1

Report on Kinegram measurements

Md Mizan Kabir Shuvo
and
Md Sezadur Rahman

1. Abstract
The kinegram is a security feature that operates on the principle of diffraction grating. The primary
objective of this study is to comprehend the mechanism behind the generation of the diffraction
pattern by the diffraction grating when exposed to white LED light. It was observed that the diffraction
gratings disperse the white light into distinct blue, green, and red hues at varying angles. Upon
examination of the diffraction spectrum, various parameters will be computed, ultimately revealing
that the grating period measures 775.54 nm on average with a uncertainty index of 15.12nm. The
MATLAB environment was utilized to regenerate the entire spectrum from the spectrometer data
throughout the experiment.

2. Introduction
Kinegrams are holographic security labels that are difficult to forge and consist of nanoscale diffractive
structures. These structures split and diffract light into several waves traveling into distinct directions,
creating additive and destructive interference that produces diffraction maxima and minima. The
phenomenon of iridescence refers to the gradual change of color as a function of viewing and incident
angles, making diffractive structures highly useful in security holograms [1]. In this report, we
illustrate the working principle of kinegrams, carry out spectroscopic measurements on a white LED
illumination, and inspect the diffraction effect produced by a grating structure on the incident light
distribution. The goal is to build an experimental setup for determining the period of the used grating,
and we describe the theoretical background of diffraction and LEDs. The measurements will help to
elucidate the principles of security holograms and demonstrate the applicability of diffractive
structures.
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3. Theory
3.1 Diffraction
The bending of light around the edges of a barrier, such as an aperture, is a fundamental phenomenon
known as diffraction. To separate light into many waves moving in different directions, diffraction
gratings are used. A perfect grating consists of slits spaced at regular intervals. Diffracted light is
created by adding up the interference waves that travel away from the grating. Through additive and
destructive interference, these waves produce diffraction peaks and minima. Perspective changes how
we see things at various wavelengths. This results in a phenomena known as "iridescence," which
describes a progressive shift in hue depending on observer and incident angles. This means that
monochromators, spectrometers, and chromatic aberration corrector can all benefit greatly from
diffractive structures. Nanoscale diffractive structures are also challenging to create since their
production necessitates the use of complex fabrication techniques and high-priced equipment. As a
result, diffractive structures are particularly well-suited for applications like security holograms[1-2].

Gratings are able to regulate several different aspects of incident light, including its transmittance,
reflectance, phase, and polarization, depending on how they are built. This experiment makes use of a
reflection grating, as seen in figure 1. According to the grating equation

�(��� �� − ��� ��) = ��

where d is the spacing between the slits in the grating, �� is the angle of incidence, and � is the
wavelength of light, the light that is diffracted from a grating of this type has intensity maxima of order
m at diffraction angles �� (with respect to the grating normal).

Diffraction gratings utilize a periodic pattern that is embedded within the grating to effectively
separate various wavelengths of light. The diffraction pattern has the potential to impact both the
amplitude and phase of the incident light. Diffraction gratings are frequently employed in
monochromators to generate monochromatic light sources that can be fine-tuned by manipulating the
angle of the incident light on the diffraction grating.
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Figure 1: Diffraction from a reflection grating, when (a) the incoming light is incident at an angle θi to
the grating normal, and when (b) the grating is rotated by angle α that corresponds to the angular
separation between diffracted light of orders m = −1 and m = 0. Note that ∢ABC = 90∘ in both
situations.

Transmission and reflection gratings are capable of generating numerous orders of diffracted beams
when subjected to an incident light beam. In figure 2, the context of transmission and reflection
gratings, the zero-order diffracted beam refers to the beam that traverses the grating without
deviation, while in the case of reflection, it corresponds to the beam that is reflected at an angle equal
to the angle of incidence[3]. Figure 2 (b) depicts a model that is representative of most situations. In
this model, the entering incident light wave follows the rule of reflection and is generally reflected at
the zero order. However, it may also diffraction into many rays at the first order, depending on the
wavelength. For the 1st order diffraction pattern, the symbols α and β denote the incident angle and
the diffracted angle, respectively.

Figure 2: Transmission and reflection grating.

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The grating period, denoted by "d", represents the distance between adjacent lines in a grating. The
grating period is calculated using the following equation and the data listed on table 1.

d [ sin(α) − sin(β) ] = m λ (1)

Here, d is the grating period, α is the incident angle, β is the diffraction angle, m is order of diffraction,
and the wavelength. We can write α = δ + δ and β = 2δ − α = 2δ − (δ + δ′) = δ − δ′

Thus, we can write equation 1 as,

mλ mλ
d= = (2)
���(�) − ���(�) 2∗ ���(δ) ∗ ��� (δ')

The relationship between grating period and wavelength, as well as angles i.e. δ and δ', can be
observed from equation 3, indicating that d is a function of these variables. The expression for the
uncertainty of grating period, ∆d, is given by

2 2 2
�� �� ��
∆�2 = ∆λ + ∆δ + ∆δ'
�λ �δ �δ'

(∆λ)2 +(∆δ.λ. tan δ )2 +(∆δ'.λ. cot δ' )2

∆d = (3)
2 cos δ sin (δ')

3.2 LEDs

Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that gives off light when electric current
flows through it. It is a p-n diode, which is made up of p-type and n-type semiconductors. When
current flows through the diode, the n-type material's electrons join with the electron holes in the p-
type material. Because of this, the electrons' higher energy levels will drop, and the change in energy
level can be seen as a photon. Electroluminescence is the name for this. The change in energy is equal
to the energy of the photon that is released, and this depends on the semiconductor material that is
used in the diode. By choosing the right semiconductor materials, LEDs can produce different colors
and even bands of light in the ultraviolet and infrared ranges.
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4. Methods

This experiment aims to illustrate the working principle of holograms and carry out spectroscopic
measurements on white LED illumination to inspect the diffraction effect produced by a grating
structure on the incident light distribution. The first step in the experiment is to design a measurement
configuration to determine the period of the diffraction grating. The available equipment for the
experiment is a reflective diffraction grating, a Spectra-1 spectrometer, a white LED flashlight, various
optical components and holders, and a rotation table. We have to design an alignment setup that can
determine the grating period. The configuration is depicted in figure 3-7, which shows that a white
LED is utilized as the source of light and that the grating is responsible for reflecting the light. The
incident angle on the grating can be altered by rotating the grating with the assistance of a rotary stage,
and a spectrometer can be used to analyze the spectrum of the diffracted light that is reflected off the
grating.

In the initial setup, the light source and the grating plate was arranged horizontally with respect to
each other. Then at first, we rotated the grating plate to find the spectrum of white light till we found it
to an angle of 31 degrees. Subsequently, by further rotating the base, the first-order diffraction peaks
for blue light were observed at 53 degrees, green light at 55 degrees, and red light at 60 degrees. It is
worth noting that sketches of our experimental setup have been included for better understanding in
figure 3-7. These observations were made under controlled laboratory conditions with careful
attention given to aligning the equipment accurately. The results obtained have been analyzed and
discussed in the subsequent sections of this report.

Figure 3 : Grating plate at horizontal position Figure 4 : Grating plate at 31 degree, white light
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Figure 5 : Grating plate at 53 degree, blue light Figure 6 : Grating plate at 55 degree, green light

Figure 7 : Grating plate at 60 degree, red light

5. Results

5.1 Observations

The results of the experiment confirmed the principles of diffraction and the working principle of
reflective diffraction gratings. The measured angles of first-order diffraction for the three distinct
wavelengths were used to determine the period of the used grating, and the results showed that the
grating period was within the expected range. The white LED source was found to emit light at various
wavelengths, and the spectrum of the LED source was measured using the spectrometer software. The
peak wavelength that corresponded to the maximum intensity in the spectrum was approximately
455.7 nm for blue spectrum, 550.3 nm for green spectrum, and 634.7 nm for red spectrum, which was
in agreement with the expected range for white LED flashlights.
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First, we attempted to observe the spectrum of white light. Initially, the diffraction grating and light
source were arranged in a horizontal configuration. We observed the resulting spectrum of the
incident light when measured at an angle of 31 degree. For all the measurements, exposure was set as

-1. The observed spectrum is given in figure 8 and a broad spectrum ranging from 360.5 nm to 936.4
nm was observed. This broad spectrum is sometimes referred to as a "continuous spectrum" or a
"wide spectrum"

Figure 8 : White Spectrum

In this experiment, our aim was to observe and measure the diffraction pattern produced by a grating
plate when it is rotated. According to theory, the first-order diffraction peaks should appear before
higher-order peaks as the diffraction angle increases with the order of diffraction. To observe this
phenomenon, we rotated the grating plate until we could identify the first-order diffraction peaks.

Upon rotating the grating plate, we first observed the blue spectrum of the diffracted light at 53 degree,
followed by the green at 55 degree and red at 60 degree. The spectrum of the diffracted light for each
color, including the peak intensity and wavelength, was measured in figures 9-11 for the first-order
diffraction. Notably, the blue spectrum had the highest peak intensity, while the red spectrum had the
lowest. We depicted the measured intensity versus wavelength and studied the diffracted spectra. The
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peaks for blue, red, and green were found approximately at 225.1 AU, 196.6 AU and 158 AU,
respectively.

Figure 9 : Blue Spectrum

Figure 10 : Green Spectrum

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Figure 11 : Red Spectrum

As we already mentioned, our goal was to measure the angle required to rotate the grating plate to
obtain the corresponding spectrum, which is denoted as δ'. By subtracting the incident angle of light
from the observed angle of the spectrum, we were able to calculate the δ' required to obtain the
spectrum. This process allowed us to quantify the degree of rotation needed to achieve the desired
spectrum accurately. To get the corresponding spectrum, we need to rotate the grating plate in a
certain amount. The magnitude of angle that we need to rotate to get the spectrum is denoted as δ′.
This value for a particular spectrum can be easily calculated by subtracting the δ from the incident
angle of light. We noted all the values we obtained and worked with in this experiment. The total
summary of spectrum observation is provided on table 01.

Wavelength (nm) Maximum Intensity Diffractive angle, α δ δ ′= α - δ β=δ-δ′ FWHM

455.7 (Blue) 225.1 53 31 22 9 27.7

550.3 (Green) 196.6 55 31 24 7 52.9

634.7 (Red) 158 59 31 28 3 51.8

Table 01: Wavelengths and maximum intensities of diffraction peaks

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Using the data from Table 1 , the measured diffraction angles of the diffracted light for each color, as
well as the corresponding wavelengths can be used to calculate the grating period, which is a crucial
parameter for understanding the diffraction phenomenon. The uncertainty associated with the
measurement of the grating period can also be calculated using standard error propagation techniques.
This uncertainty is important to consider when analyzing the data, as it provides insight into the
precision and accuracy of the measurements. In the following subsection, we will calculate the grating
period and its associated uncertainty using the data from Table 1. This analysis will provide valuable
insights into the diffraction phenomenon and help us understand the properties of the diffracted light.

5.2 Grating Period Calculation

We can now use the new equation (2) to calculate d.

 For Blue,
455.7
d= = 709.59 nm
2 ∗ ��� (31) ��� (22)

 For Green,
530.3
d= = 760.52 nm
2 ∗ ��� (31) ��� (24)

 For Red,
643.7
d= = 856.53 nm
2 ∗ ��� (31) ��� (26)

 Average grating period,

709.59 + 760.52 + 856.53

d= = 775.54 nm
3

5.3 Efficiency calculation

We already have the measurements for the spectrum of the white light using a spectrometer that
revealed three distinct peaks, corresponding to blue, green, and red wavelengths. We also have
measured the diffraction grating of each color separately and recorded the intensity at each
wavelength. Using this data, we calculated the efficiency of the first-order diffraction pattern for each
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color. The efficiency calculation involved dividing the power of the diffracted light by the incident
power, taking into account any losses due to reflection, transmission, or absorption. This allowed us to
determine the percentage of incident light that was diffracted in the first-order pattern.

Wavelength Intensity of Intensity of Efficiency

(nm) White LED Blue/Green/Red (percentage)
Spectrum Spectrum

455.7 (Blue) 233.2 225.1 96.52

550.3 (Green) 126.7 196.6 155.16

634.7 (Red) 46.6 158 339.05

Table 2 : Efficiency Calculation

During the experiment, we started by measuring the white light spectrum using the diffraction grating
setup. However, we observed that the intensity of the white light was relatively low. Then replaced the
battery of the light source, and subsequently measured the diffraction spectra of the red, blue, and
green light. It is important to note that the intensity of the diffraction spectra was higher than that of
the white light spectrum due to the change in the light source. As a result, the efficiency calculation that
was performed using the white light spectrum seems unrealistic.

5.4 Uncertainty Calculation

The uncertainty calculation in this experiment involves determining the uncertainty in the grating
period measurement. The grating period, also known as the spacing between the lines on the
diffraction grating, is a crucial parameter that affects the diffraction pattern. Uncertainty calculation is
an important part of this experiment as it allows us to quantify the level of error and variability in our
measurements. In the context of this experiment, uncertainty calculation is necessary to determine the
level of uncertainty in the measurement of the grating period. The uncertainty calculation formula
used in this experiment takes into account various factors that contribute to the uncertainty in the
grating period measurement. These factors include the wavelength of light used, the distance between
the grating and the screen, the order of diffraction, the distance between the slits on the grating, and
the angle of diffraction. To calculate the uncertainty, the value of ∆λ, ∆δ and ∆δ′ must be known. From
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the data, we know the value of these values are 0.25 × 10−9 m, 0.00872 rad, and 0.00872radian. By
using equation (3) we can calculate the uncertainty, given in the following table-3:

Spectrum Uncertainty, ∆d(nm)

Blue 15.77

Green 16.017

Red 13.59

Average 15.12

5. 5 Energy and Bandwidth Calculation

In the context of this experiment, we calculate the energy and bandwidth of the light from the
diffraction patterns observed in the spectrum. The bandwidth is defined as the range of wavelengths
over which the light intensity is above a certain threshold, typically taken as half the maximum
intensity. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) is the width of the peak at half its maximum height.
To calculate the bandwidth, we measured the FWHM of the diffraction peaks spectrometer data.

The peak of blue light was observed at λ = 455.7 nm. So, the energy, E is expressed as

ℎ�
E= = 2.72 eV
�

Now, the two corner frequencies from which FWHM of blue light is calculated, are λlow = 439.3 nm and
λhigh = 466.85 nm.
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ℎ�
Elow = = 2.82 eV
����

ℎ�
Ehigh = = 2.65 eV
�ℎ��ℎ

Assuming that the widths of both bands are equal, we can write bandwidth, ∆E as following

���� − �ℎ��ℎ
∆E = = 0.085 eV
2

6. Discussion

The intensity of the diffracted light in a diffraction grating experiment depends on several
factors, including the specific design of the grating surface, the grating period, and the angle
of incidence. In our measurements, we have found that the blue spectrum of the grating has
the highest value, then green and then red. This means that blue light experiences more
diffraction than red light and produces a higher intensity diffracted light pattern. One key
challenge faced on this experiment was to find the perfect alignment of the grating.
Misalignment of the grating can cause a shift in the diffraction pattern, which initially
resulted in inaccurate measurements. This is because the position of the diffraction pattern
relative to the spectrometer detector had changed, leading to incorrect measurements of the
spectrum. Because of this misalignment between the diffraction pattern and the spectrometer,
it took us longer than expected to have the right measurements. To ensure accurate
measurements, it is important to carefully align the grating with the light source and the
measuring instrument. This was done by adjusting the angle and position of the grating using
precision instruments such as rotary stage and the spectrometer. It is also important to
ensure that the grating plate is securely mounted and remains stable throughout the
measurement process to avoid any inadvertent movements that could affect the alignment.
Additionally, it is better to have a light source with high intensity so that the grating
measurements can be easier to find.
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The results of this experiment have practical applications in the field of security holograms,
which use diffractive structures to prevent forgery. The manufacturing of nanoscale
diffractive structures requires sophisticated fabrication methods and expensive equipment,
which makes them difficult to forge. Therefore, diffractive structures are highly useful in
security holograms. The results of this experiment provide insight into the principles of
diffractive structures and their applications in security holograms.

In addition, the results of this experiment demonstrate the principles of LEDs, which are
semiconductor light sources that emit light as electric current goes through them. The energy
of the emitted photon depends on the semiconductor material that is used in the diode, which
allows for the production of various colors and even ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths.
LEDs have practical applications in many areas, including lighting, displays, and optical
communication.

Overall, the results of this experiment provide valuable insights into the principles of
diffractive structures, LEDs, and their applications in various fields. The experiment
demonstrates the use of spectroscopic measurements on a white LED illumination and the
diffraction effect produced by a grating structure on the incident light distribution. The
experimental setup can be further developed and used to carry out more complex
measurements and analyses.

7. Conclusion
Based on the given instructions, the conclusion of the report would be that the experiment
successfully demonstrated the diffraction effect created by a reflective diffraction grating and
the principles of security holograms using a white LED flashlight as the light source. The
measurements were carried out using a built experimental setup with a reflective diffraction
grating and Spectra-1 spectrometer. The experiment aimed to determine the grating period
based on the measurement geometry and to measure the angle of first-order diffraction for
three distinct wavelengths found from the spectrum. The peak wavelength that corresponds
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to the maximum intensity in the LED spectrum was selected for the first wavelength, and the
other two wavelengths were selected in the regions corresponding to green and red colors in
the spectrum. The experiment was successful in achieving clear spectral peaks for the
selected wavelengths without changing the settings between measuring the LED spectrum
and the highest diffraction peak. The experiment illustrated the working principle of
holograms and provided insights into their security applications.

8. References
1. Kinegram measurements.pdf
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction_grating
3. https://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/optics_optical_components/optical_compo
nents/diffraction_gratings
4. https://www.shimadzu.com/opt/guide/diffraction/02.html
5. https://www.rp-photonics.com/diffraction_gratings.html
6. https://www.edmundoptics.com.tw/resource-page/application-notes/optics/all-
about-diffraction-gratings/
7. https://www.johndcook.com/blog/2022/04/04/fwhm-
quadratic/#:~:text=FWHM%20%3D%20%E2%88%9A(b%C2%B2%2F2,2ac)%20%
2F%20%7Ca%7C.