SOLID STATE PHYSICS

Chapter 7::Dielectric Properties

CHERUPALLY Laxmikanth, Ph.D.,

Department of Physics, UDOM.
• Dielectrics; are the insulating materials having
electric
;
dipoles permanently or temporarily by
inducement during the application of electric field.
• Dielectric constant or relative permittivity is defined
as the ratio of permittivity of the medium to the
permittivity of the free space.

ε ε V0 C
εr = K = also εr = ε = V = C
ε0 o 0

• Where Vo is the potential difference between the two

plates of the parallel plate capacitor when air as the
medium.
• V is the potential difference between the two plates
of the parallel plate capacitor when dielectric as the
medium
• Co is the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor
when air as the medium
• C is the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor
when dielectric as the medium.
• Electric Field is the space around a charged body up
to where its influence is felt.
• Electric Field Induction (or) Flux density (or)
Displacement Vector is defined as the number of
electric lines of force received by a unit area.
q q
D= = c
4πr 2
A m2

1 q 1
E= ⇒ E=
ε0
D
4πε 0 r 2

∴ D = ε0E
• Polarization: The process of producing electric
dipoles out of neutral atoms or molecules is known
as polarization.
• Electric dipoles: The system of two equal and
opposite charges separated by a certain non-zero
distance is called electric dipole.
• Electric Dipole moment: The product of magnitude
of either of the charges of a dipole and the
separation between them is called electric dipole
moment.
µ = q.dx
• In polar dielectric materials, in the presence of an
external applied field the molecules tend to orient
themselves in the direction of the field
• The net dipolemoment over the entire volume is
given by
N∆V

∑µ
i =1
=1
i = N .∆ V .µ = P .∆ V

where
µ is the average electric dipole moment
N is the number of electric dipoles per unit volume
ΔV is the differential volume element
P is the polarization
• The total dipole moment per unit volume is also
defined as the dielectric polarization.
P = N .µ
P = Nq 1dx
• This is nothing but induced charge per unit area.
• Hence polarization is also defined as induced surface
charge per unit area.
q1
P=
A
• Where q1 is the induced charge and A is the surface
area.
• Gauss Law: Gauss law states that the total electric
flux through any closed surface is equal to 1/εo times
the net charge enclosed by the surface.
• Relation among E, D & P: Fig shows a parallel plate
capacitor with a dielectric material, ‘q’ is charge on
each plate and q1 is the induced charge on the
surface of the dielectric. - + -
+
• The net charge enclosed
in the gaussian surface is (q-q1),
 (q − q1 )
∫ Ε.ds = ε0
q q1
EA = − ; [ ∫ ds = A]
ε0 ε0
q q1
ε0E = − ;
ε0 ε0
q q1
ε0E = D − P (where D = & P = )
A A

D = ε0E + P
• Polarizability: The strength of the induced dipole
moment is directly proportional to the strength of
the external applied field
µ∝E
µ = αE
where α is known as dielectric polarizability.
• Succeptibility: It is defined as polarization per unit
electric field.
P
χe =
E

χ e = ε 0 (ε r − 1)

where χe is the relative permittivity of dielectric.

Types of polarizations:
• Polarization is classified into three types:
– Electronic Polarization
– Ionic polarization
– Orientation Polarization
 Electronic Polarization

• Electronic polarization is due to the displacement of

charge centers of electron cloud (negative charge
centre) and nucleus (positive charge centre) of an
atom in the presence of an applied electric field
• Consider an atom of a dielectric material of atomic
number ‘Z’ and atomic radius ‘R’.
• The centers of gravity of charges of electron cloud
and positive nucleus are at the same point and hence
there is no displacement.
 E

x
• If the atom is placed in a dc electric field of strength
‘E’, the nucleus and the electron cloud experience
Lorentz forces of magnitude “ZeE” in opposite
directions.
• Nucleus and electron cloud are pulled apart,
therefore an attractive coulomb force develop
between them.
• When the Lorentz force and coulomb attractive force
are equal and opposite, there will be a new
equilibrium between the nucleus and the electron
cloud and the electric dipole forms.
• Let the distance of separation between the centers
of the displaced nucleus and electron cloud is ‘x’.
• The negative charge enclosed in the sphere of radius
‘x’ is equal to
4 3 --- (1)
πx ρ
3
• Where ρ is the charge density of electron cloud, and
is equal to
 
 − Ze 
•   --- (2)
4
 πR 
3

 3 

• Therefore charge enclosed in the sphere of radius, x

is,
 

4 3 - Ze   − Zex 3

πx   = 3 
3 4
 πR  
3 R 
 3 
• Therefore Coulomb force of attraction
Ze. [charge enclosed in the sphere of radius x]
=
4πε 0 x 2

− Ze.Zex 3 − Z 2 e 2 x
Fc = = − − − ( 3)
4πε 0 x R
2 3
4πε 0 R 3

• Lorentz force of repulsion experienced by the

electron cloud due to applied field ‘E’ is
FL = − ZeE − − − (4)
• In equilibrium condition,
− Z 2e2 x ⇒E=
Zex
= − ZeE 4πε 0 R 3
;
4πε 0 R 3

4πε 0 R 3
x= E − − − (5)
Ze

• The separation between the two charge centres is

proportional to the applied field ‘E’.
• The electric dipolemoment,
µe = Zex
4πε 0 R 3
⇒ µ e = Ze. E
Ze
µe = 4πε 0 R 3 .E
• But µ e = α e E,
⇒ α e = 4πε 0 R 3
where αe is called electric polarizability.
• The polarization, i.e., total dipolemoment per unit
volume
P = Nµ e = Nα e E;
where ‘N’ is the number of dipoles/m3
• But P = χ ;
e
E
• But electronic susceptibility
P
⇒ = χ e = Nα e ; is total polarizability per unit volume
E
 Ionic polarization

• Ionic polarization is due to the displacement of

positive and negative ions of a molecule in the
presence of an applied electric field
• In case of sodium chloride molecule, it is composed
of Na+ and Cl- separated by inter atomic distance, ro
• The permanent dipole moment is then ero in the
absence of applied field.
• When field is applied to the molecule, the sodium
and chlorine atoms get displace in opposite direction
until ionic bonding forces stop the process. Thus the
dipole moment increases.
• induced dipolemoment is proportional to the applied
field, i.e.,
µi α E
⇒ µi = α i E

• Where αi is ionic polarizability

 Orientation Polarization

• Orientation polarization is due to the alignment of

dipoles of polar molecules in the presence of applied
electric field.
• This type of polarization occurs in polar substances
(dielectrics)
• Polar substances show random distribution of their
dipoles in space in the absence of electric field.
• This leads to the zero net dipole moment of the
substance.
• When dielectric is kept under an electric field, the
field produces a torque in individual dipoles and
dipoles align with the field.
• If the field is so strong enough, the dipoles may
completely be aligned along the field direction.
• With increasing temperature, orientational
polarizability, αo decreases.

E=0 E

(a) dipoles in the (b) dipoles in the

absence of ‘E’ presence of ‘E’
 Ferro Electricity

• The creation of large induced dipole moment even in

a weak electric field, and the existence of it even
when the field is removed is called Ferro Electricity.
• Materials exhibiting this property are ferroelectric
materials.
• A tiny region of ferroelectric in which all the electric
dipoles align in the same direction is known as
electric domain
 Important characteristics of ferroelectrics

• Ferroelectrics exhibit spontaneous polarization.

• The spontaneous polarization becomes zero at
transition temperature (or) curie temperature.
• Ferroelectrics possess very high dielectric constant
values.
• Ferroelectric exhibits reverse polarization.
• Below transition temperature they give hysteresis
loop.
• Above transition temperature hysteresis loop
disappears and the Ferroelectric behaves like an
ordinary dielectric.
• All Ferroelectrics are pyroelectrics and piezoelectrics,
but reverse may not be true.
• The property by which electric polarization is
induced by the thermal energy is known as
pyroelectricity.
• Tourmaline crystal is a pyroelectric and not
Ferroelectric.
• quartz is a piezoelectric but not ferroelectric.
• Ferroelectric crystals exhibit double refraction.
 Dielectric Hysteresis
• When an electric field is applied to a specimen of
a ferroelectric crystal, the polarization first rises
rapidly with the applied field to a value, above
which the dependence is linear. This is shown in
next slide.
• Linear extrapolation to zero fields gives Ps, the
saturation polarization.
• On subsequently reducing the field to zero, the
polarization Pr remains and is known as remanent
or residual or spontaneous polarization.
• The negative field to reduce the polarization to
zero is called coercive field and is represented by
±Ec.
• The existence of dielectric hysteresis loop in
dielectric material implies that the substance
possesses spontaneous polarization.

+Ps
+Pr
P
-Ec +Ec
0 E
-Pr
-Ps
• The height and width of the hysteresis loop
decreases with increase of temperature below the
transition temperature.
• At transition temperature (or) curie temperature, the
loop merges into a straight line and ferroelectric
behaviour of the material disappears.

Ferroelectric materials & their transition temperatures

Tc εr
• Potassium dihydrogen phosphate 123 K 200
(KH2PO4) (KDP)
• Barium titanate (BaTiO3) 393 K 1000 to 1700
Applications of Ferroelectrics

• Due to their high dielectric constant values, they are

used for manufacturing of small size capacitors with
high capacitance.
• The property of hysteresis used as memory for
electronic computers.
 Internal Field

• The total electric field at the atom site is called the

internal field or local field.
• The total field acting at the atom site or dipole in a
system is due to external fields and as well as other
dipoles present in the same system.
• Consider a spherical cavity of radius r within a
dielectric, which is placed between the two charged
parallel plates, with dimensions greater than
molecular dimensions.
• Consider a molecule of dielectric at the center of
spherical cavity, then the total field experienced
by it is,
EL = Eo + EP + E3 + E4
• Where EL is the local field or internal field
• Eo is the field intensity due to charge density on
the plates of the capacitor
• EP is field of the polarized charges on the plane
surface of the dielectric
• E3 is the field due to all dipoles inside the
spherical cavity
• E4 is field due to polarized charges on the surface
of the spherical cavity
• Let E is the resultant field between the plates, and is
E = Eo + EP
• For cubic structure of cavity, due to symmetry, the
field intensity at A due to all other dipoles in the
cavity is zero.
i.e., E3 = 0;
• E4 is the field due to polarization charges on the
surface of the cavity and is calculated as per Lorentz.
• Consider a small elemental area ‘dS’ on the surface
of the cavity of radius ‘r’ lying between θ and θ+dθ.
Where θ is direction with reference to the direction
of field.
Then dS = 2π (PQ) (QR)
But, PQ = r sin θ and QR = r dθ
dS = 2 π r2 sin θ dθ………………..(1)
• The charge ‘dql’ on surface ‘dS’ is equal to normal
component of polarization multiplied by the surface
area,
i.e., dql = P cos θ dS
dql = 2 π r2P cos θ sin θ dθ …………..(2)
• The field dE4 due to the charge dql at A in the
horizontal direction (i.e., θ = 0 direction) is,
dq l
dE 4 = cos θ
4πε o r 2

2πr 2 P cos θ sin θ d θ

dE 4 = cos θ
4πε o r 2

P cos 2 θ sin θ d θ
⇒ dE 4 = .......... .......... .....( 3 )
2ε o

• The total field E4 is obtained by integrating equation

(3) in the limits from ‘0’ to ‘π’,
π π
P
∫o 4 2ε o ∫o θ sin θdθ
= 2
dE cos
Put cos θ = t,
-sin θ dθ = dt,
lower limit: when θ = 0, cos 0 = +1
upper limit: when θ = π, cos π = -1
π −1
P
∫o 4 2ε o +∫1 (−dt )
= 2
dE t

+1 +1
P P t 
3
E4 = ∫ t dt =
2
 
2ε o −1 2ε o  3  −1
P 1 1  P 2
E4 =  − (− ) =
2ε o  3 3  2ε o  3 
 P
⇒ E4 =
3ε o

Therefore the local field or internal field is,

P
EL = E + …………(4)
3ε o
 Clausius–Mosotti Relation
• Clausius-Mosotti equation gives the relation
between the macroscopic quantity (dielectric
constant of an insulator) and the microscopic
quantity (polarization of atoms or molecules) of an
insulator.
We know that,
D = εoE + P
But D = εE
• Therefore εE = εoE + P
P
E= .......... .......... ...(5)
(ε − ε o )
• substituting equation (5) in (4),
P P
EL = +
(ε − ε o ) 3ε o
P  ε + 2ε o 
EL =   ........( 6 )
3ε o  ε − εo 
• If N be the number of molecules per unit volume, α
the molecular polarizability then
P = NaEL
P
EL = − − − − − − − − − − (7 )
Nα
• From equations (6) and (7),
P P  ε + 2ε o 
=  
Nα 3ε o  ε − ε o 
Nα  ε − ε o 
= 
3ε o  ε + 2ε o 
 ε εo 
 − 
Nα εo εo
= 
3ε o  ε εo 
ε + 2 
 o εo 
Nα  ε r − 1 
= ...................................................(8)
3ε o  ε r + 2 
• Equation (8) is known as Clausius-Mosotti
relation, which relates the macroscopic
dielectric constant with the microscopic
polarizability.