Classification of isometries

1.1 Isometries of the Euclidean plane

Definition 1.1 Isometry is a distance-preserving bijective mapping of the space to itself.

Claim 1.2 The isometries of the space form a non-commutative group.

Theorem 1.3 Every isometry is a collineation.

Proof. Let A, B and C be three collinear points, and their image be A0 , B 0 and C 0 .
= B 0 C 0 and AB ∼
= A0 C 0 , BC ∼
Assume, that A0 B 0 C 0 form a triangle. But AC ∼ = A0 B 0 ⇒
|AC| + |BC| = |AB| = |A0 B 0 | < |A0 C 0 | + |B 0 C 0 |. ⇒⇐

Theorem 1.4 If, an isometry has two fix points, then the determined line is also fixed
point-by-point (axis).

Proof. Let A = A0 and B = B 0 be true and P be a point on this line. Then P 0 must be
also on the line and AP ∼
= AP 0 ∧ BP ∼
= BP 0 ⇒ P = P 0 .

Theorem 1.5 If, an isometry has three fix points, then the determined plane is also fixed
point-by-point (plane).
B
Definition 1.6 The reflection of the plane in a line
t assign the P 0 point to P if P P 0 ⊥t and P T ∼
= P 0T , A
0
where T = P P ∩ t.

Theorem 1.7 Reflection is an isometry.

C D
Proof. Let C and D be the footpoints of the per-
pendiculars to t from A and B respectively. Then ,
A
BCD4 ∼ = B 0 CD4 ⇒ BC ∼ = B 0 C∧BCD∠B 0 CD∠ ⇒
,
ACB∠ ∼
= A0 CB 0 ∠ ⇒ ABC4 ∼
= A0 B 0 C4 ⇒ AB ∼
= B
A0 B 0 Figure 1.1: Hypercycle model
Claim 1.8 The composition of a reflection to itself is the identical mapping.

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Theorem 1.9 If, a non-identical isometry has exactly two fix points, then it is a reflection
in the determined line.

Proof. Let A and B be the fix points and P be an arbitrary point. Then AP ∼
= AP 0 ∧
BP ∼
= BP 0 ⇒ P = P 0 , or AB is the perpendicular bisector of P P 0 ⇒ d(P, AB) =
d(P 0 , AB) and P P 0 ⊥AB.

Theorem 1.10 If, a non-identical R isometry has exactly one fix point, then it is the
composition of two reflections, through this fix point.

Proof. Let P be an arbitrary point and A be the fix point. Then AP ∼

= AP 0 , therefore
A lies on the perpendicular bisector (t1 ) of P P 0 . The composition of the original isometry
and the reflection in this line has two fix points, therefore it is a reflection in a line t2 .
Then R ◦ t1 = t2 ⇒ R = t2 ◦ t−1
1 = t2 ◦ t1 .

Theorem 1.11 If, a non-identical isometry T has no fix point, then it is the composition
of either two or three reflections.

Proof. Let P be an arbitrary point and P 0 be its image. Then T ◦ t1 has either one, or
two fix points, where t1 is the reflection to the perpendicular bisector of P P 0 .

1. T ◦ t1 = R = t2 ◦ t3 ⇒ T = t2 ◦ t3 ◦ t−1
1 = t2 ◦ t3 ◦ t1

2. T ◦ t1 = t2 ⇒ T = t2 ◦ t−1
1 = t2 ◦ t1

Theorem 1.12 Any isometry of the plane is the composition of at most three reflections
in a line.

Proof. It follows from the above theorems trivially, since any isometry has either 0, 1, or
2 fix points or all the points on the plane is fixed point-by-point.

Lemma 1.13 The composition of two reflections can be considered as either a rotation
(intersecting axis) or a translation (parallel axis).

Proof.
– Intersecting axis: Let A be the intersection of the two lines t1 and t2 . Then P At1 ∠ ∼ =
P 0 At1 ∠ and P 0 At2 ∠ ∼
= P 00 At2 ∠, therefore P AP 00 ∠ = 2t1 t2 ∠ = 2α ⇒ Rotation around A
by 2α.
– Parallel axis: Now, we can say that d(P, t1 ) = d(P 0 , t1 ) and d(P 0 , t2 ) = d(P 00 , t2 )
and P, P 0 , P 00 are collinear points, therefore d(P, P 00 ) = d(t1 , t2 ) = 2d ⇒ Translation,
perpendicular to ti with 2d.

Remark 1.14 In the case of the rotation, only the angle of the lines matters, in the case
of the translation, only the distance and the direction matters.

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Theorem 1.15 Every isometry of the Euclidean plane belongs to one of the following 5
groups:

1. Identity (0) 3. Rotation (2a) 5. Glide reflection (3)

2. Reflection (1) 4. Translation (2b)

Proof. We have a full discussion for 2 reflections.

1. case t1 ∩ t2 6= ∅ t2
t1 t3 t 1 t'2 t 3'

(a) t1 ∩ t2 = t2 ∩ t3
Then we can consider the t2 ◦ t3 as a rotation
around this point, and we can rotate the lines
around this center to get t1 = t02 . Then t1 ◦ t2 ◦
t3 = t1 ◦ t02 ◦ t03 = t1 ◦ t−1 0 0
1 ◦ t3 = t3 . Figure 1.2: Case 1. (a)
t3 ,
t2
(b) t1 ∩ t2 6= t2 ∩ t3 t2
t3 t1
First, we rotate t1 and t2 around their intersec- K ,
t1
tion O until t02 ⊥t3 . Then we rotate t02 and t3 O
O
around their intersection K until t002 k t01 . Then
,,
t3
t01 ◦ t002 is a translation and t01 ◦ t002 ◦ t03 is a glide
reflection.
,,
K t2
,
2. case t1 ∩ t2 = ∅ ⇒ t1 k t2 t1

(a) t1 k t2 k t3 Figure 1.3: Case 1. (b)

Then we can translate t2 and t3 along their per-
pendicular line until t1 = t02 then their compo- ,
t3
sition will be the identity, therefore only t3 re- t3
t2
,
t1
mains, so this is a translation.
t1 t2

(b) t1 k t2 ∦ t3
,,
t2
First, we rotate t2 and t3 around their intersec-
tion until t02 ⊥t1 . Then we rotate t1 and t02 around ,
t3
their intersection until t01 k t03 . Finally, we rotate ,,
t1
t002
and t03 around their intersection, until t01 k t000
2.
Then t01 ◦ t000 00
2 ◦ t3 is a glide reflection. Figure 1.4: Case 2. (b)

Remark 1.16 Two reflections are commutative to each other if their axis are orthogonal
to each other.

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1.2 Isometries of the Euclidean space
Theorem 1.17 Any isometry of the space is the composition of at most four reflections
in a plane.

Theorem 1.18 Every isometry of the Euclidean space belongs to one of the following 7
groups:

1. Identity (0) 4. Translation (2b) 7. Screw displacement (4)

2. Reflection (1) 5. Glide reflection (3a)

3. Rotation (2a) 6. Improper rotation (3b)

where
5. Glide reflection: composition of a translation and a reflection

6. Improper rotation: composition of a rotation and a reflection

7. Screw displacement: composition of a rotation and a translation

Definition 1.19 The reflection in a line in the space means a rotation around this line
by 180◦ . This can be represented as a reflection in two orthogonal planes through the line.

Lemma 1.20 The composition of two reflections in a line is either rotation or translation
or screw displacement, if the two lines are intersecting, parallel or skew lines.

,,,,,
Proof. P
,
Assume that e = t1 ◦ t2 , f = t3 ◦ t4 . P P
,,,,

,,
1. case: The lines e and f determine a plan P
e f
We choose the positions of ti such that, t2 and t3 coin- e
f
cide the determined plane and t1 and t4 are orthogonal
,,,
to it. Then t2 ◦ t3 is identity and if e k f , then t1 k t4 , P

otherwise t1 ∦ t4 . Figure 1.5: 1. case

2. case: The lines e and f are skew lines
Let n be the perpendicular transverse of e and f . n
t1 := (e, n) ⇒ t2 ⊥n, t3 := (f, n) ⇒ t4 ⊥n. Since t2 k
t4 ∧ t3 ⊥t4 ⇒ t3 ⊥t2 ⇒ t1 ◦ t2 ◦ t3 ◦ t4 = (t1 ◦ t3 ) ◦ (t2 ◦ t4 ).
But n lies both on t1 and t3 therefore they determine e

a rotation, and t2 k t4 then they determine a trans- f

lation. The composition of these isometries is a skew
displacement.
Figure 1.6: 2. case

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Lemma 1.21 The composition of two translations is also translation.

Proof. Let t1 k t2 and t3 k t4 be two translation. If, t2 k t3 , then it is trivial. Otherwise

t2 ∩ t3 6= ∅ ⇒ t2 ∩ t3 = e. If, we rotate t2 and t3 around e by 90◦ , then t02 ⊥t1 and t03 ⊥t4 .
Then = t1 , t02 and t03 , t4 determines two reflections in a line with parallel axis, therefore it
is a translation.

Lemma 1.22 The composition of two rotations with orthogonal axis is a screw displace-
ment.

Proof. Let t0 and t00 be the axis of the rotations and n

n
be their perpendicular transverse line. Then t0 ⊥(t00 , n) e
t
00 0
,
and t ⊥(t , n). Let t1 and t2 be reflections such that
t1 ∩ t2 = t0 and t2 = (t0 , n), furthermore t3 and t4 be t
,,

reflections such that t3 ∩ t4 = t00 and t3 = (t00 , n). Since

t2 ⊥t3 ⇒ t1 ◦ t2 ◦ t3 ◦ t4 = (t1 ◦ t3 ) ◦ (t2 ◦ t4 ). Let e and
f be the intersections of t1 , t3 and t2 , t4 respectively. f
But t1 ⊥t3 and t2 ⊥t4 , therefore this isometry is can
be represented as the composition of two reflections
in a line, which axis are in skew position ⇒ screw
displacement. Figure 1.7: Proof of Lemma 1.22
Proof of Theorem 1.18 We have a full discussion for 2 reflections. Composition of at
least three reflections:
1. case: The three plane have a common perpen-
dicular plane: P
,,,
P

The orbit of any point lies on the plane, parallel P

,

,,
to this orthogonal plane ⇒ using the planar case, P

it is the composition of 3 reflections in line ⇒ ei-

ther reflection or glide reflection ⇒ the spatial
transformation is also either reflection or glide
reflection. Figure 1.8: 1. case
2. case: If, plane 1 and plane 2 intersect each other 1'
m
in the line m and plane 3 does not intersect m,
M
then the plane orthogonal to m will be orthog- 2
2"
1 3 M
onal to plane 3 as well ⇒ 1. case. We may
3"
assume that plane 3 intersects m in the point
m
M . First we rotate plane 1 and 2 around m
M 2'
such that 20 ⊥3. Then we rotate 20 and 30 around 1'
3
their intersection such that 10 ⊥30 . Finally we get
an improper rotation. Figure 1.9: 2. case

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3. case: If, plane 1 and 2 are parallel to each other, then plane 3 is either parallel
them both ⇒ reflection, or plane 3 intersects them in parallel lines. Then the plane,
orthogonal to the lines will be orthogonal to all the planes ⇒ 1. case
4. We can assume, that the composition of the first
3 reflections is either glide reflection or improper
1 2 1
rotation. 1 2 2
If, plane 4 is parallel to the third plane of an im-
3
proper rotation, then it is a screw displacement 3 3
by definition.
4
If, m is the intersection of plane 3 and 4, then 4 4

this isometry is the composition of two rotation

and by lemma, it is a screw displacement. 2
1
Now, we can assume, that the composition of
the first 3 reflections is a glide reflection. 1
2' m
If, plane 4 is parallel to plane 3, then this is the
composition of two translations and by lemma, 3

this is another translation. 4 n

3' 4
If, plane 4 intersects plane 3, then we rotate
plane 2 and 3 around their intersection line such Figure 1.10: 4. case
that
30 ⊥4. Then plane 3’ is orthogonal to both plane 2’ and plane 4 ⇒ plane 3’ is
orthogonal to their intersection line m. Let n be the intersection line of plane 1 and
plane 3’. Then n⊥m and 1 ◦ 2 ◦ 3 ◦ 4 = 1 ◦ 20 ◦ 30 ◦ 4, but 20 ⊥30 ⇒ 1 ◦ 20 ◦ 30 ◦ 4 =
(1 ◦ 30 ) ◦ (20 ◦ 4). Then this isometry is the composition of two rotation around
orthogonal axis, therefore this is a screw displacement.