Networks - CN UNIT 3

CS8591 – Computer Networks Unit 3
UNIT III - NETWORK LAYER
Network Layer Services – Packet Switching – Performance – IPV4

Addresses – Forwarding of IP Packets – Network Layer Protocols: IP,
ICMP v4 – Unicast Routing Algorithms – Protocols – Multicasting
Basics – IPV6 Addressing – IPV6 Protocol.
1. NETWORK LAYER SERVICES

 The network layer in the TCP/IP protocol suite is responsible for the host-to-
host delivery of datagrams.
 It provides services to the transport layer and receives services from the data-
link layer.
 The network layer translates the logical addresses into physical addresses
 It determines the route from the source to the destination and also manages the
traffic problems such as switching, routing and controls the congestion of data
packets.
 The main role of the network layer is to move the packets from sending host to
the receiving host.
Services provided by network layer are
(1) PACKETIZING
 The first duty of the network layer is packetizing.
 Packetizing means encapsulating the payload (data) in a network-layer packet
at the source and decapsulating the payload from the network-layer packet at
the destination.
 The network layer is responsible for delivery of packets from a sender to a
receiver without changing or using the contents.
 The source host receives the payload from an upper-layer protocol, adds a
header that contains the source and destination addresses and some other
information that is required by the network-layer protocol.
 The destination host receives the network-layer packet from its data-link layer,
decapsulates the packet, and delivers the payload.
 The routers in the path are not allowed to decapsulate the packets they have
received.
 The routers are not allowed to change source and destination addresses either.
They just inspect the addresses for the purpose of forwarding the packet to the
next network on the path.
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(2) ROUTING AND FORWARDING

Routing
 The network layer is responsible for routing the packet from its source to the
destination.
 The network layer is responsible for finding the best one among these possible
routes.
 The network layer needs to have some specific strategies for defining the best
route.
 Routing is the concept of applying strategies and running routing protocols to
create the decision-making tables for each router.
 These tables are called as routing tables.
Forwarding
 Forwarding can be defined as the action applied by each router when a packet
arrives at one of its interfaces.
 The decision-making table that a router normally uses for applying this action
is called the forwarding table or routing table.
 When a router receives a packet from one of its attached networks, it needs to
forward the packet to another attached network.
(3) CONGESTION CONTROL

 Another issue in a network-layer protocol is congestion control.
 Congestion in the network layer is a situation in which too many datagrams are
present in an area of the Internet.
 Congestion may occur if the number of datagrams sent by source computers is
beyond the capacity of the network or routers.
 In this situation, some routers may drop some of the datagrams.
(4) SECURITY (IPSEC)

 Another issue related to communication at the network layer is security.
 To provide security for a connectionless network layer, we need to have
another virtual level that changes the connectionless service to a connection-
oriented service.
 This virtual layer is called as called IPSec (IP Security).
2. PACKET SWITCHING
( REFER THE TOPIC PACKET SWITCHING FROM UNIT – I )
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3. NETWORK-LAYER PERFORMANCE
 The performance of a network can be measured in terms of
Delay, Throughput and Packet loss.
DELAY
 A packet from its source to its destination, encounters delays.
 The delays in a network can be divided into four types:
Transmission delay, Propagation delay, Processing delay & Queuing delay.
Transmission Delay
 A source host or a router cannot send a packet instantaneously.
 A sender needs to put the bits in a packet on the line one by one.
 If the first bit of the packet is put on the line at time t1 and the last bit is put on
the line at time t2, transmission delay of the packet is (t2 - t1).
 The transmission delay is longer for a longer packet and shorter if the sender
can transmit faster.
 The Transmission delay is calculated using the formula
Delaytr = (Packet length) / (Transmission rate)
 Example :
In a Fast Ethernet LAN with the transmission rate of 100 million bits per
second and a packet of 10,000 bits, it takes (10,000)/(100,000,000) or
100 microseconds for all bits of the packet to be put on the line.
Propagation Delay
 Propagation delay is the time it takes for a bit to travel from point A to point B
in the transmission media.
 The propagation delay for a packet-switched network depends on the
propagation delay of each network (LAN or WAN).
 The propagation delay depends on the propagation speed of the media, which is
3X108 meters/second in a vacuum and normally much less in a wired medium.
 It also depends on the distance of the link.
 The Propagation delay is calculated using the formula
Delaypg = (Distance) / (Propagation speed)
 Example
If the distance of a cable link in a point-to-point WAN is 2000 meters and
the propagation speed of the bits in the cable is 2 X108 meters/second, then
the propagation delay is 10 microseconds.
Processing Delay
 The processing delay is the time required for a router or a destination host to
receive a packet from its input port, remove the header, perform an error
detection procedure, and deliver the packet to the output port (in the case of a
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router) or deliver the packet to the upper-layer protocol (in the case of the
destination host).
 The processing delay may be different for each packet, but normally is
calculated as an average.
Delaypr = Time required to process a packet in a router or a destination host
 Example
For example, if the distance of a cable link in a point-to-point WAN is
2000 meters and the propagation speed of the bits in the cable is 2 × 108
meters/second, then the propagation delay is 10 microseconds.
Queuing Delay
 Queuing delay can normally happen in a router.
 A router has an input queue connected to each of its input ports to store packets
waiting to be processed.
 The router also has an output queue connected to each of its output ports to
store packets waiting to be transmitted.
 The queuing delay for a packet in a router is measured as the time a packet
waits in the input queue and output queue of a router.
Delayqu = Time a packet waits in input and output queues in a router
Total Delay
 Assuming equal delays for the sender, routers and receiver, the total delay
(source-to-destination delay) of a packet can be calculated if we know the
number of routers, n, in the whole path.
Total delay = (n + 1) (Delaytr + Delaypg + Delaypr) + (n) (Delayqu)
 If we have n routers, we have (n +1) links.
 Therefore, we have (n +1) transmission delays related to n routers and the
source, (n +1) propagation delays related to (n +1) links, (n +1) processing
delays related to n routers and the destination, and only ‘n’ queuing delays
related to n routers.
THROUGHPUT
 Throughput at any point in a network is defined as the number of bits passing
through the point in a second, which is actually the transmission rate of data at
that point.
 In a path from source to destination, a packet may pass through several links
(networks), each with a different transmission rate.
 Throughput is calculated using the formula
Throughput = minimum{TR1 , TR2, . . . TRn}
 Example:
Let us assume that we have three links, each with a different transmission
rate. The data can flow at the rate of 200 kbps in Link1, 100 kbps in Link2
and 150kbps in Link3.
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Throughput = minimum{200,100,150} = 100.
PACKET LOSS
 Another issue that severely affects the performance of communication is the
number of packets lost during transmission.
 When a router receives a packet while processing another packet, the received
packet needs to be stored in the input buffer waiting for its turn.
 A router has an input buffer with a limited size.
 A time may come when the buffer is full and the next packet needs to be
dropped.
 The effect of packet loss on the Internet network layer is that the packet needs
to be resent, which in turn may create overflow and cause more packet loss.
4. CONGESTION CONTROL
 Congestion Control is a mechanism for improving the network performance.
 It refers to techniques and mechanisms that can either prevent congestion
before it happens or remove congestion after it has happened.
 Congestion control mechanisms can be divided into two broad categories:

 Open-loop Congestion Control (prevention)
 Closed-loop Congestion Control (removal)
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(1) OPEN-LOOP CONGESTION CONTROL
 In open-loop congestion control, policies are applied to prevent congestion

before it happens.
 In these mechanisms, congestion control is handled by either the source or the
destination.
Retransmission Policy
 Retransmission is sometimes unavoidable.
 If the sender feels that a sent packet is lost or corrupted, the packet
needs to be retransmitted.
 Retransmission in general may increase congestion in the network.
 However, a good retransmission policy can prevent congestion.
 The retransmission policy and the retransmission timers must be
designed to optimize efficiency and at the same time prevent congestion.
Window Policy
 The type of window at the sender may also affect congestion.
 The Selective Repeat window is better than the Go-Back-N window for
congestion control.
 In the Go-Back-N window, when the timer for a packet times out,
several packets may be resent, although some may have arrived safe and
sound at the receiver.
 This duplication may make the congestion worse.
 The Selective Repeat window, on the other hand, tries to send the
specific packets that have been lost or corrupted.
Acknowledgment Policy
 The acknowledgment policy imposed by the receiver may also affect
congestion.
 If the receiver does not acknowledge every packet it receives, it may
slow down the sender and help prevent congestion.
 Several approaches are used in this case.
 A receiver may send an acknowledgment only if it has a packet to be
sent or a special timer expires.
 A receiver may decide to acknowledge only N packets at a time.
 Sending fewer acknowledgments means imposing less load on the
network.
Discarding Policy
 A good discarding policy by the routers may prevent congestion and at
the same time may not harm the integrity of the transmission.
 For example, in audio transmission, if the policy is to discard less
sensitive packets when congestion is likely to happen, the quality of
sound is still preserved and congestion is prevented or alleviated.
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Admission Policy
 An admission policy, which is a quality-of-service mechanism can also
prevent congestion in virtual-circuit networks.
 Switches in a flow first check the resource requirement of a flow before
admitting it to the network.
 A router can deny establishing a virtual-circuit connection if there is
congestion in the network or if there is a possibility of future congestion.
(2) CLOSED-LOOP CONGESTION CONTROL
 Closed-loop congestion control mechanisms try to alleviate congestion after it

happens.
 Several mechanisms have been used by different protocols.
Backpressure
 The technique of backpressure refers to a congestion control mechanism
in which a congested node stops receiving data from the immediate
upstream node or nodes.
 This may cause the upstream node or nodes to become congested, and
they, in turn, reject data from their upstream node or nodes, and so on.
 Backpressure is a node-to- node congestion control that starts with a
node and propagates, in the opposite direction of data flow, to the
source.
 The backpressure technique can be applied only to virtual circuit
networks, in which each node knows the upstream node from which a
flow of data is coming.
Choke Packet
 A choke packet is a packet sent by a node to the source to inform it of
congestion.
 In backpressure, the warning is from one node to its upstream node,
although the warning may eventually reach the source station.
 In the choke-packet method, the warning is from the router, which has
encountered congestion, directly to the source station.
 The intermediate nodes through which the packet has traveled are not
warned.
 The warning message goes directly to the source station; the
intermediate routers do not take any action.
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Implicit Signaling
 In implicit signaling, there is no communication between the congested
node or nodes and the source.
 The source guesses that there is congestion somewhere in the network
from other symptoms.
 For example, when a source sends several packets and there is no
acknowledgment for a while, one assumption is that the network is
congested.
 The delay in receiving an acknowledgment is interpreted as congestion
in the network; the source should slow down.
Explicit Signaling
 The node that experiences congestion can explicitly send a signal to the
source or destination.
 The explicit-signaling method is different from the choke-packet
method.
 In the choke-packet method, a separate packet is used for this purpose;
in the explicit-signaling method, the signal is included in the packets
that carry data.
 Explicit signaling can occur in either the forward or the backward
direction.
ISSUES IN CONGESTION CONTROL

Congestion at the network layer is related to two issues - throughput and delay.
Based on Delay
 When the load is much less than the capacity of the network, the delay is at a
minimum.
 This minimum delay is composed of propagation delay and processing delay,
both of which are negligible.
 However, when the load reaches the network capacity, the delay increases
sharply because we now need to add the queuing delay to the total delay.
 The delay becomes infinite when the load is greater than the capacity.
Based on Throughout
 When the load is below the capacity of the network, the throughput increases
proportionally with the load.
 We expect the throughput to remain constant after the load reaches the
capacity, but instead the throughput declines sharply.
 The reason is the discarding of packets by the routers.
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 When the load exceeds the capacity, the queues become full and the routers
have to discard some packets.
 Discarding packets does not reduce the number of packets in the network
because the sources retransmit the packets, using time-out mechanisms, when
the packets do not reach the destinations.
5. IPV4 ADDRESSES
 The identifier used in the IP layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite to identify the
connection of each device to the Internet is called the Internet address or IP
address.
 Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth version in the development of
the Internet Protocol (IP) and the first version of the protocol to be widely
deployed.
 IPv4 is described in IETF publication in September 1981.
 The IP address is the address of the connection, not the host or the router.
 If the device is moved to another network, the IP address may be changed.
 An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines the
connection .
 IPv4 addresses are unique in the sense that each address defines one, and only
one, connection to the Internet.If a device has two connections to the Internet,
via two networks, it has two IPv4 addresses.
 Pv4 addresses are universal in the sense that the addressing system must be
accepted by any host that wants to be connected to the Internet.
IPV4 ADDRESS SPACE

 An address space is the total number of addresses used by the protocol.
 If a protocol uses b bits to define an address, the address space is 2b because
each bit can have two different values (0 or 1).
 IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is 232 or
4,294,967,296 (more than four billion).
 4 billion devices could be connected to the Internet.
 If there were no restrictions, more than 4 billion devices could be connected to
the Internet.
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IPV4 ADDRESS NOTATION

There are three common notations to show an IPv4 address:
1) binary notation (base 2)
2) dotted-decimal notation (base 256)
3) hexadecimal notation (base 16)
In binary notation, an IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits. To make the address more
readable, one or more spaces are usually inserted between bytes (8 bits).
In dotted-decimal notation,IPv4 addresses are usually written in decimal form with a

decimal point (dot) separating the bytes. Each number in the dotted-decimal notation
is between 0 and 255.
In hexadecimal notation, each hexadecimal digit is equivalent to four bits. This means
that a 32-bit address has 8 hexadecimal digits. This notation is often used in network
programming.
HIERARCHY IN IPV4 ADDRESSING

 In any communication network that involves delivery, the addressing system is
hierarchical.
 A 32-bit IPv4 address is also hierarchical, but divided only into two parts.
 The first part of the address, called the prefix, defines the network(Net ID).
 The second part of the address, called the suffix, defines the node (Host ID).
 The prefix length is n bits and the suffix length is (32-n) bits.
 A prefix can be fixed length (or) variable length.

 The network identifier in the IPv4 was first designed as a fixed-length prefix.
This scheme is referred to as classful addressing.
 The new scheme, which is referred to as classless addressing, uses a variable-
length network prefix.
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CATEGORIES OF IPV4 ADDRESSING

 There are two broad categories of IPv4 Addressing techniques.
 They are
 Classful Addressing
 Classless Addressing
(1) CLASSFUL ADDRESSING

 An IPv4 address is 32-bit long(4 bytes).
 An IPv4 address is divided into sub-classes:
Classful Network Architecture
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Class A
 In Class A, an IP address is assigned to those networks that contain a large
number of hosts.
 The network ID is 8 bits long.
 The host ID is 24 bits long.
 In Class A, the first bit in higher order bits of the first octet is always set to 0
and the remaining 7 bits determine the network ID.
 The 24 bits determine the host ID in any network.
 The total number of networks in Class A = 27 = 128 network address
 The total number of hosts in Class A = 224 - 2 = 16,777,214 host address
Class B
 In Class B, an IP address is assigned to those networks that range from small-
sized to large-sized networks.
 The Network ID is 16 bits long.
 The Host ID is 16 bits long.
 In Class B, the higher order bits of the first octet is always set to 10, and the
remaining14 bits determine the network ID.
 The other 16 bits determine the Host ID.
 The total number of networks in Class B = 214 = 16384 network address
 The total number of hosts in Class B = 216 - 2 = 65534 host address
Class C
 In Class C, an IP address is assigned to only small-sized networks.
 The Network ID is 24 bits long.
 The host ID is 8 bits long.
 In Class C, the higher order bits of the first octet is always set to 110, and the
remaining 21 bits determine the network ID.
 The 8 bits of the host ID determine the host in a network.
 The total number of networks = 221 = 2097152 network address
 The total number of hosts = 28 - 2 = 254 host address
Class D
 In Class D, an IP address is reserved for multicast addresses.
 It does not possess subnetting.
 The higher order bits of the first octet is always set to 1110, and the remaining
bits determines the host ID in any network.
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Class E
 In Class E, an IP address is used for the future use or for the research and
development purposes.
 It does not possess any subnetting.
 The higher order bits of the first octet is always set to 1111, and the remaining
bits determines the host ID in any network.
ADDRESS DEPLETION IN CLASSFUL ADDRESSING

 The reason that classful addressing has become obsolete is address depletion.
 Since the addresses were not distributed properly, the Internet was faced with
the problem of the addresses being rapidly used up.
 This results in no more addresses available for organizations and individuals
that needed to be connected to the Internet.
 To understand the problem, let us think about class A.
 This class can be assigned to only 128 organizations in the world, but each
organization needs to have a single network with 16,777,216 nodes .
 Since there may be only a few organizations that are this large, most of the
addresses in this class were wasted (unused).
 Class B addresses was designed for midsize organizations, but many of the
addresses in this class also remained unused.
 Class C addresses have a completely different flaw in design. The number of
addresses that can be used in each network (256) was so small that most
companies were not comfortable using a block in this address class.
 Class E addresses were almost never used, wasting the whole class.
Subnetting and Supernetting

 To overcome address depletion, two strategies were proposed and
implemented:
(i) Subnetting (ii) Supernetting.
SUBNETTING
 Subnets were initially designed for solving the shortage of IP addresses over
the Internet.
 Subnetting is the practice of dividing a single physical network into two or
more smaller logical networks.
 It increases routing efficiency, enhances the security of the network and
reduces the size of the broadcast domain.
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 Subnets are designed by accepting bits from the IP address's host part and using
these bits to assign a number of smaller sub-networks inside the original
network.
 Subnetting allows an organization to add sub-networks without the need to
acquire a new network number via the Internet service provider (ISP).
 In subnetting, a class A or class B block is divided into several subnets.
 If all of the addresses in a network are not used, subnetting allows the
addresses to be divided among several organizations.
 Each IP address consists of a subnet mask. All the class types, such as Class A,
Class B and Class C include the subnet mask known as the default subnet
mask.
 The subnet mask is intended for determining the type and number of IP
addresses required for a given local network.
 The router is called the default gateway. The default subnet mask is as follows:
 Class A : 255.0.0.0
 Class B : 255.255.0.0
 Class C : 255.255.255.0
SUPERNETTING
 In Supernetting, multiple networks are combined into a bigger network termed
as a Supernetwork or Supernet.
 Supernetting is mainly done for optimizing the routing tables.
 Without Supernetting, router will share all routes from routing tables as they
are.
 With Supernetting, it will summarize them before sharing.
 Route summarization reduces the size of routing updates dramatically.
Advantage of Classful Addressing

 Although classful addressing had several problems and became obsolete, it had
one advantage.
 Given an address, we can easily find the class of the address and, since the
prefix length for each class is fixed, we can find the prefix length immediately.
 In other words, the prefix length in classful addressing is inherent in the
address; no extra information is needed to extract the prefix and the suffix.
(2) CLASSLESS ADDRESSING

 In 1996, the Internet authorities announced a new architecture called classless
addressing.
 In classless addressing, variable-length blocks are used that belong to no
classes.
 We can have a block of 1 address, 2 addresses, 4 addresses, 128 addresses, and
so on.
 In classless addressing, the whole address space is divided into variable length
blocks.
 The prefix in an address defines the block (network).
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 The suffix in an address defines the node (device).

 Theoretically, we can have a block of 20, 21, 22, … , 232 addresses.
 The number of addresses in a block needs to be a power of 2. An organization
can be granted one block of addresses.
 The prefix length in classless addressing is variable.

 We can have a prefix length that ranges from 0 to 32.
 The size of the network is inversely proportional to the length of the prefix.
 A small prefix means a larger network; a large prefix means a smaller network.
 The idea of classless addressing can be easily applied to classful addressing.
 An address in class A can be thought of as a classless address in which the
prefix length is 8.
 An address in class B can be thought of as a classless address in which the
prefix is 16, and so on.
 In other words, classful addressing is a special case of classless addressing.
Notation used in Classless Addressing

 The notation used in classless addressing is informally referred to as slash
notation and formally as Classless Inter Domain Routing or CIDR.
 For example , 192.168.100.14 /24 represents the IP address 192.168.100.14

and, its subnet mask 255.255.255.0, which has 24 leading 1-bits.
Address Aggregation
 One of the advantages of the CIDR strategy is address aggregation
(sometimes called address summarization or route summarization).
 When blocks of addresses are combined to create a larger block, routing can be
done based on the prefix of the larger block.
 ICANN assigns a large block of addresses to an ISP.
 Each ISP in turn divides its assigned block into smaller subblocks and grants
the subblocks to its customers.
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(3) SPECIAL ADDRESSES IN IPV4
 There are five special addresses that are used for special purposes:
this-host address, limited-broadcast address, loopback address,
private address, and multicast address.
This-host Address
 The only address in the block 0.0.0.0/32 is called this-host address.
 It is used whenever a host needs to send an IP datagram but it does not know its
own address to use as the source address.
Limited-broadcast Address
 The only address in the block 255.255.255.255/32 is called limited-broadcast
address.
 It is used whenever a router or a host needs to send a datagram to all devices in
a network.
 The routers in the network, however, block the packet having this address as
the destination;the packet cannot travel outside the network.
Loopback Address
 The block 127.0.0.0/8 is called loopback address.
 A packet with one of the addresses in this block as the destination address
never leaves the host; it will remain in the host.
Private Address
 Four blocks are assigned as private addresses: 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12,
192.168.0.0/16, and 169.254.0.0/16.
Multicast Address
 The block 224.0.0.0/4 is reserved for multicast addresses.
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SOLVED PROBLEMS
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Example 8 :
An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first 8 bits as (01000010). The receiver discards
the packet. Why?
Solution
There is an error in this packet. The 4 leftmost bits (0100) show the version, which is
correct. The next 4 bits (0010)2 show an invalid header length (2 × 4 = 8). The
minimum number of bytes in the header must be 20. The packet has been corrupted in
transmission.
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Example 9:
In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is (1000). How many bytes of options are being
carried by this packet?
Solution
The HLEN value is 8, which means the total number of bytes in the header is 8 × 4, or
32 bytes.The first 20 bytes are the base header, the next 12 bytes are the options.
Example 10 :
In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 5, and the value of the total length field is
(0028)16. How many bytes of data are being carried by this packet?
Solution
The HLEN value is 5, which means the total number of bytes in the header is 5 × 4, or
20 bytes (no options). The total length is 0028 (= 40) bytes, which means the packet is
carrying 20 bytes of data (40 − 20).
Example 11 :
An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first few hexadecimal digits as shown.
(45000028000100000102…)16 How many hops can this packet travel before being
dropped?
Solution
To find the time-to-live field, we skip 8 bytes (16 hexadecimal digits). The time-to-
live field is the ninth byte, which is (01)
Example 12:
A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 0. Is this the first fragment, the last
fragment, or a middle fragment? Do we know if the packet was fragmented?
Solution
If the M bit is 0, it means that there are no more fragments; the fragment is the last
one. However, we cannot say if the original packet was fragmented or not. A non
fragmented packet is considered the last fragment.
Example 13 :
A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 1. Is this the first fragment, the last
fragment, or a middle fragment? Do we know if the packet was fragmented?
Solution
If the M bit is 1, it means that there is at least one more fragment. This fragment can
be the first one or a middle one, but not the last one. We don’t know if it is the first
one or a middle one; we need more information (the value of the fragmentation
offset).
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Example 14 :
A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 1 and a fragmentation offset value of 0. Is
this the first fragment, the last fragment, or a middle fragment?
Solution
Because the M bit is 1, it is either the first fragment or a middle one. Because the
offset value is 0,it is the first fragment.
Example 15:
A packet has arrived in which the offset value is 100. What is the number of the first
byte? Do we know the number of the last byte?
Solution
To find the number of the first byte, we multiply the offset value by 8. This means that
the first byte number is 800. We cannot determine the number of the last byte unless
we know the length of the data.
Example 16 :
A packet has arrived in which the offset value is 100, the value of HLEN is 5, and the
value of the total length field is 100. What are the numbers of the first byte and the
last byte?
Solution
The first byte number is 100 × 8 = 800. The total length is 100 bytes, and the header
length is 20 bytes (5 × 4), which means that there are 80 bytes in this datagram. If the
first byte number is 800, the last byte number must be 879.
___________________________________________________________________
6. DHCP – DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL
 The dynamic host configuration protocol is used to simplify the installation and
maintenance of networked computers.
 DHCP is derived from an earlier protocol called BOOTP.
 Ethernet addresses are configured into network by manufacturer and they are
unique.
 IP addresses must be unique on a given internetwork but also must reflect the
structure of the internetwork
 Most host Operating Systems provide a way to manually configure the IP
information for the host
 Drawbacks of manual configuration :
1. A lot of work to configure all the hosts in a large network
2. Configuration process is error-prune
 It is necessary to ensure that every host gets the correct network number and that
no two hosts receive the same IP address.
 For these reasons, automated configuration methods are required.
 The primary method uses a protocol known as the Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP).
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 The main goal of DHCP is to minimize the amount of manual configuration

required for a host.
 If a new computer is connected to a network, DHCP can provide it with all the
necessary information for full system integration into the network.
 DHCP is based on a client/server model.
 DHCP clients send a request to a DHCP server to which the server responds with
an IP address
 DHCP server is responsible for providing configuration information to hosts.
 There is at least one DHCP server for an administrative domain.
 The DHCP server can function just as a centralized repository for host
configuration information.
 The DHCP server maintains a pool of available addresses that it hands out to hosts
on demand.
 A newly booted or attached host sends a DHCPDISCOVER message to a special IP

address (255.255.255.255., which is an IP broadcast address.
 This means it will be received by all hosts and routers on that network.
 DHCP uses the concept of a relay agent. There is at least one relay agent on each
network.
 DHCP relay agent is configured with the IP address of the DHCP server.
 When a relay agent receives a DHCPDISCOVER message, it unicasts it to the
DHCP server and awaits the response, which it will then send back to the
requesting client.
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DHCP Message Format
 A DHCP packet is actually sent using a protocol called the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP).
7. NETWORK ADDRESS TRANSLATION / RESOLUTION (NAT)
 NAT enables hosts on a network to use Internet with local addresses.

 Addresses reserved for internal use range from 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
 Organization must have single connection to the Internet through a router that
runs the NAT software
 NAT is a technology that provides the mapping between the private and
universal (external)addresses.
 NAT also supports virtual private networks.
 It allows a site to use a set of private addresses for internal communication and
a set of global Internet addresses (at least one) for communication with the rest
of the world.
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 The site must have only one connection to the global Internet through a NAT-
capable router that runs NAT software.
 The private network uses private addresses.

 The router that connects the network to the global address uses one private
address and one global address.
 The private network is invisible to the rest of the Internet; the rest of the
Internet sees only the NAT router with the address 200.24.5.8.
Types of NAT
 Two types of NAT exists .
(a) One-to-one translation of IP addresses
(b) One-to-many translation of IP addresses
Address Translation
 All of the outgoing packets go through the NAT router, which replaces the
source address in the packet with the global NAT address.
 All incoming packets also pass through the NAT router, which replaces the
destination address in the packet (the NAT router global address) with the
appropriate private address.
Translation Table
 There may be tens or hundreds of private IP addresses, each belonging to one
specific host.
 The problem arises when we want to translate the source address to an external
address.
 This is solved if the NAT router has a translation table.
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Translation table with two columns

 In its simplest form , a translation table has only two columns: the private
address and the external address (destination address of the packet).
 When the router translates the source address of the outgoing packet, it also
makes note of the destination address—where the packet is going.
 When the response comes back from the destination, the router uses the source
address of the packet (as the external address) to find the private address of the
packet.
 Example :
Translation table with five columns

 To allow a many-to-many relationship between private-network hosts and
external server programs, we need more information in the translation table.
 If the translation table has five columns, instead of two, that include the source
and destination port addresses and the transport-layer protocol, the ambiguity is
eliminated.
 Example :
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8. FORWARDING OF IP PACKETS
 Forwarding means to deliver the packet to the next hop (which can be the final
destination or the intermediate connecting device).
 Although IP protocol was originally designed as a connectionless protocol,
today the tendency is to use IP as a connection-oriented protocol based on the
label attached to an IP datagram .
 When IP is used as a connectionless protocol, forwarding is based on the
destination address of the IP datagram.
 When the IP is used as a connection-oriented protocol, forwarding is based on
the label attached to an IP datagram.
FORWARDING BASED ON DESTINATION ADDRESS

 This is a traditional approach.
 In this case, forwarding requires a host or a router to have a forwarding table.
 When a host has a packet to send or when a router has received a packet to be
forwarded, it looks at this table to find the next hop to deliver the packet to.
 The main points in forwarding of IP Packets(datagram) are the following:

 Every IP Packets contains the IP address of the destination host.
 The network part of an IP address uniquely identifies a single physical
network that is part of the larger Internet.
 All hosts and routers that share the same network part of their address
are connected to the same physical network and can thus communicate
with each other by sending frames over that network.
 Every physical network that is part of the Internet has at least one router
that, by definition, is also connected to at least one other physical
network; this router can exchange packets with hosts or routers on either
network.
 Forwarding IP Packets can therefore be handled in the following way.

 A Packet is sent from a source host to a destination host, possibly
passing through several routers along the way.
 Any node, whether it is a host or a router, first tries to establish whether
it is connected to the same physical network as the destination.
 To do this, it compares the network part of the destination address
with the network part of the interface address.
 If a match occurs, then that means that the destination lies on the
same physical network as the interface, and the packet can be
directly delivered over that network that has a reasonable chance of
getting the packet closer to its destination.
 If there is no match, then the node is not connected to the same
physical network as the destination node, then it needs to send the
packet to a router.
 In general, each node will have a choice of several routers, and so it needs to
pick the best one, or at least one that has a reasonable chance of getting the
datagram closer to its destination.
 The router that it chooses is known as the next hop router.
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 The router finds the correct next hop by consulting its forwarding table.
 The forwarding table is conceptually just a list of (NetworkNum, NextHop)
pairs.
 There is also a default router that is used if none of the entries in the table
matches the destination’s network number.
 All Packets destined for hosts not on the physical network to which the sending
host is attached will be sent out through the default router.
Forwarding Algorithm
Simplified Forwarding Module

 The job of the forwarding module is to search the table, row by row.
 In each row, the n leftmost bits of the destination address (prefix) are kept and
the rest of the bits (suffix) are set to 0s.
 If the resulting address (network address), matches with the address in the first
column, the information in the next two columns is extracted
 Otherwise the search continues.
 Normally, the last row has a default value in the first column, which indicates
all destination addresses that did not match the previous rows.
 Routing in classless addressing uses another principle called longest mask
matching.
 This principle states that the forwarding table is sorted from the longest mask
to the shortest mask.
 In other words, if there are three masks, /27, /26, and /24, the mask /27 must be
the first entry and /24 must be the last.
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Example
 Let us make a forwarding table for router R1 using the configuration as given
in the figure above
 When a packet arrives whose leftmost 26 bits in the destination address match
the bits in the first row, the packet is sent out from interface m2.
 When a packet arrives whose leftmost 25 bits in the address match the bits in
the second row, the packet is sent out from interface m0, and so on.
 The table clearly shows that the first row has the longest prefix and the fourth
row has the shortest prefix.
 The longer prefix means a smaller range of addresses; the shorter prefix means
a larger range of addresses.
FORWARDING BASED ON LABEL

 In a connection-oriented network (virtual-circuit approach), a switch forwards a
packet based on the label attached to the packet.
 Routing is normally based on searching the contents of a table; switching can
be done by accessing a table using an index.
 In other words, routing involves searching; switching involves accessing.
Example
 The Figure below shows a simple example of using a label to access a
switching table.
27
 Since the labels are used as the index to the table, finding the information in the
table is immediate.
Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)

 During the 1980s, several vendors created routers that implement switching
technology.
 Later IETF approved a standard that is called Multi-Protocol Label Switching.
 In this standard, some conventional routers in the Internet can be replaced by
MPLS routers, which can behave like a router and a switch.
 When behaving like a router, MPLS can forward the packet based on the
destination address; when behaving like a switch, it can forward a packet based
on the label.
9. NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOLS : IP, ICMPV4
 The main protocol Internet Protocol is responsible for packetizing, forwarding,

and delivery of a packet at the network layer.
 The Internet Control Message Protocol version 4 (ICMPv4) helps IPv4 to
handle some errors that may occur in the network-layer delivery.
(9.1) IP - INTERNET PROTOCOL

 The Internet Protocol is the key tool used today to build scalable,
heterogeneous internetworks.
 IP runs on all the nodes (both hosts and routers) in a collection of networks/
 IP defines the infrastructure that allows these nodes and networks to function
as a single logical internetwork.
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IP SERVICE MODEL
 The main concern in defining a service model for an internetwork is that we can
provide a host-to-host service only if this service can somehow be provided over
each of the underlying physical networks.
 IP Service Model defines the host-to-host services that we want to provide.
 The IP service model can be thought of as having two parts:
 A GLOBAL ADDRESSING SCHEME - which provides a way to
identify all hosts in the internetwork
 A DATAGRAM DELIVERY MODEL – A connectionless model of data
delivery.
IP PACKET FORMAT / IP DATAGRAM FORMAT

 A key part of the IP service model is the type of packets that can be carried.
 The IP datagram consists of a header followed by a number of bytes of data.
FIELD DESCRIPTION
Version Specifies the version of IP. Two versions exists – IPv4 and IPv6.
HLen Specifies the length of the header
TOS An indication of the parameters of the quality of service
(Type of Service) desired such as Precedence, Delay, Throughput and Reliability.
Length Length of the entire datagram, including the header. The maximum
size of an IP datagram is 65,535(210 )bytes
Ident Uniquely identifies the packet sequence number.
(Identification) Used for fragmentation and re-assembly.
Flags Used to control whether routers are allowed to fragment a packet.
If a packet is fragmented , this flag value is 1.
If not, this flag value is 0.
Offset Indicates where in the datagram, this fragment belongs.
(Fragmentation The fragment offset is measured in units of 8 octets
offset) (64 bits). The first fragment has offset zero.
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TTL Indicates the maximum time the datagram is allowed to remain in

(Time to Live) the network. If this field contains the value zero, then the
datagram must be destroyed.
Protocol Indicates the next level protocol used in the data portion of the
datagram
Checksum Used to detect the processing errors introduced into the packet
Source Address The IP address of the original sender of the packet.

Destination The IP address of the final destination of the packet.
Address
Options This is optional field. These options may contain values for
options such as Security, Record Route, Time Stamp, etc
Pad Used to ensure that the internet header ends on a 32 bit boundary.
The padding is zero.
IP - FRAGMENTATION AND REASSEMBLY

FRAGMENTATION :
 Every network type has a maximum transmission unit (MTU), which is the
largest IP datagram that it can carry in a frame.
 Fragmentation of a datagram will only be necessary if the path to the

destination includes a network with a smaller MTU.
 When a host sends an IP datagram,it can choose any size that it wants.
 Fragmentation typically occurs in a router when it receives a datagram that it
wants to forward over a network that has an MTU that is smaller than the
received datagram.
 Each fragment is itself a self-contained IP datagram that is transmitted over a
sequence of physical networks, independent of the other fragments.
 Each IP datagram is re-encapsulated for each physical network over which it
travels.
 For example , if we consider an Ethernet network to accept packets up to 1500
bytes long.
 This leaves two choices for the IP service model:
 Make sure that all IP datagrams are small enough to fit inside one packet
on any network technology
 Provide a means by which packets can be fragmented and reassembled
when they are too big to go over a given network technology.
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 Fragmentation produces smaller, valid IP datagrams that can be readily

reassembled into the original datagram upon receipt, independent of the order
of their arrival.
Example:
 The original packet starts at the client; the fragments are reassembled at the
server.
 The value of the identification field is the same in all fragments, as is the value
of the flags field with the more bit set for all fragments except the last.
 Also, the value of the offset field for each fragment is shown.
 Although the fragments arrived out of order at the destination, they can be
correctly reassembled.
 The value of the offset field is always relative to the original datagram.
 Even if each fragment follows a different path and arrives out of order, the
final destination host can reassemble the original datagram from the
fragments received (if none of them is lost) using the following strategy:
1) The first fragment has an offset field value of zero.
2) Divide the length of the first fragment by 8. The second fragment has an
offset value equal to that result.
3) Divide the total length of the first and second fragment by 8. The third
fragment has an offset value equal to that result.
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4) Continue the process. The last fragment has its M bit set to 0.
5) Continue the process. The last fragment has a more bit value of 0.
REASSEMBLY:
 Reassembly is done at the receiving host and not at each router.
 To enable these fragments to be reassembled at the receiving host, they all
carry the same identifier in the Ident field.
 This identifier is chosen by the sending host and is intended to be unique
among all the datagrams that might arrive at the destination from this source
over some reasonable time period.
 Since all fragments of the original datagram contain this identifier, the
reassembling host will be able to recognize those fragments that go together.
 For example, if a single fragment is lost, the receiver will still attempt to
reassemble the datagram, and it will eventually give up and have to garbage-
collect the resources that were used to perform the failed reassembly.
 Hosts are now strongly encouraged to perform “path MTU discovery,” a
process by which fragmentation is avoided by sending packets that are small
enough to traverse the link with the smallest MTU in the path from sender to
receiver.
SECURITY ISSUES IN IP PROTOCOL

There are three security issues that are particularly applicable to the IP protocol:
(1) Packet Sniffing (2) Packet Modification and (3) IP Spoofing.
Packet Sniffing
 An intruder may intercept an IP packet and make a copy of it.
 Packet sniffing is a passive attack, in which the attacker does not change the
contents of the packet.
 This type of attack is very difficult to detect because the sender and the receiver
may never know that the packet has been copied.
 Although packet sniffing cannot be stopped, encryption of the packet can make
the attacker’s effort useless.
 The attacker may still sniff the packet, but the content is not detectable.
Packet Modification
 The second type of attack is to modify the packet.
 The attacker intercepts the packet,changes its contents, and sends the new
packet to the receiver.
 The receiver believes that the packet is coming from the original sender.
 This type of attack can be detected using a data integrity mechanism.
 The receiver, before opening and using the contents of the message, can use
this mechanism to make sure that the packet has not been changed during the
transmission.
IP Spoofing
 An attacker can masquerade as somebody else and create an IP packet that
carries the source address of another computer.
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 An attacker can send an IP packet to a bank pretending that it is coming from

one of the customers.
 This type of attack can be prevented using an origin authentication
mechanism
IP SEC
 The IP packets today can be protected from the previously mentioned attacks
using a protocol called IPSEC (IP Security).
 This protocol is used in conjunction with the IP protocol.
 IPSec protocol creates a connection-oriented service between two entities in
which they can exchange IP packets without worrying about the three attacks
such as Packet Sniffing, Packet Modification and IP Spoofing.
 IP SEC provides the following four services:
1) Defining Algorithms and Keys : The two entities that want to create a
secure channel between themselves can agree on some available
algorithms and keys to be used for security purposes.
2) Packet Encryption : The packets exchanged between two parties can

be encrypted for privacy using one of the encryption algorithms and a
shared key agreed upon in the first step. This makes the packet sniffing
attack useless.
3) Data Integrity : Data integrity guarantees that the packet is not
modified during the transmission. If the received packet does not pass
the data integrity test, it is discarded.This prevents the second attack,
packet modification.
4) Origin Authentication : IPSec can authenticate the origin of the

packet to be sure that the packet is not created by an imposter. This can
prevent IP spoofing attacks.
(9.2) ICMPV4 - INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL VER 4
 ICMP is a network-layer protocol.

 It is a companion to the IP protocol.
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) defines a collection of error
messages that are sent back to the source host whenever a router or host is
unable to process an IP datagram successfully.
ICMP MESSAGE TYPES

 ICMP messages are divided into two broad categories: error-reporting
messages and query messages.
 The error-reporting messages report problems that a router or a host
(destination) may encounter when it processes an IP packet.
 The query messages help a host or a network manager get specific information
from a router or another host.
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ICMP Error – Reporting Messages
 Destination Unreachable―When a router cannot route a datagram, the datagram

is discarded and sends a destination unreachable message to source host.
 Source Quench―When a router or host discards a datagram due to congestion, it
sends a source-quench message to the source host. This message acts as flow
control.
 Time Exceeded―Router discards a datagram when TTL field becomes 0 and a
time exceeded message is sent to the source host.
 Parameter Problem―If a router discovers ambiguous or missing value in any
field of the datagram, it discards the datagram and sends parameter problem
message to source.
 Redirection―Redirect messages are sent by the default router to inform the source
host to update its forwarding table when the packet is routed on a wrong path.
ICMP Query Messages
34
 Echo Request & Reply―Combination of echo request and reply messages

determines whether two systems communicate or not.
 Timestamp Request & Reply―Two machines can use the timestamp request
and reply messages to determine the round-trip time (RTT).
 Address Mask Request & Reply―A host to obtain its subnet mask, sends an
address mask request message to the router, which responds with an address
mask reply message.
 Router Solicitation/Advertisement―A host broadcasts a router solicitation
message to know about the router. Router broadcasts its routing information
with router advertisement message.
ICMP MESSAGE FORMAT

 An ICMP message has an 8-byte header and a variable-size data section.
Type Defines the type of the message

Code Specifies the reason for the particular message type
Checksum Used for error detection
Rest of the header Specific for each message type
Data Used to carry information
Identifier Used to match the request with the reply
Sequence Number Sequence Number of the ICMP packet
ICMP DEBUGGING TOOLS

Two tools are used for debugging purpose. They are (1) Ping (2) Traceroute
Ping
 The ping program is used to find if a host is alive and responding.
 The source host sends ICMP echo-request messages; the destination, if alive,
responds with ICMP echo-reply messages.
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 The ping program sets the identifier field in the echo-request and echo-reply
message and starts the sequence number from 0; this number is incremented by
1 each time a new message is sent.
 The ping program can calculate the round-trip time.
 It inserts the sending time in the data section of the message.
 When the packet arrives, it subtracts the arrival time from the departure time to
get the round-trip time (RTT).
$ ping google.com
Traceroute or Tracert
 The traceroute program in UNIX or tracert in Windows can be used to trace
the path of a packet from a source to the destination.
 It can find the IP addresses of all the routers that are visited along the path.
 The program is usually set to check for the maximum of 30 hops (routers) to be
visited.
 The number of hops in the Internet is normally less than this.
$ traceroute google.com
10. UNICAST ROUTING
 Routing is the process of selecting the best path in a network.

 The basic problem of routing is to find the lowest-cost path between any two
nodes, where the cost of a path equals the sum of the costs of all the edges that
make up the path.
 In unicast routing, a packet is routed, hop by hop, from its source to its
destination by the help of forwarding tables.
 .
 Routing a packet from its source to its destination means routing the packet
from a source router (the default router of the source host) to a destination
router (the router connected to the destination network).
 The source host needs no forwarding table because it delivers its packet to the
default router in its local network.
 The destination host needs no forwarding table either because it receives the
packet from its default router in its local network.
 Only the intermediate routers in the networks need forwarding tables.
UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS / ALGORITHMS
 Routing is achieved by running routing protocols among the nodes.

 A routing protocol specifies how routers communicate with each other,
distributing information that enables them to select routes between any
two nodes on a computer network.
 Routing algorithms determine the specific choice of route.
 Each router has a prior knowledge only of networks attached to it directly.
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 A routing protocol shares this information first among immediate neighbors,

and then throughout the network. This way, routers gain knowledge of the
topology of the network.
 The ability of routing protocols to dynamically adjust to changing conditions
such as disabled data lines and computers and route data around obstructions is
what gives the Internet its survivability and reliability.
 The specific characteristics of routing protocols include the manner in which
they avoid routing loops, the manner in which they select preferred routes,
using information about hop costs, the time they require to reach routing
convergence, their scalability, and other factors.
 These protocols provide a distributed, dynamic way to solve the problem of
finding the lowest-cost path in the presence of link and node failures and
changing edge costs.
TYPES OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Two types of Routing Protocols are used:
1) Intradomain routing
 Routing within a single autonomous system
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP) - based on the Distance-Vector
algorithm
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) - based on the Link-State algorithm
2) Interdomain routing
 Routing between autonomous systems.
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) - based on the Path-Vector algorithm
DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (DSR)

ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP)
BELLMAN - FORD ALGORITHM
 Distance vector routing is distributed, i.e., algorithm is run on all nodes.
 Each node knows the distance (cost) to each of its directly connected neighbors.
 Nodes construct a vector (Destination, Cost, NextHop) and distributes to its
neighbors.
 Nodes compute routing table of minimum distance to every other node via
NextHop using information obtained from its neighbors.
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Example :
 In given network, cost of each link is 1 hop.

 Each node sets a distance of 1 (hop) to its immediate neighbor and
cost to itself as 0.
 Distance for non-neighbors is marked as unreachable with value ∞ (infinity).
 For node A, nodes B, C, E and F are reachable, whereas nodes D and G
are unreachable.
 The initial table for all the nodes are given below
 Each node sends its initial table (distance vector) to neighbors and receives
their estimate.
 Node A sends its table to nodes B, C, E & F and receives tables from nodes B,
C, E & F.
 Each node updates its routing table by comparing with each of its neighbor's
table
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 For each destination, Total Cost is computed as:

Total Cost = Cost (Node to Neighbor) + Cost (Neighbor to Destination)
 If Total Cost < Cost then
Cost = Total Cost and Next Hop = Neighbor
 Node A learns from C's table to reach node D and from F's table to reach
node G.
 Total Cost to reach node D via C = Cost (A to C) + Cost(C to D)
Cost = 1 + 1 = 2.
 Since 2 < ∞, entry for destination D in A's table is changed to (D, 2, C)
 Total Cost to reach node G via F = Cost(A to F) + Cost(F to G) = 1 + 1 = 2
 Since 2 < ∞, entry for destination G in A's table is changed to (G, 2, F)
 Each node builds complete routing table after few exchanges amongst its
neighbors.
 System stabilizes when all nodes have complete routing information, i.e.,
Convergence.
 Routing tables are exchanged periodically or in case of triggered update.
 The final distances stored at each node is given below:
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Problems for Practice:

Simulate Distance vector Routing Algorithm for the given two graphs.
Problem 1 Problem 2
Updation of Routing Tables

There are two different circumstances under which a given node decides to send a
routing update to its neighbors.
Periodic Update
 In this case, each node automatically sends an update message every so often,
even if nothing has changed.
 The frequency of these periodic updates varies from protocol to protocol, but
it is typically on the order of several seconds to several minutes.
Triggered Update
 In this case, whenever a node notices a link failure or receives an update from
one of its neighbors that causes it to change one of the routes in its routing
table.
 Whenever a node’s routing table changes, it sends an update to its neighbors,
which may lead to a change in their tables, causing them to send an update to
their neighbors.
ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP)

 RIP is an intra-domain routing protocol based on distance-vector algorithm.
Example
40
 Routers advertise the cost of reaching networks. Cost of reaching each link is 1
hop. For example, router C advertises to A that it can reach network 2, 3 at cost
0 (directly connected), networks 5, 6 at cost 1 and network 4 at cost 2.
 Each router updates cost and next hop for each network number.
 Infinity is defined as 16, i.e., any route cannot have more than 15 hops.
Therefore RIP can be implemented on small-sized networks only.
 Advertisements are sent every 30 seconds or in case of triggered update.
 Command - It indicates the packet type.

Value 1 represents a request packet. Value 2 represents a response packet.
 Version - It indicates the RIP version number. For RIPv1, the value is 0x01.
 Address Family Identifier - When the value is 2, it represents the IP protocol.
 IP Address - It indicates the destination IP address of the route. It can be the
addresses of only the natural network segment.
 Metric - It indicates the hop count of a route to its destination.
Count-To-Infinity (or) Loop Instability Problem

 Suppose link from node A to E goes down.
 Node A advertises a distance of ∞ to E to its neighbors
 Node B receives periodic update from C before A’s update
reaches B
 Node B updated by C, concludes that E can be reached in 3 hops via C
 Node B advertises to A as 3 hops to reach E
 Node A in turn updates C with a distance of 4 hops to E and so on
 Thus nodes update each other until cost to E reaches infinity, i.e., no
convergence.
 Routing table does not stabilize.
 This problem is called loop instability or count to infinity
Solution to Count-To-Infinity (or) Loop Instability Problem :

 Infinity is redefined to a small number. For example, say 16.
 Distance between any two nodes can be 15 hops maximum. Thus distance
vector routing cannot be used in large networks.
 When a node updates its neighbors, it does not send those routes it learned
from each neighbor back to that neighbor. This is known as split horizon.
 Split horizon with poison reverse allows nodes to advertise routes it learnt
from a node back to that node, but with a warning message.
41
LINK STATE ROUTING (LSR)

OPEN SHORTEST PATH PROTOCOL (OSPF)
DIJKSTRA’S ALGORITHM
 Each node knows state of link to its neighbors and cost.
 Nodes create an update packet called link-state packet (LSP) that contains:
 ID of the node
 List of neighbors for that node and associated cost
 64-bit Sequence number
 Time to live
 Link-State routing protocols rely on two mechanisms:
 Reliable Flooding of link-state information to all other nodes
 Route Calculation from the accumulated link-state knowledge
Reliable Flooding
 Each node sends its LSP out on each of its directly connected links.
 When a node receives LSP of another node, checks if it has an LSP already for
that node.
 If not, it stores and forwards the LSP on all other links except the incoming
one.
 Else if the received LSP has a bigger sequence number, then it is stored and
forwarded. Older LSP for that node is discarded.
 Otherwise discard the received LSP, since it is not latest for that node.
 Thus recent LSP of a node eventually reaches all nodes, i.e., reliable flooding.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

 Flooding of LSP in a small network is as follows:
 When node X receives Y’s LSP (fig a), it floods onto its neighbors A
and C (fig b)
 Nodes A and C forward it to B, but does not sends it back to X (fig c).
 Node B receives two copies of LSP with same sequence number.
 Accepts one LSP and forwards it to D (fig d). Flooding is complete.
 LSP is generated either periodically or when there is a change in the topology.
Route Calculation
 Each node knows the entire topology, once it has LSP from every other node.
 Forward search algorithm is used to compute routing table from the received
LSPs.
 Each node maintains two lists, namely Tentative and Confirmed with entries of
the form (Destination, Cost, NextHop).
42
DIJKSTRA’S SHORTEST PATH ALGORITHM

(FORWARD SEARCH ALGORITHM)
1. Each host maintains two lists, known as Tentative and Confirmed
2. Initialize the Confirmed list with an entry for the Node (Cost = 0).
3. Node just added to Confirmed list is called Next. Its LSP is examined.
4. For each neighbor of Next, calculate cost to reach each neighbor as Cost (Node
to Next) + Cost (Next to Neighbor).
a. If Neighbor is neither in Confirmed nor in Tentative list, then add
(Neighbor, Cost, NextHop) to Tentative list.
b. If Neighbor is in Tentative list, and Cost is less than existing cost, then
replace the entry with (Neighbor, Cost, NextHop).
5. If Tentative list is empty then Stop, otherwise move least cost entry from
Tentative list to Confirmed list. Go to Step 2.
Example :
Problems for Practice:

Simulate Link State Routing Algorithm for the given two graphs.
Problem 1 Problem 2
43
OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST PROTOCOL (OSPF)

 OSPF is the implementation of link-state routing algorithm.
 OSPF Features are:
 Authentication―Malicious host can collapse a network by advertising
to reach every host with cost 0. Such disasters are averted by
authenticating routing updates.
 Additional hierarchy―Domain is partitioned into areas, i.e., OSPF is
more scalable.
 Load balancing―Multiple routes to the same place are assigned same
cost. Thus traffic is distributed evenly.
Link State Packet Format
 Version ― represents the current version, i.e., 2.

 Type ― represents the type (1–5) of OSPF message.
Type 1 - “hello” message, Type 2 - request, Type 3 – send ,
Type 4 - acknowledge the receipt of link state messages ,
Type 5 – reserved
 Message Length - represents the length of the message to be exchanged.
 SourceAddr ― identifies the sender
 AreaId ― 32-bit identifier of the area in which the node is located
 Checksum ― 16-bit internet checksum
 Authentication type ― 1 (simple password), 2 (cryptographic authentication).
 Authentication ― contains password or cryptographic checksum
Difference Between Distance-Vector And Link-State Algorithms
Distance vector Routing Link state Routing

Each node talks only to its directly Each node talks to all other nodes, but it
connected neighbors, but it tells them tells them only what it knows for sure
everything it has learned (i.e., only the state of its directly
(i.e., distance to all nodes). connected links).
44
PATH VECTOR ROUTING (PVR)

BORDER GATEWAY PROTOCOL (BGP)
 Path-vector routing is an asynchronous and distributed routing algorithm.
 The Path-vector routing is not based on least-cost routing.
 The best route is determined by the source using the policy it imposes on the
route.
 In other words, the source can control the path.
 Path-vector routing is not actually used in an internet, and is mostly designed to
route a packet between ISPs.
Spanning Trees
 In path-vector routing, the path from a source to all destinations is determined
by the best spanning tree.
 The best spanning tree is not the least-cost tree.
 It is the tree determined by the source when it imposes its own policy.
 If there is more than one route to a destination, the source can choose the route
that meets its policy best.
 A source may apply several policies at the same time.
 One of the common policies uses the minimum number of nodes to be visited.
Another common policy is to avoid some nodes as the middle node in a route.
 The spanning trees are made, gradually and asynchronously, by each node.
When a node is booted, it creates a path vector based on the information it can
obtain about its immediate neighbor.
 A node sends greeting messages to its immediate neighbors to collect these
pieces of information.
 Each node, after the creation of the initial path vector, sends it to all its
immediate neighbors.
 Each node, when it receives a path vector from a neighbor, updates its path
vector using the formula
 The policy is defined by selecting the best of multiple paths.

 Path-vector routing also imposes one more condition on this equation.
 If Path (v, y) includes x, that path is discarded to avoid a loop in the path.
 In other words, x does not want to visit itself when it selects a path to y.
Example:
 The Figure below shows a small internet with only five nodes.
 Each source has created its own spanning tree that meets its policy.
 The policy imposed by all sources is to use the minimum number of nodes to
reach a destination.
 The spanning tree selected by A and E is such that the communication does not
pass through D as a middle node.
 Similarly, the spanning tree selected by B is such that the communication does
not pass through C as a middle node.
45
Path Vectors made at booting time

 The Figure below shows all of these path vectors for the example.
 Not all of these tables are created simultaneously.
 They are created when each node is booted.
 The figure also shows how these path vectors are sent to immediate neighbors
after they have been created.
Updating Path Vectors

 The Figure below shows the path vector of node C after two events.
 In the first event, node C receives a copy of B’s vector, which improves its
vector: now it knows how to reach node A.
 In the second event, node C receives a copy of D’s vector, which does not
change its vector.
 The vector for node C after the first event is stabilized and serves as its
forwarding table.
46
BORDER GATEWAY PROTOCOL (BGP)

 The Border Gateway Protocol version (BGP) is the only interdomain routing
protocol used in the Internet today.
 BGP4 is based on the path-vector algorithm. It provides information about the
reachability of networks in the Internet.
 BGP views internet as a set of autonomous systems interconnected
arbitrarily.
 Each AS have a border router (gateway), by which packets enter and leave that
AS. In above figure, R3 and R4 are border routers.
 One of the router in each autonomous system is designated as BGP speaker.
 BGP Speaker exchange reachability information with other BGP speakers,
known as external BGP session.
 Paths must be without any loop.
 If there are multiple routes to a destination, BGP speaker chooses one based on
policy.
 Speakers need not advertise any route to a destination, even if one exists.
 Advertised paths can be cancelled, if a link/node on the path goes down. This
negative advertisement is known as withdrawn route.
 Routes are not repeatedly sent. If there is no change, keep alive messages are
sent.
iBGP - interior BGP

 iBGP is a Variant of BGP
 Used by routers to update routing information learnt from other speakers to
routers inside the autonomous system.
47
11. MULTICASTING
 In multicasting, there is one source and a group of destinations.
 Multicast supports efficient delivery to multiple destinations.
 The relationship is one to many or many-to-many.
 One-to-Many (Source Specific Multicast)
 Radio station broadcast
 Transmitting news, stock-price
 Software updates to multiple hosts
 Many-to-Many (Any Source Multicast)
 Multimedia teleconferencing
 Online multi-player games
 Distributed simulations
 In multicasting, the source address is a unicast address, but the destination
address is a group address.
 The group address defines the members of the group.
 In multicasting, a multicast router may have to send out copies of the same
datagram through more than one interface.
 Hosts that are members of a group receive copies of any packets sent to that
group’s multicast address
 A host can be in multiple groups
 A host can join and leave groups
 If a host wants to join or leave a multicast group , it sends a signal by
communicating with its local router using a special protocol.
 In IPv4, the protocol is Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
 In IPv6, the protocol is Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD)
48
IGMP (OR) MLD PROTOCOL

 Hosts communicate their desire to join / leave a multicast group to a router
using Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) in IPv4 or Multicast
Listener Discovery (MLD) in IPv6.
 Provides multicast routers with information about the membership status of
hosts connected to the network.
 Enables a multicast router to create and update list of loyal members for
each group.
MULTICAST ADDRESSING
 Multicast address is associated with a group, whose members are dynamic.
 Each group has its own IP multicast address.
 IP addresses reserved for multicasting are Class D in IPv4 (Class D 224.0.0.1
to 239.255.255.255), 1111 1111 prefix in IPv6.
 Hosts that are members of a group receive copy of the packet sent when
destination contains group address.
RANGE OF MULTICAST ADDRESSES

An Ethernet multicast physical address is in the range
01 : 00 : 5E : 00 : 00 : 00 to 01 : 00 : 5E : 7F : FF : FF.
Steps To Convert The Multicast Address To Ethernet Multicast

Address
Step 1 :
Change the rightmost 3 bytes in hexadecimal
Step 2 :
Subtract 8 from the leftmost digit (obtained in Step 1) , if it is greater than or
equal to 8. If it is less than 8, do not subtract.
Step 3 :
Add the result obtained from Step 2 to the Ethernet multicast starting address
Example 1:
Change the multicast IP address 238.212.24.9 to an Ethernet multicast address.
Solution
(1) The rightmost 3 bytes in hexadecimal are D4:18:09.
(2) We need to subtract 8 from the leftmost digit. The leftmost digit is D,
Subtracting 8 from D gives 5. (D - 8)
(3) The resulting value will be in 54:18:09.
(3) We add the result to the Ethernet multicast starting address.
The result is 01:00:5E:54:18:09
49
Example 2 :
Change the multicast IP address 232.43.14.7 to an Ethernet multicast physical address.
Solution:
(1) The rightmost 3 bytes in hexadecimal are 2B:0E:07.
(2) We need to subtract 8 from the leftmost digit. The leftmost digit is 2 , which is
less than 8.So no need to subtract.
(3) We add the result to the Ethernet multicast starting address.
The result is 01:00:5E:2B:0E:07
MULTICASTING VERSUS MULTIPLE UNICASTING

 Multicasting starts with a single packet from the source that is duplicated by
the routers. The destination address in each packet is the same for all
duplicates.
 Only a single copy of the packet travels between any two routers.
 In multiple unicasting, several packets start from the source.

 If there are three destinations, for example, the source sends three packets, each
with a different unicast destination address.
 There may be multiple copies traveling between two routers
NEED FOR MULTICAST
Without support for multicast

 A source needs to send a separate packet with the identical data to each
member of the group
 Source needs to keep track of the IP address of each member in the group
Using IP multicast
 Sending host does not send multiple copies of the packet
 A host sends a single copy of the packet addressed to the group’s multicast
address
 The sending host does not need to know the individual unicast IP address of
each member
50
TYPES OF MULTICASTING
 Source-Specific Multicast - In source-specific multicast (one-to-many model),
receiver specifies multicast group and sender from which it is interested to
receive packets. Example: Internet radio broadcasts.
 Any Source Multicast - Supplements any source multicast (many-to-many

model).
MULTICAST APPLICATIONS
 Access to Distributed Databases
 Information Dissemination
 Teleconferencing.
 Distance Learning
APPROACHES TO MULTICASTING
In multicast routing, as in unicast routing, we need to create routing trees to optimally
route the packets from their source to their destination
Two Approaches are used:

(1) Source-Based Tree Approach (2) Group-Shared Tree Approach
Source-Based Tree Approach

 In the source-based tree approach to multicasting, each router needs to create a
separate tree for each source-group combination.
 In other words, if there are m groups and n sources in the internet, a router
needs to create (m × n) routing trees.
 In each tree, the corresponding source is the root, the members of the group are
the leaves, and the router itself is somewhere on the tree.
Group-Shared Tree Approach

 In the group-shared tree approach, we designate a router to act as the root
source for each group.
 The designated router, which is called the core router or the rendezvouspoint
router, acts as the representative for the group.
 Any source that has a packet to send to a member of that group sends it to the
core center and the core center is responsible for multicasting.
 The core center creates one single routing tree with itself as the root and any
routers with active members in the group as the leaves.
 In this approach, there are m core routers (one for each group) and each core
router has a routing tree, for the total of m trees.
 This means that the number of routing trees is reduced from (m × n) in the
source-based tree approach to m in this approach.
51
12. IPV6 - NEXT GENERATION IP

 IPv6 was evolved to solve address space problem and offers rich set of
services.
 Some hosts and routers will run IPv4 only, some will run IPv4 and IPv6 and
some will run IPv6 only.
DRAWBACKS OF IPV4
 Despite subnetting and CIDR, address depletion is still a long-term problem.
 Internet must accommodate real-time audio and video transmission that
requires minimum delay strategies and reservation of resources.
 Internet must provide encryption and authentication of data for some
applications
FEATURES OF IPV6
1. Better header format - IPv6 uses a new header format in which options are
separated from the base header and inserted, when needed, between the base
header and the data. This simplifies and speeds up the routing process because
most of the options do not need to be checked by routers.
2. New options - IPv6 has new options to allow for additional functionalities.
3. Allowance for extension - IPv6 is designed to allow the extension of the
protocol if required by new technologies or applications.
4. Support for resource allocation - In IPv6, the type-of-service field has been
removed, but two new fields, traffic class and flow label, have been added to
enable the source to request special handling of the packet. This mechanism
can be used to support traffic such as real-time audio and video.
Additional Features :
1. Need to accommodate scalable routing and addressing
2. Support for real-time services
3. Security support
4. Autoconfiguration -
The ability of hosts to automatically configure themselves with such
information as their own IP address and domain name.
5. Enhanced routing functionality, including support for mobile hosts
6. Transition from ipv4 to ipv6
ADDRESS SPACE ALLOCATION OF IPV6

 IPv6 uses 128 bits for representing IP addresses.
 IPv6 can handle upto 2128 = 3.4 × 1038 nodes.
 IPv6 uses classless addressing.
 The address space is subdivided in various ways based on the leading bits.
 The current assignment of prefixes is listed in Table
52
 A node may be assigned an “IPv4-compatible IPv6 address.

 A compatible address is an address of 96 bits of zero followed by 32 bits of
IPv4 address. It is used when a computer using IPv6 wants to send a message
to another computer using IPv6.
 A node that is only capable of understanding IPv4 can be assigned an “IPv4-
mapped IPv6 address” .
 A mapped address is used when a computer already migrated to version 6
wants to send an address to a computer still using version 4.
 Mapping is done by prefixing the 32-bit IPv4 address with 2 bytes of all 1s and
zero-extending the remaining bits.
GLOBAL UNICAST
 Large chunks (87%) of address space are left unassigned for future use.
 IPv6 defines two types of local addresses for private networks.
o Link local - enables a host to construct an address that need not be
globally unique.
o Site local - allows valid local address for use in an isolated site with
several subnets.
 Reserved addresses start with prefix of eight 0's.
o Unspecified address is used when a host does not know its address
o Loopback address is used for testing purposes before connecting
o Compatible address is used when IPv6 hosts uses IPv4 network
o Mapped address is used when a IPv6 host communicates with a IPv4 host
 IPv6 defines anycast address, assigned to a set of interfaces.
 Packet with anycast address is delivered to only one of the nearest interface.
ADDRESS NOTATION OF IPV6

 Standard representation of IPv6 address is x : x : x : x : x : x : x : x where x is a
16-bit hexadecimal address separated by colon (:).
For example,
47CD : 1234 : 4422 : ACO2 : 0022 : 1234 : A456 : 0124
 IPv6 address with contiguous 0 bytes can be written compactly.

For example,
(1) 47CD : 0000 : 0000 : 0000 : 0000 : 0000 : A456 : 0124 → 47CD : : A456 : 0124
(2) FDEC:0:0:0:0:BBFF:0:FFFF → FDEC::BBFF:0:FFFF
 IPv4 address is mapped to IPv6 address by prefixing the 32-bit IPv4 address
with 2 bytes of 1s and then zero-extending the result to 128 bits.
For example,
128.96.33.81 → : : FFFF : 128.96.33.81
53
ADDRESS AGGREGATION OF IPV6

 IPv6 provides aggregation of routing information to reduce the burden on
routers.
 Aggregation is done by assigning prefixes at continental level.
 For example, if all addresses in Europe have a common prefix, then routers in
other continents would need one routing table entry for all networks in Europe.
 Prefix - All addresses in the same continent have a common prefix

 RegistryID ― identifies the continent
 ProviderID ― identifies the provider for Internet access, i.e., ISP.
 SubscriberID ― specifies the subscriber identifier
 SubnetID ― contains subnet of the subscriber.
 InterfaceID ―contains link level or physical address.
PACKET FORMAT OF IPV6

 IPv6 base header is 40 bytes long.
 Version — specifies the IP version, i.e., 6.

 Traffic Class — defines priority of the packet with respect to traffic
congestion. It is either congestion-controlled or non-congestion controlled
 Flow Label — provides special handling for a particular flow of data. Router
handles different flows with the help of a flow table.
 Payload Len — gives length of the packet, excluding IPv6 header.
 Next Header — Options are specified as a header following IP header.
NextHeader contains a pointer to optional headers.
 Hop Limit — Gives the TTL value of a packet.
 Source Address / Destination Address — 16-byte addresses of source and
destination host
Extension Headers
 Extension header provides greater functionality to IPv6.
 Base header may be followed by six extension headers.
 Each extension header contains a NextHeader field to identify the header
following it.
54
 Hop-by-Hop — source host passes information to all routers visited by the

packet
 Destination — source host information is passed to the destination only.
 Source Routing — routing information provided by the source host.
 Fragmentation — In IPv6, only the source host can fragment. Source uses a
path MTU discovery technique to find smallest MTU on the path.
 Authentication — used to validate the sender and ensures data integrity.
 ESP (Encrypted Security Payload) — provides confidentiality against
eavesdropping.
ADVANCED CAPABILITIES OF IPV6
 Auto Configuration — Auto or stateless configuration of IP address to hosts
without the need for a DHCP server, i.e., plug and play.
 Advanced Routing — Enhanced routing support for mobile hosts is provided.
 Additional Functions ― Enhanced routing functionality with support for
mobile hosts.
 Security ― Encryption and authentication options provide confidentiality and
integrity.
 Resource allocation ― Flow label enables the source to request special
handling of real-time audio and video packets
ADVANTAGES OF IPV6
 Address space ― IPv6 uses 128-bit address whereas IPv4 uses 32-bit address.
Hence IPv6 has huge address space whereas IPv4 faces address shortage
problem.
 Header format ― Unlike IPv4, optional headers are separated from base
header in IPv6. Each router thus need not process unwanted addition
information.
 Extensible ― Unassigned IPv6 addresses can accommodate needs of future
technologies.
TRANSITION FROM IPv4 TO IPv6

 Three strategies have been devised for transition: dual stack, tunneling, and
header translation.
 One or all of these three strategies can be implemented during the transition
period.
Dual Stack
 In dual-stack, nodes run both IPv6 and IPv4, uses Version field to decide which
stack should process an arriving packet.
 In other words, a station must run IPv4 and IPv6 simultaneously until all the
Internet uses IPv6.
55
 To determine which version to use when sending a packet to a destination, the

source host queries the DNS.
 If the DNS returns an IPv4 address, the source host sends an IPv4 packet.
 If the DNS returns an IPv6 address, the source host sends an IPv6 packet.
Tunneling
 Tunneling is a strategy used when two computers using IPv6 want to
communicate with each other and the packet must pass through a region that
uses IPv4.
 To pass through this region, the packet must have an IPv4 address.
 The IPv6 packet is encapsulated in an IPv4 packet when it enters the region and
it when it exits the region.
 It seems as if the IPv6 packet enters a tunnel at one end and emerges at the
other end.
 To make it clear ,the IPv4 packet is carrying an IPv6 packet as data
Header Translation
 Header translation is necessary when the majority of the Internet has moved to
IPv6 but some systems still use IPv4.
 The sender wants to use IPv6, but the receiver does not understand IPv6.
 In this case, the header format must be totally changed through header
translation.
 The header of the IPv6 packet is converted to an IPv4 header.
56

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CS8591 – Computer Networks Unit 3

UNIT III - NETWORK LAYER

Network Layer Services – Packet Switching – Performance – IPV4

1. NETWORK LAYER SERVICES

Services provided by network layer are

(2) ROUTING AND FORWARDING

(3) CONGESTION CONTROL

(4) SECURITY (IPSEC)

Throughput = minimum{200,100,150} = 100.

 Congestion control mechanisms can be divided into two broad categories:

(1) OPEN-LOOP CONGESTION CONTROL

 In open-loop congestion control, policies are applied to prevent congestion

(2) CLOSED-LOOP CONGESTION CONTROL

 Closed-loop congestion control mechanisms try to alleviate congestion after it

ISSUES IN CONGESTION CONTROL

IPV4 ADDRESS SPACE

IPV4 ADDRESS NOTATION

In dotted-decimal notation,IPv4 addresses are usually written in decimal form with a

HIERARCHY IN IPV4 ADDRESSING

 A prefix can be fixed length (or) variable length.

CATEGORIES OF IPV4 ADDRESSING

(1) CLASSFUL ADDRESSING

Classful Network Architecture

ADDRESS DEPLETION IN CLASSFUL ADDRESSING

Subnetting and Supernetting

Advantage of Classful Addressing

(2) CLASSLESS ADDRESSING

 The suffix in an address defines the node (device).

 The prefix length in classless addressing is variable.

Notation used in Classless Addressing

 For example , 192.168.100.14 /24 represents the IP address 192.168.100.14

(3) SPECIAL ADDRESSES IN IPV4

6. DHCP – DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL

 The main goal of DHCP is to minimize the amount of manual configuration

 A newly booted or attached host sends a DHCPDISCOVER message to a special IP

DHCP Message Format

7. NETWORK ADDRESS TRANSLATION / RESOLUTION (NAT)

 NAT enables hosts on a network to use Internet with local addresses.

 The private network uses private addresses.

Translation table with two columns

Translation table with five columns

FORWARDING BASED ON DESTINATION ADDRESS

 The main points in forwarding of IP Packets(datagram) are the following:

 Forwarding IP Packets can therefore be handled in the following way.

Simplified Forwarding Module

FORWARDING BASED ON LABEL

Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)

9. NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOLS : IP, ICMPV4

 The main protocol Internet Protocol is responsible for packetizing, forwarding,

(9.1) IP - INTERNET PROTOCOL

IP PACKET FORMAT / IP DATAGRAM FORMAT

TTL Indicates the maximum time the datagram is allowed to remain in

Source Address The IP address of the original sender of the packet.

IP - FRAGMENTATION AND REASSEMBLY

 Fragmentation of a datagram will only be necessary if the path to the

 Fragmentation produces smaller, valid IP datagrams that can be readily

SECURITY ISSUES IN IP PROTOCOL

 An attacker can send an IP packet to a bank pretending that it is coming from

2) Packet Encryption : The packets exchanged between two parties can