amylopectin. Starch is used in coating and sizing of paper and in laundering.

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Amylose is soluble in water and gives deep blue color with iodine and amylopectin is
insoluble in water and gives no colour with iodine.

Amylose Amylopectin

i. soluble in water i. insoluble in water

ii. gives deep blue color with iodine ii. gives no colour with iodine
iii. constitutes 10 to 20% of starch iii. constitutes 80 to 90%of starch

CH2OH CH2OH
CH2OH

O O H H O H
H H H
H H H
OH H OH H
OH H

O O
O O

H OH H OH
H OH

Structure of amylose

CH2OH CH2OH

O H O H
H H
H H
OH H OH H

O O
O
H OH H OH CH2OH
CH2

O H O H
H H
H H
OH H OH H

O O
O

H OH H OH
Structure of amylopectin

ii. Cellulose:
Cellulose is the polymer of β – D – Glucose. It is found mainly in the plants. It serves to
satisfy the appetite and intestinal peristalsis.

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 Food Science

H OH CH2OH
CH2OH

H O O
O O H
H
H HO H
H
H OH H
OH H

H H O O H
O

CH2OH H OH
H OH

Structure of cellulose
iii. Glycogen:
Glycogen is also called animal starch and works like the starch. It is found in the liver and
muscle.

Significance of Carbohydrate

i. Good source of energy (1g = 4.1 calorie)

ii. Easily digested and provide the energy immediately
iii. Vital role in metabolism
iv. Helps in making lubricants in human body
v. Involved in manufacturing in nucleic acid (RNA, DNA)
vi. Required for cell membrane symthesis

Sources of Carbohydrate

i. Wheat
ii. Rice
iii. Honey
iv. Fruits
v. vegetables

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 Food Science

Proteins

Proteins are the large molecules formed due to linking of the amino acids through peptide
bonds. Protein is derived from proteios meaning prime importance. Proteins are of great
importance and they make bulk of body part which is non-bony structure. The essential elements
for proteins are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. They may contain other elements like
sulfur, phosphorus, iron, copper, iodine, manganese and zinc.
Building unit of proteins
Building unit of proteins are called amino acids. Amino acids are the compounds having
both amino and carboxylic groups.
Amino acids Peptide Polypeptide Protein

Naturally occurring amino acids are α – amino acids and only 20 α – amino acids take part in the
formation of animal and plant proteins. Out of these 20, 10 are prepared naturally in the human
body and are called non – essential amino acids but the remaining 10 must be taken in through
food and are called essential amino acids.

Zwitter ion
The amino acids exist as dipolar ion called zwitter ion. It has both positive and negative
charges in the same molecule. This dipolar structure is also called internal salt. All the α – amino
acids exist as zwitter ion. The structure is formed due to shifting of a proton form carboxylic group
to amino group as,
-
R - CH - COO -s H+s R - CH - COO
NH2
.. +
NH3
zwitter ion
Peptide linkage
When two amino acids come close to each other, condensation reaction occurs and due to
elimination of water, peptide bond is formed. This linkage is called amide linkage but in proteins
is called peptide linkage. The structure of dipeptide is as,

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 Food Science

O O

H2N - CH - C - OH + H - N - CH - COOH H2N - CH - C - N - CH - COOH

- H2O H
R H R R R

peptide linkage (dipeptide)

Classification of Protein
a. On basis on physico – chemical properties:
These have three classes based on physico – chemical properties.
i. Simple proteins yield amino acids or their derivatives on hydrolysis e.g. albumins,
globulins, collagen etc. These form 25 to 35% of body protein.
ii. Compound or conjugated proteins having protein and a non – protein part called
prosthetic group e.g. phosphoproteins, lipoproteins etc.
iii. Derived proteins are the combination of the simple and compound proteins e.g.
peptones, oligopeptides etc.
b. On basis of their functions
The different types of proteins based on their functions are regulatory or hormonal proteins,
structure proteins, transport proteins, genetic proteins etc.
c. On basis of structure
Proteins can have normally four types of structures.
i. Primary structure is the one dimensional and simple structure.
ii. Secondary structure is the coiling or zigzagging of polypeptide due to hydrogen
bonding.
iii. Tertiary structure is the three dimensional twisting and folding of the polypeptide.
iv. More twisting and folding of the polypeptide form a more complex structure called
quaternary structure.
Denaturing of the proteins
The structure of the proteins can be changed due to heat, pH and oxidizing or reducing
agents. Due to change of structure of protein, its function is also disturbed and we say protein is
denatured e.g. albumin of egg.

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 Food Science

Importance of the proteins

i. Good source of energy (1g= 4.2 – 4.3)
ii. Proteins acts as immunity booster
iii. Proteins play an important role in the formation of the protoplasm.
iv. Nucleoproteins are the carriers of heredity with nucleic acids.
v. Enzymes made from proteins have great importance in life.
vi. Many proteins have special functions like hemoglobin.
vii. Growth of hair, nails an skin
viii. Proteins also helps to maintain osmoregulation process.

Sources of Protein
 Beans
 Pulses
 Eggs
 Meat
 Milk
 Fish

Dr. Waheed Mushtaq