368 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

1 2 1
in the exponent, we obtain ln 12 eln( 2 ) −
4 ln 12 =
ln 12 eln( 4 ) −
4 ln 21 . Using the inverse

properties of logs,
this reduces to 41 ln 12 − 4 ln 21 = − 15 1 1 1

4 ln 2 . Since 2 < 1, ln 2 < 0
and we get r(ln 12 ) is (+). Continuing in this manner, we find r(x) < 0 on (0, ln(2)). The
calculator confirms that the graph of f (x) = xe2x is below the graph of g(x) = 4x on this
intervals.7

(+) 0 (−) 0 (+)

0 ln(2)

y = f (x) = xe2x and

y = g(x) = 4x

Example 7.3.3. Recall from Example 7.1.2 that the temperature of coffee T (in degrees Fahrenheit)
t minutes after it is served can be modeled by T (t) = 70 + 90e−0.1t . When will the coffee be warmer
than 100◦ F?

Solution. We need to find when T (t) > 100, or in other words, we need to solve the inequality
70 + 90e−0.1t > 100. Getting 0 on one side of the inequality, we have 90e−0.1t − 30 > 0, and
we set r(t) = 90e−0.1t − 30. The domain of r is artificially restricted due to the context of the
problem to [0, ∞), so we proceed −0.1t − 30 = 0 results in
−0.1t 1 1

to find the zeros of r. Solving 90e
e = 3 so that t = −10 ln 3 which, after a quick application of the Power Rule leaves us with
t = 10 ln(3). If we wish to avoid using the calculator to choose test values, we note that since 1 < 3,
0 = ln(1) < ln(3) so that 10 ln(3) > 0. So we choose t = 0 as a test value in [0, 10 ln(3)). Since
3 < 4, 10 ln(3) < 10 ln(4), so the latter is our choice of a test value for the interval (10 ln(3), ∞).
Our sign diagram is below, and next to it is our graph of t = T (t) from Example 7.1.2 with the
horizontal line y = 100.

7
Note: ln(2) ≈ 0.693.
7.3 Exponential Equations and Inequalities 369

y
180
160
140
120
(+) 0 (−) y = 100

80
0 10 ln(3)
60
H.A. y = 70
40
20

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 t

y = T (t)

In order to interpret what this means in the context of the real world, we need a reasonable
approximation of the number 10 ln(3) ≈ 10.986. This means it takes approximately 11 minutes for
the coffee to cool to 100◦ F. Until then, the coffee is warmer than that.8
We close this section by finding the inverse of a function which is a composition of a rational
function with an exponential function.
5ex
Example 7.3.4. The function f (x) = is one-to-one. Find a formula for f −1 (x) and check
ex + 1
your answer graphically using your calculator.
Solution. We start by writing y = f (x), and interchange the roles of x and y. To solve for y,
we first clear denominators and then isolate the exponential function.

5ex
y =
ex + 1
5ey
x = Switch x and y
ey + 1

x (ey + 1) = 5ey

xey + x = 5ey

x = 5ey − xey

x = ey (5 − x)
x
ey =
5−x
 
y x
ln (e ) = ln
5−x
 
x
y = ln
5−x
8
Critics may point out that since we needed to use the calculator to interpret our answer anyway, why not use it
earlier to simplify the computations? It is a fair question which we answer unfairly: it’s our book.
370 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

 
We claim f −1 (x) = ln 5−x x
. To verify this analytically, we would need to verify the com-
positions f ◦ f (x) = x for all x in the domain of f and that f ◦ f −1 (x) = x for all x in
−1

the domain of f −1 . We leave this to the

 reader. To verify our solution graphically, we graph
5ex x
y = f (x) = ex +1 and y = g(x) = ln 5−x on the same set of axes and observe the symmetry about
the line y = x. Note the domain of f is the range of g and vice-versa.

 
5ex x
y = f (x) = ex +1 and y = g(x) = ln 5−x
7.3 Exponential Equations and Inequalities 371

7.3.1 Exercises
1. Solve the following equations analytically.

(a) 3(x−1) = 27 1 2x (l) 2(x

3 −x)
(g) 9 · 37x =


9
=1
(b) 3(x−1) = 29 (h) 7e2x = 28e−6x (m) e2x = 2ex
(c) 3(x−1) = 2x (i) 73+7x = 34−2x (n) 70 + 90e−0.1t = 75
1 (x+5)
3(x−1)


(d) =
12t 150
2 (j) 1 + 0.06
12 =3 (o) 1+29e−0.8t
= 75
x 1
(e) 8 = 128 x
(k) e−5730k = 1
25 54 = 10


2 (p)
(f) 37x = 814−2x

2. Solve the following inequalities analytically.

4 x
(a) ex > 53


(d) 25 5 ≥ 10
0.06 12t 150


(b) 1000 1 + 12 ≥ 3000 (e) 1+29e−0.8t
≤ 130
3
(c) 2(x −x) <1 (f) 70 + 90e −0.1t ≤ 75

3. Use your calculator to help you solve the following equations and inequalities.
√
(a) ex < x3 − x (c) e x = x + 1 (e) 3(x−1) < 2x
(b) 2x = x2 (d) e−x − xe−x ≥ 0 (f) ex = ln(x) + 5

4. Since f (x) = ln(x) is a strictly increasing function, if 0 < a < b then ln(a) < ln(b). Use this
fact to solve the inequality e(3x−1) > 6 without a sign diagram.
ex − e−x
5. Compute the inverse of f (x) = . State the domain and range of both f and f −1 .
2
5ex
 
−1 x
6. In Example 7.3.4, we found that the inverse of f (x) = x was f (x) = ln but
e +1 5−x
we left a few loose ends for you to tie up.

(a) Show that f −1 ◦ f (x) = x for all x in the domain of f and that f ◦ f −1 (x) = x for

all x in the domain of f −1 .

(b) Find the range of f by finding the domain of f −1 .
5x
(c) Let g(x) = and h(x) = ex . Show that f = g ◦ h and that (g ◦ h)−1 = h−1 ◦ g −1 . 9
x+1
7. With the help of your classmates, solve the inequality ex > xn for a variety of natural
numbers n. What might you conjecture about the “speed” at which f (x) = ex grows versus
any polynomial?

9
We know this is true in general by Exercise 8 in Section 6.2, but it’s nice to see a specific example of the property.
372 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

7.3.2 Answers

1. (a) x = 4 ln(3)
(j) t =
ln(29) + ln(3) 12 ln(1.005)
(b) x =
ln 12


ln(3)
ln(3) (k) k =
(c) x = −5730
ln(3) − ln(2) (l) x = −1, 0, 1
ln(3) + 5 ln 12


(d) x = (m) x = ln(2)
ln(3) − ln 12


(n) t = 10 ln(18)
(e) x = − 37 1


16
ln 29
(f) x = 15 (o) t =
2
−0.8
(g) x = − 11
ln 25


(h) x = − 18 ln 14 = 41 ln(2) (p) x =


ln 45


4 ln(3) − 3 ln(7)
(i) x =
7 ln(7) + 2 ln(3)
2

#
2. (a) (ln(53), ∞) ln 377
= −∞, − 54 ln 2


  (e) −∞, 377
ln(3) −0.8
(b) ,∞
12 ln(1.005) "
1

!
(c) (−∞, −1) ∪ (0, 1) ln 18
(f) , ∞ = [10 ln(18), ∞)

# −0.1
ln 25
(d) −∞,
ln 45

3. (a) (2.3217, 4.3717) (d) (−∞, 1]

(b) x ≈ −0.76666, x = 2, x = 4 (e) (−∞, 2.7095)
(c) x = 0 (f) x ≈ 0.01866, x ≈ 1.7115

4. x > 13 (ln(6) + 1)
 √ 
5. f −1 = ln x + x2 + 1 . Both f and f −1 have domain (−∞, ∞) and range (−∞, ∞).
7.4 Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities 373

7.4 Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities

In Section 7.3 we solved equations and inequalities involving exponential functions using one of
two basic strategies. We now turn our attention to equations and inequalities involving logarithmic
functions, and not surprisingly, there are two basic strategies to choose from. For example, suppose
we wish to solve log2 (x) = log2 (5). Theorem 7.4 tells us that the only solution to this equation
is x = 5. Now suppose we wish to solve log2 (x) = 3. If we want to use Theorem 7.4,
we need to
rewrite 3 as a logarithm base 2. We can use Theorem 7.3 to do just that: 3 = log2 23 = log2 (8).
Our equation then becomes log2 (x) = log2 (8) so that x = 8. However, we could have arrived at the
same answer, in fewer steps, by using Theorem 7.3 to rewrite the equation log2 (x) = 3 as 23 = x,
or x = 8. We summarize the two common ways to solve log equations below.

Steps for Solving an Equation involving Logarithmic Fuctions

1. Isolate the logarithmic function.

2. (a) If convenient, express both sides as logs with the same base and equate the arguments
of the log functions.
(b) Otherwise, rewrite the log equation as an exponential equation.

Example 7.4.1. Solve the following equations. Check your solutions graphically using a calculator.

1. log117 (1 − 3x) = log117 x2 − 3

4. log7 (1 − 2x) = 1 − log7 (3 − x)

2. 2 − ln(x − 3) = 1 5. log2 (x + 3) = log2 (6 − x) + 3

3. log6 (x + 4) + log6 (3 − x) = 1 6. 1 + 2 log4 (x + 1) = 2 log2 (x)

Solution.

1. Since we have the same base on both sides of the equation log117 (1 − 3x) = log117 x2 − 3 ,

we equate what’s inside the logs to get 1 − 3x = x2 − 3. Solving x2 + 3x − 4 = 0 gives

x = −4 and x = 1. To check these answers using the calculator, we make use of the change
ln(x2 −3)
of base formula and graph f (x) = ln(1−3x)
ln(117) and g(x) = ln(117) and we see they intersect only
at x = −4. To see what happened to the solution x = 1, we substitute it into our original
equation to obtain log117 (−2) = log117 (−2). While these expressions look identical, neither
is a real number,1 which means x = 1 is not in the domain of the original equation, and is
not a solution.
1
They do, however, represent the same family of complex numbers. We stop ourselves at this point and refer the
reader to a good course in Complex Variables.
374 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

2. Our first objective in solving 2−ln(x−3) = 1 is to isolate the logarithm. We get ln(x−3) = 1,
which, as an exponential equation, is e1 = x − 3. We get our solution x = e + 3. On the
calculator, we see the graph of f (x) = 2 − ln(x − 3) intersects the graph of g(x) = 1 at
x = e + 3 ≈ 5.718.

y = f (x) = log117 (1 − 3x) and y = f (x) = 2 − ln(x − 3) and

y = g(x) = log117 x2 − 3


y = g(x) = 1

3. We can start solving log6 (x + 4) + log6 (3 − x) = 1 by using the Product Rule for logarithms to
rewrite the equation as log6 [(x + 4)(3 − x)] = 1. Rewriting this as an exponential equation,
we get 61 = (x + 4)(3 − x). This reduces to x2 + x − 6 = 0, which gives x = −3 and x = 2.
Graphing y = f (x) = ln(x+4) ln(3−x)
ln(6) + ln(6) and y = g(x) = 1, we see they intersect twice, at
x = −3 and x = 2.

y = f (x) = log6 (x + 4) + log6 (3 − x) and y = g(x) = 1

4. Taking a cue from the previous problem, we begin solving log7 (1 − 2x) = 1 − log7 (3 − x) by
first collecting the logarithms on the same side, log7 (1 − 2x) + log7 (3 − x) = 1, and then using
the Product Rule to get log7 [(1 − 2x)(3 − x)] = 1. Rewriting this as an exponential equation
gives 71 = (1−2x)(3−x) which gives the quadratic equation 2x2 −7x−4 = 0. Solving, we find
x = − 21 and x = 4. Graphing, we find y = f (x) = ln(1−2x) ln(3−x)
ln(7) and y = g(x) = 1− ln(7) intersect
only at x = − 21 . Checking x = 4 in the original equation produces log7 (−7) = 1 − log7 (−1),
which is a clear domain violation.
5. Starting with log2 (x + 3) = log2 (6 − x) + 3, we gather the logarithms to one side
 and  get
x+3
log2 (x + 3) − log2 (6 − x) = 3, and then use the Quotient Rule to obtain log2 6−x = 3.
7.4 Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities 375

x+3
Rewriting this as an exponential equation gives 23 = 6−x . This reduces to the linear equation
ln(x+3) ln(6−x)
8(6 − x) = x + 3, which gives us x = 5. When we graph f (x) = ln(2) and g(x) = ln(2) + 3,
we find they intersect at x = 5.

y = f (x) = log7 (1 − 2x) and y = f (x) = log2 (x + 3) and

y = g(x) = 1 − log7 (3 − x) y = g(x) = log2 (6 − x) + 3

6. Starting with 1 + 2 log4 (x + 1) = 2 log2 (x), we gather the logs to one side to get the equation
1 = 2 log2 (x) − 2 log4 (x + 1). Before we can combine the logarithms, however, we need a
common base. Since 4 is a power of 2, we use change of base to convert log4 (x+1) = loglog
2 (x+1)
=
2 (4)

1 1
2 log2 (x + 1). Hence, our original equation becomes 1 = 2 log2 (x) − 2 2 log2 (x +1) or 
x2
1 = 2 log2 (x) − log2 (x + 1). Using the Power and Quotient Rules, we obtain 1 = log2 x+1 .
x 2
Rewriting this in exponential form, we get x+1 = 2 or x2 − 2x − 2 = 0. Using the quadratic
√
formula, we get x = 1 ± 3. Graphing f (x) = 1 + 2 ln(x+1)
ln(4) and g(x) = 2ln(2)
ln(x)
, we see the
√ √
graphs intersect only at x = 1 + 3 ≈ 2.732. The solution√x =
1 − 3 < 0, which means if
substituted into the original equation, the term 2 log2 1 − 3 is undefined.

y = f (x) = 1 + 2 log4 (x + 1) and y = g(x) = 2 log2 (x)

If nothing else, Example 7.4.1 demonstrates the importance of checking for extraneous solutions2
when solving equations involving logarithms. Even though we checked our answers graphically,
2
Recall that an extraneous solution is an answer obtained analytically which does not satisfy the original equation.
376 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

extraneous solutions are easy to spot - any supposed solution which causes a negative number
inside a logarithm needs to be discarded. As with the equations in Example 7.3.1, much can be
learned from checking all of the answers in Example 7.4.1 analytically. We leave this to the reader
and turn our attention to inequalities involving logarithmic functions. Since logarithmic functions
are continuous on their domains, we can use sign diagrams.

Example 7.4.2. Solve the following inequalities. Check your answer graphically using a calculator.

1 2. (log2 (x))2 < 2 log2 (x) + 3 3. x log(x + 1) ≥ x

1. ≤1
ln(x) + 1

Solution.
1 1
1. We start solving ln(x)+1 ≤ 1 by getting 0 on one side of the inequality: ln(x)+1 − 1 ≤ 0.
1 ln(x)+1 − ln(x)
Getting a common denominator yields ln(x)+1 − ln(x)+1 ≤ 0 which reduces to ln(x)+1 ≤ 0,
ln(x) ln(x)
or ln(x)+1 ≥ 0. We define r(x) = ln(x)+1 and
set about finding the domain and the zeros
of r. Due to the appearance of the term ln(x), we require x > 0. In order to keep the
denominator away from zero, we solve ln(x) + 1 = 0 so ln(x) = −1, so x = e−1 = 1e . Hence,
ln(x)
the domain of r is 0, 1e ∪ 1e , ∞ . To find the zeros of r, we set r(x) = ln(x)+1



= 0 so that
0
ln(x) = 0, and we find x = e = 1. In order to determine test values for r without resorting
to the calculator, we need to find numbers between 0, 1e , and 1 which have

a base of e. Since
e ≈ 2.718 > 1, 0 < e12 < 1e < √1e < 1 < e. To determine the sign of r e12 , we use the fact that
−2
ln e12 = ln e−2 = −2, and find r e12 = −2+1




= 2, which is (+). The rest of the test values
are determined similarly. From our sign diagram, we find the solution to be 0, 1e ∪ [1, ∞).


1
Graphing f (x) = ln(x)+1 and g(x) = 1, we see the the graph of f is below the graph of g on
the solution intervals, and that the graphs intersect at x = 1.

(+) ” (−) 0 (+)

1
0 e 1

1
y = f (x) = ln(x)+1 and y = g(x) = 1

2. Moving all of the nonzero terms of (log2 (x))2 < 2 log2 (x) + 3 to one side of the inequality,
we have (log2 (x))2 − 2 log2 (x) − 3 < 0. Defining r(x) = (log2 (x))2 − 2 log2 (x) − 3, we get
the domain of r is (0, ∞), due to the presence of the logarithm. To find the zeros of r, we
7.4 Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities 377

set r(x) = (log2 (x))2 − 2 log2 (x) − 3 = 0 which results in a ‘quadratic in disguise.’ We set
u = log2 (x) so our equation becomes u2 − 2u − 3 = 0 which gives us u = −1 and u = 3. Since
u = log2 (x), we get log2 (x) = −1, which gives us x = 2−1 = 12 , and log2 (x) = 3, which yields
x = 23 = 8. We use test values which are powers of 2: 0 < 14 < 21 < 1 < 8 < 16, and from our
 2
sign diagram, we see r(x) < 0 on 21 , 8 . Geometrically, we see the graph of f (x) = ln(x)


ln(2)
2 ln(x)
is below the graph of y = g(x) = ln(2) + 3 on the solution interval.

(+) 0 (−) 0 (+)

1
0 2 8

y = f (x) = (log2 (x))2 and y = g(x) = 2 log2 (x) + 3

3. We begin to solve x log(x+1) ≥ x by subtracting x from both sides to get x log(x+1)−x ≥ 0.

We define r(x) = x log(x+1)−x and due to the presence of the logarithm, we require x+1 > 0,
or x > −1. To find the zeros of r, we set r(x) = x log(x + 1) − x = 0. Factoring, we get
x (log(x + 1) − 1) = 0, which gives x = 0 or log(x+1)−1 = 0. The latter gives log(x+1) = 1,
or x + 1 = 101 , which admits x =√9. We select test values x so that x + 1 is a power of 10,
and we obtain −1 < −0.9 < 0 < 10 − 1 < 9 < 99. Our sign diagram gives the solution to
be (−1, 0] ∪ [9, ∞). The calculator indicates the graph of y = f (x) = x log(x + 1) is above
y = g(x) = x on the solution intervals, and the graphs intersect at x = 0 and x = 9.

(+) 0 (−) 0 (+)

−1 0 9

y = f (x) = x log(x + 1) and y = g(x) = x

378 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Near x = 0 Near x = 9

Our next example revisits the concept of pH as first introduced in the exercises in Section 7.1.

Example 7.4.3. In order to successfully breed Ippizuti fish the pH of a freshwater tank must be
at least 7.8 but can be no more than 8.5. Determine the corresponding range of hydrogen ion
concentration.
Solution. Recall from Exercise 6c in Section 7.1 that pH = − log[H+ ] where [H+ ] is the
hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter. We require 7.8 ≤ − log[H+ ] ≤ 8.5 or −7.8 ≥
log[H+ ] ≥ −8.5. To solve this compound inequality we solve −7.8 ≥ log[H+ ] and log[H+ ] ≥ −8.5
and take the intersection of the solution sets.3 The former inequality yields 0 < [H+ ] ≤ 10−7.8
and the latter yields [H+ ] ≥ 10−8.5 . Taking the intersection gives us our final answer 10−8.5 ≤
[H+ ] ≤ 10−7.8 . (Your Chemistry professor may want the answer written as 3.16 × 10−9 ≤ [H+ ] ≤
1.58 × 10−8 .) After carefully adjusting the viewing window on the graphing calculator we see
that the graph of f (x) = − log(x) lies between the lines y = 7.8 and y = 8.5 on the interval
[3.16 × 10−9 , 1.58 × 10−8 ].

The graphs of y = f (x) = − log(x), y = 7.8 and y = 8.5

We close this section by finding an inverse of a one-to-one function which involves logarithms.
3
Refer to page 202 for a discussion of what this means.
7.4 Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities 379

log(x)
Example 7.4.4. The function f (x) = is one-to-one. Find a formula for f −1 (x) and
1 − log(x)
check your answer graphically using your calculator.

Solution. We first write y = f (x) then interchange the x and y and solve for y.

y = f (x)
log(x)
y =
1 − log(x)
log(y)
x = Interchange x and y.
1 − log(y)
x (1 − log(y)) = log(y)
x − x log(y) = log(y)
x = x log(y) + log(y)
x = (x + 1) log(y)
x
= log(y)
x+1
x
y = 10 x+1 Rewrite as an exponential equation.
380 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

x
We have f −1 (x) = 10 x+1 . Graphing f and f −1 on the same viewing window yields

log(x) x
y = f (x) = and y = g(x) = 10 x+1
1 − log(x)
7.4 Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities 381

7.4.1 Exercises
1. Solve the following equations analytically.
 x 
(a) log 1 x = −3 (i) 10 log = 150
2 10−12
(b) ln(x2 ) = (ln(x))2 (j) log3 (x) = log 1 (x) + 8
3
(c) log3 (x − 4) + log3 (x + 4) = 2  
3x − 2 1
(d) log5 (2x + 1) + log5 (x + 2) = 1 (k) log125 =
2x + 3 3
(e) log2 (x3 ) = log2 (x) (l) ln(x + 1) − ln(x) = 3
1
(f) log169 (3x + 7) − log169 (5x − 9) = (m) ln(ln(x)) = 3
 x  2
(g) log = 4.7 (n) 2 log7 (x) = log7 (2) + log7 (x + 12)
10−3 (o) log(x) − log(2) = log(x + 8) − log(x + 2)
(h) − log(x) = 5.4

2. Solve the following inequalities analytically.

(a) x ln(x) − x > 0 (d) 2.3 < − log(x) < 5.4

 x 
(b) 5.6 ≤ log ≤ 7.1 1 − ln(x)
−3 (e) <0
 x10  x2
(c) 10 log ≥ 90 (f) ln(x2 ) ≤ (ln(x))2
10−12

3. Use your calculator to help you solve the following equations and inequalities.
√
(a) ln(x) = e−x (c) ln(x) = 4 x
(b) ln(x2 + 1) ≥ 5 (d) ln(−2x3 − x2 + 13x − 6) < 0

4. Since f (x) = ex is a strictly increasing function, if a < b then ea < eb . Use this fact to solve
the inequality ln(2x + 1) < 3 without a sign diagram. Also, compare this exercise to question
4 in Section 7.3.
5. Solve ln(3 − y) − ln(y) = 2x + ln(5) for y.
log(x) x
6. In Example 7.4.4 we found the inverse of f (x) = to be f −1 (x) = 10 x+1 .
1 − log(x)

(a) Show that f −1 ◦ f (x) = x for all x in the domain of f and that f ◦ f −1 (x) = x for

all x in the domain of f −1 .

(b) Find the range of f by finding the domain of f −1 .
x
(c) Let g(x) = and h(x) = log(x). Show that f = g ◦ h and (g ◦ h)−1 = h−1 ◦ g −1 .
1−x
(We know this is true in general by Exercise 8 in Section 6.2, but it’s nice to see a specific
example of the property.)
382 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

 
1 1+x
7. Let f (x) = ln . Compute f −1 (x) and find its domain and range.
2 1−x
8. Explain the equation in Exercise 1g and the inequality in Exercise 2b above in terms of the
Richter scale for earthquake magnitude. (See Exercise 6a in Section 7.1.)

9. Explain the equation in Exercise 1i and the inequality in Exercise 2c above in terms of sound
intensity level as measured in decibels. (See Exercise 6b in Section 7.1.)

10. Explain the equation in Exercise 1h and the inequality in Exercise 2d above in terms of the
pH of a solution. (See Exercise 6c in Section 7.1.)
√
11. With the help of your classmates, solve the inequality n x > ln(x) for a variety of natural
numbers n. What might you conjecture about the “speed” at which f (x) = ln(x) grows
versus any principal nth root function?
7.4 Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities 383

7.4.2 Answers

1. (a) x=8 (i) x = 103

(b) x = 1, x = e2 (j) x = 81
(c) x=5 (k) x = − 17
7
(d) x = 21 (l) x = 1
e3 −1
(e) x=1 3
(m) x = ee
(f) x=2
(g) x = 101.7 (n) x = 6
(h) x = 10−5.4 (o) x = 4

(d) 10−5.4 , 10−2.3

2. (a) (e, ∞)
 2.6 4.1 
(b) 10 , 10 (e) (e, ∞)
 −3

(c) 10 , ∞ (f) (0, 1] ∪ [e2 , ∞)

3. (a) x ≈ 1.3098 (c) x ≈ 4.177, x ≈ 5503.665

(b) (−∞, −12.1414) ∪ (12.1414, ∞) (d) (−3.0281, −3)∪(0.5, 0.5991)∪(1.9299, 2)

1 e3 − 1
4. − < x <
2 2
3
5. y =
5e2x +1
e2x − 1 ex − e−x
7. f −1 (x) = = . (The reason for this rewriting will be explained much later
e2x + 1 ex + e−x
in the text.) The domain of f −1 is (−∞, ∞) and its range is the same as the domain of f ,
namely (−1, 1).
384 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

7.5 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

As we mentioned in Section 7.1, exponential and logarithmic functions are used to model a wide
variety of behaviors in the real world. In the examples that follow, note that while the applications
are drawn from many different disciplines, the mathematics remains essentially the same. Due to
the applied nature of the problems we will examine in this section, the calculator is often used to
express our answers as decimal approximations.

7.5.1 Applications of Exponential Functions

Perhaps the most well-known application of exponential functions comes from the financial world.
Suppose you have $100 to invest at your local bank and they are offering a whopping 5 % annual
percentage interest rate. This means that after one year, the bank will pay you 5% of that $100,
or $100(0.05) = $5 in interest, so you now have $105.1 This is in accordance with the formula
for simple interest which you have undoubtedly run across at some point in your mathematical
upbringing.

Equation 7.1. Simple Interest The amount of interest I accrued at an annual rate r on an
investmenta P after t years is
I = P rt
The amount A in the account after t years is given by

A = P + I = P + P rt = P (1 + rt)

a
Called the principal

Suppose, however, that six months into the year, you hear of a better deal at a rival bank.2
Naturally, you withdraw your money and try to invest it at the

higher rate there. Since six months
is one half of a year, that initial $100 yields $100(0.05) 12 = $2.50 in interest. You take your
$102.50 off to the competitor and find out that those restrictions which may apply actually do
apply to you, and you return to your bank which happily accepts your $102.50 for the remaining
six months of the year. To your surprise and delight, at the end of the year your statement reads
$105.06, not $105 as you had expected.3 Where did those extra six cents come from? For the first
six months of the year, interest was earned on the original principal of $100, but for the second
six months, interest was earned on $102.50, that is, you earned interest on your interest. This is
the basic concept behind compound interest. In the previous discussion, we would say that the
interest was compounded twice, or semiannually.4 If more money can be earned by earning interest
1
How generous of them!
2
Some restrictions may apply.
3
Actually, the final balance should be $105.0625.
4
Using this convention, simple interest after one year is the same as compounding the interest only once.
7.5 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 385

on interest already earned, a natural question to ask is what happens if the interest is compounded
more often, say 4 times a year, which is every three months, or ‘quarterly.’ In this case, the
money is in the account for three months, or 14 of a year, at a time. After the first quarter, we
have A = P (1 + rt) = $100 1 + 0.05 · 14 = $101.25. We now invest the $101.25 for the



next three
months and find that at the end of the second quarter, we have A = $101.25 1 + 0.05 · 14 ≈ $102.51.
Continuing in this manner, the balance at the end of the third quarter is $103.79, and, at last, we
obtain $105.08. The extra two cents hardly seems worth it, but we see that we do in fact get more
money the more often we compound. In order to develop a formula for this phenomenon, we need
to do some abstract calculations. Suppose we wish to invest our principal P at an annual rate r and
th
compound the interest n times per year. This means the money sits in the account n1 of a year
between compoundings. Let Ak denote the amount in
the account after the k th compounding. Then
1
A1 = P 1 + r n which simplifies to A1 = P 1 + nr . After the second compounding, we use A1




2
as our new principal and get A2 = A1 1 + nr = P 1 + nr 1 + nr = P 1 + nr . Continuing in





3
4
k
this fashion, we get A3 = P 1 + nr , A4 = P 1 + nr , and so on, so that Ak = P 1 + nr . Since
we compound the interest n times per year, after t years, we have nt compoundings. We have just
derived the general formula for compound interest below.

Equation 7.2. Compounded Interest: If an initial principal P is invested at an annual rate

r and the interest is compounded n times per year, the amount A in the account after t years
is  r nt
A=P 1+
n

4t
If we take P = 100, r = 0.05, and n = 4, Equation 7.2 becomes A = 100 1 + 0.05 4 which
reduces to A = 100(1.0125)4t . This equation defines the amount A as an exponential function of
1 4( 14 )


time t, A(t).
To check this against our previous calculations, we find A 4 = 100(1.0125) =
1 3


101.25, A 2 ≈ $102.51, A 4 ≈ $103.79, and A(1) ≈ $105.08.

Example 7.5.1. Suppose $2000 is invested in an account which offers 7.125% compounded monthly.

1. Express the amount A in the account as a function of the term of the investment t in years.

2. How much is in the account after 5 years?

3. How long will it take for the initial investment to double?

4. Find and interpret the average rate of change5 of the amount in the account from the end of
the fourth year to the end of the fifth year, and from the end of the thirty-fourth year to the
end of the thirty-fifth year.

Solution.
5
See Definition 3.3 in Section 3.1.
386 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

1. Substituting P = 2000, r = 0.07125, and n = 12 (monthly) into Equation 7.2 yields A =

12t
2000 1 + 0.07125
12 . Using function notation, we get A(t) = 2000(1.0059375)12t .
2. Since t represents the length of the investment, we substitute t = 5 into A(t) to find A(5) =
2000(1.0059375)12(5) ≈ 2852.92. After 5 years, we have approximately $2852.92.
3. Our initial investment is $2000, so to find the time it takes this to double, we need to find t
when A(t) = 4000. We get 2000(1.0059375)12t = 4000, or (1.0059375)12t = 2. Taking natural
ln(2)
logs as in Section 7.3, we get t = 12 ln(1.0059375) ≈ 9.75. Hence, it takes approximately 9 years
9 months for the investment to double.
4. To find the average rate of change of A from the end of the fourth year to the end of the
fifth year, we compute A(5)−A(4)
5−4 ≈ 195.63. Similarly, the average rate of change of A from
the end of the thirty-fourth year to the end of the thirty-fifth year is A(35)−A(34)
35−34 ≈ 1648.21.
This means that the value of the investment is increasing at a rate of approximately $195.63
per year between the end of the fourth and fifth years, while that rate jumps to $1648.21 per
year between the end of the thirty-fourth and thirty-fifth years. So, not only is it true that
the longer you wait, the more money you have, but also the longer you wait, the faster the
money increases.6

We have observed that the more times you compound the interest per year, the more money
you will earn in a year. Let’s push this notion to the limit.7 Consider an investment of $1 invested
at 100% interest for 1 year compounded n times
a year. Equation 7.2 tells us that the amount of
n
money in the account after 1 year is A = 1 + n1 . Below is a table of values relating n and A.

n A
1 2
2 2.25
4 ≈ 2.4414
12 ≈ 2.6130
360 ≈ 2.7145
1000 ≈ 2.7169
10000 ≈ 2.7181
100000 ≈ 2.7182
As promised, the more compoundings per year, the more money there is in the account, but we
also observe that the increase in money is greatly diminishing. We are witnessing a mathematical
6
In fact, the rate of increase of the amount in the account is exponential as well. This is the quality that really
defines exponential functions and we refer the reader to a course in Calculus.
7
Once you’ve had a semester of Calculus, you’ll be able to fully appreciate this very lame pun.
7.5 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 387

‘tug of war’. While we are compounding more times per year, and hence getting interest on our
interest more often, the amount of time between compoundings is getting smaller and smaller, so
there is less
time to build up additional interest. With Calculus, we can show8 that as n → ∞,
n
A = 1 + n1 → e, where e is the natural base first presented in Section 7.1. Taking the number
of compoundings per year to infinity results in what is called continuously compounded interest.

Theorem 7.8. If you invest $1 at 100% interest compounded continuously, then you will have
$e at the end of one year.

Using this definition of e and a little Calculus, we can take Equation 7.2 and produce a formula
for continuously compounded interest.

Equation 7.3. Continuously Compounded Interest: If an initial principal P is invested

at an annual rate r and the interest is compounded continuously, the amount A in the account
after t years is
A = P ert

If we take the scenario of Example 7.5.1 and compare monthly compounding to continuous com-
pounding over 35 years, we find that monthly compounding yields A(35) = 2000(1.0059375)12(35)
which is about $24,035.28, whereas continuously compounding gives A(35) = 2000e0.07125(35) which
is about $24,213.18 - a difference of less than 1%.

Equations 7.2 and 7.3 both use exponential functions to describe the growth of an investment.
Curiously enough, the same principles which govern compound interest are also used to model short
term growth of populations. In Biology, The Law of Uninhibited Growth states as its premise
that the instantaneous rate at which a population increases at any time is directly proportional to
the population at that time.9 In other words, the more organisms there are at a given moment,
the faster they reproduce. Formulating the law as stated results in a differential equation, which
requires Calculus to solve. Its solution is stated below.

8
Or define, depending on your point of view.
9
The average rate of change of a function over an interval was first introduced in Section 3.1. Instantaneous rates
of change are the business of Calculus, as is mentioned on Page 167.
388 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Equation 7.4. Uninhibited Growth: If a population increases according to The Law of

Uninhibited Growth, the number of organisms N at time t is given by the formula

N (t) = N0 ekt ,

where N (0) = N0 (read ‘N nought’) is the initial number of organisms and k > 0 is the constant
of proportionality which satisfies the equation

(instantaneous rate of change of N (t) at time t) = k N (t)

It is worth taking some time to compare Equations 7.3 and 7.4. In Equation 7.3, we use P
to denote the initial investment; in Equation 7.4, we use N0 to denote the initial population. In
Equation 7.3, r denotes the annual interest rate, and so it shouldn’t be too surprising that the k
in Equation 7.4 corresponds to a growth rate as well. While Equations 7.3 and 7.4 look entirely
different, they both represent the same mathematical concept.

Example 7.5.2. In order to perform arthrosclerosis research, epithelial cells are harvested from
discarded umbilical tissue and grown in the laboratory. A technician observes that a culture of
twelve thousand cells grows to five million cells in one week. Assuming that the cells follow The
Law of Uninhibited Growth, find a formula for the number of cells, N , in thousands, after t days.

Solution. We begin with N (t) = N0 ekt . Since N is to give the number of cells in thousands,
we have N0 = 12, so N (t) = 12ekt . In order to complete the formula, we need to determine the
growth rate k. We know that after one week, the number of cells has grown to five million. Since t
measures days and the units of N are in thousands, this translates mathematically to N (7) = 5000.
t 1250
We get the equation 12e7k = 5000 which gives k = 71 ln 1250 . Hence, N (t) = 12e 7 ln( 3 ) . Of


3
course, in practice, we would approximate k to some desired accuracy, say k ≈ 0.8618, which we
can interpret as an 86.18% daily growth rate for the cells.

Whereas Equations 7.3 and 7.4 model the growth of quantities, we can use equations like them to
describe the decline of quantities. One example we’ve seen already is Example 7.1.1 in Section 7.1.
There, the value of a car declined from its purchase price of $25,000 to nothing at all. Another real
world phenomenon which follows suit is radioactive decay. There are elements which are unstable
and emit energy spontaneously. In doing so, the amount of the element itself diminishes. The
assumption behind this model is that the rate of decay of an element at a particular time is directly
proportional to the amount of the element present at that time. In other words, the more of the
element there is, the faster the element decays. This is precisely the same kind of hypothesis which
drives The Law of Uninhibited Growth, and as such, the equation governing radioactive decay is
hauntingly similar to Equation 7.4 with the exception that the rate constant k is negative.
7.5 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 389

Equation 7.5. Radioactive Decay The amount of a radioactive element A at time t is given
by the formula
A(t) = A0 ekt ,
where A(0) = A0 is the initial amount of the element and k < 0 is the constant of proportionality
which satisfies the equation

(instantaneous rate of change of A(t) at time t) = k A(t)

Example 7.5.3. Iodine-131 is a commonly used radioactive isotope used to help detect how well
the thyroid is functioning. Suppose the decay of Iodine-131 follows the model given in Equation 7.5,
and that the half-life10 of Iodine-131 is approximately 8 days. If 5 grams of Iodine-131 is present
initially, find a function which gives the amount of Iodine-131, A, in grams, t days later.

Solution. Since we start with 5 grams initially, Equation 7.5 gives A(t) = 5ekt . Since the
half-life is 8 days, it takes 8 days for half of the Iodine-131 to decay, leaving half of it behind.
Hence, A(8) = 2.5 which means 5e = 2.5. Solving, we get k = 8 ln 2 = − ln(2)
8k 1 1


8 ≈ −0.08664,
t ln(2)
which we can interpret as a loss of material at a rate of 8.664% daily. Hence, A(t) = 5e− 8 ≈
5e−0.08664t .

We now turn our attention to some more mathematically sophisticated models. One such model
is Newton’s Law of Cooling, which we first encountered in Example 7.1.2 of Section 7.1. In that
example we had a cup of coffee cooling from 160◦ F to room temperature 70◦ F according to the
formula T (t) = 70 + 90e−0.1t , where t was measured in minutes. In this situation, we know the
physical limit of the temperature of the coffee is room temperature,11 and the differential equation
which gives rise to our formula for T (t) takes this into account. Whereas the radioactive decay
model had a rate of decay at time t directly proportional to the amount of the element which
remained at time t, Newton’s Law of Cooling states that the rate of cooling of the coffee at a given
time t is directly proportional to how much of a temperature gap exists between the coffee at time
t and room temperature, not the temperature of the coffee itself. In other words, the coffee cools
faster when it is first served, and as its temperature nears room temperature, the coffee cools ever
more slowly. Of course, if we take an item from the refrigerator and let it sit out in the kitchen,
the object’s temperature will rise to room temperature, and since the physics behind warming and
cooling is the same, we combine both cases in the equation below.

10
The time it takes for half of the substance to decay.
11
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that heat can spontaneously flow from a hotter object to a colder
one, but not the other way around. Thus, the coffee could not continue to release heat into the air so as to cool below
room temperature.
390 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Equation 7.6. Newton’s Law of Cooling (Warming): The temperature T of an object at

time t is given by the formula

T (t) = Ta + (T0 − Ta ) e−kt ,

where T (0) = T0 is the initial temperature of the object, Ta is the ambient temperaturea and
k > 0 is the constant of proportionality which satisfies the equation

(instantaneous rate of change of T (t) at time t) = k (T (t) − Ta )

a
That is, the temperature of the surroundings.

If we re-examine the situation in Example 7.1.2 with T0 = 160, Ta = 70, and k = 0.1, we get,
according to Equation 7.6, T (t) = 70 + (160 − 70)e−0.1t which reduces to the original formula given.
The rate constant k = 0.1 indicates the coffee is cooling at a rate equal to 10% of the difference
between the temperature of the coffee and its surroundings. Note in Equation 7.6 that the constant
k is positive for both the cooling and warming scenarios. What determines if the function T (t)
is increasing or decreasing is if T0 (the initial temperature of the object) is greater than Ta (the
ambient temperature) or vice-versa, as we see in our next example.

Example 7.5.4. A 40◦ F roast is cooked in a 350◦ F oven. After 2 hours, the temperature of the
roast is 125◦ F.

1. Assuming the temperature of the roast follows Newton’s Law of Warming, find a formula for
the temperature of the roast T as a function of its time in the oven, t, in hours.

2. The roast is done when the internal temperature reaches 165◦ F. When will the roast be done?

Solution.

1. The initial temperature of the roast is 40◦ F, so T0 = 40. The environment in which we
are placing the roast is the 350◦ F oven, so Ta = 350. Newton’s Law of Warming tells us
T (t) = 350 + (40 − 350)e−kt , or T (t) = 350 − 310e−kt . To determine k, we use the fact that
after 2 hours, the roast is 125◦ F, which means
T (2) = 125. This gives rise to the equation
350 − 310e−2k = 125 which yields k = − 12 ln 4562 ≈ 0.1602. The temperature function is

t 45
T (t) = 350 − 310e 2 ln( 62 ) ≈ 350 − 310e−0.1602t .

−0.1602t = 165
2. To determine when the roast is done,
1 37

we set T (t) = 165. This gives 350 − 310e
whose solution is t = − 0.1602 ln 62 ≈ 3.22. It takes roughly 3 hours and 15 minutes to cook
the roast completely.
7.5 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 391

If we had taken the time to graph y = T (t) in Example 7.5.4, we would have found the horizontal
asymptote to be y = 350, which corresponds to the temperature of the oven. We can also arrive
at this conclusion by applying a bit of ‘number sense’. As t → ∞, −0.1602t ≈ very big (−) so
that e−0.1602t ≈ very small (+). The larger the value of t, the smaller e−0.1602t becomes so that
T (t) ≈ 350 − very small (+), which indicates the graph of y = T (t) is approaching its horizontal
asymptote y = 350 from below. Physically, this means the roast will eventually warm up to 350◦ F.12
The function T is sometimes called a limited growth model, since the function T remains bounded
as t → ∞. If we apply the principles behind Newton’s Law of Cooling to a biological example, it
says the growth rate of a population is directly proportional to how much room the population has
to grow. In other words, the more room for expansion, the faster the growth rate. The logistic
growth model combines The Law of Uninhibited Growth with limited growth and states that the
rate of growth of a population varies jointly with the population itself as well as the room the
population has to grow.

Equation 7.7. Logistic Growth: If a population behaves according to the assumptions of

logistic growth, the number of organisms N at time t is given by the equation
L
N (t) = ,
1 + Ce−kLt
where N (0) = N0 is the initial population, L is the limiting populationa , C is a measure of how
much room there is to grow given by
L
C= − 1.
N0
and k > 0 is the constant of proportionality which satisfies the equation

(instantaneous rate of change of N (t) at time t) = k N (t) (L − N (t))

a
That is, as t → ∞, N (t) → L

The logistic function is used not only to model the growth of organisms, but is also often used
to model the spread of disease and rumors.13

Example 7.5.5. The number of people N , in hundreds, at a local community college who have
heard the rumor ‘Carl is afraid of Virginia Woolf’ can be modeled using the logistic equation
84
N (t) = ,
1 + 2799e−t
where t ≥ 0 is the number of days after April 1, 2009.
12
at which point it would be more toast than roast.
13
Which can be just as damaging as diseases.
392 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

1. Find and interpret N (0).

2. Find and interpret the end behavior of N (t).

3. How long until 4200 people have heard the rumor?

4. Check your answers to 2 and 3 using your calculator.

Solution.
84 84 3
1. We find N (0) = 1+2799e0 = 2800 = 100 . Since N (t) measures the number of people who have
heard the rumor in hundreds, N (0) corresponds to 3 people. Since t = 0 corresponds to April
1, 2009, we may conclude that on that day, 3 people have heard the rumor.14

2. We could simply note that N (t) is written in the form of Equation 7.7, and identify L = 84.
However, to see why the answer is 84, we proceed analytically. Since the domain of N is
restricted to t ≥ 0, the only end behavior of significance is t → ∞. As we’ve seen before,15
as t → ∞, have 1997e−t → 0+ and so N (t) ≈ 84
≈ 84. Hence, as t → ∞,
1+very small (+)
N (t) → 84. This means that as time goes by, the number of people who will have heard the
rumor approaches 8400.

3. To find how long it takes until 4200 people have heard the rumor, we set N (t) = 42. Solving
84
1+2799e−t
= 42 gives t = ln(2799) ≈ 7.937. It takes around 8 days until 4200 people have
heard the rumor.

4. We graph y = N (x) using the calculator and see that the line y = 84 is the horizontal
asymptote of the graph, confirming our answer to part 2, and the graph intersects the line
y = 42 at x = ln(2799) ≈ 7.937, which confirms our answer to part 3.

84 84
y = f (x) = 1+2799e−x
and y = f (x) = 1+2799e−x
and
y = 84 y = 42

14
Or, more likely, three people started the rumor. I’d wager Jeff, Jamie, and Jason started it. So much for telling
your best friends something in confidence!
15
See, for example, Example 7.1.2.