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HYDRAULICS
Fluid Mechanics:
Fluid mechanics is a branch of science concerned with the behavior of
fluid under the conditions of rest and motion.

Hydraulics:
Hydraulics is a branch of science concerned with the practical
applications of fluids, primarily liquids, in motion.

It is related to fluid mechanics, which in large part provides its

theoretical foundation.

Books:
1. P.N. Modi and S. Seth “Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics”
2. D.P. Sangraula and P.K. Bhattarai “A text Book of Hydraulics”
3. R.K. Rajput “A text Book of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic
Machines”
4. Ven Te Chow “Open channel hydraulic” McGraw-Hill book
company limited, 1973
5. K G Ranga Raju “Flow through open channel” Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, Second Edition,1993.
6. D.S. Kumar “Fluid Mechanics and Fluid power Engineering” S.K.
Kataria and Sons, sixth edition, 2005
7. K. L. Kumar “Engineering Fluid Mechanics” Eurasia Publishing
house (P) Ltd. Ram Nagar New Delhi, 2000.
8. S Ramamrutham “Hydraulics fluid mechanics and fluid machines”,.
Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company (P) Ltd. New Delhi Seventh
Edition 2006

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Internal Evaluation: 20 Marks

i) Class Attendance – 4 Marks

ii) Assignment/Tutorial - 6 Marks
iii) Written Examination – 10 Marks

Pipe Flow

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Pipe:
A pipe is a closed conduit, generally a circular section, which is used for
carrying fluids under pressure.

Pipe Flow:
The flow in a pipe is termed pipe flow only when the fluid completely
fills the cross-section and there is no free surface of fluid.
The pipe running partially full (in such a case atmospheric pressure
exists inside the pipe) behaves like an open channel.

Open Channel:
An open channel may be defined as a passage in which liquid flows with
its upper surface exposed to atmosphere.

In open channels the flow is due to gravity, thus the flow conditions are
greatly influenced by the slope of the channel.

Distinguish between pipe flow and open channel flow

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Hydraulic Gradient Line and Total Energy Line

Total Energy Line (TEL or EGL):
It is known that the total head (which is also total energy per unit weight)
with respect to any arbitrary datum, is the sum of the elevation
(potential) head, pressure head and velocity head.

When the fluid flows along the pipe, there is loss of head (energy) and
the total energy decreases in the direction of flow. If the total energy at
various points along the axis of the pipe is plotted and joined by a line,
the line so obtained is called the ‘Energy gradient line’ (EGL).
Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL):
If a line is drawn joining the piezometric levels at various points, the line
so obtained is called the hydraulic gradient line.
(The sum of potential (or elevation) head and the pressure head (p/w +z)
at any point is called the piezometric head.)

Figure: EGL and HGL in pipe flow Figure: EGL and HGL in open channel flow

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Characteristics of EGL and HGL:

1. Energy gradient line (EGL) always drops in the direction of flow

because of loss of head.
2. Hydraulic gradient line (HGL) may rise or fall depending on the
pressure changes.
3. Hydraulic gradient line (HGL) is always below the energy gradient
line (EGL) and the vertical intercept between the two is equal to the
velocity head (V2/2g),
4. For a pipe of uniform cross-section the slope of the hydraulic
gradient line is equal to the slope of energy gradient line.
5. There is no relation whatsoever between the slope of energy gradient
line and the slope of the axis of the pipe

Reynolds Experiment
Osborne Reynolds in 1883, with the help of a simple experiment,
demonstrated the existence of the following two types of flows:
1. Laminar flow (Reynolds number, Re < 2000)
2. Turbulent flow (Reynolds number, Re > 4000)
Transitional state: Reynolds number, Re between 2000 and 4000
(transition from laminar to turbulent flow)

Reynolds experiment apparatus

i) A constant head tank filled
with water,
ii) A small tank containing dye
(sp. weight of dye same as that
of water),
iii) A horizontal glass tube
provided with a bell mouthed
entrance, and Figure: Reynolds apparatus
iv) A regulating valve

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Procedure followed:
The water was made to flow from the tank through the glass tube into the
atmosphere and the velocity of flow was varied by adjusting valve. The
liquid dye was introduced into the flow at the bell mouth through a small
tube as shown in Figure above.
Observations made:
1. When the velocity of flow was low, the
dye remained in the form of a straight and
stable filament passing through the glass
tube so steadily that it scarcely seemed to
be in motion. This was a case of laminar
flow.
2. With the increase of velocity a critical
state was reached at which the dye filament Figure: Appearance of dye
showed irregularities and began to waver. filament in (a) laminar
This shows that the flow is no longer a flow, (b) transition, and (c)
laminar one. This was a transitional state. turbulent flow.

3. With further increase in velocity of flow the fluctuations in the

filament of dye became more intense and ultimately the dye diffused
over the entire cross-section of the tube, due to the intermingling of the
particles of the flowing fluid. This was the case of a turbulent flow.
On the basis of his experiment Reynolds discovered that:
i) In case of laminar flow: The loss of pressure head (hf) ∝ velocity (V).
ii) In case of turbulent flow: The loss of head is approximately (hf) ∝ V2
[More exactly hf ∝ Vn where n varies from 1.72 to 2.0]

Reynolds estimation of the loss of head in a pipe:

Figure: Loss of head in a pipe

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i) The velocity of water in the pipe was determined by measuring the

volume of water (Q) collected in the tank over a known period of time (
V = Q/A, where A is the area of cross-section of the pipe.)
ii) The velocity of flow (V) was changed and corresponding values of hf
(loss of head) were obtained.
iii) A graph was plotted between V (velocity of flow) and hf (loss of
head).

From the graph:

(a) At low velocities the curve is a straight line,
indicating that the hf ∝ V2 (the flow is
laminar or viscous),
(b) At higher velocities the curve is parabolic; in
this range hf ∝ Vn , where the value of n lies
between 1.72 to 2.0 (the flow is turbulent)
(c) In the intermediate region, there is a
transition zone. This is shown by dotted line. Figure: hf vs V plot

Figure: Plot of (hf /L) v/s V showing upper and lower critical points and velocities

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Reynolds Number
Reynolds from his experiments found that the nature of flow in a closed
conduit depends upon the following factors:
i) Diameter of the pipe (D),
ii) Density of the liquid (ρ),
iii) Viscosity of the liquid (µ), and
iv) Velocity of flow (V).
By combining the above variables Reynolds determined a non-
dimensional quantity equal to ρVD/µ which is known as Reynolds
number (Re).
i.e., Re = ρVD/µ [Re = Inertia force (Fi)/Viscous force (Fv)]

In general case: D is replaced by L, known as characteristic length and

we have, Re = ρVL/µ
It may also be expressed as:
Re = VD/v
where, v = Kinematic viscosity (=µ/ρ)

Laws of Fluid Friction

Laws of Fluid Friction for Laminar Flow
The frictional resistance in the laminar flow is as follows
i) proportional to the velocity of flow,
ii) independent of the pressure,
iii) proportional to the area of surface in contact,
iv) independent of the nature of the surface in contact,
v) greatly affected by the variation of the temperature of the flowing
fluid.
Laws of Fluid Friction for Turbulent Flow
The frictional resistance in the turbulent flow is as follows
i) proportional to (velocity)n, where the index n varies form 1.72 to 2.0,
ii) independent of the pressure,
iii) proportional to the density of the flowing fluid,
iv) slightly affected by the variation of the temperature of the flowing
fluid,
v) proportional to area of surface in contact,
vi) dependent on the nature of the surface in contact.

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Flow of Viscous Fluid in Circular Pipes - Hagen Poiseuille Law

Hagen–Poiseuille theory is based on the following assumptions:
i) The fluid follows Newton’s law of viscosity.
ii)There is no slip of fluid particles at the boundary (i.e. the fluid
particles adjacent to the pipe will have zero velocity).
Consider a small concentric cylinder (fluid element) of radius r and
length dx as a free body in a horizontal circular pipe of radius R, having
laminar flow of fluid through it.

Figure: Viscous/laminar flow through a circular pipe

Let p be the intensity of pressure at left end and the intensity of pressure
at the right end be

Thus the forces acting on the fluid element are:

i) The shear force, τ×2πr×dx on the surface of fluid element.
ii) The pressure force, p×πr2 on the left end.

iii) The pressure force, on the right end.

or,

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or, (1)

Equation (1) shows that flow will occur only if pressure gradient exists
in the direction of flow. The negative sign shows that pressure decreases
in the direction of flow.
Equation (1) indicates that the shear stress varies linearly across the
section. Its value is zero at the centre of pipe (r = 0) and maximum at the
pipe wall given by:

(2)

(3)

In this equation, the distance y is measured from the boundary.

So, y=R–r
i.e., dy = – dr

Now, the Equation (3) becomes

(4)

Comparing Equation (1) and Equation (4), we get:

or,

Integrating the above equation, we get:

(5)

where C is the constant of integration and its value is obtained from the
following boundary condition:

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or,

Substituting this value of C in Equation (5), we get:

(6)

Equation (6) shows that the velocity distribution curve is a parabola. The
maximum velocity occurs at the centre and is given by:

(7)

From Equation (6) and Equation (7), we get:

(8)

Equation (8) is the most commonly used equation for the velocity
distribution for laminar flow through pipes. This equation can be used to
calculate the discharge as follows:

The discharge through an elementary ring of thickness dr at radial

distances r is given by:

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(9)

Equation (9) shows that the average velocity is one-half the maximum
velocity.
Substituting the value of umax from Equation (7), we get:

The pressure difference between two sections 1 and 2 at distance x1 and

x2 is given by

(10)

where, (p1 –p2) is the drop of pressure, D is the diameter of the pipe, and
L is the length of the pipe.
Equation (10) is known as the Hagen-Poiseuille equation.
, hf

(11)

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where Reynolds number Re = (ρDV /μ ) and w is the specific weight of

the flowing fluid.
It may again be noted that the drop in pressure head hf is nothing but the
head loss over length L of the pipe, which varies directly as the first
power of the velocity of flow of fluid and inversely as the square of the
diameter of the pipe.
Several investigators have verified the validity of the Hagen–Poiseuille
equation, and hence it is often employed for experimental determination
of the fluid viscosity.
From Equation (10), we have

(12)

The pressure drop (p1 – p2) in a fixed length L of a pipe of diameter D for
any given rate of laminar flow can be measured. Thus all the quantities
on the right hand side of Equation (12) will be known, from which the
value of the coefficient of viscosity μ of the fluid can be obtained.

The loss of head due to frictional resistance in a long straight pipe of

length L and diameter D may also be expressed by Darcy–Weisbach
equation as
(13)
where f is friction factor.
Equating the two values of hf given by Equation (11) and Equation (13),
we obtain

(14)

which is the value of friction factor f, for laminar flow of fluid.

Further from Equation (4)
(15)

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From Equation (13) and Equation (15), we get

(16)
where ρ is mass density of fluid.
From Equation (16),we obtain

(17)

Since the expression has the dimension of velocity, it is known as

shear velocity or friction velocity and is denoted by .
In order to maintain steady uniform laminar flow through pipes, certain
power is required to overcome the resistance to flow.
Since power is rate of doing work, it is equivalent to the product of force
and velocity.
The resistance to flow is compensated by the pressure gradient(–∂p/∂x)
in the direction of flow.

The pressure gradient may be considered as the average force per unit
volume of fluid.

Thus if A and L are the area and length of pipe respectively, then the total
force is (–∂p/∂x)×AL, and with the mean velocity of flow V the required
power is

(17)

where

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Figure: Shear stress and velocity distribution across a section

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Problem: An oil of viscosity 0.15 Ns/m2 and specific gravity 0.9 is

flowing through a circular pipe of diameter 30 mm and of length 3 m at
1/10th of critical velocity for which Reynolds number is 2450. Find (i)
The velocity of flow through the pipe, (ii) The head in metres of oil across
the pipe length required to maintain the flow, and (iii) The power
required to overcome viscous resistance to the flow of oil.

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Solution
Viscosity of the oil, µ = 0.15 Ns/m2
Specific gravity = 0.9
∴ Mass density, ρ = 0.9 × 1000 = 900 kg/m3
Diameter of the pipe, D = 30 mm = 0.03 m
Length of the pipe, L = 3 m
Velocity of flow, u = 1/10 × critical velocity (at Re = 2450)

(i) Velocity of flow, u:

(ii) Head required to maintain the flow:

(iii) Power required, P:

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Laminar Flow through Inclined Pipes

When the pipe having a laminar flow of fluid is inclined, in addition to
pressure and viscous forces, gravity forces will also become effective.

Figure: Laminar flow through an inclined pipe

Considering a small concentric cylindrical fluid element, if the specific

weight of the fluid is w, the weight of the element is [w (πr2)dx] acting
vertically downward, and its component in the direction of flow becomes
[w (πr2)dx] cosθ, in which x-direction is taken parallel to the axis of the
pipe.
Now if z-direction is taken vertically upward, let dz represent a change in
elevation corresponding to length dx of the fluid element.
Then from the Figure above, we have

in which the negative sign has been considered because the elevation z
decreases as the distance x increases.
The component of the weight of the fluid element may thus be written as

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In the absence of any acceleration, the sum of all the forces acting on the
element in the direction of flow must be equal to zero.

Thus

(1)

(2)
in which h = [(p/w) + z] represents piezometric head.
A comparison of Equation (1) with would reveal that in the

case of inclined pipes the term ∂(p + wz)/∂x replaces the pressure
gradient terms ∂p/∂x.
Thus Equation (1) is a general expression for the distribution of shear
stress for laminar flow in circular pipes, from which
can be derived since for horizontal pipe (∂z/∂x) = 0.

For pipes according to Newton’s law of viscosity τ = – μ(∂u/∂r).

Thus by substituting it in Equation (2), we get

(3)

Again for steady uniform flow, the piezometric head gradient (∂h/∂r) in
the direction of flow must have a constant value that depends on the
distance x and is independent of r.
Thus by integrating Equation (3) with respect to r and applying the
boundary condition that at r = R the value of u = 0, we obtain

(4)

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The other expressions for this case can be similarly obtained by

introducing (w∂h/∂x) in place of (∂p/∂x) and w(h1 - h2) in place of
(p1 - p2) in the various other expressions as in the case of the
horizontal pipe.

Problem: A pipe 60 mm in diameter and 450 m long slopes upwards at 1

in 50. An oil of viscosity 0.9 Ns/m2 and specific gravity 0.9 is required to
be pumped at the rate of 5 litres/sec. (i) Is the flow laminar? (ii) What
pressure difference is required to attain this condition? (iii) What is the
power of the pump required assuming an overall efficiency of 65%? (iv)
What is the centreline velocity and the velocity gradient at the pipe wall?
Solution

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(i) Is the flow laminar?

(ii) Pressure difference required:

(iii) Power of the pump:

P = Q (p1 – p2) = 0.005 × 6.44 × 103 = 32.2 kW
Power of the pump = 32.2/η = 32.2/0.65 = 49.54 kW (Ans.)

(iv) Centre-line velocity, umax:

umax = 2u = 2 × 1.767 = 3.534 m/s (Ans.)

Velocity gradient at the pipe wall:

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Problem: Crude oil of µ = 1.5 poise

and relative density 0.9 flows
through a 20 mm diameter vertical
pipe. The pressure gauges fixed 20 m
apart read 600 kN/m2 and 200
kN/m2, as shown in Figure below.
Find the direction and rate of flow
through the pipe.

Solution
Dynamic viscosity, µ = 1.5 poise = 0.15 Ns/m2
Relative density = 0.9
∴ Weight density of oil, w = 0.9 × 9.81 = 8.829 kN/m3
Diameter of the pipe, D = 20 mm = 0.02 m
Length, L = 20 m
Pressure at A, pA = 600 kN/m2
Pressure at B, pB = 200 kN/m2

Direction of flow:
Since the pipe is of uniform diameter, the velocity head would be the
same, and as such flow direction will be indicated by the values of the
piezometric head at sections A and B. Taking the level at A as a datum,
we have:

Since the piezometric head at A is greater than that at B, hence, flow

takes place from A to B (i.e., upwards) (Ans.)
Rate of flow:
Loss of piezometric head, hf = 67.96 – 42.65 = 25.31 m
But the loss of pressure head for viscous flow through a circular
pipe is given by

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Problem: A pipe of diameter 100 mm and length 1000 m is used to pump

oil of viscosity 0.85 Ns/m2 and specific gravity 0.92 at the rate of 1.2
m3/min. The first 300 m of pipe is laid along the ground sloping upwards
10° to the horizontal and the remaining pipe is laid on the ground
sloping upwards at 15° to the horizontal. (i) State whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent. (ii) Determine the pressure to be developed by the
pump and the power of the driving motor if the pump efficiency is 65%.
Solution

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(i) Flow–laminar or turbulent?

(ii) Pressure to be developed by the pump, p:

Assuming pressure in the pipeline at B as atmospheric, taking horizontal

through the pump centre as the datum, and applying Bernoulli’s equation
between the pump outlet and the end of the pipeline, we get

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Power of the driving motor:

Problem: The velocity distribution in a pipe is given by,

where umax is the maximum velocity at the centre of the pipe, u is the
velocity at a distance r from the centre and R is the pipe radius. Obtain
an expression for mean velocity in terms of umax and n.

Solution

Discharge Q passing through any cross-section of the circular pipe can

be obtained by integrating a small discharge passing through an
elementary ring of the thickness dr at a distance r.

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Problem: The radial velocity profile in a pipe is given by

where u is the velocity at a radial distance r, umax is the maximum

velocity and R is the radius of the pipe. Derive an equation for the
average velocity in the pipe.

Solution

Here,

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