Socrates in Medieval Arabic Literature

saCRATES IN MEDIAEVAL
ARABIC LITERATURE
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
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ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY
THEOLOGY AND SCIENCE
Texts and Studies
EDI T ED BY
H. DAIBER and D. PINGREE
VOLUME X
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SOCRATES IN MEDIAEVAL
ARABIC LITERATURE
BY
ILAI ALON
E. J . BRILL
THE MAGNES PRESS, THE HEBREW UNIVERSITY
LEIDEN - JERUSALEM
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Published with the assistance of
The Ruth Sheffi (Shafrir) Fund and the
Irene Young Endowment for Scientific Publications
at the Faculty of Human ities, Tel Aviv University
Distributed in Israel by The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University,Jerusalem

Distributed in other territories of the world by E.J. Brill, Leiden
© The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 1991

All rights reserved
Printed in Israel
Printed: Graph-Chen, Jerusalem
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Alon , IlaL
Socrates in mediaeval Arabic literature / by Ilai Alon .
p. cm.-(Islamic philosophy, theology, and science ; v . 10)
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN 90-04--0934-9-4-
1. Islamic Empire-Intellectual life. 2. Socrates. I. Title.
II. Series .
DS36.82 .G7A37 1990
909 ' .097671- dc20 90-23325
CIP
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CONTENTS
Preface 7
Table of Transliteration 7
List of Abbreviations 8
INTRODUCTION II
Objectives and Explanations II
The Sources 12
Organization of Material 22
Styles and Metaphors 23
CHAPTER ONE: THE SOCRATIC TRADITION 29

The Socratic Legend before the Arabs 29
Transmission 32
The Arabic Tradition 34
CHAPTER TWO: BIOGRAPHY 41

Characteristics 42
Appearance 42
Psychological Characteristics and Ways of Life 44
Famil y 52
Arrest 56
Trial 61
Death 67
Comparison 76
Last Words 82
Alternatives 83
Conclusions 86
Socrates as a Religious Personality 87
Socrates as a Philosopher 93
Disciples 96
Writings 98
CHAPTER THREE: TEACHINGS 101

Introduction 101
Metaphysics 103
God 103
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Fate and Time III
This World (dunyii) ll5
Cosmology 121
Alchemy 125
Rhetoric 127
Ethics and Virtue 128
Intellectual Virtues 134
Vice 143
Human Relations 150
Man and woman 150
Friends and friendship 153
Speech and reticence 156
The Secret 159
Law, King and Government 161
Psychology 162
Death- Afterlife- Resurrection 166
Varia 174
CONCLUSIONS 175
BIBLIOGRAPHY 176
Arabic sources 176
Non Arabic sources 180
List of secondary sources 181
INDICES 187
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PREFACE
I should like to dedicate this book to Rina, Gadi and Ofra, and to thank the
following people and institutions for their great assistance in writing this book.
My teacher, Prof. Shlomo Pines in Jerusalem, with whom I have consulted
concerning the central topic of this work, as well as many other issues; F.
Rosenthal of Yale, who has gone through the entirety of the manuscript and
whose suggestions, remarks, corrections and alterations have been an invaluable
component of the book; M. Lowe from Jerusalem, whose intelligent and
eloquent reading of parts of the manuscript have contributed greatly to it; my
friend J . Kraemer from Tel Aviv University for his reading parts of the
manuscript and for his advice and discussions of the topic; Cyndy Halpern from
Princeton for her tireless work in editing the manuscript and finally the Tel Aviv
University for their financial help, and the Suleimaniyah, Bodley and Yale
libraries for their permission to use their manuscripts.
TRANSLITERAnON GUIDE
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t: - kh .:J -k
,) -d J -I
,) - dh -m
i
J -r U -n
J -z . -h
If' - S .J -w
!.? - sh c.S -y
~ -~
Long vowels are: a; Ii; 1.
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AAA 'AmirT (d.992), Abu al-Hasan, AI-'Amad alii al-' Abad, ms. Servili
i
179.
AAF Ammonius (ca. 750?), Ff 'ara al-faldsifah bi-khtiliif al-taqiiwil fi
al-mabiidi',
AAWM Maghultai (d.136I), 'Ala al-Dln Abu 'Abdallah, al-waejiJ; fiman
ustushida min al-muhibbin.
AHADA 'AskarT, Abu Hilal al-, (d. 906), majmir al-amthiil.
AHSSF Baghdadi, maqiilah fi sifat al-rajul al-failasiif.
AHTBD Abu Hayyan al-Tauhidi, al-basii'ir wal-dhakhii'ir.
AHTSS Abu Hayyan al-TauQTdI,fi al-sadiiqah wal-sadiq.
AIMI AI-'AmirI, al-';<'Iam bi-maniiqib al-isliim,
AIMZA al-Husri, Zahr al-Addb.
AMI Ash'arl, Abu al-Hasan cAlI b. Isrna 'Il" maqaliit al-isliimiyin wa-
khtiliif al-musallin.
ASA AristutalTs (tr. ca. 815), kitiib al-siyiisahfitadbiral-riyiisah, al-ma riif
bi-sirr al-asriir .
ASI AI-'AmirT, kitiib al-sa'iidah wal-is'iid.
ASMSH Abu Sulaiman Al-Sijistani, muntakhab siwiin al-hikmah.
BHLS Mar Gregory Bar Hebraeus, Oriental Wit .
BHQH Anonymous, bustiin al-hukamii' wa-qii'idat al-hikamh.
BMM al-Baihaqi, kitiib al-mahiisin wal-masiiwi.
BTH al-BIrunI,fi tahqiq mii Iii-hind.
D .L. Diogenes Laertius, Lives.
EI Encyclopaedia of Is/am.
FAMM al-Farabf' al-alfds: a/-musta'ma/ahfi al-maruiq.
FAT Fulutarkhus, fi? iirii' al-tabi'iyah
FAT2 Ibid (ed. H. Daiber)
FFM al- FarabI, fusiil a/-madanf.
FIHR Ibn al-Nadlrn, al-Fihrist,
GAL Brockelmann, Geschichte d. arabischen Literatur.
GAS Sezgin, Geschichte d. arabischen Schrifttums.
GHPK Jabir ibn Hayyan, mukhtiir rasii'il.
GNM al-Ghazali, nasihat al-muliik.
GTF Ghazali, tahiifut al-faldsifah,
GTMNM Ghazali, al-tibr al-masbiik,
GTP Galen, Compendium.
HH I;IajjI KhalIfah, kashf al-zuniin.
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 9
HlA Moyses Sefardi, da Amizade.

HIMF Hunain b. Ishaq , sefer musrei Ha-filosofim.
HISNFM Hunain b. Ishaq, nawiidir al-faliisifah ,
HNA Hermes, kitiib mu'iidalat al-nafs .
HTM al-T auhldi, al-muqiibasiit,
HTMW al-Tauhtdi, Mathiilib al- Wazirain .
IAHS Ibn 'Aqnin, tibb al-nafs.
IARIF Ibn cAbd Rabbihi, al-iiqd al-farid.
IAU Ibn AbT Usaibr'ah, "uyiin al-anbii' ,
IBIR Ibn Butlan.
10M Ibn Duraid, kitiib al-mujtanii.
IEMM Ibn Ezra, al-muhiidarah wal-mudhiikarah.
IFIM Ibn Falaqera, igeret miisar.
IG Ibn Juljul, tabaqiit al-atibbii',
IGIA Ibn Gvirol , i~/iil; al-akhliiq.
IGMP Ibn Gvirol, A Choice of Pear/so
IH Ibn Khaldun, kitiib al-iibar.
IHKR Ibn Hindu, Al-kalim al-riihdniyah.
IHT Ibn Hamdan, kitiib al-tadhkirah.
1M AI-IbshT, el-mustairaf.
IMKA Ibn al-Mu'tazz, kitiib al-adab.
IQ Ibn al-Qifti, ta'rtkh al-hukamii' ,
IQUA Ibn Qutaibah, 'uyun al-akhbiir.
IRPP Ibn Rushd , be'iir Ibn Rushd le-sefer hanhagat ha-medinah.
IRTM Ibn Rushd, tafsir mii bad al-tabi'ah,
IS Ikhwan al-Safa', Rasii'il.
ISR Ikhwan al-Safa', Rasii'il.
ISSM Ibn Sina, kitiib al-shifii',
KAM Anonymous, a/fiif majmii'ah.
KAS al- Kindt, Mii naqalahu al-Kindi min a/fiif Suqriit,
KFF Anonymous.junn falsafiyah.
KHI Hunain Ibn Ishaq (d . 870), Mii dhakarahu Hunain Ibn Ishiiq.
KHNS Hunain b. Ishaq, min nawiidir suqriii.
KIHNF Ishaq Ibn Bunain, nawiidir falsafiyah .
KKS Kindr, Ff Alcibiades wa-Suqriit,
MADD Mawardi, adab al-dunyii wal-din.
MHH Miskawaihi, al-hikmah al-khiilidah .
MKHAA Anonymous , al-mukhtiir min kaliim al-hukamii' al-arbaah
al-akiibir.
MMH Mubashshir Ibn Fatik, mukhtiir al-hikam.
MPGH Majritl, ghiiyat al-hakirn.
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10 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
MRJ Majriti, al-risiilah al-jiimiiah.

MTA Miskawaihi, tahdhib al-akhliiq.
PAA Aflatun, athiilujfii aristii.
PKA Bruqlus, 'hiljaj bruqlus fi qidam al-iiilam '.
PKR Afluttn, 'kitiib al-rawiibi':
PPG Aflatun, risii/ah ilii farfiiriiis fi nafy a/-ghamm wa-ithbiit a/-zuhd.
RIMU Raghib al-Isfahani, muhiidariit al-iudadii',
RSF al-Razi, Abu Bakr, rasii'il falsafiyah .
SATU Sacid al-Andalusi, tabaqdt a/-'umam.
SGY Sternbach, Gnomologium Vaticanum 743.
SHI Suhrawardi, hikmat al-ishriiq.
SMN Shahrastani, AbU al-Fath? a/-mila/ wal-nihal.
SMU Sarraj , Ja'far b. Ahmad al-, masari' al-tushshiiq.
SRA Sharazuri, Shams al-Din, nuzhat al-arwiih.
STER Sternbach, de Gnomologie Vaticano.
STOB Stobaeus, Anthologio,
TIl a/-'i'jiiz wal-iijdz,
TIM Tauhldl, Abu Hayyan, al-timtii' wal-mii'iinasah,
TNH Tha'alibt, al-nusiis al-hikmiyah ,
TTM a/-amthii/ wal-muhiidarah ,
UMLA 'Usamah Ibn Munqidh, /ubiib al-iiidiib ,
USS Uylenbroek, Sentenciae.
YMAH Yaqiit al-Mustasimt, asriir al-hukamii' ,
YMS Anonymous, 'unwan al-sa'iidah.
ZNH Zarnakhshari, AbU al-Qasim Mahmud, al-nawiibigh wal-hikam .
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INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES AND EXPLA NATIONS
This book is an attempt to describe Socrates as he was depicted in mediaeval

Arabic literature. The body of anecdotes, sayings, and evaluations of Socrates
existent in Arabic literature leads one to search for an explanation for the
popularity of this ancient, Greek, pagan philosopher. I will argue that Socrates
played a role of legitimizing authority in the religious controversies between
Christians and Muslims on the one hand, and between the more rationalistic
minded Muslims and the more traditionalistic ones, on the other hand. We thus
encounter three approaches to the man: he is referred to as a prophet by
philosophers like Ibn sres, by historians such as al-Balkhl or authors such as
Abu Hayyan al-Tauhldi,! all of whom did not belong to the more fund-
amentalistic stream of Islam . The second approach is that of historians such as
al-Mubashshir Ibn Fatik or Ibn AbI Usaibiah, who relate to Socrates as an
exemplary personality with tacit Islamic qualities."The third approach is that of
orthodox writers such as al-Ghazali who attacks Socrates as a non -believer,
although elsewhere he quotes some of his sayings. It is noteworthy that the
negative attitude towards Socrates is not reflected in the sayings or anecdotes,
while it is expressed in the evaluations made of him by Muslim authors.
This primary objective of explaining Socrates's popularity involves some
secondary ones such as an attempt to discover the relationship of the materials
existing in Arabic to their Greek sources , both ancient and Hellenistic; the
establishment of the interrelationship of various Arabic sources to one another,
which may reveal hitherto unknown connections between writers; a description
of the mediaeval Islamic attitude toward the Greek philosophers and lastly, an
elaboration on a section of Arabic gnomologicalliterature.
The reasons for choosing Socrates as my subject are fivefold. First, Socrates
as a philosopher deserves research in relation to various cultural backgrounds.
Furthermore, because mediaeval Arabic literature serves as an important link in
the history of the Socratic legend the lack of such research had left a lacuna in
our knowledge of the tradition . Secondly , the place occupied by Socrates in the
history of Greek philosophy, namely that between pre-Socratic and post Socratic
I. See below, p. 88.

2. See below, pp . 90-91.
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12 INTRODUCTION
philosophers will enable us perhaps to shed some light on both groups in the
domain of popular philosophy. Thirdly, one cannot but be impressed by the
extent of the influence exerted by the personality of Socrates on the Arabs, and
through them on his image in the West for many generations. Fourthly, there
ex ists in Arabic a considerable body of biographical details, anecdotes and
sayings by and about Socrates, stemming from different sources. Next to
Aristotle and Plato, whose popularity rested first and foremost on their writings,
which were actually, if only in part, translated and commented upon by Arabic
philosophers, Socrates, who has left no writings, was the most mentioned Greek
philosopher in Arabic literature.
Lastly, a rather common reason for preferring Socrates as the subject of this
book is that a surprisingly small number of scholars have written about him in
the Arabic context.
The reader may rightly criticize the author that the picture of Socrates arrived
at in this book is an art ificial one , a portrait of a man who never existed
historically. An accumulation of fractions of hearsay sayings, doubtful
biographical data, and sheer invention have been joined together to recreate a
Persona, as it were.
This argument is of course justified, but I should say, only partly so. First, this
is an inquiry into popular philosophy; secondly, I have taken account of as much
of the available material as possible, much of it contradicting or conflicting. In
all such cases, all available views were written down so as to make room for
opposing views about our man .
Here we have a Greek sage to whom various biographical details, views, and
sayings were attributed, basically by a rather small number of Arabic sources. It
stands to reason that the Arabic reader did indeed regard "Socrates" as one
personality, ignoring, or perhaps enjoying, the discrepancies in information. In
this he probably took after his predecessors, late Hellenistic readers, who were
faced with a similar situation.
Therefore this work must not be taken to entail only a biographical picture of
Socrates, but rather, a picture of a slice of Arabic literature during a certain
period, viewed from the angle of the Socratic legend.
THE SOURCES
Two groups of Arabic sources are used in our book. The first comprises the
original Arabic writings, which either have or have not known Greek sources,
and the second consists of Greek texts that have been translated into Arabic,
such as Plutarch's Placito, Plato's Phaedo and so forth . In this book, both
groups will be treated as part and parcel of the body of Arabic literature, for the
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INTRODUCTION 13
simple reason that as such this body was available to Arabic readers and helped
them form their opinions about Socrates, and probably brought home to them
the message that hid behind the whole Socratic exercise. Nevertheless, the
distinction that exists between these two groups is detailed and emphasized .
In the following paragraphs I will describe the more important books and
authors that deal with Socrates, the objective being to give a brief bio-
bibliographical background, so that the reader may be in a position to form his
own opinion with regard to the mutual relations between the various sources .
Apart from that material, some statistical data will be provided to demonstrate
identities and similarities between these books to enable a more precise
judgement.
Al-'Amirf, a. al-Hasan, M. b. a Darr Yiisiif Id. 922).3

A Nishpuri philosopher who was regarded by al-Shahrastant as one of the most
important philosophers, and was rated with al-Kindi, al-Farabt and Ibn SIna.4
He studied under Abu Zaid A. b. Sahl al-BalkhI, the renowned geographer and
philosopher (d. 933) in Khurasan. Later he visited the scientific, literary, and
philosophical centres of the Islam ic empire .
k. a/-amad ca/ii al-abadi The object ive of this book, which was compiled in
985, is stated by the author himself as an inquiry into the issue of immortality
and re-incarnation, which includes views put forward by various authorities,
both Muslim and Greek alike. The book contains twenty-one references to
Socrates, thirteen of which are biographical and eight gnomological.
k . al-sa'iidah wal-is'iid is a book on eth ics whose topic is happiness as seen by
Musl im, Persian, and Arab sages. It is more concerned with Socrates's sayings
(of which it quotes twenty-one) than with his biography (only one entry), and it
shares seven with MMH.
In these two books by al-cAmirI, a total of forty-three sayings and anecdotes
about Socrates appear. Of these, thirteen are biographical and twenty-three
singular to the author, quite a considerable ratio.
Ammoniuss
It is practically imposs ible at this stage of our knowledge to establish for certain
3. See further, M. Arkoun, Essai, in particularpp. 149-184(in pp. 161-184 there is an analys is of
k . al-sdiidah wal-is'iid).
4. SMN 38,9. He also exerted great influence on Sa'id al-Andalusl's book tabaqiit al-umam . See
Stern, " Ibn Masarrah", p. 327.
5. F. Rosenthal informs me that a student of his, Everett Rowson has been working on this book .
See bibliographical list.
6. I am indebted for the photocopy of the manuscript of this book to my late teacher, R. Walzer
who gave it to me after the untimely death of S. Stern, its owner.
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14 INTRODUCTION
who Ammonius was. He probably was not identical with any of his three famous
homonyms, i.e., Ammonius the tutor of Plutarch (d. 120); Ammonius Saccas,
who was Plotinus's tutor (d. 270) or Ammonius, the son of Hermias, the tutor of
Proclus (d. 485). As the latter is mentioned in the book, it is obvious either that
the original work was written not earlier than the eighties of the fifth century or
else that the name of Proclus was added by a later scribe, which seems rather
improbable. Another date that might set the earliest date for the compilation of
this book is the first half of the eighth century, because Hasan al-basri (d . 728) is
also mentioned in the manuscript," as is abil Nasr" who ma y be al-Farabf {d.
950). The Arabic version of the work, however, cannot have been compiled
before the tenth century, as Daiber shows .? In any event , this author and his
book are quite widely mentioned in all later literature, 10 and the book seems to
have had considerable influence on Arabic philosophy.
al-Biriini, a. Raihiin Muhammad

al-Birtlni, one of the greatest Muslim geographers, scientists, and thinkers, who
died in 1034, enjoyed vast knowledge in matters classical and Indian, about
which he had learned a great deal, at least in part, during a year's stay in India,
where he started his study of astronomy. al-Birtlnf himself quoted a number of
Greek sources that had served him in his book fi tahqiq mii lil-hin d: Ammonius;
Plato's Timaeus, Phaedo '! and Laches; Proclus's commentary on Aristotle's
Physics, Johannes Grammaticus's Contra Proclum ; Porphyry's History of
Philosophers; and Galen from whom he learned about the literature, astrology,
geography, cosmology, astronomy, manners, and customs of the Greeks .
The book, the title of which in full is tahqiq mii /ii-hind min maqiilahfi al-iaql
mardhiilah, was written in India. In it, al-Birunf made it his purpose to depict
this country, its beliefs and philosophy, side by side with its geography and its
history. Thus he was among the first , if not the first, to provide a serious account
of India.
The book comprises eighty chapters arranged in groups:
I-II-Religious and philosophical views
7. Fol. 125rI2 .
8. Fol. 108rI : .....qalaaba Nasr...", Note that the form of the nam e is in the accusat ive. This may
be due to Syriac influence. The same phenomenon is to be found in the Arab ic tran slation of
Theophrastus's Metaphysics, Ms. Teheran Malik 5925, where in the first sentence it is said that
that comp ilation had been copied along with the rasii'if of Abu Nasr, possibly the same person.
See Alon (1986).
9. Cf. Daiber, 1983 p. 260.
10. See e.g. MMH 300; Biilus. See also ISQaq b.Hunain in his History . Fugel, op . cit. p. 135refers
the reader to Wenrich, p. 289. See also F. Rosenthal (1954).
II. For a contribution in this connection see Biirgel (1974).
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INTRODUCTION 15
12-17 - Literature and science

18-31 -Geography and astronomy/astrology
32-62-History and chronology
63-79- The Brahaman religion and astronomy.
It was edited by E. Sachau in Leipzig, 1879 and a year later it was translated
into English. For a bibliography about al-BlrunI, see D. J. Boilot in the
Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, vol. 1, 1236-1238.
Abu Sula imiin al-Maruiqi al-Sijistiini

A philosopher of Persian origin who was probably born in Sijistan in 913 and
who lived in Baghdad where he arrived in or about 939 A.D .12 He died around
the year 985, according to Kraemer, in ca. 990 13 or 1000according to Dunlop.!'
Although Abu Sulaiman did not know Greek, he was well versed in Greek
philosophy, partly thanks to his teacher Yahya b. "Adl (d. 974).
ASMSH, which only reflects the original S iwiin al-hikmah, now lost.P may
have been used in the author's circles as a chrestomathy, as it puts the emphasis
on the gnomological rather than the biographical aspect of Socrates.
Our book seems to have had access to material, either directly translated from
the Greek and Syriac, or else, to such that had come through Arab channels. It is
noteworthy to mention Secundus, the silent philosopher with whom Abu
Sulaiman shares a number of sayings (not only of Socrates)" and Porphyry,
whose lost Philosophos Historia may have served our author as a source. Other
possible sources, in this case Arabic, are al- C AmirP 7 and Hunain's nawiidir
al-faliisifah .v
From the present data we can conclude that a strong connection existed
between ASMSH and d.l., with which it shares four sayings, Stobaeus, STER
12. This paragraph is based on J . Kraemer's book Philosophy in the Renaissance ofIslam . See also
S. Stern in the Encyclopaedia ofIslam (second edition), vol. I, pp 151-152 . M. Plessner(l931);
F. Rosenthal (1956); D. M. Dunlop (1957); M. Ullmann (1961) p. 8, H. Daiber (1984) and D.
Gutas (1982).
13. Daiber (1984) p. 36. J . Kraemer, Philosophy in Renaissance ofIslam, Brill, Leiden , 1986,p. 2.
14. Dunlop (1957) p. 85.
15. For a very clear description ofthe book see Gutas (1982) p.45. See his list of parallels between
the two texts . Further, Daiber(1984) p. 43, cites a whole list of quoted sources which served the
Siwan .
16. See Kraemer, op . cit. p. 118 note 126 where a reference is made to B. E. Perry's Secundus the
Silent Philosopher (American Philological Assn., Philological Monographs 22, Ithaca, 1964),
particularly, p. 20, note 20 there .
17. See Daiber (1984) p. 45. See his list of parallels between the two texts . Further Daiber cites a
whole list of sources which served muntakhab siwdn al-hikmah (p. 43).
18. See F. Rosenthal (1954).
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16 INTRODUCTION
(sharing two sayings), USS . (two sayings), Xenophon, Epictetus, Cicero and
Lucian - with each one common saying.
Of its twenty-nine sayings, ASMSH shares eleven with al-Kindi, that is, only
about one quarter. It seems, therefore, that there was another or some other
additional sources for Abu Sulaiman.
Our author could have exerted influence on his contemporaries, of whom we
only know for certain of Miskawaihi, who associated with him, and perhaps
even taught him a lesson or two .
Recently, doubts have been cast as to the authorship of this book by Wadad
al-Qadi who claims that it belonged to Abu al-Qasim al-Katib, al-(Amirfs
disciple and not by Abu Sulaiman.'?
Diogenes Laertius
Not much is known about Diogenes Laertius, and even his correct name is
subject to discussion. At any rate, he seems to have lived sometime toward the
end of the third century A.D.
His sources are, on the one hand obscure, and on the other hand, very clear, as
he himself quoted some two hundred such works to which he had access and
from which he drew his material. This number however is questioned, although
familiarity is granted to him with the most famous of these works. Some scholars
remark that Diogenes treated his sources not critically enough.w
The book Vitaephilosophorum had probably not been translated into Arabic
in fulJ.2' It marks the end of the Greek biographical tradition-t and is not free of
errors due to negligence or historical mistakes, but is still unique in the kind of
material it provides. The book is constructed in a chronological order, and it
rests mainly on the authority of the third-century writers, such as Antigonos of
Carystus (d . 239 B.C.), but also on later ones, such as Sothion of Alexandria (d .
140 B.C.), or Sosicrates of Rhodes.
lfunain ibn Ishiiq

Hunain ibn Isi).aq,23 perhaps the greatest translator of Greek and Syriac literature
into Arabic (d . 873), was also a writer in his own right. His book nawiidir al-falii
sifah , also called iidiib al-faldsifah, was edited by Merkle.> and was thought
by Derenbourg to have been the basis for the Hebrew translation (HIMF)25
19. Wadad al-QaQI(l981).

20. Hicks, op . cit. Introduction, p. xiv.
21. A. MUller, Griechischen Philosophen, 42.
22. See J. A. Phillip (1959) 185.
23. See also Huna in Ibn Isl}iiq (1975).
24. K. Merkle, Die Sittenspriichen der Philosophen.
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INTRODUCTIO N 17
and by Steinschneider to have started the Arabic tradition of biography-

gnomology.>
The sources of Hunain are not clea r. In HIMF, p. 3 the author claims to have
taken his material from the Greek sources available to him, but even if this were
true, there remains the question of the relationship between him and al-Kindl,
who wrote extensively on Socrates and who was Hunain's contemporary.
Another interesting question is that of the relationship between HISNFM and
HIMF. In some cases HIMF includes sayings that are not quoted in HISNFM
and vice versa. It seems, then, that Derenbourg's supposition is true, at least to a
certain degree . In my genealogical analysis, however, although not in the notes,
HIMF and HISNFM are regarded as the same text. All together, Hunain,
whose father is mentioned as a source by Ibn al-Qiftf.>' reports one hundred and
ten sayings, forty-nine of which it shares with M M H, thirty-three with al-Kindi,
twenty-seven with BHQH, eleven with IAHS and only eighty-two with HIMF.
Ibn Abr Usaibi'ah

Ibn AbTUsaibi'ah-s was a physician who was born in Damascus where he first
studied botany and medicine and later moved to Cairo. Apart from his medical
writings, his main book (whose importance exceeds by far that of his medical
books) is our present source C Uyiin al-anbii' fi tabaqdt al-atibbii', which is a
compilation of biographies of physicians both Greek and Muslim, but also of
philosophers, translators, and other men of science. The book is arranged in a
chronological-geographical and professional order.
Among the sources of this book, which are mentioned as such by the author
himself are Sacid al-Andalusu-? al-Mubashshir Ibn Fatik;30 Ibn Juljul ; Ibn
al-Qifti, as well as Plato's Apology," The variety of sources caused the article
about Socrates to be loosely edited, as the author oscillates between biographical
and gnomological data.v
In fact, IA U belongs to the "main" line of tradition of the Socratic legend in
Arabic, as it draws much from MMH-SRA line, and lends much to YMS.
The book contains one hundred fifty-one sayings and anecdotes about
25. H. Derenbourg, (1898); Other relevant material- M. Steinschneider (1871); A. MUlier(1877);

Gutas op. cit., and also F. Rosenthal (1956) 408, n. 1.
26. M. Steinschneider, Hebr. Uberstzungen 348.
27. IQ 17,16.
28. French translation of parts: B. R. Sangu inett i (1856).
29. IAU 143,11.
30. IAU 143 ,17; 47,9; 47,19.
31. IAU 147 ,13.
32. Biography -143,11-44,12; gnomology - 144, 12- 45, 2; biography again - I 45, 2-47, 8,
and gnomology again - I 47, 8-49, 28.
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18 INTRODUCTION
Socrates, fifty of which are biographical, one hundred and five gnomological.
Only two are exclusive to lAD. He shares seventy-five with SRA and one
hundred with MMH.
Ibn 'Aqntn
Joseph b. Judah Ibn 'Aqnln (d. 1226)was a Jewish disciple of Maimonides and
like him was a native of Spain. Like many Jews at the time, he wrote in Arabic,
and his book tibb al-nafs (Hygiene ofthe Soul) represents faithfully the Arabic
tradition.
This person is to be distinguished from his homonym, Maimonides's disciple
for whom he had written the Guide.
Ibn Juljul
a. Da)fid Sulaiman b. al-Hasan Ibn Juljul was an Arab physician of Spanish
origin who died later than 944. As the Caliph physician, he had compiled his
books, of which the most important was tabaqiit al-atibbii' wal-hukamii'
(written in 987). The book is one of the oldest collections of biographical
material pertaining to physicians ever written in Arabic , and is based partly on
Greek authors such as Galen and Hippocrates, and partly on Latin writers , such
as Orosius (fifth century), Hieronymus and Isidorus of Seville (d. 636). It
contains a total of twenty-one pieces of information about Socrates, out of
which sixteen are biographical and five gnomological. Nine sayings and
anecdotes are singular to it, and the closest sources to it are MMH (with which it
shares eight sayings); HISNFM (shares six) and al-Kindf (shares six sayings).
Ibn Miskawaihi, Ahmad b. Ya qiib

Ibn Miskawaihi was a popular philosopher who died in 1030.33 He studied
philosophy, history, and logic, as well as medicine, a discipline that he studied
with Ibn al-Hammar (d. after 1017).
In philosophy he took a particular interest in the philosophies of AbU Bakr
al-Razf and Jabir b. Hayyan, He knew personally Ibn Sma (d. 1037) whom he
met, although he took no great interest in speculat ive philosophy, but rather
concentrated his attention on ethics (in his book tahdhib al-akhliiq) and popular
philosophy (in his book al-hikmah al-khii/idah). .
k. al-Hikmah al-khii/idah
This book is a vast collection. It starts with Persian sayings, going all through
Indian, ancient Arabic, Greek and ending with sayings uttered by "modern
Muslims ."
33. See A. T. Arberry (1971)and Donaldson, Ethics ch. 5.
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INTRODUCTION 19
Its origins are obscure, although some attribute it to sources such as Ausahng.
The origins of the Greek sayings found here are also difficult to trace, and the
best that can be done is to assemble the individual sources that are known for
every single saying and draw some general conclusions. In any event, Ibn
Miskawaihi seems to have drawn on more than one source, which can be
concluded from the fact that there are cases in which he quotes the same saying
twice, perhaps because he attempted to combine material around single topics
(e.g., a chapter about reticence) .
MMH reports altogether fifty-three sayings, none of which is biographical or
singular to this work. The book's connection with other works is also
demonstrated by its close similarity to the ASMSH branch of the Arabic
tradition, although this was not its only influence (see chart I).
Isocrates
An Attic orator, Isocrates was born in 436 B.C. and died in 338 B.C. This made it
possible for him to have been personally acquainted with Socrates who mentions
him favourably in the Phaedrus, 278 E. This acquaintance may serve only in part
as the reason why his sayings were attributed to Socrates by the Arabs. Another
and a more plausible reason could be the close similarity of their names .
The two essays, To Demonicus and To Nicocles belong to Isocrates's
educational works, but the genuineness of the former has been subject of
controversy.
Twelve of his sayings are quoted by Arab authors: three by MMH; five by
MHH and four by VMS. It seems that either MMH or his source were the origin
of the confusion between Isocrates and Socrates in Arabic.
Al-Kindi, Abu Ya qiib Ishiiq

The first Muslim philosopher, al-Kindf was born in Kufah later to move to
Baghdad to join the court as the educator of the prince Ahmad, He died in
Baghdad about 873 after having fallen from grace with the Caliph.
He had a considerable impact on Islamic philosophy and to a certain extent
on Mediaeval European philosophy as well. Socrates seems to have exerted an
important influence on al-Kindi, as a great number of the latter's treatises (which
total more than two hundred) deal directly or indirectly with him.
Among the titles that deal with Socrates one findsfikhabar fadilat Suqriit (On
the Virtue of Socrates); fi alfii? Suqriit (Socrates's Pronouncementsj.v fi
34. Mentioned only by IQ 374,6.
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20 INTRODUCTION
muhiiwarah jarat baina Suqriit wa-Arshijdnis (On a controversy between

Socrates and Archigenes) ;ft khabar maut Suqriit (On Socrates's death);ftmii
jarii baina Suqriit wal-Hariiniyin (On what took place between Socrates and the
Harraneansj.>
The editor of our text , M. Fakhri, as an introduction to his edition, has
dedic ated a few pages to aI-Kind! and Socrates, in which he claims that al-Kindi
belonged to a chain of traditions that started with Sothion, Antisthenes, and
Alexander Polyhistor, and that goes on to Ibn Miskawaihi, al-Mubashshir Ibn
Fatik and Ibn Hindu.
Al-Kindi's sources are obscure: It is hardly probable that these sources
already existed in Arabic , and al-Kindi's knowledge of Greek has been, at best, a
subject of speculation. Could these have been translated for him personally?
All in all, al-Kindi's var ious writings quote some one hundred seventy-nine
sayings . Only eleven are biographical, and only six are singular to him. It is
plausible to argue that he was one of the first links in the Arabic Socratic
trad ition, because apart from I:I unain Ibn Ishaq and Ammonius, the sources for
material on Socrates known to us in the Arabic tradition are only Greek .
Whether his source or sources were Greek, Syriac, or Arabic is hard to determine.
It is known, however, that some translations were done for him privately, such
as the one by Ustath of the Alfa E/aton of Aristotle's Metaphysics.
MKHAA
This book, which is entitled al-mukhtiir min kaliim al-hukamii' al-arbaah
al-akiibir (Choice sayings of the four great philosophers) has been edited and
translated into English by D. Gutas on the basis of three manuscripts described
in the introduction to the book (p. 56).
According to Gutas, this book, whose author is anonymous, forms a branch
of the tradition of siwiin al-hikmah, probably that of the mukhtasar rather than
the muntakhab (manuscript Aya Sofia 2822).36 Another source traced by Gutas
is taqwin al-siyiisah al-muliikiyah. Gutas argues that our book must have been
compiled after the first third of the eleventh century.
As its title indicates , the book itself contains sayings of the four most important
Greek philosophers, namely Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in that
order. In this edition a remarkable job of tracing the Greek sources, as well as
following the Arabic history of the sayings, has been done .
Of the sixty-nine saying and anecdotes reported by MKHAA, six are
biographical and only four singular to it. In the genealogical tradition, MKHAA
continues the line of ASMSH (with which it shares thirteen sayings), and MHH
35. FIHR 260,4; IQ 374,5.

36. Cf. Dunlop, Introduction to the siwdn, p. xxiii.
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INTRODUCTION 21
with which it shares twelve. It also has connections with other branches as well,
e.g. SRA (sixteen common sayings) and MMH (also sixteen saying s) (see chart
I)
A/-Mubashshir Ibn Fiitik, AbU a/- Wafii'

The author of mukhtiir al-hikam wa-mahiisin a/-ki/am, al-Mubashshir.r' lived
in the eleventh century and wrote his book in the years 1048 and 1049. The book
was edited by 'Abd al-Rahrnan Badawi, but it seems that tracing the history of
the var ious sayings and anecdotes was not the main objective of the editor.
The material in the book is arranged according to philosophers and in most
entries a biography precedes the collection of sayings attributed to each
philosopher.
Th is is the richest Arabic work with regard to the Socratic tradition. The book
occupies a central position in our study, both chronologically and with respect
to its sources, as well as because of its influence. Al-Mubashshir draws on the
various branches of the tradition, such as HISNF and BHQH, making his work
indispensable for any later writer on the subject.
According to Halkin" there is no direct connection between MMH and
HISNFM, as Steinschneider-? and Merkle-v claim, and this is for five reasons:
First, MMH is four times richer than HISNFM; secondly, MMH includes
biographies, which HISNFM does not; thirdly, there are great stylist ic
differences between the parallel sayings in both books; fourthly, not all the
sayings in HISNFM are quoted by MMH and lastly, the order of the sayings is
different in the two books. Halkin's conclusion is to postulate a common source
for both.
Such a source could, of course, have existed . However, in judging MMH all
these arguments do not eliminate the possibility of HISNFM being one of
MMH's sources, reedited by al-Mubashshir. Another possible source, could be
ASMSH.41 Perhaps the double quoting of some sayings should mean that the
author used at least two sources.
All together M M H reports three hundred and seventy sayings and anecdotes:
thirty-nine pieces of biography and three hundred and thirty-one sayings . Only
five of these are singular to it, which demonstrates its popularity with later
37. About this author and his book see F. Rosenthal (1960-61) ; M. Steinschneider (1869); ibid.
Hebriiische Ubersetzungen, 28-29 ; W. B. Henning (1956). English translation - Khan (1961);
A. J. Arberry (1923). Cf. H. Diels, Dox. Gr. p. 288 where references are made to Socrates
through Plutarch.
38. IAHS 31.
39. Hebriiische Uberseuungen 349.
40. Op. cit. 181.
41. Introduction of siwiin, p. xxiii f.
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22 INTRODUCTION
authors. One of the interesting features of this influence is the fact that many
sayings for which I could find no earlier source than MMH are also quoted by
IAHS. It may be that both writers used the same obscure source (see chart 1,
where the two seem to have drawn upon one such original work), which may
explain the secondary connection between MMH and IAHS.
Al-Shahrastiini; Abu al-Fath b. "Abd al-Karirn

Al-Shahras tani was born in 1071 (or 1086) in Shahrastan, a town in Khurasan,
and studied kalarn and the Ash'arite school of Islamic law. He died in his
hometown in 1153, after having spent three years in Baghdad.
His book, al-milal wal-nihal was written in 1127, and it covers both philosophic
and relig ious views, of Muslims and non-Muslims alike in an order that goes
from Islam outward, through Judaism, Christianity, Greek and Indian thought.
In the section dedicated to Socrates, a number of most unclear sayings are
quoted , only some of which the author attempts to clarify. The author seems to
have used ASMSH as a source. but because of the differences in the text
between parallel quotations, one may assume that his was a version different
from the one available to US. 42
ORGANIZATION OFTHE MATERIAL
In order to meet its objectives, the present book is a biography based on a

collection of some eight hundred sayings, anecdotes, and biographies of Socrates
that were current in mediaeval Arabic literature. These will not be quoted in full
in this volume, but rather will be published separately with an apparatus criticus
and an English translation.
This work, however, is not dissimilar to mediaeval biographies and adab
literature on which it draws. It consists of an introduction, a biography and a
section that deals with Socrates's teaching. In the biographical section, a
chronological order has been followed extending from Socrates's parents to his
death. The third part is a description of his teaching according to various topics,
such as ethics, metaphysics etc. , where the sayings to which reference is made are
paraphrased and edited.
Most of the sayings and anecdotes that serve as sources for this book represent
popular philosophy and literature, rather than critically edited material. Yet, I
have chosen to treat the sources as one would treat any other written material,
basically because one may learn from variations in the written tradition much
42. See Dunlop, op. cit. ibid.
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INTRODUCTION 23
about it, although from the point of view of contents, they may add little to our
understanding of Socrates.
STYLES AND METAPHORS
In our collection of sayings use is made of metaphors, and to a much lesser

degree , of similes or examples. The metaphors used are taken from various
fields: some involve natural phenomena such as the sea, light and animals, such
as the wild ass, beasts in general, the scorpion as the snake, fish, horses and so
forth." The world of botany and agriculture too was a fertile ground for
metaphors: certain sorts of behaviour bear certain fruits, e.g., evil is the fruit of
the base soul.r' and wisdom is the fruit-bearing tree,45 while Socrates himself is a
seeder.w Some trees, however, may also be both misleading and dangerous in
that they seem to bear beautiful fruits and flowers, but actually are thorny or
even poisonous. In this capacity they serve to depict wornen.s?
Some nature phenomena do not involve animals: fire, which could be the
source of benefit, serves as a symbol of danger and evil, in particular when it is
used to describe women and speech . The phantom, typical of desert life, is
employed as a representation of unreliability, relevant to the concept of this
world."
Among the artificial, or non-natural metaphors, a very prominent one involves
prison, or lock and key, two similes that are quite popular in Islamic Iiterature.s?
Others involve ornaments (for example for education or reticence), various
kinds of weapons or conflict (to indicate, for instance keeping one's secret) . In
some cases, abstract metaphors, as distinct from concrete ones , serve with
reference to abstract concepts, like the use of medicine as an analogue for law or
money and possessions for the description of human behaviour, education,
wisdom, or friends.v
43. For the sea see KFF 39rl6; light- MMH III, 16; wild ass - SM N 282, 2; beasts in general -
YMS 39v4;snakeorscorpion-BHQH4vI2; MMH 115, 12etc .; fish - MMH 109,3 ; horses
- MMH 122, 17; MKHAA 102,6 etc.
44. MMH 92, 13; 95;10.
45. MPGH 194,4.
46. MMH 91,13. Compare Stob. 2.31.103 who compares educat ion to a fertile field.
47. MMH 115,1; etc. IAU 149,6 etc. Compare also D.L. vi 61.
48. Forfireaswomen- HISNFM 50v5; MMH 114,18. Also compare USS 22/143 . Fire as speech
- IAHS 84,19; the phantom - MMH 104,8. Compare al-Ghazali, if;yii' , iii 204,20; iii 211,7.
49. Cf. Muslim, op. cit. 53,1; TirmidhI, op. cit. 34,16.
50. The prison - MMH 95,1; ASI 83,12. MMH 108,15; lock and key - MMH 108,15; SRA
65v15; IAHS 80,1; ornaments and beauty - IAHS 84,19; MMH 105,12; UMLA 432,12;
weapons and conflict - IAHS 84,1; 80,5; RIMU i 99,13; medicine - UMLA 432,15; IHKR
86,16-87,1; MMH91,11 ; BHQH 13rl2. Money-ASMSH 1. 582; MMH98,1O; MMH98,16;
KAS 30,20. For friends - MMH 108,1.
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24 INTRODUCTION
Beside metaphors, similes and examples abound in the sayings, and they, too,
draw on the same domains: an evil man is likened to a mule;" the physician is a
simile for the wise person.v knowledge is exempl ified by government.v the
educator is likened to a rider,>' and so forth . Some of the similes are explained,»
and sometimes the similarity is only pointed out , without any explanation
given.x
A third kind of explanation is the analogy, e.g., the one that is drawn between
the role of the heart and its place in the body, or the relation between the eyeball
and the eyelid."
One of the most important characteristics of these metaphors and similes is
their anthropomorphism: time is said to advise or prohibit, this world cheats,
death judges, property is a master, and many other such instances. But beyond
the immediate message of similarity between a thing and its metaphor or simile,
a relation of a second order may be deduced between the metaphors: one may
learn about the values attributed to different things from the similarity between
their metaphors. Thus, this world, fate, and death seem very close to each other,
because all share the same metaphors: they are said to be teaching a lesson, to be
deceiving, unreliable, and in fact out of reach of human influence. All three are
in an asymmetrical relation to human beings in the sense that they bear no
accountability to man , while man must act in a certain manner so as to satisfy
God .
The basic form of these sayings is the short sentence. There are, however , a
number of cases where the contents are expressed in lengthy quotations
composed of half sentences. In these cases , the connection between the
components is usually made by means of the conjunction waw , which enables
the "author" or the "transmitter" to add or to subtract as many components as
he may wish to the basic sentence. One such case is a relatively short sentence
and constructed as described : "How calm are the bodies of the righteous...and
how wearisome are those of the sinners ...".58
The present sayings use a number of literary methods and means to convey
their ideas. Among the most common is the question posed to Socrates and the
answer he gives. Out of the total of about 820 sayings, some sixty take the form
5 I. YMS 39v4.
52. MMH 109,5.
53. MMH 123,4. Cf. F. Rosenthal, Know/edge, 328 for Islamic attitude towards knowledge in
connection with political power.
54. MMH 121 ,17.
55. E.g., MMH 104,8; IAHS 106,5; HIMF 18,26.
56. SRA 63r13.
57. ASMSH I. 600.
58. KHNS 22v5.
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INTRODUCTION 25
of a question and answer, which at times is of the simplest form, "Socrates was
asked", and others of a more elaborate form, such as exclamation made by
someone to which Socrates reacts.t?
Another literary form in the sayings is the definition. This form places the
defined noun at the beginning of a sentence, which usually is a short and concise
one . Examples are the definitions of intoxication ('removal of soul and
intellect'j.w the best manner of living,v' the happy person.w and other instances.
Not all the sentences that are of thi s form involve real definitions, but rather they
are often pseudo definitions, e.g., the "definition" of the intellect as a donation.s!
sadness as the heart's ailment.e- or the intelligent person as one who does this
or that. 65 In some cases , the "definition" is but an enumeration of the members of
the group defined . e.g. , "People are divided into two groups : those who talk and
those who keep silent".«
A great number of sayings take the form of an imperative. The imperative may
be either positive or negative, explained or unexplained.e? An example of a
positive explained imperative is: "Think lightly of death, for its bitterness lies in
fearing it".68 A positive unexplained imperative is "Kill the scorpion by
starvation't.w and a negative unexplained imperative is: "Be not an ant at the
time of death. "70 These imperative sayings are fewer than the question and
answer type and only total around ten sayings. Negative explained imperatives
total fifteen," whereas those that are unexplained are again even fewer."
The conditional form is another, very popular way to express an idea in the
sayings. Sometimes the condition is a real one," e.g., "If your countenance be
handsome... " and sometimes hypothetical one, e.g., "If the reticent person gained
only ... ". 74 The conditional sayings, both real and hypothetical as well as those
which have a temporal sense, number around twenty in our collection.
59. MMH 112,8; ASI 120,13; IAU 148 ,18.

60. MMH 109,12.
61. MMH 99,15.
62. UMLA 438,14; Cf. Stob. iv 30,19.
63. IAU 147,29.
64. HISNFM 40v9.
65. MMH 112,19; cf. Stob. 109,5 (von Arnim, op. cit. ii 163,12). SRA 72v4; MMH 97,15.
66. UMLA 236,6.
67. IAU 149,11 ; MMH 117,18; MPGH 415,8; MMH 118,17.
68. KAS 29,13; MMH 213,17; MKHAA 104,1 etc.
69. SMN 282,2.
70. SMN 281,17.
71. E.g., MMH 123,15; BHQH 45v9; and other instances.
72. SMN 282,4.
73. SMN 311,3.
74. MMH 108,2.
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26 INTRODUCTION
Many sayings comprise two parts, between which there is either parallelism,">
contrast, or complement. A sub-group of this form is double parallelism, e.g.,
"He who holds his soul in esteem despises this world with its inhabitants,
whereas he who belittles [his soul], the earth with its inhabitants are important to
him".76
Some sayings, totaling about thirty-five, are constructed as contrasts,"? often
doubly so, e.g., "Whoever worries about this world destroys his soul , and he who
worries about his own soul renounces this world","
Those sayings that have been translated either from the Syriac or from the
Greek original have undergone a thorough linguistic change. Apart from a very
few cases, they do not give away the ir foreign orig ins, in contrast to literary
translations of philosophical or scientific writings. Cases of transparent Greek
background are clearly indicated by the translations. In our sayings, apart from
actually quoting Greek sages by their names, the most typical case of
transliteration involves using niimiis for the Greek nomos. This term, one may
argue, had already infiltrated Arabic so deeply that it was regarded as an Arabic
phrase from a very early time; still, it must be considered a case of transliteration.
One can also judge a Greek origin by a Greek grammatical structure that
shows through the Arabic translation. One finds two such cases: the Arabic
expression hiidhii al-mushiir ilaihil? and the expression lil-ghair, which seems to
stem from the Greek to heteron while the usual Arabic use is li-ghirihi rw
A third measuring rod by which to judge the Greek influence of these sayings
is terminological. There are many cases of philosophical and scientific
terminology that are obviously Greek, but one cannot establish for certain
whether their use is a sign of a direct translation. It could be of a second, third , or
even more remote hand, one that had already forgotten the foreign origin of the
term. Examples are al-khairiaah al-mutlaqah (the absolute good)," bil-quwwah
(dynamis) and bil-fi'l (energeia) (in potentiality and actualityj.v mahiyah
(essencej.v shakhs (individuum) and sitrah (form).84
On the other hand , the source for these sayings, at least from the point of view
of vocabulary, can also be Islamic: the reader will find a number of expressions
75. RIMU II 398,9.

76. H1SNFM 43r9.
77. MMH 96,5.
78. MMH 95,14 .
79. SMN 282,8.
80. SRA 59r8 .
81. AAA9rl.
82. MKHAA 110,13.
83. IG 31,17. See Afnan(l964) 117-120.
84. SMN 280,10.
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INTRODUCTION 27
in this collection that use the language of hadith, For example, the question was
asked by Socrates: "Hal udillukum 'alii al-sharr kullihi?", a style that bears great
resemblance to that of many hadithsr>In one case , the very structure of hadith,
i.e. , the isnad (chain of reporters) and the matn (the body of the I;zadfth) , as well
as its vocabulary (akhbaranii; hadathanii - "we have been told") are used . This
use , although very rare in the collection is indeed significant, all the more so
because it is used by a man like al-Sarraj.w a notable Baghdaian qiiri' who died
in 1106. The first part of our example reads: "Abu al-Qsim 'All b. al-Muhsin
al-Tamikhf reported : Abu 'Umar b. M. b. 'Abbas said: Abu Bakr b. al-
Marzubant? said : Socrates the sage said ..."
Other terms of Islamic nature are dunyii (this world), zuhd (asceticism), i'tiziil
(renunciation), rabb (Lord);88 iilihah (gods);89 dhawi ai-shirk (pagansj.w ziihir
and biitin (outwardly and inwardly; explicit and implicitj.?' sabr (patience) and
shukr (thankfulness), iktisiib al fadii'il (acquisition of good qualitiesj," kabii'ir
(grave sins , a term highly loaded with theological controversy in the early days of
Islamic religious thinking), and also the introduction of the word ta'iilii (may He
be exaltedr" or its equivalents, such as subhiinahu wa-ta' iilii;94 ta'iila wa-
taqaddasa (May He exalted and sanctified j'" tabiiraka wa-ta' iiljj96 following the
name of Allah. There are, curiously enough, a number of sayings to which such
expressions have not been added.??which, of course, does not mean that the use
of such words or lack thereof is th e primary indication, or even a primary
indication as to the originality of this or that saying.
Needless to say that different works express different degrees of Islamization
of Socrates. A case in po int is the account of Socrates's last three days quoted in
the BTH and IQ . Of the se, the former emphasizes the Islamic aspect more than
the latter, employing terminology and even introducing an alleged prayer into
the account.f"
85. MMH 114, I I. See Bukhari, nafaqiit , 6; imiin , 9; Mu slim, Imiin , 93 and so forth. Check
Wensinck , Concordance, ii 141.
86. See GAL S I 594.
87. For him see GAL S II 908.
88. IG 31,17.
89. E.g . BTH 50,15.
90. AAA 6rl3. (See below, p. 89).
91. MKHAA 100,17.
92. MMH 85,3; SMN 281,20.
93. E.g. SMN 279,3; SMN 279,20 etc.
94. MMH 91,5.
95. SMN 280, 16.
96. UMLA 464,2.
97. MMH 266,1; MMH 98,17.
98. See below , pp . 87; 92.
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28 INTRODUCTION
On the other side of the linguistic spectrum, where the similarity of ideas is
pointed out by similarity of words, we can mention Arabic puns of all sorts, such
as the pairs qasir (short)-kathlr (many);"? ba~frah(in sight)-ba~r (eye-sightjt??
and rhymes'?' such as fikr (thoughtj-vzzza» (lifetime), 102 fihii (in her or them)
-hitiimihd (her end) .1 03
There are in the sayings that have served as sources for this book, a number of
common secondary phenomena. In those sayings where Socrates is approached ,
the form of addressing him is usually that of a disciple to his ma ster: "ayy uhii-al-
muallim ("Teacher! "),104 "al-muallim", 105 "al-hakim ,"106or "muallim al-khair"
(teacher of Goodj.t v? Sometimes Socrates is addressed by his proper name ,
"Suqriit ha-telohi' (divine Socrates).108
In cases where Socrates himself addressed someone, he sometimes adopts a
fatherly tone and style by calling the addressee "my son"109 or "sons". Only in
one case! '? is there a reference to his real son, and in one case it is mentioned that
those addressed as "sons" are his disciples. II I
Other sayings, and in fact , most of them, open with man (he who ...). These
add up to about twenty-three sayings , some of wh ich both open with this particle
and contain another one. 112 Some say ings open with y anbaghi (one should ...),
and others, withjadir bi (it is proper that...) .113 A more peculiar opening is that
of mii a.fala (how very ...). This structure serves particularly in the case of sayings
that deal with this world , and amount to twenty in all.
99. IA U 148,13 .
100. FIHR 10,28 .
101. In Ar abic poetry rh yme s o nly apply to the last conson ant of the sta nza.
102. IAU 48,13 .
103. IAHS 100,4.
104. IQ 199,4.
105. REM ii 225.
106. IG 3 1,19; MMH 122,5.
107. IG 3 1,17.
108. KGAJ 302 not e 138.
109. SR A 68r3; 67rI I; KHN S 23v7.
110. UM LA 434,2.
1I I.MMH 103,19; KAM 55r7 ; MMH 103,19; MMH 106,8; MMH 1I 1,1; SRA 67r l l; VMS 40v2
a nd man y other instances.
112. E.g., KHNS 23r2 .
113. MMH 95,8.
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CHAPTER ONE
THE SOCRATIC TRADITION
The stage at which we find the Socratic legend in mediaeval Arabic literature is
an intermediate one. On the one hand the original Greek Socrates, whoever or
whatever he was, as described and alluded to by Plato, Xenophon and
Aristophanes, was vaguely remembered , and on the other hand , some new traits,
entirely alien to him, were added throughout the centuries of the existence of
that legend. Socrates's name seems to have been known to many Arabs, and the
details of his biography were often regarded as an ideal to be imitated.
Some Muslim works looked upon him with a most unfavourable eye for
religious reasons, but this opposition is strong evidence for his popularity and
threat to Islam. The adoption of Socrates by groups foreign to him in religious,
ethical or other cultural views, was rather widespread both in antiquity and in
more modern times . Among the reasons for the fact are the following: first , the
historical Socrates left no writings, which enables anyone to bring to the fore
some information from "a secondhand source." To thi s reason one can add the
image of Socrates as it appears in Plato's writings. Th is image is by no means
uniform. It changes with Plato's age and with the contents of the dialogues in
which it appears.
Plato's portrait of Socrates sometimes reveals either traits of ascetici sm or the
opposite, that Islam would regard as inducing amoral behaviour, e.g., drinking,
love of boys and so forth . Thirdly, most of Socrates's views deal with matters of
everyman's life and actions, beliefs, and ideals . These also form the basic
building blocks of Islam and the other monotheistic religions, and because this
set of ideas corresponds to theirs, the ground is left wide open for adoption.
It is important to put the Arabic stage of the Socratic legend into its historical
and contentual background, to try and pinpoint the origins of the various
components of the legend and their continuations, and also, by falling back upon
foreign influences, to understand those parts that seem incomprehensible within
the Arabic tradition.
THE SOCRATIC LEGEND BEFORE THE ARABS
The beginning of the legend is of course the fact of Socrates himself. Our sources
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30 THE SOCRATIC TRADITION
about the historical man are three: Plato's dialogues, I Xenophon's Memorabilia-
and Aristophanes's Clouds.' Some additional material can be found in Aristotle's
writings,' but here the emphasis is laid more on general ideas; Aristotle even
used Socrates's name as an example in logical statements, without, however
relating him to a way of life.
The second generation of evidence for the image of Socrates is given by the
younger Socratics like Diogenes Laertius. In this generation, much of the
original material has already been altered and a great deal of new material has
been introduced. It is difficult to discern which is a genuine piece of information
that carries historical value and which is merely legendary material, either
invented or adopted .
The image of Socrates as it left Greece on its way to Hellenistic and to later
Arabic cultures had already been sealed with the Cynics'views. As Sayer points
out,' the origin of this Cynic school was probably Indian, which might have
resulted in a kind of a circle, in which Socrates, as a representative of Cynic
(Indian) influence, returns with the Arabs, who carry it to regions like Persia and
India.
The Cynic influence on the image of Socrates has been remarked upon by
Rosenthalv and it can easily be traced in the Arab tradition. Two examples will
be sufficient: one is the anecdote that tells about Socrates preferring the company
of a dog to that of his friends .' In Islamic tradition the dog does not enjoy great
esteem, whereas here the idea is to emphasize the dog's faithfulness to its master,
a quality universally believed laudable.
The confusion of Socrates with Diogenes is another example of Cynic
influence on the image of Socrates, which has passed to the Arabs . Already in
Cynic literature the resemblance between the two personalities is noticeable,
which may perhaps be explained by the practice of transmitting anecdotes from
one philosopher to another. 8 The same practice was later adopted by writers like
Marcus Aurelius." Epictetus, 10 and Lucien II who mention Socrates and Diogenes
I. See Maier , Socrate s, pp. 102-145.

2. See Maier's inclusive chapter about Xenophon's Memorabilia , Sokrates, pp . 13-76. Also see
L. Strauss, Xenophon 's Socrates .
3. Ibid. 77-10 I.
4. See Zeller , Socrat es.
5. Sayre, Diogenes, 41 .
6. F. Rosenthal (1940) p. 388: "Traces of a former Cynic interpretation of the personality of
Socrates which however more pronounced than is jus tified by Greek tradition , but surely they
originated there. "
7. See below, ch . 2, note 94.
8. Sayre, op. cit. pp. 93 and 106.
9. Marcus Aurelius, op , cit. viii,3.
10. Bk. ii, xiii, 24, 26; xvi 35.
II. Loeb , I, 146; 148; 170.
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THE SOCRATIC TRADITION 31
together as do Luganus Demonax'" and mediaeval Christian writers such as

Abelard.'! In our texts, the mixing of Socrates with Diogenes is manifested inter
alia by the attribution of the barrel as a lodging to the former, instead of
Diogenes.
A similar phenomenon of confusing two different philosophers is that of
Socrates and Hippocrates. In many cases , sayings that are attributed to one are
also attributed to the other.I- but unlike the former case , Arabic script ma y be
held responsible for this one . Socrates's name in Arabic is Suqriit and that of
Hippocrates is Buqriit; the consonant B being very similar to S in Arabic,
especially when written negligently.
For the church fathers, Socrates was an important personality, and the
legends about him and his views were quite widespread 15 as were sayings
attributed tohim.
Much seems to have been translated into Syriac from late Greek literature.
Unfortunately, most of the translated material involve the fields of medicine,
philosophy, and science more than gnomologies, although some works like "A
Short Dialogue between Socrates and Erostrophos"1 6 have survived. The few
cases where sayings of Socrates were indeed translated are recorded below in the
relevant notes. Of those, Porphyry 's History exerted a great influence on
Hellenistic, Syrian, and Arab attitudes toward , and knowledge of Greek
philosophy. Except for a small number offragments, thi s book was lost, but it is
qu ite often mentioned in the writings of Arab historians, such as Ibn al-N adlrn
and Ibn al-Qiftl. The latter author even testifies that he personally saw that
book's fourth part, 17 which was translated int o Arabic by al-Hasan b. Suwarl ''
and used by Ibn AbTUsaibi' ah .!? In any event it seems plau sible th at a certain
Greek gnomological collection did ex ist that had served th e Syrians and / or the
Arabs as sources for their knowledge. P
Apart from the Syriac branch of the tradition, a Per sian one may also be
considered , as G. R ichter>' and Ro senthal-? maintain, falling back to Ahmad b.
12. Op. cit. 58.

13. See Abelard in Spi egelberg, op . cit. p. 51.
14. E.g. pp . 127; 150; 151; 174; 281.
15. For details see below, "So crates as a religiou s person ality". Cf. T. Dam an . op , cit, and Benz
( 1950- 51).
16. Ed. de Lagarde in Analecta Syr iaca, Ge rma n tran slat ion by V. Ryssel in th e Rheinisches
Museum (n.s.) vol 48, pp. 175-1 85.
17. Ib n al-Nadirn , Fihrist , 253, 13; 256, 13.
18. See Dunlop (1957) p. 87 and Ibn al-Nadirh, p. 245.
19. IA U 13 8,42.
20. Wach sm uth shares th is supposi tio n. See Halk in, op. cit. p. 37, n. 45.
21. G. Richt er, Studien, 100.
22. F. Rosenthal ( 1940) 389.
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32 THE SOCRATIC TRADITION
Nasrallah al-Qatawr's History ofPhilosophers (d. 1588). However, it is difficult

to establish whether this author quoted an original Persian tradition used by the
Arabs or one that used the Arabic material.
TRANSMISSION
That it was Greek material concerning Socrates that passed to the Arabs needs
no elaboration. The interesting questions, however, involve the means, the
people, and the circumstances connected with this transmission.
The present book will not study the Arabic Socrates in a systematic
comparison with the original Greek material, nor will it approach the topic from
the point of view of modern research . First, Greek historians have hardly been
translated into Arabic, except for some passages from Plato. Xenophon, as F .
Rosenthal has shown.P was known to the Arabs, but there is no mention of any
translation of his writings extant. Aristophanes's Clouds, where Socrates is
alluded to, is never mentioned in Arabic literature, to the best of my knowledge.
His name is only quoted once or twice, but not in his capacity as a comedy
writer.e On the other hand, names of some gnomologists, such as Diogenes
Laertius, Stobaeus and other compilers have come down to the present day in
Arabic literature. As we shall see, their books may have served as sources - -
directly or otherwise, for the Arabs.
This difference of manner of transmission may be accounted for, at least in
part, by the different backgrounds of the Arab writers. The stories that appear in
Arabic tradition say that Socrates was brought to trial by "the king". This detail
may serve as an example of the Arabs' misunderstanding caused by their lack of
historical and political information on the Athenian political system. In Athens,
the archon in charge of the judicial system carried the title "basileus," i.e. "king,"
which may explain the use of the noun in Arab ic.t' The same unfamiliarity with
the Greek systems lie at the basis of the other stories about Socrates's trial with
regard to the number of judges, witnesses, his march towards the place of
execution (which is very reminiscent of Jesus Christ's Via Dolorosa) and other
anecdotes of that sort. To this factor another has to be added, namely, the
historical distortions transmitted from late antiquity to the Arabs. These
distortions ra ise the question of whether all the sides of the "Arabic" Socrates
are indeed original to Arabic sources or whether are they wholly or partly Greek
10 ongm.
23. F. Rosenthal, Das Fortleben, index .

24. Rosenthal , ibid.
25. lowe this explanation to my teacher, S. Pines with gratitude.
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BIOGRAPHY 65
throughout the empire, that at least in one case, some of his sayings were even
inscribed on Islamic public buildings of religious nature in Samarqand.r»
With regard to Socrates's religious position in Athens , the tenth century
Islamic philosopher al-Farabl had an original view, as described by Strauss: 154
"AI-FarabI interprets the thesis of the Apology (with special regard to 20d7) in
this way: Socrates says to the Athenians that he does not deny their divine
wisdom , but that he does not comprehend it, and that his wisdom is human
wisdom only.... According to Averroes's interpretation of the Socratic saying, as
quoted or interpreted by al-FarabI, that specifically refers to the divine wisdom
based on, or transmitted by prophecy. "155
These points lead us to think that Socrates, according to this group of
anecdotes, was conceived of by some Muslim writers as a prophet, or at least, a
true believer, and thus as setting an example for Muslims. Jabir Ibn Hayyan
went further in describing Socrates's religious feelings and deeds : "Socrates who
had passed a [negative] judgement on Zeus, and thus neared truth... "156
As was the case with some Christian writers.I>? Socrates was "adopted" by
some philosophers as a "Muslim," hence the use of this particular religious
terminology. In a way, then , "monotheizing" Socrates by the Muslims had a
tradition to fall back upon in early Christianity.
In his trial Socrates was also charged with corrupting the young, as Plato
records in the Apology . In the Arabic version of lkhwan al-Safa', however, the
charge is somewhat modified :
He had manifested asceticism in this world with its comfort and pleasures,
and aimed at the happiness of the spiritual world ('iilam al-arwiihs, its
place and odor. He encouraged people to embrace [the spiritual world]
and preached to them against living in the world of becoming and
annihilating. A group of young princes and dignitaries responded to him
and formed a party of young men and children of comfort in order to listen
to his wisdom and his marvelous, exquisite sayings. Then, a group of his
opponents, and of those who preferred this [false] world with its beauty,
envied him and accused him of love for boys, claiming that he had shown
contempt toward idol worship, and ordered the young to do the same .
153. Cf. V. A. Shishkin , op. cit., pp. 25-6; 61, where a description of some edifices in Samarqand is
given, on which sayings of Socrates's are quoted . I am grateful to Ms. Roya Marefat for the
reference. Unfortunately I could not get hold of the art icle myself.
154. Strauss, "al-Farabi's Plato", p. 407 note 41.
155. For al-Farabfs theory of prophecy, see R. Walzer, Greek into Arabic.
156. HGPK 187,16.
157. See e.g., Lacatanius, Divine Institutions, 5,15: "Socrates tried to overthrow the old religion
and was thrown to jail for his pains."
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66 BIOGRAPHY
Then they brought the case before the king, where eleven men gave false
testimony against him, saying that he had deserved the death sentence. He
was then detained for several months while his execution was being
considered.P"
The above story hints at Socrates being suspected of homosexuality. That

according to Arabic tradition such suspicions were fairly widespread in Athens
is also suggested by the following anecdote, related by Ishaq Ibn Hunain:
AI-KindT relates that a young, handsome Greek nobleman by the name of

Alcibiades, said : "I used to love philosophy, and therefore I would frequent
Socrates. He would look at me, while teaching others. It then occurred to
me that he wanted from me what is wanted from a handsome young man.
Thus, I searched for stratagems in order to see death with him (?), and
offered myself to him. He said to me: 'Whatever made you do this?' to
which I answered: 'My wish for your wisdom.'
He turned to me and said : 'My son, do not seek the wisdom of him whose
precious wisdom is such as [to do] this base deed . He who advocates
virtue, but practices vice is no wise man . The beauty of your countenance
is for others, but that of your soul is for yourself. Therefore, do not
disparage that which is yours, lest you emerge deprived of all your
virtues. "'159
This story is clearly based upon what Alcibiades relates about himself and
about Socrates in Plato's Symposium . 160 This information about Socrates as an
educator of the young nobility had by no means been invented by the Arabs , for
besides the information provided by Plato, Aeschines the Orator also presents
this image of Socrates, but with no hint at homosexuality. 161
In the Islamic trad ition, the religious point of view, namely, that of explaining
Socrates's life and behaviour in religious, even Islamic terms, plays an important
role . This is especially true in the story of Socrates's trial, and in that context
even in dealing with the charge of "corrupting the young." The religious aspects
are important in the Greek version of the trial, although naturally no form of
monotheism is evident in it. Quite the opposite: the accusations generally
158. al-Qazwinl, athar , 382 (in the Beirut , 1960 edition ~ p. 569,9). On educating the aristocracy,
see Aeschines, I 173 (Loeb Classical Libra ry), where he accu ses the Athenians of executing
Socrates for his having taught Critias, one of the thirty-one anti-democratic lead ers . For the
accusation of Socrates as a homosexual, compare Plutarch , Moralia , Fortune of Alexander
328 A (Ferguson , op . cit. p. 220 no. 9.1.1.12): "Socrates accepted Alcibiades as his bedfellow."
159. KKS 21vll ; MKHAA 100,7.
160. Plato, Symp. 214a-223d .
161. Aeschines , Against Timarchu s, 1.173 .
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BIOGRAPHY 67
involved Socrates's advocating a different kind of paganism from the traditional

one. Xenophon reports the charges as follows: "Socrates offends against the
laws in not paying respect to those gods whom the city respects, and introducing
new deities. "162
DEATH
Perhaps the best-known story about Socrates concerns his death, which enjoyed
the same fame in the mediaeval Orient as it did in antiquity. This story is the
culmination of the man's personality, both by Greek, and in a peculiar way, also
by Islamic standards, although we shall see that there is a difference between the
two. First, the Arabs disagree about Socrates's age at the time of his death: Was
he really one hundred years of age ,I63 or only eighty.Iv' (an age with which
Guthrie agrees)?165 Or perhaps, as Ibn Abi Usaibiah elsewhere establishes, his
age at his death was seventy years: "I say, in Plato's book entitled Socrates'
Apology to the Athenians, which relates Socrates's speech, I have found the
following : 'I (i.e. Socrates) have never attended a court of law previous to this
occasion although I have reached the age of seventy.T" This apology, which
took place between him and the Athenians, occurred shortly before his death. "167
As to the details of Socrates's last hour, the following story is told by Ibn
al-Qifti in the main tradition.w but before he quotes Plato, he makes the
observation that:
the king said [to the eleven judges]: "If I were to kill Socrates publicly my
prestige will suffer. Both my subjects and my neighbors will consider me a
fool , because they all hold the man (i.e . Socrates) in great esteem and he is
well known everywhere."
The judges then said : "Let us contrive poisoning him while you detain him
for some time." The king then arrested Socrates, and he remained in
prison for several months.!»?
Now follows the main story:
162. Xenophon, Mem . 1.1.1. Tertullian also reports the religious charges, See Harnack, Sokrates,
17,3.
163. MMH 91,3; IAU 147 ,12; SRA 57r2.
164. FIHR 245,20; IAU 147,17.
165. Guthrie, op. cit. vol 3, p. 66.
166. Plato, Apology, I7c.
167. lAD 147,13; See Plato, Apology, 17 D and St. Johannes Bonaventura's estimate of Socrates's
age at death at ninety-nine (in his "Fifth Sermon on Several Martyr Saints", Opera Omnia, xiii
60 B).
168. Ibn al-QiftT(199,16 -206 ,5l and with some variations that will be pointed out to , BTH .
169. IQ 199,12.
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68 BIOGRAPHY
{IQ 199,16}Socrates's friend, Phaedon, was asked what was the reason for
Socrates's long detention after the judges of his town, Athens, had passed
a capital punishment on him.
{Phaedo 58a} Phaedon answered the person who had posed the question,
whose name was Khiqriitis (Echecrates)'?? thus: "Echecrates, it was like
this: when the judges passed their verdict against Socrates, the stern of the
ship, which is sent annually to the shrine that is called the shrine of ir'iin'?'
had already been wreathed. {Phaedon 58b5} Once they wreath {IQ 200}
the stern of the ship that carries whatever it does!" to that shrine, no soul is
to be destroyed, neither by bloodshed or otherwise until the ship returns to
Athens. By chance, the ship came on its way against something that
prevented it from proceeding, and therefore Socrates's execution was
delayed for those months until the ship completed its voyage (lit. left)"173
{IQ 200,5} {Phaedon 59d I} Phaedon said : "We were a group of his friends
who would frequent him and come all together when [it was still] dark,
and when the prison's gates would open we would enter and spend with
him (i.e. Socrates) most of our day . One or two days before the return of
the ship, I came when it was still dark and met Crito who had already
arrived . When the doors opened we entered together and went up to
Socrates.!" We approached him and Crito said to him : {Crito 43d l' 75
'Tomorrow or the day after tomorrow the ship arrives.l'" Time is getting
short!?? and we have made arrangements to pay money for you to those
people so that you can escape secretly to Rome 178 and stay there, where
they have no access to you . {Crito 43E}'"
I70. The Arabic vers ion starts with an indirect voice, whereas the Greek is in the form of a dialogue
between Echecrates and Phaedo.
171. In the Phaedo (58a) the shrine is only specified by its location, namely Delos, rather than by its
name. The Arabic probably transliterates the Greek ieron - holy , sacred .
172. The Arabic omits the details of the ship's cargo (Phaedo 58b).
173. The parallel M M H-IAU-SRA version reads : "The factor which delayed Socrates' execution
by months after the passing of verdict was that the ship, annually sent to Apollo's shrine,
carrying to the latter whatever it did , was gravely hampered by unfavourable winds , causing it
that delay of months. And it was the Athenian custom that no blood or any other thing (?)
should be shed until the ship has returned to Athens from the shrine ."
174. Phaedo 5ge3 mentions the delay of the group's visit that was cau sed by the eleven judges who
had been at the time with Socrates.
175. The parallel M M H-IA U-SRA version reads : "During all that time , his friends would frequent
Socrates in prison, until one day they came to him and one of them, Crito, said to him... "
176. The time mentioned is the same day rather than the next , as is the Arabic version . However , the
difference may be explained if Socrates's dream is taken into account, that predicts that he
would "come to Phtia on the third day ."
177. The reference to time is missing in the MMH-IAU-SRA version .
178. The place Cr ito mentions as a refuge for Socrates is Thessaly rather than Rome as is the Arabic
choice .
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BIOGRAPHY 69
Socrates then said to him: "It is well known to you that my possessions do
not amount to four hundred dirhams. Besides that, the abandoning of
which is prohibited prevents one from taking such a step."179
Crito then said to him : {Crito 44d} "I did not mean that you should pay
anything, because we know that you cannot afford the sum demanded by
these people. We , however, can afford it and many times as much. P? and
we will be very happy to give [the money] away for your rescue, so as not to
suffer the loss of you. "
Socrates said to him: "Crito, this town, in which I have suffered what has
been done to me, is my town and the town of my kind , and in it there has
come upon me, at the hand of my own people what you see, [namely] my
death sentence.w' This has not come upon me because of anything [I did
to] deserve it but because of my opposition to injustice, evil deeds and evil
doers . 182 This state which has brought me death, stays with me wherever I
go . I shall not cease to side with truth and to oppose falsehood and the
people offalsehood wherever I am. The Romans are more remote from me
in descent than the people of my own town. If indeed the reason for the
state of affairs [in which I am now] is siding with truth wherever I go , then
I am in no safer position there than I am here. No one of them (i.e. the
Romans) would ransom me because of[common] descent. "1 83
Crito said: "Then think of your children and famil y, and about the
frightful loss they will be exposed to and ha ve pity on them if not on
yourself. " 184
Socrates replied: "In Rome the y will meet the same fate , the difference
being that here the y stand a better chance not to perish, with you around.
Tell me, {Crito 50a}Crito, had the law (niimiis) assumed a human form
and sa id to me: 'Is it not through me that your parents joined each other, I
who saw to your education and I who ha s regulated your life? Would I
deny these claims or say the truth , which is admitting them? {Crito 50 d }'"
He (i.e. Crito) said: "No. Say the truth."
Socrates said: "Would it still be justice if, being wronged by someone you
should wrong another person? Can I possibly say 'yes'?"
Crito said : "We can not say 'yes '."
179. The present sentence is lackin g in the MMH-IAU SRA version.

180. In the MMH-IA U-SRA versio n the d isciples' resources o nly amount to twice as was needed
for the bribery. It seem s tha t the paragraph refers to Cr ito's point th at the disciples a re willing
to ta ke great risks on behalf of Soc ra tes "a nd even worse, if necessar y." t Crito 44b ).
181. The death sentence is missing in the MMH-IA U-SRA version.
182. The MMH -IAU -SRA version add s "who disbelieve in the Crea to r, may He be exalted, and
who worsh ip idols rath er than Him."
183. Th e last sentence ab out the ransom is lacking in the MMH -l AU-SRA version.
184. Havin g pity on himself -lacking in M MH -IA U-SRA.
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He said to him: "And what if it (i.e. the law) would say to me: 'If [indeed]
the elevenjudges have wronged you and passed an undeserved judgement
on you (lit. apply to you that which you do not deserve), [is it justifed] that
you should wrong rpe and pass an undeserved judgement on me? (lit. apply
to me that which I do not deserve)'; Can I say 'yes'? {Crito 5Ia}"
Crito said : "No, you can not. "185
Socrates said : "And if it (i.e. the law) should ask [me]: 'Is then your
abandoning your compliance (~abr) with the judge's verdict abandoning
the Law and opposing it or is it not?' Can I maintain that it is not
abandoning the Law and opposing it?"
Crito said : "No, you can not."
Socrates said to him: "Then, I am not allowed to wrong the Law [even] if
those judges have wronged me. "186
The discussion continued over this issue between them at length and Crito
said to him: "If you wish to instruct [me] with something, do so now,
because the moment is getting close ."
{Crito 43d} Socrates said : "So it seems, as it was indicated to me in a dream
I had before you came in. "187
{Phaedo 59d6} As it was the day for which his execution was scheduled, we
came early as usual. 188 When the governor of the prison came and saw us
he opened the door and in came the eleven judges, while we were waiting
by the dOOr. 189 They stayed with Socrates a long while, then left after
having broken his chains. 190 Afterwards the prison warden came to us and
said: "Come in".
We went in. He (i.e . Socrates) was on a bed .'?' We greeted him and sat
down. When we settled down, 192 he got up from his bed and sat down with
us, lower than the bed. {Phaedo 60b I} He uncovered his thighs, rubbed
and anointed them, and said: "How marvelous is the divine ordinance
(siyiisah) which has combined opposites. For there is hardly any pleasure
not followed by pain, nor pain not followed by pleasure. Pleasure has
substituted in us the pain caused by the weight of the fetter. "19 3
185. Cf. Crito 48a ff.

186. Cf. Crito 50 A ff.
187. The whole paragraph that brings forth the argument of the Law as well as the detail about
Socrates's dream are lacking in the MMH -IAU-SRA version. From this location on, the
MMH-IAU-SRA version recounts the story in the third plural voice.
188. The MMH-IAU -SRA version : "On the third day his disciples came to him ..."
189. " While we were waiting by the door" is lacking in MMH-IAU-SRA.
190. In MMH-IAU-SRA - "had the chains removed from his legs."
191. This sentence is missing in MMH -IAU-SRA.
192. Ibid . 59 E.
193. Phaedo 60a . The saying is almost a n exact translat ion , but the sentence "Pleasure has
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This statement brought a conversation about on the soul's actions, and

then about the soul (!) [which continued] until a sound, penetrating
conclusion had been reached concerning all that he was asked about on
the topic. [All the while] Socrates's demeanor was as it had been in his
happy, merry, and gay days under other circumstances (lit. placesj.t'"
We all marvelled at his sternness and his strong defiance of the calamity
that has crushed us with regard to him and to his departure. Us it has
touched and wholly consumed , but him it did not divert from fully
exploring the truth in its proper place.i'" None of the qualities (akhliiqihi)
or states of mind iakhliiq nafsihi) which he had possessed before being
threatened by death has disappeared . 196
Simias then said to him [after having] held back his question: "Pressing
you with questions in this state is most disturbing (lit. heavy burden) to us
and is a vile abomination.!?? On the other hand , refraining from doing so
must mean [for us] a grave loss tomorrow in addition to the loss from the
earth of him who answers our queries fully (lit. what we seek)."198
Socrates said : "Simias, do not cease insisting on anything you want, for
your insisting on that is what makes me happy. There is no difference as
regards insisting on truth between this state and any other. Carryon, then
with exploring the truth ,'?' because even if we lose noble, dear, and
eminent friends and companions, as long as we remain sure and faithful to
the things we profess we shall still be led [after we die] to other {IQ 203}
eminent, noble, and dear friends , among whom are Achilles (Asiliiiis) ,
Homer (amiirus),200 Heracles (araqlisy, and the rest of those who have
passed away and who had virtues of the soul. "201 He then went on to
mention a number of other names as well.202
sub stituted in us the pa in cau sed by the weight of the fetter" is lacking in th e MM H-IA U-SRA
version .
194. Presumably the writer mean s the long debate concerning the immortality of the soul and its
pre-existence, Phaedo 64a-84d. The MMH -IA U-SRA version is identical.
195. The MMH-IAU-SRA version has "despise of death" instead of the last paragraph, starting
with "calamity". The MMH-IAU-SRA version : "On the third day his disciple s came to him... "
196. The MMH-IAU-SRA version has here "while th ey were most grieved and sad because of his
[imminent] departure."
197. MMH -IAU -SRA - "unbecoming to friendship".
198. Phaedo, 84d. Identical MMH -IAU-SRA version .
199. MMH-IAU-SRA lacks "Carryon , then with exploring the truth." In Phaedo 62e Socrates
"seemed to be pleased with Cebes' persistence" rather than with that of Simias.
200. MMH-IAU-SRA has Ajax (ajas) instead of Amarus.
201. Ibid. 63 B. This idea , virtually verbat im, is used by Abu Ha yyan al-Tauhldl as he tells the
following anecdote ir isiilat al-hayiih; 85,5): "I heard one of the ascetics saying at the time of his
death , while he was looking at the faces of his friends and comrades who attended his bed :
'How hard it is to take leave of one 's friend s.' So I sa id to him : 'If you are sure of meeting your
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{Phaedo 108d ff.} When the discussion about the soul ended and they203
reached the goal they had sought, they asked him (i.e., Socrates) about the
structure of the world and the [views] that he had about this issue .204
He said: "We believe and also made it clear that the earth is spherical and is
surrounded by the spheres, that are concentric and surround each other
according to their size . Their motions are as is publicly known and you
have heard it from us . [However] Other people come forth with different
descriptions."205
He then told other long stories about the topic which were brought up by
those Greek poets who dealt with divine matters, such as Homer, Orpheus,
Hesiod, and Empedocles.ws
Next he said: "In what we have said concerning th e soul and the structure
of the earth and spheres we have not deceived or said anything untrue . As
for the inve stigation of those other things, it is not for a wise man to
undertake. "207
{Phaedo ll5a} When th is was fin ished he (i.e., Socrates) said: "Now, I
think, it is high time to take a bath,208 so that we do not burden the
women-''? with washing the dead, for 'the matter is di sintegrating' (a/-amr
jiinin)210 and we are passing to traas.»: You , on the other hand , will be
going [back] to your families ."
{Phaedo 116a} Then he rose, entered a building, washed .u- staying long,
friends to whom you ar e goin g, do not be sorry for these friend s th at you ar e leaving . If,
howe ver , you ar e not sur e of th at , do not be sorry [about the fr iends], but rath er torment you r
soul by so rr ow for it, becaus e it has passed away , and you pass awa y along with it.'"
202. MMH-IA U-SRA omits this last remark .
203. Th e IQ report returns from here on to the th ird plural voice as is th e case in the MMH -IA U-
S RA version.
204. MM H-IA U-SRA goes into detail: " the motions of the spheres and the composition of the
elements."
205. T he whol e det ailed account is lacking in MMH -IA U-SRA.
206. Th e M M H-IAU-SRA version has " He answered them on all th ese points and then told them
man y stories about metaphysics and divine secret s" instead of the detailed account. Compare
Phaedo 107b-IISa. It seems that thi s rem ark of the Arabic writer refers to the myth about fate .
207. Th e M M H-IA U-SRA version is: " When the discus sion about th e soul ended a nd the y reached
th e goa l they had sought, they asked him (i.e., So crates) about th e structure of the world , th e
motions of the sph eres and the composition of the elements . He answered them on all thes e
point s a nd then told them many stories ab out metaphysics and div ine secrets."
208. MMH -IA U-SRA has here an addi tio nal phrase: "a nd to pray as much as we can ."
209. MMH-IA U-SRA has "anybody" instead of " wome n" here.
210. Compare Phaedo liSa. Th e Ar abic text is almost an ex act transl ation of the Greek . In the
MMH-IA U-SRA version th e word is amarmiini. that is a tr ansliter ation of th e Greek
heimarmene and as thi s is the subje ct of the sentence (not needed by the IQ version), its second
part is " has a lready called us."
211. Probably Tartarus. M M H-IA U-S RA has "Z eus" instead of trails.
212. MMH -IA U-SRA adds here "and prayed."
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while we 2l3lam ented the great calamity that had fallen upon him and upon
us in losing him , a wise sa ge a nd a merciful father , after whose departure
we wou ld be left orpha ns.t '-
Afterwards he ca me out was hed, a nd called fo r his ch ild ren , one older and
two you nger, and for his wives. He took his fare wells from them, exhorted
them a nd dism issed th ern.U>
{I Q 204 } Crito th en as ked him: " W hat instructions do you lea ve us about
your family, your children and the rest of your affairs?"216
He said: " I order you nothing new but what I have always done in the past,
namely, to make efforts toward ameliorating yourselves . Doing this, you
will make both me and any body else who follows my way s, happy."
Crito said to him : "What do you in struct us to do with you when you are
de ad ?"
So crates laughed , then he turned to the group and said: " C rito here does
not believe any of the things he has heard from me . [He does not believe]
that the person wh o is now speaking [that is], whom he [himself] will be
addressing from tod ay on is [the true] Socrates. Nor does he realize that
that which he is going to bury (lit. do) is but the cor pse of Socrates. Now I
think that I am dep arting from you within an hou r, and if you find me ,
Crito, do with me whatever you wish ."217
{Phaedo ll6c}The serva nt of th e eleven judges then ca me close to Socrates
a nd sa id to him: "Socrates, judging by your conduct I have watched, you
are not liable-!" to be a ngry with me fo r ordering you to ta ke the potion,
which is an ine vit able obligatio n.U? You kno w th at it is not I who is the
213. Th e text renews the use of the first plura l voice.

214. Phaedo 116a.
215. A passage in the Phaedo thai co rrespon ds to th is part of the Ara bic version is 116b . Onl y here
not "wives" are menti oned but rath er "the women of the family". Acco rding to D.L. ii 26,
however, Soc ra tes did not have wives.
216. Phaedo [15b .
217. Phaedo ll5b. Th e MMH -IA U-SR A version has " He then fell silent for a long while, and so did
all of them" inste ad of the whole par agraph .
In a dif ferent context (p. 478,7 - (5), BTH does refer to this part of th e conversa tion: (Phaedo
115c2}: " Soc rates said in th e Phaedo , when asked by Cr ito abo ut the manner in which he
sho uld bury him: 'D o it in whatever way you like , if you have power ove r me and I have not
escaped from you.' Th en he said to th ose aro und him: 'Guarant ee me to Crito against the
gua rant ee on my beh alf which he has given to the j udges; for he has guaranteed that I shall
remai n after [my] death. I sha ll rath er depart, so that it will be easier fo r C rito when seeing my
corpse being burnt or buried , a nd he sho uld not fea r, no r should he say ' It is Soc rates who is
going out, being burnt or buri ed.' You, Crito, may remain ca lm about burning my bod y, and
thu s do that as you wish, but certai nly acco rding to the laws.'"
218. hurri. The MMH-IAU-SRA version has jarr i' , i.e. courageous . In Arab ic th e two words are
call igraph ically close.
219. The last sentence is lacking in M M H-IAU-S RA.
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cause of your death, but the eleven judges are,220 and I am compelled to
carry out orders. You are by far the best of those who have come to this
place. Drink, then, the potion in good spirit, and bear patiently with the
inevitable. " Having said this, his eyes filled with tears and he left the place
near Socrates where he had stood .!"
Socrates said then: "We shall do that. "222 And addressing us he said:
" What a nice man! He would come to me frequently ," and went on to
describe him as virtuous in his conduct.P!
{Phaedo 116e}Then, turning to Crito, said to him: "Tell the man to bring
my death potion ifhe has already grinded it, and ifhe has still not done, let
him grind it well and bring it forth."
{20S} Crito said to him : "The sun is still over the wall and you still have
part of the day . "224
Socrates said to him: "Speak to the man so that he brings the potion."
Crito called one of his slave-boys who , after listen ing to him left quickly,
and soon afterwards came back in accompanied by the man who held the
potion. He (i.e. Socrates) looked at [the man] as a magnificent bull looks
at something which is frightened by it. He then extended his hand and
took [the potion] from [the man] and addressing him asked : "Can you
spare a portion from this potion for another person?" and the man said:
"We only grind from it a measure that is sufficient for one person."
[Socrates] said to him : "You know what should be done once I drink.
Instruct [me]."
[The man] said :"After having dr ank it you on ly need to walk about. When
you feel that your feet are heavy , lie down ."225
Hav ing seen him drink it, we could not hold back our grief and tears and
cried loudly. Socrates turned towards us in reproach and reprimanding us,
said : {Phaedo ll7d} "We have dism issed the women in order to avoid this
kind [of crying] , and here you are crying louder than them."226 {Phaedo
ll7c I Then I hid my face while weeping strongly for myself because I was
220. Ibid. 115 B. Othe r Arabic versions speak of twelve ju dges or of one single judge.
221. lbid. 116d. Th e expression " the place near Socra tes where he had stoo d" is lacking in
MMH-IAU-SRA.
222. MMH-IA U-SRA adds here "a nd you are not blameworthy."
223. Socrate s's react ion to the prisoner is substitut ed by "H e next kept his silence for a time" in the
MMH -IA U-SRA version .
224. Socrates's remark about th e grinding of the poison , as well as Crito's repl y are lacking in
MMH -IA U-SRA.
225. The parall el paragraph in M M H-IA U-SRA is: " And Crito said to the boy: 'Call the man .' He
called him a nd he ent ered br inging the potion with him, and Socrates took the potion from him
a nd dr ank it."
226. MMH -IA U-SRA omits the phrase "and here you ar e crying louder than them."
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about to loose such a friend as him .227 We then fell silent out of shame
from him, and he started to walk to and fro for a while, after which he said
to the servant: "My feet are heavy ."The servant instructed him to lie down
and started to touch his feet asking: "Do you feel my touch?" To which
Socrates answered: "No." Then he touched him forcefully asking him
again the same question and [again] he answered "No."
Then [the servant] touched his thighs asking him every now and again the
same question, to which Socrates would answer "No". We watched him
freezing slowly; and his cold intensified until it reached his loins. Then the
servant, touching him [again] without him feeling the touch 228 said: "When
the cold reaches his heart he will die. "229
{Phaedo 118a} Socrates said to Crito: "Asclepius has a cock with us. Give
it to him and expedite it." Crito said to him : "We will do so, and if you
want anything else, tell us. "230
He did not answer and his {IQ 206} eyes were fixed .>" Crito closed
[Socrates's] eyes and fastened his jaws.P?
This is the story of Socrates, our friend, nobler than whom we know of no
Greek [man] in our time .
Echecrates said to him (i.e. Phaedo): "Who was present?"
He said : "A large group of Socrates's friends ."233
He asked him: "Was Plato present with you?"
[Crito] said: "No. He could not attend because he was i11."234
This Arabic version of the story seems to be a combination of some parts from
the Phaedo, a paraphrase of the Crito, and some other Greek sources. One might
227. MMH-IAUcSRA reads: "they stopped out of shame, in obedience to him in spite of their great
sorrow in losing such [a man]."
228. The MMH-IAU-SRA version reads : "Socrates did and the boy started to rub his feet asking:
'Do you feel my touching them?' to which Socrates answered: 'N 0 . ' Then he touched his ankles
and asked him every now and again the same question , to which Socrates would answer 'No'.
He then began to praise God, may He be exalted, and slowly his cold intensified until it reached
his loins ..."
229. Ibid. 117 C.
230. MMH-IAU-SRA has thefollowing instead of the present text: "Crito said to Socrates: 'Master
of wisdom, I can only see our minds left behind by yours, Thus tell us [what to do].' He said :
'You must do what I have told you before. 'Then he stretched out his hand to Crito and put it on
his cheek, and Crito said : 'Order me what you wish', but Socrates did not answer. Then
Socrates lifted up his eyes and said : 'I entrust my soul to the keeper of the souls of the sages' and
died ."
23I. Phaedo I I8a .
232. IQ 199,16; MMH 86,5; IAUI 458; SRA 52vIO.
233. Phaedo. 59b.
234. See IAU 145,5.
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even risk an assumption, unfounded as it may be, that this text represents an
"anthology" of the type of "Socrates's Last Days".235 The most important
quality of this account is that it leaves philosophy out and concentrates on the
personal-human parts of the story.
Comparison
The reader of the Arabic version of the story can not avoid comparing it with the
original Greek story. Some points are worth mentioning. The introduction to
the Arabic version is of a more general character than the Greek, partly because
the form of the story is not the original dialogue, but rather a regular prose
account, riddled with pieces of dialogue.
In his an swer to Echecrates, Phaedo in the Arabic version does not refer
explicitly to chance being the cause for the delay in executing Socrates as he does
in the Greek.Ps
Furthermore, Plato's account starts with a quite detailed report about the ship
that was sent annually to Delos from Athens. All the se details, except the one
dealing with wreathing the stern of the ship are lacking in the Arabic text .P? It is
against this background that adding th is particular detail can seem peculiar. The
Arab author also found it necessary to mention the name of the shrine to which
the ship was sent from Athens. In fact its name is quoted in two versions in the
Arabic, whereas the Greek text only names Delos as the destination of the vessel.
While Plato explains the custom that prohibits any public execution in
Athens during the time when the sh ip was still on its journey to and from Delos
by a state of purity,238 the Arabic version curiously draws no parallel with the
same custom that was historically well known to the Arabs.P?
In the Greek version {Phaedo 5ge5}, when the disciples arrive on the last day
at the prison, the jailer does not admit them immediately, but rather tells them to
wait, because the eleven are at that moment taking the chains off So crates. The
Arabic version implie s that the disciples arrived before the eleven judges and
then waited while the judges entered and left; the jailer is also not quoted as
ask ing them to wait.
In the Greek text, the names of Socrates's visitors on his last days are
individually mentioned, while in the Arabic text they are not. The names would
235. E.g. Plato , The Last Days of Socrates, Translated with an introduction by H. Tredennick ,
Penguin Books, Baltimore 1965.
236. See above, p. 68. Phaedo 58a6.
237. Above, p. 68. Phaedo, 58aIO-58b2 .
238. Phaedo 58b5.
239. Quran, 5,9: "When the sacred months are over slay the idolators wherever you find them ."
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BIOGRAPHY 77
mean very little to Arab readers, with the one significant exception, of course,
Plato, whose absence is marked and explained at the end of the Arabic version.
{Phaedo 59a6}.
The notification of Socrates about the arrival of the ship from Delos and the
proposal to free him from prison that is originally recounted in the Crito, is
inserted by the Arab author into the story that follows the Phaedo. On this issue,
Crito's elaborate approach to Socrates {IQ 200,9} is paraphrased in the Arabic.
Also, Socrates's reply that describes his dream on which he based his ant icipation
of death for the next day is only quoted after the entirety of the Crito is
paraphrased. {Crito 43e}.
The Greek version of the suggestion put forward to Socrates to smuggle him
out of prison and out of Athens offers more details than the Arabic. Thus, Plato
names the people who were willing to finance the escape {Crito 44d}. Also, the
place Crito mentions as a refuge for Socrates is Thessaly rather than Rome (as is
the choice in the Arabic version) {IQ 200,11}. The Arabic account skips Crito's
argument that Socrates is playing into the hands of his enemies {Crito, ibid}, and
separates his elaborate argument about the welfare of the master's children from
his main speech, placing a pale version of it after Socrates's answer to the
original proposal {IQ 221,3}. On the whole , the impression one gets from IQ is
that the arguments in favour of Socrates's escape are far surpassed by those
against it.
In the Arabic text, Socrates opens his reply with a financial consideration; one
that is mentioned only by Crito in the Greek text. Socrates's first point in that
story, then, is a general philosophical argument that is omitted in the Arabic
{Crito 46b-46c}. This omission is in keeping with the Arabic emphasis on the
biographical and exemplary roles of the story rather than the philosophical one .
Simias's apology for pressing Socrates with questions about the immortality
of the soul is formulated differently in the Greek where it is fully elaborated, and
Arabic, where it is merely referred to . In the former {Phaedo 84d4-8}, he first
expressed his wish to get an answer from Socrates and then points out that the
very posing of questions may be improper under those particular circumstances.
Also, in the latter, the second point is ment ioned first , and the first put
second .
Next in the Crito comes Socrates's dialogue with the laws {Crito 49a}, whereas
in the Arabic text Socrates's view that alternative havens will fail to provide him
defence and freedom precedes it {IQ 200,16-221,2} .
The IQ version of the dialogue itself is different from the original Greek . The
initial point made in the Greek was dropped from the Arabic, namely the law's
accusation that Socrates, by escaping would be destroying the law itself. {Crito
50a-50d}. Further, the original argument concerning a citizen's obligation in
principle towards law and country is not mentioned in the Arabic paragraph
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78 BIOGR APHY
that d eals with the laws as providing for one's education {IQ 20 I,7}. T he detailed
Greek de scription of education is not refle cted in th e Arabic. The last, and very
signific ant, omission in the Arabic versio n is th at of the agreement that is arrived
at bet ween the state and the citizen on the basis of which the state is run.
Ikhwan al-~afa)240 and al-Qazwlnt--! quote a vers ion of the story of Socrates's
death wh ich is much shorter than that of IQ and which revol ves around the
d ial ogue between th e condemned philosopher and the law . Th e rest of th e details
are only there to supply the contex t for the dial ogue.w
So me seve nty ph ilosopher s, both sup porte rs and op po ne nts , ga the red in
his pri son cell to di scu ss his views and th eir beliefs regardi ng t he so ul, its
im mo rtality after it ha s left th e bod y and its virtuo us [st at e at th at time].
T hey all argued with him , and he exp ress ed his view abo ut the immortality
of the so ul and its virtuou s state afte r its taking leave fro m th e body. (This
story is reported in length in a book.)
It was said to him: "Since yo u ha ve been wron ged , wo uld you like us to
save yo u fro m death by mean s offi na ncial ran som or escape?" He sai d : "I
am afraid that th e law might say to me to mo rrow: 'W hy have yo u escaped
my judgemen t, Socrates?'"
T hey sai d : "Tell him th at you have been wro nged."
He sai d : "A nd how d o you th in k I sho uld answer th e law if it asks me: ' Do
yo u th ink th at if the judges and th e eleven witnesses wronged you who
bo re fa lse witness against yo u, you m ust wrong me an d escape my
j udgement?' '' By th is argume nt he silenced them .
O ne ought to know , t ha t accordi ng to th eir (i.e . t he Athenians) religio us
law (shar i' ahv, if the wit nesses (' udii f) te stified agai nst so me one that a
j udge me nt is passed against (!), he m ust su bmit himself[ to the law] even if
he be wro nged. Those who fail to do so are them selves co nsidered offe nders
of th e law, i.e., the sharrah.
Soc ra tes th erefo re submitted him self to th e law, saying " Whoever is in
co nte mpt of th e law, the law [sh ould] kill him. " Wh en he took th e heml ock
to drink it, th ose philosophers and sages aro u nd him cried over him out of
grief, but he said to th em : "Do not cry, because, altho ug h I am departing
fro m yo u, noble breth ren sages, I am going to [other] brethren of ours,
wise, noble and virt uo us: So a nd so and so and so have already preceded
us." a nd he enume ra ted a gro up of ph ilosopher s [and] sages who had died
befor e him.
240. Ikhwan al-Safa ' , vol. 4, p. 99.

241. Qazwmt , lahar, 569, I I.
242. T he sa me story in a very con cise sty le, one th at emphasizes even mor e th e main issue oft he law
is repe ated by IS, vol. 4, p. 34, and a seco nd version - ibid. IV 73, 13.
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BIOGR APH Y 79
The y (i.e. tho se attend ing Socrates's cell) said: "We are crying for oursel ves
in losing a wise father like yourse lf."
The version of Soc rates's death th at is quo ted by MMH, IAU and SRA does
not at all refer to the dialogue with the law.
A rep ort of Socrates's preferen ce for stay ing in pr ison rath er th an fleeing is
related by Ibn Juljul, and it is a very sho rt text: "S ocra tes had heard of the king 's
intention to kill him, but he did not escape." Thi s versio n offers no real
explanation for his staying in pr ison , exce pt for the genera l view th at death is a
preferable state to life because man's situation after death is more perfect. 243
The IQ version returns to the Phaedo at 59d7. When the disciples are
allowed in the y alread y find Xanthippe with her little son in the room. Ibn
al-Qifti only brings her in after the lengthy conversation th at took place between
the philo sophers {IQ 203,18}. It is here too , that Xanthippe is sent home, and
unlike in the Arabic version , no other wife or child are ment ioned in the Greek
story in this place . Later, however {Phaedo 116b I}, when Socrates calls his
famil y into his cell, th e Greek text spea ks of "the women of th e household,"
while th e Arabic speaks of his "wives, " a point that has a Greek basis, since
Socrates did indeed have twO.244
A significant pa ssage in th e Greek dialo gue {Phaedo 60c} is missing in the
Arabic one , namel y, both Cebes's qu estion concern ing Soc rates's hymn s and
poetry and Socrates's answer to him. The conversation about suicide 245 and
Crito 's warn ing against ta lking before drink ing the hemlock are also omitted.
Thi s om ission seems stra nge, because th e pa rt in which Socrates spea ks loudly
about death is also missing.>" altho ugh th is mot if of the ph ilosoph er's eagerness
to die is stressed in the sayings att ributed to him .247
Another major omission from the Ar abic refer s to Phaedo 64a- 84a. Ho wever,
the editor of the Arabic account omitted it delib erately, summing up the Greek
con versat ion in a single sentence, describing it as "a discourse concerni ng the
soul." In the original discussion , the subjects are varied and imp ortant: the
philo sophical need to die , the nature of death , th e qu alit ies of th e philo sopher,
the immortality of the soul and the proofs for it, the theory of recollection, and
the tr ansmigration of the souls to the bod ies of var ious animals. These omission s,
that are taken up by MMH-IAU-SRA disjo intedly from th e main tr ad ition, are
243. IG 31,3.
244. T here was Myrto who m Soc rates married after (o r before, as so me claim) , Xan thippe. See
Zeller, Soc rates, 57,4.
245. See F. Rosenth al (1946).
246. Th ere exists a more detailed accou nt which is almost a tran slation of a releva nt pa ragraph in
MMH-IA U-SRA (cf. below the paragraph s on death and the soul.)
247. See below, the paragrap h on death .
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ill-advised, because their contents are most relevant to the background against
which this conversation was conducted. These matters have been probably
omitted because the Arab author regarded them as ideas in conflict with Islam.
Even though the text that was translated for the Arabic author may have already
been edited before him in Greek or Syriac, the same considerations for criticising
the omitting of those paragraphs would still hold, because in th e final account,
this is the text that the Arab editor chose to present to his reader.
Socrates's philosophical autobiography, including his views on numbers,
opposites, and the immortality of the soul {Phaedo 95e-I08d} are also
disregarded by the Arab editor.
While the Greek text puts the exchange between Socrates and Cr ito over the
proper thing to do with Socrates's corpse before Socrates's taking the bath
{Phaedo lI5bl-116al}, the Arabic vers ion of IQ has the order reversed {IQ
203,9-204,9} . The other account, namely that reflected by MMH, lAD and
SRA does not mention this point at all. However, the matter was taken up
separately by some authors, e.g. al-KindI:248 "It is told that Socrates's disciples
said to him while he was in prison: 'Master, what are your instructions regarding
your corpse when you die?' He said to them: 'Let him who needs the place and
must get the corpse out of his house take care of it ." According to yet another
version "Let him who needs to clean the place concern himself with it. "249
The MMH-IAU-SRA version also omits Crito's imploring Socrates not to be
hasty in drinking the hemlock, as the day was not yet out {IQ 205, l}. It also
disregards Socrates's offer to the servant to leave some of the hemlock for
others, and his request for guidance about the process of death.
The Arabs-w name the poison taken by Socrates as qun iont» This poison was
indeed used by the Athenians as a means of execution. The Arabs must have
found its name somewhere other than the Phaedo, because there it is not
mentioned. It is, though, in the Lysis ,m in Aristophanes's Frogs,253 and in
Xenophon's Historia Graeca.l» but in none of these is it mentioned as the
poison that brought about the death of Socrates. The only reference where the
koneion is mentioned in our context is in Diogenes Laertius's Lives .t» In add ition
to other existing evidence, one may conclude then from th is detail , that
248. KAS29,16.
249. IG 31,4.
250. lA U 145,9.
25 J. Cunium maculatum.
252. Lysis, 2 19 E.
253. Frogs, 124.
254. Xenophon , Historia Graeca, 2.3.56.
255. Lives, ii, 35 and 42.
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Diogenes's Lives was known, either directly or indirectly, to those who imported
the story of Socrates into the Arab world.
According to some Arabic sources, the method of death by poison was chosen
by Socrates himself. This privilege he was granted due to the king's bad
conscience about his giving in to the demands of his court. 256 According to
another version, Socrates was offered the choice between being killed and
drinking poison. The philosopher chose poison, drank it and died. 257 In this
account no reason is given for the offer, and further, it curiously implies that
"being killed" was understood by the Arabs to mean some Greek method of
execution different from "drinking poison". I have been unable to find any
explanation in the Arabic sources of what method they supposed was involved.
The same 'choice is also reported by YMS,258although no other details are given
there either.
There are some significant differences in the story concerning the words
addressed to Socrates by the servant of the eleven who brings the poison. In the
Greek version {Phaedo 116c}, the servant first expresses his opinion that Socrates
will not be angry with him as other condemned prisoners are. Then he points out
that Socrates is the kindest of those who have been in prison. Only thirdly does
the servant make his remark suggesting that it is others that should be the proper
target of Socrates's anger. In the Arabic version, he starts by complimenting
Socrates for his courage, then clears himself of any blame for Socrates's death
and thirdly describes him as the kindest of all prisoners. But in both versions he
closes by enjoining Socrates to "bear the inevitable" and by starting to weep.
Socrates addresses his disciples, saying that they have yet to wait to make their
journey, i.e. to die, while he is called upon by fate now . Then he says he will have
a bath to spare the women, or according to the MMH-IAU-SRA version
"anyone",259 from washing the corpse. In the Arabic version, the statement
about taking a bath comes first ; moreover, the allusion to the universality of
death is missing. Socrates goes to Zeus, being called by the Armamiini, obviously
an Arabic transliteration of the Greek heimarmene (fate) , while the disciples will
go back to their families .
In a separate passage which corresponds to the Greek text in 84d8 ff.,
al-Btrunt quotes one of Socrates's statements concerning death: "Socrates said,
while expressing very little apprehension about [his] execution but [instead],
happiness about his going to his god: 'N 0 one among you should esteem me less
then he esteems quqnus, which is said to be the bird of'Apollo of the Sun.' It is in
256. IAU 145 ,9.

257. YMS 38r8.
258. YMS 38r7.
259. IAU 146,16.
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this capacity that it (i.e. the quqnus) knows the unknown. When it senses its
death, it sings much out of happiness and joy, because of its going to join its
master. My happiness about my going to my master is no less than that of this
bird . "'260
Last Words
Socrates's last words are recorded in the IQ vers ion rather faithfully. But not all
the Arab reporters are as faithful to the Greek origin, some for misunderstanding
the custom of sacrificing the cock, and some, perhaps, for pay ing little attention
to its importance. Thus, at the end of MMH-IAU-SRA version, instead of the
traditional statement, Socrates is reported to have said that he entrusts his soul
to the keeper of sages' souls and dies .26 1
The original statement even held a religious significance for some. In a
well-known medi co-philosophical controversy between two phy sicians of the
eleventh century, Ibn Butlan and Ibn Ridwan, the former asserts: "The cock was
held in great esteem in the religion of the philosophers, to such a degree that
Socrates, before dying, ordered a slave to slaughter one in Apollo's shrine, for it
was sacrificed in the shrine of the stars. [The cock] was highly esteemed in the
religions and worshipped by the Manicheans, no doubt because of some virtue
of it that made people worship it. "262
Further on in the same correspondence, the following passage serves as a
rebuttal of the above opinion: "The fact of sacrificing a cock is no prooffor its
being worshipped, as the lamb is not worshipped in our religion (sharf'ah) which
has ordered us to sanctify it. The thing highly esteemed according to Socrates's
words , if the story is taken as true at its face value, is Apollo. If, on the other
hand , [this story] is not true, which is the case, the proof collapses anyway. As
for his word s 'highly esteemed in the religions', I wish I knew which religion held
a cock in great esteem. "263
Another version of the story is that reported in the k . al-tuffiihah (Uber de
Porno) , which, as a rule has Aristotle as the main character, rather than
Socrates.w-
A far echo of the event is related as an anecdote in which Socrates took the
opportunity to educate people about desires after having been asked about the
cock.265
260. BTH57,18.
261. MMH 90,13; IA U 147 ,6-7; SRA 56v9.
262. IBIR 37,27; Cf. MKHA A 112,11; SM N 282,16.
263. Ibid. 45,3.
264. Cf. Badawi , Platon .
265. See above, not e 262.
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Finally, the sacrifice was attributed to Hippocrates by al-Biruni, who should

have known better, and who also proceeded, quoting Galen, to explain the
choice ofthe cock as the preferred animal by its better meat relative to that of the
goat. 266
Socrates was also credited with leaving a testament for his disciples:
At the time of his death, Socrates willed nine things: (I) Teach your nature
to be content with little from the beginning of its [acquiring] knowledge,
because with every addition [to the minimum] you will know thankfulness
and your life will improve. (2) Do not take any agent for a servant except
your own heart. (3) Time must not be trusted to deal with you acting
unjustly as it does actingjustly.w' (4) Do not underestimate a small matter
which comes upon you, because it is liable to grow. (5) Raise your friend in
love, as a youngster is raised, but do not expose your friendship to him all
at once, because once noticing a change in your [attitude toward him] he
will respond to you with enmity. (6) Avoid anger, for it destroys manliness,
causes shame, and destroys honour and virtue. (7) Behave lovingly. (8) Be
content with treatment according to requital, thus your soul will escape
unharmed from doers of evil and approach doers of good. (9) Do not
blame anybody for things you do yourself; otherwise you should refrain
from doing that for which you blame others. 268
Alternatives
There exist, however, alternative accounts of Socrates's death, such as the report
found in a number of sources, including IA U, where it is related side by side with
the longer version.w? The whole story is told in one sentence, the main points of
which are the opposition Socrates provoked in the ruling circles of Athens, who,
in turn compelled their king to kill him.
A version that is even shorter than this is quoted in the Fihrisu uv "The Greeks
killed him because he opposed them, and his story is well-known." Yet another
short account points out Socrates adherence to truth as the reason for his
death.!"
266. BTH 26,1.

267. "Time" had in mediaeval Arabic literature among other connotations, that offate. It is in this
sense that the word is used here.
268. MMH 125,14.
269. AAA 6rl3; IAU 143 ,13; SATU 23,3.
270. FIHR 245,22.
271. BTH 19,2.
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Anecdotes that are pure invention and bear no connection whatever to the
traditional Greek sources also abound in Arabic literature. Some of them merely
relate little details . Thus, the conversation between Xanthippe and Socrates, as
the latter faces execution, proved to be a very popular theme in Arabic as well as
the late Greek tradition: "He asked his wife, when he was taken out to be
executed, having seen her crying: 'What makes you cry? ' to which she answered :
'How can I refrain from crying when you are going to be killed unjustly (tuqtalu
masliimanfl' He said : 'Would you rather that I should be killed justly?"'272 This
anecdote is found in some late Greek sources of which the forgoing Arabic
version seems to be a fair translation.s" It should be noted however, that the
Arabic expression qutila mazliiman ("killed unjustly") has strong Islamic
connotations. It is used by the Prophet himself in the Quran- t- e.g., it is used to
describe the death of "Uthman, the Caliph whose murder is a cornerstone in
early Islamic history, and over which Muslims have been strongly divided .I"
Although this term is very indicative in Arabic, one author explicitly used
"murder" to describe the fate of our philosopher.F"
Another anecdote relating to Socrates's last moments is the following, which
occurs in the Mukhtiir and hints that there was evidence that might have saved
the sage :
It is told that Batil and Fatun the Sophists, crossed his path while he was
being taken out to be executed . They were on their way to a person who
was to pass judgement about a problem of Sophistry which they had been
discussing when they heard a man among the onlookers saying [to
Socrates]: "Whoever has condemned you to death, Socrates, has caused
you injustice."
272. MKHAA 96,9; KAS 29,7; al-Jahiz, mahiisin , 17,14; BMM 425,12; MMH 121 ,14; al-Husari,
jam' al-jawiihir, 280,11; IG 31,8.
A diffe rent version - HISNFM 68,12. IQ's version (199,1) does not make use of the term
mazliiman and instead employs bi-haqq (rightfully).
See Gutas op. cit. 300-302. BHL S relates in his Syriac version th at Socrates was taken to be
crucifi ed when a woma n approached him and started a conver sation.
273. D.L. ii 41,36. Another version - STER. 178/478 . This story was popular in antiqu ity, cf.
Tertullian, "A Treatise on the Soul " in vol. iii of Ante Nicean Fathers 181-2. In the Middle
ages - St. Johannes Bonaventura, " First Sermon on St. Agatha, Virgin and Martyr" in:
Opera Omn ia xiii 530b.
Other writers who mention the story are Alex and er Aphrodisias On Sophistical Refutations
180b17; Var ius Maximus 7,2 ext. I; Xenophon, Mem . 5; STOB . vii 75. The basic idea behind
this anecdote is that it is better to suffer injusti ce th an to incur it. See Plato, Gorgias,
474A-476.
274. Quran, 17,23: "If someone is killed unju stly we give authority to his next of kin ."
275. Cf. IAHS 120,21.
276. Agapiu s, 'unwiin , 89,5.
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Socrates then said: "This man's argument cannot possibly be other than
either mockery at us, or is meant to hurt us, or [the man] is in possession of
[additional] evidence, or this man is a troublesome drunkard."
The man thereupon was asked what it was all about, and he was indeed
found to possess evidence. Socrates then said: "How much in need are we
that his evidence be accepted as credible, but no evidence may be accepted
from anyone upon whose head there are lies." And that man who possessed
the evidence had had his hair dyed with henna. Fatun then said to his
colleague : "If only Socrates had been our judge, [he] who has made this
just distinction in spite of his awareness of the proximity of death, we
would have feared neither a mistake in his opinion nor injustice in his
verdict. "277
Interestingly, the Islamic attitude toward dying one's hair seems to have been
positive, among other reasons because it was the habit that distinguished the
Muslims from Christians and Jews. 278
Ever since Socrates's death reasons have been sought for his behaviour. One
answer that has been given is that he preferred death to an inhuman life. Ibn
Rushd went further and drew a wider conclusion from the case of Socrates:
The reason is that if the ultimate purpose of anything for which it was
brought into being disappears, there is a difference between its
nonexistence and its existence, Therefore, Socrates preferred death to life
when he saw that it was impossible for him to live a human life. Since every
individual is brought into being only to be part of this state, so that it may
carryon some of its work, death will be better for him than life, in the
absence of such as advantage from him [to the state]. 279 Not only says Ibn
Srna, did Socrates make his choice, but he never complained about his
fate, for he thought it to be merely a matter of chance .28o
277. MKHAA 98,4. Se Gutas , op. cit. 304-6 where a reference is made to Aelian, Varia Historia
(Hercher vii 20); STaB. iii 12,19. The name Batil in Arabic may mean "vain", "false". Fiuun
could mean "clever", "astute".
278. In the Islamic tradition neither dying the hair, nor the use of scent is regarded unfavorably. See
Ibn Sa'd iii.i 133,25-136,3 who tells that the Prophet had said: "As the Jews and the Christians
do not dye [the ir hair], you should do the opposite." (Bukhari, anbii' 5; libiis 67; Muslim, libiis
80. Tirmidhi, libiis 30).
See also al-Tabarsi, makiirim, where whole chapters are dedicated to the subject, e.g., 87,10;
88,15; 89,10. See also al-Tha'alibl, al-amthiil wal-muhadarah, 137,8, where Alexander is
reported to have said to an old man whose hair was dyed: "Having dyed your white hair, how
will you dye your age?" Cf. also RIMU ii 334,16, a relevant anecdote about Plato.
Cf. also al-Jabalani (d. 561 H.), al-ghunyah, i 16, who opposes dying one's hair black, but
accepts henna for the purpose. See now Juynboll (1986) for this topic .
279. ISSM 361,10.
280. IRPP 37,31. The translation is by E. I. J. Rosenthal, 138,15.
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The fact of Socrates's unjust execution continued to have a profound

philosophical influence long afterward. According to Syriac sources, it even
influenced Aristotle: "Until frightened by the execution of Socrates, he, i.e.
Aristotle, fled from Athens and stayed near the Hellespont. "281 The fact that this
story (though well-known in Greek) does not occur in any Arabic source known
to me justifies, to my mind, the combining of the Arabic and the Syriac
traditions, because the former seems to have drawn much of its information
from the latter.
Conclusions
Let us summarize the main features of the various Arabic reports about
Socrates's death. First, it is noteworthy that among the stories told about
Socrates, this story seems to be by far the most significant one for the Arabs, as it
has been for others. This significance originates from the symbolism of his
voluntary death, the good spirit with which he welcomed it and his firm belief in
an after-life, all of these being beliefs also shared by various streams of Islam .
There are two main versions of this story reported in Arabic literature: IQ and
MMH-IAU-SRA. Each amounts to being a summary of Plato's Phaedo and
Crito , with some discernable differences. Neither of these is a direct translation.
Nor is either a complete one; as the philosophical arguments of the Phaedo are
largely omitted in both. However, the IQ version is closer to the Greek original,
Phaedo and Crito, than the MMH-IAU-SRA. This biographical paraphrase
may perhaps be an original Arabic work or, it could be an Arabic translation of
an existing Greek or Syriac summary of the dialogues.
The third version, a variant of the main tradition, given by Ikhwan al-safa',
al-Qazwint and Ibn Juljul, concentrates on the subject of the possibility of
Socrates's escape . This version is mainly based on the Crito, but without any
sign of direct translation. The point of this version, particularly emphasized by
Ikhwan al-safa', is the necessity of obeying the law in all circumstances.P"
The main and perhaps only goal of all three accounts seems to have been to tell
the story of Socrates's last moment, as part of depicting him as an example of a
brave and ethical human being rather than as a philosopher.
Many differences between the Greek text on the one hand and the various
Arabic versions on the other hand, are clearly due to an Arab hand. The reason
is, probably, fear of influences on the Arab Muslim reader. This concern for its
audience accounts for some of the omissions in the Arabic texts, such as
281. The Syriac Vitae Aristotelis as cited by Chroust, (I 965) 31 ff.

282. IS IV 73,13.
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BIOGRAPHY 87
Socrates's hymns to Apollo (Phaedo 60c), the myth of the soul's transition to the
other world (Phaedo I08d), Socrates's last words about the cock offered to
Asclepius (Phaedo ll8a) or the prayers offered by Socrates before his death.
These authors must have been reluctant to connect Socrates in any way with
paganism.
One should also take into account the absence of faithful translations of
Greek texts into Arabic, which could account for some of the differences
between Greek and Arabic versions. The religious feeling expresses itself in
additions within the Arabic texts, such as "the divine ordinance" added to
Socrates's words about pleasure and pain (60b) as well as changing his last words
to "I entrust my soul to the keeper of the souls of the sages. (i.e., God)."
The Arab's lack of information about the Athenian form of government,
institutions, beliefs and , to some degree, the language of the land also accounts
for some changes . For instance: speaking of the Athenian "king", describing the
eleven archons as judges, omitting the name of Aesop (60b), transliterating
Heimarmene and so forth .
SOCRATES AS A RELIGIOUS PERSONALITY
The role Socrates played in mediaeval Arabic literature is not unsimilar to the
one he played in the literature of early Christianity.w' In both his was set forth as
a paradigm of religious and ethical conduct.
Not only is there a parallel between Socrates's stance within Christianity and
Islam , but one may even conclude that at least in some Arabic works Socrates
was roughly likened to Jesus . Socrates is reported to have said and done things
on his way to the location of his execution (I). Such is his encounter with the
adulterous woman,284 which is reminiscent of Jesus's crucifixion between two
thieves , or his conversation with a talkative person. In most Arabic sources,
however, Socrates's death took place in prison, as it is told in the ordinary
tradition.
Socrates was compared to Jesus,285 or alternately, he was said to be one of
"those who have lived in conformity with reason (or the world , who) are
283. The same holds true for Pythagoras too. See J . A. Phillip (1959) 186 and Isidor Levy,
Pythagoras. E.g. HIMF 21,7. See also below, p. 255.
284. E.g. HIMF 21,7. See also below, p. 151.
285. A far echo of the affinity between Socrates and Jesus may also be found in our sayings, where
in at least two cases Socrates is credited with ideas which appear in the Bible: HIA 5,1I as
compared with Math. 6.1 and HISNFM (mss. Miinchen) 41r2, as compared with John 12,25.
See Origen, Contra Ce/sum, vi, 56 where he actually identifies the two. Cf. also Calvin,
Epistula Pauli ad Timotheum, bk. i. vi.
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Christians even if they have been accounted atheists."286 There were, of course,
those who looked upon this comparison unfavourably, e.g., Marcus Aurelius,
who said: "[Socrates] died consciously and earnestly whereas Jesus died blindly
and boastfully."287
The comparison was not restricted to antiquity. In the seventeenth century,
the contrast enjoyed popularity, and a century later, people felt they had to take
a stand for or against Socrates.v" Even as late as 1928, the sentence "Socrates
reached an arm's length toward Christ. It was only an arm's length, but it was
toward Christ" was published .w? True, another view was also held : "Qui, si la vie
et la mort de Socrate sont d 'un sage, la vie et la mortd de Jesus Christ sont d 'unt
Dieu. " 290A third view held that the death of Jesus was much more difficult than
that of Socrates.
We shall see that a similar idea existed in Islamic literature: Socrates was
looked upon through religious eyes. Thus, that he was referred to as "a
prophet"291 and as a "deistic philosopher", (or perhaps "metaphysician" or
"theologian") (I)aklm muta'/lih),292 must not surprise us, as Plato himself
associated him with the "voice" that talked to him and the super-natural power
of the demon that assisted him 293 Indeed, it is the "Ancients" who are said to
have taken Socrates, along with Plato and Aristotle, for prophets, and they
viewed prophecy as comprising both practice and theory.294 Not only was he
regarded as a prophet, but he was also considered a law-giver, the Arabic term
used in this context being sharii'i' ("religious laws").29S We shall also see the
influence that he exerted along with other Greek philosophers on Islamic
mysticism. P"
Two sets of evidence may be discerned here: one is "circumstantial" and the
other is contentual. Under the former, one may reckon the stylistic and linguistic
286. Ju stin Martyr, First Ap ology , 46.

287. xi, 3, p. 294- 5 in Loeb 's editi on .
288. See B. Boehm , op . cit.
289. J ohn A. Scott, Socrates and Christ , p. 52.
290. J . J . Rousseau, Emile, 380.
29 I. Socrates and other Greek philosophers as prophets, in Ibn Sina, tis' rasii'il, 85, as referred to by
E. I. J . Rosenthal, Political Thought , 146: .....who like their secrets in their books in theform of
allegor ies...". Socr ates was specifically referred to as a prophet by the Greeks, as al-Idrtsr
reported in his book k . anwiir 'ulwiyy al-ajriim fi al-kashf 'an asriir al-ahriim, (ed. U.
Ha armann), Wiesbaden / Beirut, 1989(Beiruter Texts und Studien), pp. 156,9. I am grateful to
Pr of. Haarmann for the reference .
292. See e.g., al-Balkhi, op . cit. iii 8, I and Marquet, La Philosophie, 462. Also, al-Shahrazurt, in his
introduction to al-Suhrawardfs hikmat al-ishriiq, 5,12.
293. See Plato . Theages, 128 D, and also Dodds, op . cit. 193.
294. al-Balkhi, at-bad', III 8,1.
295. AbU Hayyan al-Tauhrdt, ~ii'ir, i 451,14.
296. See Suhrawardt, al-gharbah al-ghribah , 16 as quoted by al-Nashshar - Shirbtnt, Usiil, 227.
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evidence. Expressions and language are used that render Islamic connotations
to matters concerning Socrates. A special case is where sayings are attributed to
Socrates that elsewhere are attributed to the Prophet or to other Islamic
personalities.
A vast body of Socratic sayings use Islamic terms, but one could argue that
this usage only rendered the content more familiar to the Muslim reader, an
argument that could have carried weight had it covered all such cases in
Socrates's biography. Here, it seems, the use of terms such as asniim (idols),
shirk (polytheism), tahdhib al-akhliiq (improving of one's qualities) only comes
about in order to suggest a likeness between Socrates and Abraham. Another
quite suggestive term with which Socrates is cred ited is khiitam ahl al-hikmah
al-dhauqiyah (the seal of the school of mystical wisdom), which is inevitably
associated with Muhammad, who was khiitam al-ianbiyii' (the seal of the
prophets), a use that cannot possibly be accidental. Socrates was also reported
to have sought refuge in a mountain cave, another of the Prophet's customs.t??
Another linguistic "co-occurance" is related to Socrates as having been unjustly
killed (kutila mazliirnani, an expression that was originally reserved for
describing Caliph 'Uthman's murder.
Socrates was asked by his disciples to record his wisdom in writing. The term
they used in the anecdote being qayid 'ilmaka (lit. "tie down your knowledge'), is
of a definite Islamic character.r"
One could go further and scrutinize simple and seemingly innocent terms,
such as dunyii (this world), Allah (although translating 0 theos as Allah may
indeed reflect no more than a habit), zuhd (asceticism) and others. But it seems
that this would be pressing the point a bit too far , because after all, some terms
have had the fate of being adopted by Islam, but that does not mean that they
have been stripped of all their basic previous connotations.
Metaphors and similes that have a typical Islamic connotation can also be
used to judge the degree to which Socrates was turned into a "Muslim". For
instance, the saying of Socrates in which this world is compared to a prison is
also reported in many versions of the IJadfth.299
Evidence extracted from Arabic mss . can also be indicative of the religious
attitude of the Arabic tradition: at least in one case, where reading allowed for it,
the copyist rendered the text religious content: In the report of Socrates's last
minutes of life, the Arabic original text reads fa-jo' ala yaj m udu ("he started to
freeze")300 in accordance with the Greek. However in another version the reading
297. See Ibn ISQaq, Sirat Sayyidinii Muhammad rasiil Allah, (ed. Wiistenfeld) Gottingen, 1859.
298. See note 364 below.
299. MMH 95,1 and compare Muslim 53,1 etc. See chapter three, note 110.
300. IQ 205,17; IAU 147,3.
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became fa-jaala yahmidu Allah fa(ti/ti ("he started to praise God , may He be
exalted ").301
Besides linguistic and stylistic evidence for the attempt to "Islamicize"
Socrates, there is contentual evidence , too . Socrates was regarded as an ascetic,
so much so that the celebrated al-Suhrawardi was compared to him. 302 However,
it was not only against Islamic background that Socrates was viewed as an
ascetic, but he was also viewed as such in the earlier Greek literature.v- Besides,
many Socratic sayings were attributed to the Prophet himself, either explicitly
or implicitly,304 just as there are cases where the sayings attributed to Socrates by
some source are ascribed by others to other Islamic or Arab personalities.
Among those are people such as the caliph Abu Bakr (even the circumstances in
which what he said are recorded), 'Umar b. al-Khattab.w' Abu al-Darda>,306 Ibn
al-(ArabI,307 Muhammad Ibn 'Imran al-TamlmI,308 Abu 'Umar b. al-(AJa>309 or
to others who are reported in Islam, although they are not themselves Muslims,
like King David-!" and Jesus Christ.
In addition, and perhaps even more significant, is the use of Socrates made by
30 1. MMH 90,8.
302. HH i 424,10.
303. Compare B. Lohse, A skese , 47-48, where a whole paragraph is dedicated to Socrates.
Unfortunately, the author only uses the traditional sources . The mot ives used in our selection
to describe Socrates, such as solitude, faith , and opposition to this world are identical with
tho se in Islamic literature. See T. Andrae , lslamische Mystiker, p. 70.
304. The attribution of sayings to the Prophet is not an uncommon method in Arabic literature. See
Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, 156-7 (English translation - vol. 2, 148).
See MMH 106,5; IAU 148 ,16; SRA 64r14; YMS 39v13; IAHS 122,4. Compare al-Bukhart,
riqiiq 43; Muslim,janii 'iz, 61,63 etc.
Another saying - MMH 1/4 ,1 I; SRA 69v3. Compare Tabarsi, makiirim al-akhliiq, 265,5:
"Socrates said to his disciples: 'Would you like me to guide you to salvation from all evil?' They
said : 'Yes, master, for you have always been kind to us.' He said: 'Let none of you obey a
woman , 'neither in a dom ain she knows nor in any she does not know, Then you will be
secure ."
A third example is "T he best of anything is the middle" HIMF 18,22; MMH 10,9; IAU 148,9;
SRA 60v13. Compare al-M awardt, adab al-dunya wal-din, 9, 9.
305. The second Caliph (634-644) :"Postponing today 's matters till tomorrow is a most harmful
conduct." (UMLA 434,1). Comp are 10M 36,14.
306. One of the most outstanding Muslim mystics (d . 1074). The text in question concerns
Soc rates's reticence as compared with his asceticism - MMH 131,17 (told about Plato; IAHS
76/19 ; IARIF (Cairo 1935)ii, 15. Compare al-Qushairi, al-risiilah, 99,15 about Abu al-Darda' ,
307. Died 1165. The common item is comparing this world to a shadow. MMH 104,10; SRA 63r13;
IAHS 106,12. Compare Ibn Hazm, al-aklhliiq wal-siyar, 28,16.
308. " We should be ashamed to say things that we are ashamed to do, " MMH 102,2; IAU 141,18;
SRA 61v6. Compare a similar saying, Yaqut , asriir al-hukamii', 104,17. See below p. 144.
309. A celebrated collector of ancient Arabic poetry . The text deals with learning at an old age.
KHNS 24v2; 38r2; ASMSH 15r4. Compare IARIF ii 209,15.
310. The text involves advantages and regrets concerning talk and reticence. UMLA 432,4; IGMP
64,19. Compare David -Weill, op. cit. 41,9.
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some religious thinkers as an example for proper conduct. This was the case in
relation to Ikhwan al-safa', who called for celebrating death rather than
mourning it. 3Il
Circumstantial evidence for affinity between Socrates and Islam are the
Socratic sayings and anecdotes that parallel in their contents ideas in Islamic
sources. Such ideas include the conception of this world as a bridge to the next
one, this world as a path, the prohibition of obeying women, who are likened to
fire, the need to keep one's secrets, the similarity between medicine and law, the
advantage of mastering one's desires, the condemnation of envy and the
recommendation to keep away from other people's business, the negative attitude
towards alcohol and intoxication.t'? and finally, the value of admitting one's
ignorance.u -
Generally speaking, the topics, although not necessarily the wording or even
the contents of Socrates's ethical sayings, correspond quite impressively with
those of early mystical literature (e.g., Harith al-Muhasibf-!" or Ibn AbI
Dunyli) .315 In this literature the ideas of asceticism, divorcing oneself from this
world, reticence , piety and other qualities are hailed, much as they are by
Socrates. The ideas advocated by Socrates are also paralleled by the literary
genre of mirrors of kings, a genre whose purpose is to advise rulers how to rule,
but which provides good advice for anyone.
Another aspect of Socrates as a religious personality involved his being
described as a lawgiver, as a philosopher who did good and avoided evil, and on
the whole, as one who conducted a pure and proper life in opposition to that of
the polytheists.
31 I. Cf. Marquet, Philosophie, 355.

312. See chapter three note 452 where Socrates's sobriety is hailed.
313. For this world as a bridge see MMH 97,7; YMS 39,r8; IAHS 98,18. Comp are these with
al-Bukhart, riqiiq, 5.
This world as a path - MMH 95,2; SRA 59v13; Compare al-Ghazali, ihyii', iii 78,14.
Obedience to women - MMH 114,7; IAU 149,3; SRA 69r14; IAHS 130,1 I. Compare
aI-Tabarsi,op. cit. 510,1 I.
Women as fire - MMH 114,18; IAU 149,3; SRA 69r14; IAHS 130,1 I. Compare al-Tabarsi,
adab , 35. See below, p. 138.
Secrets - KHNS 23r9; IQUA I 40 etc. Compare al-Nuwairi, nihiiyah, ii, 81 ('Amru b. al-'A$).
Medicine and law - MMH 9I,Il; SRA 57rI3 . Compare al-Gha zali, iJ;yii', iv, 285,24. See
below, p. 161.
Mastering desires - MKHAA 84,6; KHNS 37v13 etc. Compare al-Tha' alibr, al-fawii'id,
82,1 I.
Envy - KAS 30,13. Compare al-Ghazali, iJ;yii' , iii 189-201.
Other people's business - UMLA 464,1I; IMKA 88,5. Compare al-Bukhari, l'ti~lim , 3.
Admitting ignorance - MMH 125,7 etc. Compare al-Jahiz, al-bayiin, ii 97, 4.
314. See J. van Ess, Hiirith ; A. Schimmel , Mystical Dimensions, pp. 124-126, especially for the
motif of patience.
315. See J . A. Bellamy (ed.) Ibn Abi Dunya, makiirim.
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92 BIOGRAPHY
One last item of "circumstantial" evidence for the attempt to "legitimize"

Socrates for Muslim readers involves not what is recorded about him, but rather
what is stricken out: for instance, pagan expressions from Socrates's death
scene, 316 hymns for Apollo attributed to him or the celebrated cock for Apollo.t!?
On the other hand, Socrates, either individually or as one of the Greek
philosophers.vt was also judged as an atheist, whose example posed a menace to
Islam. Hi s name, as well as that of other Greek philosophers was used as an
authority by Arab philosophers in their controversies with religious thinkers."?
In spite of these philosophers' intellectual qualities, says al-GhazaII,32o they deny
the authenticity of religion, claiming that these are but man-made rules and vain
inventions. Called "apostate of his time" (muliihid al-iasr) and "the atheist of all
time" izindiq a/-dahr), 321 he is accused of discussing the outwardly as well as the
tacit {al-ziihir wal-biuin) and thus furnishing anti-Islamic thinkers with
philosophical disguise for their views.v- Socrates's alleged opposition to Moses
the Prophetv - is another piece of evidence for his anti-Islamic attitude, as Moses
is acknowledged by Islam as a prophet. In one case Socrates was even accused of
belonging to the group of Jennies that are connected with philosophy.v- these
creatures that acted corruptly, shed blood and therefore were banished from the
earth. The conclusion concerning Socrates's disbelief, was reached, it seems, by
direct as well as by circumstantial evidence. In this matter too, it was not Islam
that was the first to attack Socrates for his disbelief, for as Geffcken has already
shown.P> he was called "a blind heathen" by Christian scholars.
All these examples associate the image Socrates had acquired in Arabic
literature with basic Islamic ideas, values and personalities. Even in the cases
where he is treated negatively, Socrates's approach and his domain were
acknowledged to be religious, and furthermore, they were phrased in Islamic
terms . This attitude shows the deep Islamic concern which Arabs had with
regards to Socrates, either positively or otherwise.
Beyond mediaeval literature, Socrates is hailed for his theological views in
modern Islam. Thus Khomeiny relates to him as "great theologian", and goes on
to describe his break with his heathen folk. 326
316. See above, p. 75.

317. See above, p. 75.
318. AHTIM ii 16,5 irah; al-kufr) . The other philosophers mentioned are Plato and Aristotle.
319. AHTIM ii 18,15.
320. GTF 5,2.
321. al-Qazwini, mufid, 52,19.
322. Cf. al-Qazwini, mufid 56,17; AHTIM ii 16,5.
323. SRA 6Ov4.
324. MRJ 429,5.
325. Geffcken, op. cit. 21-24.
326. al-Khorneiny, Ruh Allah Ibn Mustafa, Principes, 42.
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In the final account, though, it seems to me that Socrates assumed in Arabic

literature the stature of a moral rather than a strictly religious personality. His
'religiosity' was merely a vehicle for introducing him to a Muslim public, who
were more susceptible to religious terms .
SOCRATES AS A PHILOSOPHER
Socrates was the father of ancient philosophers and the origin of philosophy and
wisdorn.P?The philosophical aspects of his personality can also be learned from
two sets of evidence, although, judging by the relative weight of evidence, clearly
this aspect of his was secondary to his being a paradigm of ethical and wise
person.F! The first set comes from his philosophical ideas (for which he was
referred to in Arabic as "the head of the sages and their first to have his wisdom
spoken about''),329 and the other, from his actual way of life.330
From the philosophical point of view, Socrates was believed to have belonged
either to the same group of thinkers as Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, and the
dualists, as opposed to Plato and Aristotle.v' or to that of the "divine
philosophers", i.e. metaphysicians, as opposed to the philosophers of nature,
i.e., the Pre-Socratics. As such he was a member, says al-Mas'udI,m of the same
school to which al-Farabi later belonged, too . Some maintained that Socrates,
along with other philosophers, such as Diogenes, avoided material things as well
as people's abuse by seeking refuge in the luminous and elevated wisdom (lit.
wisdoms - ~ikam).333
Socrates's position in the philosophical controversies of his time comes out
very explicitly in the story of Plato's becoming his disciple.v- According to this
report,335 Plato realized after having studied the Heracleitan school, that the
only proper reply to their philosophy could come from the Pythagorean school.
After Pythagoras's death, the leader of that school was Socrates, and Plato, then
joined him for fifty years and reached his teacher's level in politics ("the politics
of the perfect city''). However, a few lines from the same report, the author, Ibn
327. ASMSH 14v15; SRA 57r3. The same expression is used by Jabir Ibn Hayyan, GHPK 389,3
"the father of all the philosopher s and their master."
328. See e.g., p. 87 above.
329. Ya'qabt, ta'rikh, i 134,1.
330. See Abu Bakr al-Razt's apology concerning the philosoph ical way of life.
331. See Fakhr ai-Din al-Razi , al-muhassal, 84,4. Cf. Daiber, Muammar, 252 note 8.
332. See Stern (1960) 29; 33.
333. AHSSF 64v15.
334. See below, p. 96.
335. IQ 20,4 ff.
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94 BIOGR APH Y
al-Qifti relat es th at th e school of th e " bases of phil osophy and its pillars" took
leave of th e philosophy of nature th at had been studied by Pyth agor as (!), Thales
and th e Greek and Egyp tian Sabaea ns.vs Soc rates 's scho ol was lat er ca lled "the
metaphysical ial-iliihiyiini", and it co nsisted of him self, Plato and Ari stotle.v ? It
is sometimes even reported that met aph ysics was So cra tes 's ma in topic. 338
Of his alleged ideas we ma y learn fro m sto ries told about them, as well as from
sayi ngs att ributed to him . From th e fo rme r, we perceive a phil osopher who is a
monotheist, an enlightened thinker , influenced by Neo -Plato nic ideas as well as
mystical, alc hemical, and or tho dox Islamic ones. He main tained , allegedly, th at
the un iverse is depend ent o n God , who is so metimes ide ntified with th e Intellect,
and th e un iver se emanates from Him a nd goes through the tr aditional Neo-
Platon ic hier archy of In tellect, so ul and nature. Acco rdi ng to another report, he
is said to hav e been of th e view that th e world is con structed of two double strata:
the world of mean ing and th e world of Forms, a division that could be interpreted
as a Platoni c o ne. Yet ano ther Neo-Plat oni c idea of Socrates abo ut th e structure
of th e world makes Go d, S ubsta nce a nd Fo rm t he th ree ba sic principles of th e
world.
As a memb er of the philosophical gro up, Soc rates read mat hem ati cs, logic,
ph ysics, metaphysics, and politics.P ? More spec ifica lly, he wro te works in
alchem y.v " and he had views on psychology, in which he used the traditional
Gre ek term inology, but Islam ic term inology was brought to rest up on it. It was
in his tim e that people turned from natural to politi cal ph ilosophy.>! and he was
not onl y credited with fathering the field of pol itics but also with pressing on his
compatrio ts to adhere to th e co nclusions of that discipline.w Needless to say, he
dealt with th eolo gy tal-ma' iilim al-ilii hiyah ).343 Of th e basic top ics of d iscussion
in thi s domain are th e problems of divine attributes, th e essence of God , Hi s
relationship to the world and so forth. T he most outstandi ng con tribution made
336. IQ 26,8.
337. IQ 50,19.
338. AAA 6r 14. IAU 14 3,12.
339. HH 1 72/1.
340. See a who le shor t tr eatise in alchemy attri buted to Socrates, Princeto n Ms. Yehuda N .S. 5 fols
53r- 541.
341. Al-Mas' udt, muriij , (de Goeje). IQ 26,12, qu oting Ar istotle to the effect that politics started as a
discipline one hundred years earlier, i.e., at th e tim e of Soc rates . IQ cites the sa me deta il again
in his short a rticle abou t Pyrrhon (fiirn), ibid. 260,3. A few pages lat er, al-Mas' iidi states
exp licitly that political philosoph y sta rted with Socrate s, and does not suffice in qu otin g
Aristotle as saying that this ph ilosophy merely started at his time . See also al-Mas'udt,
al-tanb ih, lOS fo r t he chain that followed Soc rates in politics, namely Plat o, Aristotle, and the
latt er's cousin Theophr astus.
Cf. Stern (1960) 33 for th e tr anslat ion.
342. IQ 199,6.
343. AAA 6r14.
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BIOGRAPHY 95
by Socrates, though, was in the field of ethics.v- In a reproach directed against

Ibn Zur(ah 345 who was stingy on the one hand, but hailed the philosophers on the
other, AbU Hayyan al-Tauhidf sketches Socrates's interest in ethics as follows:
"One is surprised by the stinginess of this person and his depravity (nadhiilah)
despite his philosophizing, and with his frequent dropping the names of Plato,
Socrates, and Aristotle and his love toward them . He is not deterred from doing
this by his knowing that these people dealt with the virtues, defined them,
clarified their implicit [meanings], distinguished their negative aspects (radhii'il),
explained their qualities, and prompted [people] to exercise them. All this (i.e.,
ethics), they reduced to ascetic conduct in this world , to sufficiency with as little
of its rubbish as possible, to dispensing the surplus of this world to those who
need it and those who seek it, to restricting oneself to that amount of its trifling
which [merely] keeps body and soul together, to attainment of the final felicity
by rejecting passions, be they few or many , to kind behaviour toward people and
other [creatures] without asking for gratitude nor taking their behaviour into
account for purposes of reward or praise. "346 The Arab intellectuals were not
always enthusiastic about Socrates. We may get a glimpse of some uneasiness
with Greek philosophy as was presented by some from a paragraph in AbU
Hayyan al-Tauhidt who acidly attacks Ibn Zur'ah, a famous translator, for his
constant "intimidating us with the names of Socrates, Hippocrates, and so and
so. "34 7
In his way of living, Socrates exemplified the true philosopher. First and
foremost, he detached himself from the affairs of this world , be they matters
financial, political, or social. There were, of course , exceptions to this behaviour,
e.g., his joining a military expedition, or his conducting lengthy conversations
with disciples and friends.
What was taken to be his genuine way of life was regarded by the Arabs, at
least in the tenth century, as exemplary and binding. This becomes apparent in
the famous paragraph where Abu-Bakr al-Razr defends himself against attacks
from various sides on the account that he did not behave as a philosopher should
along the example set by Socrates. In this group the author mentions"Aristotle,
Plato, Socrates, Hippocrates and so and so" allegedly spending time drinking. 348
344. Ya-qubl, ta'rikh, I 134,6.

345. This is part of a letter sent by Abu Talib al-Jarrahf to 'Ali Ibn 'Isa the Vizir.
346. Abu Hayyan al-Tauhtdt, akhliiq al wazirain , 328.
347. Abu Hayyan al-Taubtdt sadiiqah, (ed. al-Kllani) Damascus 1964,64,13.
Almost the same style and words are used by Ibn Qutaibah, adab al-kdtib, 4 (also quoted by
Stern (1962) 240), not with regard to philosopher s, but rather to concepts of philosophy:
"People are impressed with outlandish and pretentious expressions such as 'coming-to-be and
passing-away'..."
348. AHTSS 28,15.
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96 HIOGRAPHY
One of the most important philosophical ideas that symbolized Socrates was
his favourable attitude toward death, an attitude that he had proven by
submitting himself to it even though his capital punishment was unjust. This
steadfastness and its outcomes created among the Arabs, as well as among
others, a great deal of admiration, both on the grounds of his fearlessness of
death and of his obedience to the laws.
He was taken to be a philosopher of humanistics, to which he himself
attested .P? His human wisdom was manifested in ethics in the first place , and
indeed it is this domain that is referred to by the greater number of sayings .
Those of his anecdotes which deal with ethical matters depict him as a person
who lived and behaved according to his own teachings, although in some
religious circles, philosophers such as Socrates did not enjoy a very good
reputation.
Disciples
During his relatively long life, Socrates had twelve thousand pupils.v? a number
which reminds one of Jesus's twelve disciples or the Jewish Rabbi Aqiva's twelve
thousand, and in Islamic tradition the twelve thousand angels subordinate to the
archangel Jibril.v" A slightly more moderate report counts them as seventy
only. 352
Among his disciples the following are named explicitly :
Plato. Plato used to be involved in poetry until he met Socrates from whom he
learned the philosophy of Pythagoras. It is reported that Socrates had a dream
in which a young crane was sitting on his (i.e. Socrates's) lap, and when it became
downy and its plumage came out on time, it flew towards the heaven singing with
a divine voice that made everyone happy. When Plato came to Socrates,
Socrates interpreted the dream as referring to his new disciple .w
From Plato's point of view, as the Arabs have it, the meeting with Socrates
looked thus:
Plato wrote to him (i.e. Socrates): "I will question you about three
matters. If you answer them [rightly] I will become your disciple".
Socrates then wrote to him: "Ask, and may God bestow success".
Plato then wrote back to him: " Who is the man worthiest of pity; when are
349. Al-Farabl, burhiin, l77aI3.

350. MMH 90,16; lAD I 47,8; SRA 56vll.
35I. Sirat Ibn Hishiim , vol. 2 p. 45,4.
352. Cf. Marquet, la Philosophie, 372.
353. IQ 19,19.
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human affairs spoiled; and how is grace (ni'mah) to be gained from God,
may He be exalted?"
Socrates wrote to him : "People worthiest of pity are three : an innocent
person under the rule of a sinner, for he grieves eternally over what he sees
and hears; an intelligent person ('iiqil) subject to the leadership of an
ignorant Uiihil) for he is always grieved and worried; and a generous
person who is in need of a base one, for he will always submit to him and be
despised .
Human affairs deteriorate spoiled when the holder of [right] views is
unlistened to, weapons are unused by their bearer, and money is unspent
by its owner.
God 's grace is achieved by thanking Him frequently (lit. much) , by being
permanently obed ient to Him and by avoiding defiance of Him."
Upon receiving these answers Plato came to Socrates and became his
disciple till the day Socrates died.354
Now, once two philosophers pass the stage of study , the relationship between
Socrates and his disciple could be described thus : "Plato, who was one of their
(i.e. the Greeks') preeminent aristocrats, saw eye-to-eye with Socrates as to the
acquisit ion of wisdom . " 355
Another of Socrates's disciples was Crito, who had the unpleasant task of
announcing the coming of the ship to Socrates, which meant the execution of his
354. UMLA 451,8; MMH 102,11; BHQH 44r13; SRA 61v14. Cf. also IG 31,12; 31,20. A slightly
different version is HISNFM (mss. MUnchen) 156v8.
Yet another version is that quoted by al-Ghazall in his GNM 139,10: "Socrates the sage said:
'Five things destroy man: cheating friends, ignoring scholars, hold ing a low opinion of one's
self, acqu iescing in boasts by unworthy persons , and following the whims of others." Virtually
the same story is attributed to the Prophet, 1ARIF ii 223,13. Here the people to be pitied are an
impoverished rich person , a great man who has deteriorated and a knowledgeable person
among the ignorant. Cf. also 1GMP 96,12: the knowledgeable man led by an insane person , a
just man ruled by the wicked and a generous man dependant on a base person . Compare H. F.
von Diez, Denkwiirdigkeiten von Asien , i9/ 8. The Greek source for th is theme seems to me to
be Isocrates, To Nicoc/es 14: .....if you consider monstrous that the worse should rule the
better, and that the more foolish should give orders to men of greater wisdom..."
MMH relates this idea to Democritus (ref. and translation by F. Rosenthal, Heritage, 126/19 ,
where he also refers to STOB . iv 192). Democritus is also credited with the idea by K. Freeman,
Ancilla,1oo/40.
The story about Plato's becoming Socrates's disciple is similar to that of the circumstances
under which the prominent pre-Islam ic Jew, 'Abdallah b. Salam embraced Islam, namely
putting three questions to the Prophet, the right answer to which was the condition for the act.
(al-Bukhari, anbiyii', b. I. See Wensinck , Muslim Creed, p. 33 who rejects any historical values
to this story , but indicates the litera ry genre represented by it.)
355. AAA 6r19. Socrates is ment ioned very briefly as Plato's teacher in 1Q's article on that
philosopher, 17,16.
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98 BIOGRAPHY
teacher. He had also kept Socrates company during his last days in prison, and
the Arabic sources give the impression of great closeness between Crito and his
master.tw
Phaedo too, is mentioned in the Arabic tradition as one of Socrates's disciples
who attended his death scene.P? and so are Simias (Sfmiis),358 Aeschines, to
whom Socrates dictated the enigmas that he solved in the Phaedo.v" Epicurus.w
and last Diogenes, who, according to Ishaq Ibn Hunain>! was the heir of
Socrates's theories. As he did not write at all, his way of teaching was to dictate
(talqfn) to them, a method he adopted from his own teacher - Timotheos.w-
Writings
Socrates's celebrated reluctance to write books due to his opposition to the idea
of entrusting "pure, sacred, unannihilatable, and unpolluted "363 wisdom to dead
parchment.w' and the evidence supporting this attitude is abundant. 'It is told
that Timaeus said to Socrates: "Why do you not write down your wisdom for us
in books?"
He said: "How trustful are you towards dead animal skins, and how suspicious
you are about eternal living essences . How do you hope to attain knowledge
from the mine of ignorance and despair [from attaining] it from the element of
the intellect!"365 He had thus "neither written any book, nor dictated to any of
356. MMH 90,14; IAU 145 ,25.

357. MMH 88,3; IAU 145,32 .
358. MMH 88,3; IAU 145,32 ; SRA 54rll.
359. SMN 281,8. See also D.L. II 20, where Socrates and Aeschines (d. 330 B. C.) are credited with
being the first to teach rhetoric.
360. Agapius, 'unwiin, 89,5.
361. KHI 12r7.
362. IAU 143,3; MMH 82,15; SRA 50v4;
363. MMH 82,11.
364. IQ 199,3. IG 31,11.
365. KAS 28,1; MKHAA 96,4; Ya'qubi, Ta'rikn I 134, I (bis). In the second version ofthis source ,
Socrates's interlocutor is 'Iatbatsh (7). A second, shorter version - by IG 31, II. The peculiar
aspect of this version is the use of the imperative qayid, or fayid which is employed in hadith ,
Thus, a hadith reported by Anas b. Malik says: "Write down (lit. tie down) your knowledge in
books ."
See also al-Mawardi, adab, Cairo 1922,42,19 .
Yet another version ofthis anecdote is quoted by MM H 103,I; SRA 50v4; VMS 39v7 ("A king
asked Socrates..."), a fourth one - VMS 37vll, a fifth - HIMF 13,2; KAS 28,1; IAU I 43,27;
VMS 37vll ; another one - BTH 133,2; a seventh - MMH 82,11; IAU I 43,24: SRA 50rl4;
and a last one - KAS 28,4; HISNFM (mss. Miinchen) 51v3.
Cf. IFIM 58,10; and also al-Tha'alibl, al-fawii 'id , 129,13. Compare in non-Arabic literature,
Ferguson, op. cit. p. 297/11 .1.87; STOB. 3.21.9: "Socrates, being asked why he did not write
answered : 'Because I notice that paper costs more before it is written on. ", A similar saying also
reported by STER. p. 184/499. See also. D.L. 144,29
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his disciples his theories to be inscribed on a sheet, " 366 a decision that had gra ve
consequences for later philo sophers.
This attitude toward writing was very acceptable to some Arabs: it
corresponded to some Prophetic tr aditions that call upon men to refrain from
writing. However, this negat ive attitude is in fact only one side of the picture:
other Prophetic traditions do enjoin man to write .w' As philosophers usually do
write books, a number of title s were falsely ascribed to Socrates by authors like
Muhammad b. Amyal al-Taimurt.w the titles of which are not all imaginary.
Some may be identified as Plato's, while others remain un identified . According
to Ibn al-Nadim and Ibn abl Usaibiah, Socrates wrote the follow ing:
(I) A Treatise about Politics (which seems to be none other than Plato's
Republic).
(2) A Treatise about Proper Conduct (Risiilahft al-strah al-jamtlahy.w'
Both Arabic authors found it necessary to add that it is believed that the
attribution of the latter to Socrates is correct. Another author who reports about
Socrates's writings was Usamah Ibn Munqidh, who attributed to him a treatise
on the
(3) Law-giving (fi wad' al-nawiimisyl'' which seem to be Plato's Laws.
IAU, who elsewhere seems to be aware of Socrates's reluctance to write-" also
mentions (in addition to item s ( I) and (2) abo ve), although not without some
hesitation, a treatise Socrates supposedly composed for his friends, which
compares
(4) Religion (or La w - sunnah) and Philo sophy . Thi s topic was most popular
between the ninth and the thirteenth centuries among both Muslim philo sophers
and men of religion. J"
(5) Reproof of the Sou lP )
Some weaker evidence for the existence of books written by Socrates is given
by I:IajT Khalifah, who mentions Socrates together with four other great
366. HIMF 2,8; IAU 143,25; SRA 50r 12. IQ 198, II ju st menti ons briefly that Soc rates did not write
books. A short version is qu oted in IG 30,12.
Compare Plutarch A/ex. Fort. 1.4.328: " Neither Pythagoras, nor Socrates nor. .. ever writt en
anything." Later, this fact was cited by St. Tho ma s Aquinas in justification of Je sus, saying
that the latter had quite properl y, like the distinguished pagan teacher s Pythagoras and
Socrates, not committ ed his teach ing to writ ing, Summa Theo/. III a, q. 42, art. 4. However,
see RIMU 149,11 for the opposite effect.
367. See abo ve, note 297.
368. Manuscript Paris 2625,2 (fo ls. 5-57). See Ullma nn Natur, 154 not e 9. Also see RI M U 149, II .
369. FIHR 245,21; IAU 149 ,26.
370. UMLA 437,15.
371. See the chapter on Wisdom, below.
372. See L. Y., Berman and Alon ( 1980).
373. IAU I 49,26.
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100 BIOGRAPHY
philosophers who had written books on various topics.v- He also mentions a

treatise
(6) Roots and Accurate Remarks Concerning the Science of Letters (al-usiil
wal-dawdbit j'f "ilm al-huriif), which is ascribed to Socrates, but is actually a
book written by a "certain old sage".375
Similarly, al-Farabi states that the book called
(7) On Pleasure (fi al-ladhdhah) , which is ascribed to Socrates, is actually
Plato's.F" An anonymous manuscript in the Taimur Pasha collection mentions:
(8) Summary of the Liber de Pomo and
(9) Philosophical Treatises.t"
(10) A Treatise about TheologyJ"
(11) A Letter to Plato. 379
374. HH 172,!.
375. HH II 341,3.
376. al-Farabi, falsqfat afliitiin, 12,6.
377. Manuscript Taimur Pasha No . 290, fols. 248-267. For the latter book see J . Kraemer (\956),
and also al-Nashshar and Shirbini, 'usal, 337-352.
378. Abu 'Abdallah M. b. Amayal al-Taimurt in a commentary on al-Hakim's alchemy treatise
Forms and Lines, see Berthelot, op. cit. vol. 2, p. 16.
379. Ms. Aya Sofia 2456, fols. 76v-80r. I am indebted to Prof. H. Daiber for the reference and the
photocopy of the mss. This is the only alleged writing of Socrates that has survived . It seems
that it was compiled under a strong Christian Syriac influence . Its topic is the immortality of
the soul, the mutual relationship between it and the body, the place of knowledge and God in
this equation and the proper human behaviour with regard to the death of beloved relatives
and FAT 141,8.
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CHAPTER THREE
TEACHINGS
INTRODUCTION
The Arabic sources name numerous fields in which Socrates had taken an
interest. Beside books, sayings, aphorisms, proverbs, and allus ive remarks , I he
was also said to hold views on theoretical as well as practical ph ilosophy.?
including mathematics, logic, physics , metaphysics;' and economics- in addition
to being the first philosopher to have dealt with politics. 5 These views of his were
only accepted and adopted by the public eighteen years after his death.e
Certain remarks indicate Socrates's method of philosophizing. For example:
"[Socrates] was asked why sea water was salty. He said to the man who had
posed the question to him: 'If you tell me the advantage you gain from knowing
this I would tell you the reason why'."? If one may draw a more general
conclusion from such an anecdote, then Socrates was not content with
theoretical knowledge alone, but was interested in the practical use this
knowledge was put to . This picture, of course, contradicts strongly the one
depicted by Socrates's contemporaries, some of whom took him to be interested
in the heavens to the degree of stumbling on the ground.
In logic and sophistry Socrates's method had been one of taking the middle
course (whatever that means in this case) , which is exemplified by the argument
that took place between him and Thrasymachus in the Republics
Socrates was "the father of the ancient philosophers", the wisest of all wise,
1. SATV 23,5; SRA 57r5.

2. SMN 281,2.
3. ASMSH 3,60.
4. HH i 72,5. Socrates 's interest was said by al-'Amiri to have been exclusively devoted to
metaphysics. See Stern (1968) 329, and in particular note 5 for the Aristotelian source of this
view.
5. Cf. al-Mas'udt, tanbih, 105,12. Also see Stern (1960) 33.
6. al-Mas'udt, tanbih, 101, 12 f.
7. MMH 113,7.
8. ISSM 225,5. This paragraph could also be understood as relating to dialectics rather than to
controversies in human affairs.
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102 TEACHINGS
from him philosophy has grown and wisdom has come forth (i.e., he is the main
spring for all philosophy.)? He is "the father and master of the philosophers"l0
and is to be considered on the same footing as the other two leading philosophers,
Plato and Aristotle. I I
Not all shared this view of Socrates as being the master philosopher, or at least
this attribution was not unanimously taken to dispense with philosophical
disagreements. Aristotle was thought to have had Socrates and Plato in mind
when he says that because in Socrates's time, people were conscious of the
[existence of] final causes, they tended toward politics, " a discipline that studies
the human end. "12
Jabir Ibn Hayyan, the probably mythical author who usually only points out
matters related to alchemy, made some vague and obscure remarks about
Socrates's method of work, that depict an attitude on Socrates's part, diagonally
opposed to that of docility and of taking the middle road : "For Socrates used to
coerce (yuqhiru) the sciences and to employ the most powerful actions, and
whatever was established for him in potentia he was almost able to bring, wholly
or for the most part, into actuality."13
The most perplexing part of this passage is the remark about Socrates's
coercing the sciences and bringing them into actuality. Some elucidation of this
matter is offered by the author a few lines below in this passage while pointing
out a difference of opinions between Socrates and Plato: "Next, [know that]
Plato expanded on this matter saying : 'Beware of adhering to the view of
Socrates [namely], to coerce things, but rather [treat them] softly (bil-rifq), like
the soul of a dead man [going] through the eye of a needle.'"
The meaning of this is that whenever science was well established for Socrates,
he would coerce practice in accordance with it until [practice] was perfect, and
the sciences «ulum) are coerced, and almost [everything] which would otherwise
not pass from potentiality into actuality would pass in this way. If anyone could
achieve this, it was Socrates. 14
Incidentally, this passage is one of the few in Arabic that presents Socrates in
an unfavourable light , since it asserts that even his closest disciple and friend,
Plato, had some reservations about him and his alleged alchemical system.'>
As, to the best of my knowledge, none of the Platonic dialogues was translated
9. ASMSH I. 557; SRA 57r3. This description corresponds to a certain degree to that of Cicero's
Tusc. 5.4.10: "But Socrates first called philosophy from the sky."
10. GHPK 389,3. Cf. Cicero, de Nat. Deorum i 34.93; de Fin. ii 1.1 where Socrates is called thus.
II. TIM ii 16,5.
12. IRTM 160,17.
13. Jabir b. Hayyan, k . musahhahdt afliuun, in P. Kraus, Jabir Ibn Havyan fol. IvlO.
14. Jabir, ibid. Ilv4.
15. Other accusations involve religious heresy.
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TEACHINGS 103
in full into Arabic, the main source of information about Socrates's philosophical
and other views are his genuine or alleged sayings. I therefore propose to sketch
these views from these sayings, and for that purpose have edited them in definite
topics .
METAPHYSICS
Most of the Arab biographers mention that metaphysics was the main field of
interest for Socrates. The term they use - al-iuliim al-iliihiyah , may have carried
some practical connotation too, because the next biographical detail quoted is
that our philosopher abstained from the pleasures of this world and also
preached against them.!"
The clear Neo-Platonic character is apparent also in Socrates's theory of the
first Metaphysics: it is from the first existent that all the other existents draw
their being, thanks to the good emanating from it to them . Socrates developed a
whole system of explanation as to the interrelation between all the existents and
their hierarchy, matter, and essence. This theory included treatment of the
celestial bodies as well as the material ones, the different faculties and their
interrelations, the human intellect, human felicity , psychology, and also human
societies, in particular the excellent city (al-madinah al-fiiqBah) and its ruler. 17
At the basis of this theory was Socrates's claim that the principles of all things
are three: active cause ('illahfii'ilah), which is God, essence ('un~ur), which is
the primary substratum tal-maud 11' al-awwal) for being, and the Form which is
the element of the body.It
GOD
Theology, which is sometimes termed in Arabic "divine teachings" (an Arabic

litteral rendering of the Greek The as + lagia) , was one of Socrates's main
interests which he studied along with philosophy;'? or as a part of the latter.t?
16. IQ 198,2.
17. This account by al-Ms'Ildi, al-tanbih wal-ishriif, 101-104 could almost serve as a tabl e of
contents to at-Farabt's iirii' ahl al-madinah al-fiidilah .
18. Ibn al-Jauzt, talbis, 46, 13. A variant by al-Balkhi, at-Bad', I 139,6 names Allah as the first
principle, which is ident ified with the intellect of the world .
19. IG 30,11; SRA 49v14; 57r3 .
20. AAA 6r14 ; SATU 23,1; IQ 198,2; SMN 278,19; cf. Xenophon , Mem . 1, 1.11 whe re it is denied
that Socrates was interested in the nature of things ; but Cicero , Rep. LX .15 gives a different
view.
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104 TEACHINGS
Moreover, not only did at least one book entitled The Minor Theology
According To The Views OfSocrates exit;" but some of the titles of the writings
ascribed to Socrates in Arabic sources suggest a religious content.P The
ascription to Socrates of a strong interest in theology may be explained as a part
of the Islamification of this philosopher, although even Xenophon say s of him:
"In the first place he endeavored to impress his associates with right feelings
towards the gods. " 23 Yet Xenophon's intention in relating this detail is contrary
to that of the Arabic writers , because the forme r was trying to absolve Socrates
of the charges brought against him by his fellow citizens, namely that he did not
believe in the gods, while the latter so ught to establish his " monotheism,"
which presupposes the correctness of the pagans' charges. Socrates's supp osed
monotheism is nevertheless not exclusively Islamic; rather its roots can be found
in the Stoic tradition of thinkers like Zeno and in the thought of other Socratic
schools.>
This monotheism ascribed to Socrates by the Ar abs resembles that of Islam,
and as a first step it lays it down that God is one .>
Their idea of Socrates as a monotheistic thinker may well ha ve had its roots in
the Arabic version of Plutar ch :"As for Socrates and Plato, the y both maintained
that God , ma y He be exalted, is th e simple, the un cau sed , who is the only one
who truly exists. All those names refer ultimately to the Int ellect , hence, an
intellect which ab solutely is separated from Form [but] that is int ermingled with
the element «un~ur) and which participates in nothing which is subject to
affection. "26 This description is obviously Neo-Platonic.s?but it may correspond
to the demands of the Arabs from the religious point of view. No Muslim
theologian would ever equate God with the Intellect, because it is exactly thi s
equation that is the most heretical in Islam, namely shirk , that is joining other
deities to God . However, all the qualities here ascribed to this Intellect could
have been accepted by Muslims as relating to God.
Moreover, Socrates had a complete theory of the divine attributes, which he
shared with Empedocles and Pythagoras.e
Socrates said: "The Creator, may He be exalted , is alway s mere identity

(huwiyah) and mere essence (jauhar). If we go back to the true description
21. By al-Razt, al-Btruni , risiilah fi fi hrist k utub M. b. Zakariyii al-Riizi. 16,6.

22. See ab ove, p. 98f.
23. Xenoph on , Mem. IV.III ,2
24. Von Arni m, Vel. 1.43. 12. Cf. Sa yre, op .cit. 64.
25. See p. 51.
26. FAT 158,4.
27. See H.J. Kraemer, Ursp rung, p. 59 f. ab out the Xen ocratic tr aces in Ps. Plut ar ch.
28. IQ 198,7; IAU 143,15; SRA 50r5 (he re only a very gener al remar k is made with ou t getting into
detail). SATU 23,5.
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TEACHINGS 105
and opinion of Him, we shall find that reason and intellect fail to exhaust
His description, the conception of His truth and the giving of a name to
Him, for all truths [derive] from His essence, and thus He is the true
grasper and de scriber of ever ything, as well as the giver of names to every
being. How, then, can he who has been given a name give a name to Him,
and how can he who ha s been comprised comprise Him by wa y of
description? He, then described him according to His works and actions,
which are names and attributes, only they are not names such as refer to
the essence which provides knowledge of His truth . For example, by 'God '
(iliih) we mean the establisher of everything, by 'Creator' (Khiiliq) the
determinant of everything, by 'Distinguished' ('azlz) the unattainable, by
'Wise'(J;zaklm) him who arranges his actions in complete wisdom (muhkim
li' af'iilihi 'alii al-niziim, and similarly regarding the rest of the attributes."
[Socrates] said: "His knowledge ('ilm), potency (qudrah), goodness (jiid)
and wisdom are finite and the intellect falls short of describing them, for
had it described them the y could have been finite . The necessary conclusion
about Him is that you mu st maintain that they are infinite and have no
end . We see, on the other hand , the existing th ings as finite ." And
[Socrates] said: "T heir finitude is due to the capacity (iJ;ztimiil) of the
receptacles-? rather th an to the [di vine] potency, wisdom and goodness. P
As matter is unable to bear (tahiamili an infinite number of Forms, the
latter are finite. This is so not because of an y miserl ines s on the part of the
Donator-! but rather because of the shortco mings of matter. Therefore
[matter] need s the di vine wisdom, [for] although it is finite in respect to
essence , Form, extent , and place , it is nevertheless infinite in time as
regards its end , but finite with regards to its beginning. P Although the
eternal exi stence of the individual is unimaginable , wisdom needs to
exhaust the individuals through the eternal existence ofthe gen era .33 This
29. T he term " receptacle" (hypodoche ) is used by Porphyry, and derives ultim ately fro m the
Tima eus (48e-52c) of Plat o, who also used the term "matri x"(ekmageion) . Similarly, Plotinus,
as A. H. Armstrong (Late Greek , 256) asserts , maintained that ' matter is a passive receptacle
of forms ,' (Enn 11,4 [12] 14-16).
30. In the text the Arabic word is wujiid ("existence "). It seems, howeve r, that in acco rdance with
the co ntex t it sho uld have been "j iid" ("g oodness" or "benevolence"), being one of the
ment ioned divine attribut es.
3 1. See a similar argument, altho ugh dealin g with moti on and not with fo rms, in The ophrastus,
M et., 5bl0 ff.
32. See al-Ghazalr, i~yii ' . Here he d ifferent iate s between what he calls "ba ses" (arkiin) offaith and
att ributes of Allah (~ifiit) . To the former belong "bases" such as His existence, eternity,
inco rpo rea lity a nd so fort h. Th e att ributes include such co ncepts as His being the Creator , His
life, His volition etc. A similar t reatment is given by Plot inus to the subject, Enn . v,5 [32]6.
(Co mpa re Armstro ng, op . cit. 237- 8.)
33. De A n. 415bl -5.
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106 TEACHINGS
is [done] by renewal of their similars in order that the individual should

seek to be preserved through the eternal existence of the genus, and the
genus should succeed in existing eternally through the renewal of the
individuals. Therefore potency does not arrive at any limit offinitude, nor
does wisdom stop at any end".
Next , according to Socrates's view, the most distinctive characteristic of
the Creator, may He be exalted, is His being living (~ayy) and existing
(qayyiim), because knowledge, power, goodness and wisdom all derive
from His being living, and life is an attribute which comprises everything,
while eternal existence (baqii'), eternity (sarmad) and enduring continuity
(dawiim) all derive from His existence, an attribute which comprises
everything. Socrates often says about Him that He is alive and reasons
(nii{iq) in virtue of His essence, that is, in virtue of Himself, while our life
and reasoning are not by virtue of our essence. Therefore privation,
annihilation, and passing away effect our life and reasoning, but these do
not effect His life and reasoning, may He be exalted and sanctified .>
Socrates's God (rabb) is of an essence (miihiyah) that cannot be grasped, and
hence, any attempt to say anything about it is foolish (jah1)35 although wisdom is
a good means of nearing Him .36 His existence may be proven (daliilah) by His
creation (#niiCah), and His unity is absolute (bil-i{liiq), dispensing with the need
for anything else. He is an infinite creator, therefore has neither person tshakhsi
nor form (~iirah), because anything that has a form, state (waqC), and order
(tartfb) is finite, as are all the existing things (maujiidiit), both in extension
(bil-jihiit) , in abstraction (fil-caql), or sensation tfil-hissi . All His actions are
perfect, He is both covert (bii{in), but without being hidden, and overt (?iihir),
34. SMN 279, 3-280, 5. See also AAF 115r.

35. IG 31,17; IGMP 14,18. The same idea in KFF 44v2; MMH 100,3 (without an explicit reference
to Allah) ; IQ 199, 3; SRA 60v5 ial-kaliim fimii ts yudrak u jahl wai-muniizarah fimii Iii
yab/ughuhu al-ra'i khata' , Compare M M H 62,4 (Phytagoras). See F. Rosenthal, Know/edge,
129; Ibn Rushd, al-hiss wal-mah siis, 78. Among the Mu'tazilites, the question of essence in
Allah was an important one, See AMI 256,13: "The Mu'tazilah had unanimously agreed to
deny essence (miihiyah) and to hold that Allah has an essence unknown to man ." See also
al-Khayyat, k . al-intisiir, 981, ff. Also compare Yehiidah Halevi . kuzari, iv, 13 p. 254,6-9 and
v,14 p. 328,14-16. The terminology in this saying brings to mind the Quranic expression
wa-la-yuhitiina bihi 'ilman (20,110) "they themselves have no knowledge of it." For the term
miihiyah (essence) and its Greek equivalent, see S. Afnan , Terminology 117,2; Dozy,
Supplement ii 566, where the term 's later meaning is recorded , namely "quality". For the term
rabb (Lord), see L. Massignon, akhbiir al-Halldj, 20,20. The idea that man must not investigate
about the essence of God is quite common in Greek literature, e.g., Plato, Laws, 821a; GTF
190,11; Sextus, Sentences 85/12.
36. See KAS 30,7: MMH 91,10; SRA 57r12; BHQH 37r10. See below, note 611.
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TEACHINGS 107
but invisible. He is the source of all good (khair) and so generous (jud) as to have
created the world .r'
The whole of these paragraphs have an Islamic ring to them. Whereas the
preceding, more general discussion could well be of a Greek origin, the list of
divine attributes in the last paragraph resembles lists made by Islamic theologians
such as al-Ghazalt.v Moreover, although al-Sahrastani thus implicitly ascribes
an Islamic attitude to Socrates, other Muslim theologians would take exception
to the views attributed to him. Al-Ghazali, in particular, simply denies one of the
presuppositions of both parts of the passage, namely that God has an essence
(jauhar): "He is not an essence nor do essences accommodate Him. "39
Divine attributes were discussed in the course of a certain controversy between
Greek philosophers, that is reported by Arabic authors, about the question of
whether truth was prior to wisdom or vice versa. There are three accounts of this
alleged controversy (whose origin, as I have suggested elsewhere.w may be in
Christian theology): one is a treatise ent itled Various Theories Concerning the
37. God's existence proved by His creation - RIMU ii 389,9. His unity - SMN 281,19("rem aining
always on one source"); His absoluteness - SMN 282,8. Compare Wensinck , Muslim Creed
al-fiqh al-akbar p. 188 a rt. 2:"Allah the exalted one, not in the sense of number but in the sense
that He has no partner." See also Wensinck's remark , ibid . 205-6. Allah not having a form -
SMN 280,10. Cf. STOB . i 14,1 where the author ascribes to Socrat es the saying that God is the
immortal and etern al. A similar approach is also tak en by John of Dam ascus, concerning
God 's place. Cf. Migne, col. 852 and Wensinck , The Muslim Creed 69. God as infinite a nd
eterna l - SMN 280,10. A different view was held by some in Islam, see AM 1257,7 (Hi sharn b.
al-H akam). For Allah 's eternity see al-Ghazall, ihyii' i 106,23. Compare Aristotl e, Phys. 204,
about the existence of a n infinite sensible body . God 's formle ssness is Stoic th ought , see Aristo
Chius (in von Arnim op . cit. i 86,5; ii 299, 11). See Zeno 's view on God 's infinity in von Arnim,
op. cit. i 24,8 and Cleantes, ibid. i 110,28; ii 111,11 etc. Allah 's perfection - KJAG 302 note
138. Allah 's covertness and overtness - MKHAA 100,17. Compare J a'far al Sadiq as
translated by H. Corbin in Histoire 61: " Notr e cau se est la verite de la verite; c'est I'exoterique,
et c'est l'exoterique de l'exoterique , et c'est l'esoterique de l'esoterique." Allah 's goodness-
HISNFM 65,12; HIMF 19,27. Allah's creation - IG 31,18; IQ 199,4. Compare Plato, Tim.
29d. Galen in his commentary to Plato's Tim. (GTP 5,9) says: "[Plato] says: 'the cause for the
creation of the world is Allah's generos ity ijiid) be He exalted .:" In the same line see Proclus, de
Aeternitate Mundi (PKA 34,1): "The first proof of those aiming at establishing that the world
is eternal is taken from the Creator's genero sity... and if the Creator, be He exalted, has made
the world by His genero sity, then His action is eternal.;." Another line of Greek tr adition is that
expressed by Aristotle, who looks upon the good as a principle (Met. 1013a21 and also
1075all-23). Generosity is one of Allah's attributes . Compare e.g., AAA 8r2 and al-Ghaz ali,
who implies a connection between God 's genero sity and the creation of the world imaqiis id
224,4).
38. Al-Ghazali, ihyii", siini' al- 'iilam (Creator) - i 108,24; siidiq (truthful) - ibid.; 'iilim bi-jatii'
al-maujiidiit (knowing all the existents) - ibid.; sami' bastr (hearing and observ ing) i 109,8;
murid (willing) i 109,3; hayy (living) i 108,31; mutakallim (speaking) i 109,15; qadim (eternal) i
109,31.
39. al-Ghazalt, il;yii', i 90,4.
40. Alon (1979).
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108 TEACHINGS
Principles attributed to Ammonius, the second is that of al-' AmirI and the third
is that of al-Shahrastanl.
The Ammonius report is peculiar for two reasons: it is full of Islamic
implications and in its report of the controversy in which Socrates took part he
refers to his adversary simply as "Philosopher". This person cannot possibly be
Aristotle, although he was commonly referred to by this nickname. Curiously,
Ammonius the commentator is called by this name by John Philoponos.s' The
following, then, is the report of Ammonius:
Some philosophers held different views about these faculties, namely
truth and wisdom. While some maintained that wisdom was prior to truth
and that truth existed only by virtue of wisdom, others held that truth was
prior to wisdom, and that wisdom only becomes wisdom by virtue of
truth, which gives it its existence.
Socrates spoke about this controversy and brought forth proofs
concerning Philosopher, while Philosopher, in his turn, produced various
proofs against Socrates. Socrates claimed that truth was dependent on
wisdom in respect of reason . Philosopher, on the other hand , claimed that
wisdom depended on truth and brought forth sound arguments for his
view as well as against the views of Plutarch and Aristotle."
The second report about the controversy is given by al-' AmirI, and as it is more
detailed than the one just quoted , onl y the relevant sections will be cited here.
Firstly, the author states the view of Empedocles on the matter of truth, wisdom
and God: "And [God's] most specific attribute is that He is in His essence. The
meaning of 'true' is that it is impossible to attribute non existence to His
existence. The meaning of 'wise' is that He brings everything into existence in the
manner which most perfectly suits its purpose. "43
Next, al-' AmirI reports the position of Pythagoras: "Pythagoras agreed with
[Empedocles's] beliefs concerning the attributes of the Creator, may He be
exalted, except on one point, namely, that [Pythagoras] claimed that our
describing Him as wise [is prior?] since wisdom is prior to truth, for in virtue of it
truth becomes truth. "44
The third report of this controversy, namely, that of al-Shahrastani, is notably
brief. It attributes to Socrates precisely the same argument (with one minor
41. John Philoponos, Comment to Aristotle's Physics. Another case of using the trade as a private
name - Talmud Bavli , Avodah Zarah 44b, where a conversation is reported between Raban
Gamliel and " Proclus the son of ph ilosopher. "
42. AAA 114b9-116b8.
43. AAA 7v12.
44. AAA 8v14.
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TEACHINGS 109
omission and a less "Islamic" conclusion) as the one al- cAmiri attributed to
Aristotle:
That on which Pythagoras and Socrates differed was the question whether
wisdom is prior to truth or truth is prior to wisdom. [Socrates] made it
clear that truth is more inclusive than wisdom, but it may be either evident
or hidden, while wisdom is more specific than truth, but it can only be
evident. Truth, then, is spread throughout the world and it contains
wisdom, which emanates throughout the world, while wisdom makes
truth clear, which is spread throughout the world. Truth is that through
which a thing is. Wisdom is that for the sake of which the thing is.45
The general effect produced by these reports is rather confusing. Although
obviously interrelated, they differ both with regard to the identity of the
participants and to their respective views: whereas Ammonius makes Socrates
claim that wisdom is pr ior to truth, the other two authors state the opposite,
while yet differing amongst themselves as to whether Aristotle or Socrates was
the one who advocated the (very same) final and decisive argument.
A more subtle difference occurs in terminology: whereas Ammonius refers to
wisdom and truth as quwii (faculties), a philosophical or even medical term
(suggest ing a non-Muslim, or at any rate, a more philosophically inclined
author), al-cAmirI applies to them both the strictly religious term sifiit
(attributes). Similarly, al-cAmirI gives an Islamic twist to the end of his account,
as compared with the parallel passage in al-Shahrastant,
It is worth noting that Socrates was also represented as having subscribed to
typically Islamic views on the issue of the attributes of God. In these views two
basic and strictly opposed attitudes or beliefs were represented : that no attribute
can be permitted of God , and that certain attributes can be predicated of God .
Socrates is cited as subscribing alternatively to one of these views or the other.
The former is ascr ibed to Socrates by al-Shahrastanr, according to whom , as we
have seen, Socrates mentioned the following attributes of God : knowledge,
power, goodness, and wisdom. The opposite attitude is ascr ibed to him in an
Arabic treatise entitled kitiib al-rawiibi" that was claimed to be a work of Plato:
... among them are Socrates, Asclepius, Parmenides. According to the
view of these , to whom are ascribed all virtues, the reason for visible things
is a god that is invisible and who cannot be grasped by any attribute. This
is obvious and necessary, since it is impossible to attach to Him anything
which can be attached to His contrary in respect of priority."
45. SMN 281,3.

46. PK R 198,20.
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Finally, a fundamental issue in the sphere of Islamic theology is the existence

and truth of prophecy. According to the Quran, every nation has had their
apostle or prophet (sent by God) .47 It is perhaps in this spirit that al-Balkhi
recruits Socrates and other Greek philosophers as supporters of prophecy:
"Among the ancients who subscribed to prophecy are Plato, Socrates, and
Aristotle, and these subscribe to both its theory and practice."48 These same
philosophers, however are described by al-Khawarizmi as outright atheists: "...
and [Plato's] brethren, such as Aristotle, Socrates, Hippocrates, and Galen, all
of them are the atheists of the ir period and surely the heretics of all times. "49
Besides general views on metaphysics and theology Socrates was credited with
specific ones : one should fear (khauj) , love tmahabbahi, and observe
(muriiqabah) Him, recognizing His right (!)aqq) to one by worship (%iidah) and
piety (thiqah), and endeavour to do that which pleases Him.50 This conduct must
be expressed not merely by sacrifices, but more importantly, by never swearing
by Him in vain on financial matters.>! For even if you were right in swearing,
some people will accuse you of lies and others, of love of money.» One must
worship God in God's honour, never in one's own , like some who worship God
"secretly" in such a manner as to let other people know it. When asked by them,
after having tormented themselves fasting or donating money to the needy, they
would reply "This is nothing," or "God knows," with the intention that people
take them for men offaith who refrain even from telling others about their good
deeds secretly perforrned .v
One must realize that God is one's protector and av oid giving in to lusts,
because these veil God from one .>' He, on the other hand, who knows the truth
47 . Quran , 10,48; 16,38; 23,46; 40,5 .

48. Al-Balkhi, al-bad ' wal-ta 'rtkh iii 8, I.
49. AI-QazwTnT, Mufid, 52,18.
50. MMH 85,9; SMN 282,3; IAU i 44,27 ; SRA 52r8.
51. MMH 91,5 ; SRA 57r6 ; VMS 38rlO . Th e sam e idea also in Isocr ates , Demonicu s 13: " First of
all , then, show devotion to the gods, not merel y by doing sacrifice, but also by keeping your
vow s." The confusion between Socrates and Isocrates in Arabic say ings must hav e or iginated
in the Arabic tr ad ition, because we know that the Syri ac had pre served the Gre ek original
form , to wh ich many Syriac manuscri pt s att est. See e.g., B. M. 14614; 14658 and 14620. See E.
Sachau (1870). Socrates him self used to sacrifice both at hom e and in public altars in the city .
See Xenophon, Mem. i. 1.2 and also ibid. i.3.3. See a lso A. M tiller (1877) 520, I2. For the
Islamic oath, see J . Sch acht, Introduc tion to Islami c Law , 159.
52. MMH 98,17 . See Isocrat es, Dem onicu s, 23: "N ever allow yourself to be put under oath sav e
for two reasons: in order to clear yourself of disgrace ful ch arge s or to save your friend s from
great dangers. In matters of money, swe ar by none of th e gods , not even when yo u intend to
swear a true oath; for you will be suspected o n th e o ne hand of perjury, on the other - of
greed ."
53. HIA 5, I I. Compare this very idea with Math. 6.1- 7, whe re it is att ribut ed to Jesus Christ.
54. HIS NFM 67,17 ; HIMF 20,28; KHI 17R7.
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and acts in accordance with it is the person closest (aqrab) to God,55so that when
his mind is right (~a!}!}a) he receives revelation (ilham).56 The same goal of
converging on God can be achieved by minimizing one's needs (!}ajjah) , because
God himself has none."
FATE AND TIME
Fate and time constitute a considerable portion of the body of sayings under
consideration, both in the Greek and in the Arabic traditions. A whole chapter is
dedicated to the topic by Stobaeus.v and in Arabic culture its significance is by
no means less important. The Arabic term dahr (time), which is sometimes
replaced by zamiin (time) connotes, along with its temporal sense, the sense of
fate and eternity. The words of Schrameier in this regard are illuminating: "Yet
almost always in such a way [dahr means time], that it is thought of as exhibiting
a certain power; rarely is it merely T ime in, and for itself...but almost without
exception it is personified as causing good or also bad fortune , as controlling the
existence of men and doing so in such a way that it is impossible for them to
escape from what is in store for them. Is it not that 'destiny'? "59
In a manner similar to pre-Islamic poetryw God is not mentioned even once in
our sayings. This may indicate an old controversy within Islam between pagan
and monotheistic tendencies.s! or else, it could represent a conflict between
Islamic and Greek influences. An Islamic piece of literature without a reference
to God is rather rare. In addition to the fatalistic tinge, the general mood in our
sayings is one of pessimism, much more reminiscent of pre- Islamic fatalism than
of Quranic religious pre-destinative views.w One could even argue that the
55. UMLA 440,14. Compare USS p. 4/18 :" People improve by converging on God and resembling
Him by doing good and speaking the truth." A simila r idea in the Stoic tradition - D.L. vii 119
(von Arnim , op. cit. iii 157,24). On the relationship between knowledge and Allah see F.
Rosenth al, Know/edge, 208 ff.
56. MHH 266,1. Cf. also al-Farabt, ara', 57,22-58,16. Also see R. Walzer, Greek into Arabic 206;
211. Sim ilarly in shi'ite tradition, see H. Corbin, up. cit. 82. Ibn Sina, too, identifies the highest
degree of philosophy with prophecy - Walzer, op. cit. 218.
57. ASI 60,8; KFF 38v8; IAU i 39,24 (Hippocrate s). Compare also USS p. 27 and also Sextus,
Sent ences, p. 8739; Cf. Taylor's English translation of the saying in lamblichus 's Life of
Pythagoras, 269; Xenophon Mem . i.iv.1O and D.L. vi, 104 (Diogenes) , and ibid. ii,27.
58. STaB. i cap . 8.
59. Schrameier, op . cit. 26, translated in Watt, Free Will, 21,1.
60. See H. Ringgren, op. cit. 56.
61. Even the vocabulary of pre-Islamic poetry is reminiscent of that of the sayings attributed to
Socrates. See Ringgren , op. cit. 34 ff.
62. Cf. Ringgren , ibid. 24.
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fatalism expressed by this Socrates is even more morbid than both: While in
simple fatalism , every person is perceived as living his proper personal destiny,
here the final outcomes are almost identical for all people and they are inevitable
and predictable.
There is a basic asymmetry between fate and time on the one hand and
humans on the other hand, as expressed in the sayings. This asymmetry is
basically manifest in time's being eternal (dii'im), always new and sharp.s! a
power that eventually annihilates everythings- without ever being itself affected,65
having no weak points through which it can be stopped .w It is an unreconcilable
and unbeatable foe ('adiiw), who keeps its promise to no one, an oppressor
(fiilim) with whom no terms may be reached, an enemy not subject to enmity, a
killer whose victim cannot be avenged , a judge that judges others and is not
subject to judgement, its opponents invalidated, its opposers vanquished. Time's
rule persists against those who raise their arms against it, it always has the upper
hand and no one is ever victorious over it. It defeats others and is never defeated,
a dog that is never satiated and a youth who never becomes decrepit.s?Time is an
intriguer without anybody noticing it,68 it has never applied itself with pure
intent (~afii') to those who have passed away, nor will it apply itself to those
remaining in this world .w Its calamities are so many that they can never be
counted by anyone." It is swift to betray those who rely on it, it makes one happy
with the fate of one's enemy and sad with one's friend's misfortune. To its folk, it
is full of vicissitudes (ghawii 'if), but in a way it is fair: it does warn against itself
and discloses its own evil consequences;" however, these declarations are only
visible to those who scrutinize Time, but these escape those who ignore it .72 In
the long run, Time acts equally to all : whenever Time makes someone happy,
showing him what it causes to his enemies, it is about to render his enemies
happy by showing them what it causes him." As time annihilates (abiida) and
betrays (khiina) one's predecessors, it will annihilate and betray oneself;" wear
63. HISNFM 70,18; HIMF 22,13.

64. HIMF 18,27.
65. HISNFM 71,5; HIMF 22,18; KHNS 23v8.
66. KHNS 23v4.
67. KHNS 23r16.
68. HISNFM 70,14; HIMF 22,8; BHQH 5rll.
69. HISNFM 70,13; HIMF 22,7; BHQH 5r9.
70. MMH 112,3; SRA 68rl.
71. KHNS 23r12; HISNFM (mss. Munchen) 52rl ; HIMF 22,4; MMH 112,4; IAU 148,29; SRA
67v15. Compare also HISNFM 79,12; HIMF 22,6; MMH 112,4; SRA 68r2. Cf. Ringgren,
op.cit.34,19.
72. HISNFM 70,14; HIMF 22,10.
73. KHNS 23v3; MMH 112,11.
74. HISNFM 71,3; HIMF 22,15.
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out one's limbs" and finally will return one to one's starting element (C un,yur).76
In the short run, however, it may act differently: one's calamity may be the
happiness of the other.??
Any favour that one may have experienced by Time is polluted (a metaphor
that recurs as referring to time's main task)" by mishaps'" and anyone whom
Time has gladdened on one occasion will be maltreated on another.w so as to
erase any past event into nonexistence.t'
Taking all these conclusions into account, what stand should one adopt
toward Time and how should one behave? First and foremost, the basic human
attitude toward Time ought to be negative (siP al-?ann).82 One must never trust
Time (rakana i/ii), because trust may mean annihilation.v Such trust is a sign of
delusion (ghuriir) and ignorance (jahl) about Time's past deeds.t- and often it
brings about calamities.s' On the other hand, men who draw lessons (ahl
al-iCtibiir) make ample use of Time's vicissitudes, as each day provides them with
new information-s that can and should be used for thinking about the future .s?
They also fall back on their own experiences with self-education (ta'drb),88
which makes Time the best possible consultant.s? one whose advice you can take
75. HISNFM 71,1; HIMF 22,14; KHNS 23v6; MMH 112,12; BHQH Svl; SRA 68r9; "Days" as
synonymous with Time and Fate . See Ringgren, op . cit. 38.
76. IAU 149,13.
77. HISNFM 70,16; HIMF 22,11; VMS 40v7; A different version of the same saying - MMH
101,8; a third version - KHI 16r12. Also compare Isocrates, To Demonicus, 34: "In your
deliberations let your past be an example for the future : for the unknown may be soonest
discerned by reference to the known ." Cf. al-Mawardl, adab, 97,7 where a similar idea is
attributed to "one of the sages".
78. HISNFM 70,2; HIMF 22,7; BHQH 5r10.
79. MMH 119,15; IAU i 49,15: SRA nV3.
80. MMH 112,10; IAU 148,39; SRA 68r7; VMS 40v8; KHNS 23v7. Compare Ringgren, op . cit.
36.
81. SRA 60v2.
82. HISNFM 70,16; MMH 101,10. This world , considered as acheat, is acommon idea in Islamic
literature, e.g., al-Ghazali, i/:yo', iii 211,7.
83. KHNS 23r12; HISNFM (mss. Miinchen) 52ri ; HIMF 22,4; MMH 112,2; IAU 148,29; SRA
67v15; Compare also MPGH 414,13; MMH 125,16; SRA 74v13; KFF 38v12.
84. HISNFM (mss. Munchen) 52r8; HIMF 22,9; KHNS 23vl ; BHQH 5r12.
85. MMH 120,12; IAU 149 ,17; VMS 41v4.
86. MMH 118,15; IAU 149 ,14; SRA 71v15. For Time as a traitor, see Aeschylos, Prom . 981.
87. UMLA 434,6.
88. KFF 39v4; MMH 118,1; IAU 149,12; IGMP 42,2; BHQH 6vl, Compare STER. p. 188/510,
who relates a saying to Simonides, to the effect that experience is a good teacher. See also
al-Mawardi, adab al-Dunyii, 5,12, where the saying is attributed to "one of the sages".
Another version of the saying is attributed by al-Mas'udl to a sage who was present at
Alexander's death bed (muriij al-dhahab, Cairo 1965, i 321,20): "You , people, have seen this
king who has passed away. Let the king who remains draw a lesson from it."
89. MMH 105,11; SRA 64rl. A similar idea in Plutarch, Moralia , 153,0: Time personified, and
also STOB . i, cap. 8.
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from observing its behaviour toward others in add ition to that toward yourself. 90
Human beings should exercise self-examination (fai)~) permanently.?' never
letting themselves be misled by youthful beauty or bodily health, for health is
always followed by sickness and it, in turn, by death.92
Underestimating (istasgharai an event when it is small is a mistake, because
this thing is liable to grow and increase.v and in any case, one cannot possibly
know what is truly good for one, because many are happy tmaghbiuv about
something in which their sickness lies, and they fear illnesses that are in fact their
cure. 94 Some also choose things that will eventually destroy them." He therefore
who puts himself in his proper place protects himself against Time's evil
vicissitudes."
There is little point in fighting anything that approaches you (i.e., fate)
because , far from being weakened by your struggle , fate will eventually vanquish
you . You should adhere to those whose fortunes are favourable and beware, as
long as fortune smiles to you, of maintaining friendship with those on whom
fortune has turned its back.?? One anecdote tells about a king who wrote to
Socrates complaining about his misfortune. In his reply, Socrates wrote to him:
"Time has done justice to no one so that his condition has turned to be in
accordance with what he deserve s. You will only find people belonging to either
group: those who are ahead, whose luck kept them behind, and those who are
behind, whose luck pushed them forward. Be content, then with the state you are
in, even if it is below your expectations and rights, at your own free will, or else
you shall be compelled to be content with it. "98
Finally, the key word in affairs of Time and Fate is perseverance (sabrv: he
who has withstood trials (ubtulia) is like him who had been pardoned ('ufiya)
and thanked for the pardon.v?
90. HISNFM 71,5; HIMF 22,17; KHNS 23v7.

91. MMH 99,14; YMS 39rlO.
92. MMH 112,5; sra 68r3.
93. KHNS 34v3; 38v24; MMH 111,9; MPGH414,16; SRA 74v14; YMAH (Plato) 142,6. Compare
J. Kraemer, Abu Sulaimiin, p. 44 who quotes AbU Hay yan al-Tauhldi, muqiibasiit, 310, 6-10.
Cf. also Gardaq, ' A«. 236,16 ('AlT) .
94. HISNFM 63,14; HIMF 19,1; KHI 16v8; BHQH 3v4.
95. HISNFM 66,12; HIMF 20,10; KHII6vI9; BHQH 4r8; YMS 49rl.
96. YMS 40v9.
97. UMLA 440,14; MMH 106,18; SRA 64v10; YMS 49rl.
98. KHI 17r17; BHQH 5v3; MMH 331,3; HI SNFM 148,13 (a sage); MKHAA 118,5; SMN
311,5-7. Compare also Gutas, op . cit. 116; 335.
99. HIMF 19,2; BHQH 3v5; MMH 100,13; SRA 60v 14. The conn ection between sabr and shukr
(gratitude) in the Qur an - 14,5; 31,30; 34,31; 42,31. In the hadith , almost the same wording
occurs, alt hough in a d ifferent context: Ibn Majjah , siyiim, 55 etc. The connection between trial
ibalii") and forgiveness ('afu) , al-Tirmid hi, da'wiit , 37. For sabr in connection with Time in
pre-I slamic Arabia, see Ringgren , op. cit. 53. A beaut iful anecdo te, relevant to the connection
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The reader must not be surprised by the thorough treatment accorded Time in
these passages for two reasons: the first derives from the Greek background of
these stories where the term that is equivalent to the Arabic dhar or zamiin is
ananke, which is related in Orphic theogony to Erabos, Chaos, Aither, and
Chronos.tw and is one of the most hateful things in this culture. 101 The second
reason for this interest derives from Arabic background, where Time is identical
with Fate, usually in a negative sense: traditional fatalism cleared the way for
predestination, in which it is God who makes the decrees, rather than Fate.
THIS WORLD (DUNYA)
This world is defined in many ways, two of which are: "the lot of man whatever
befalls him before death and does not continue with him afterwards", or "every
pleasure or desire, even speech with friends so long as they are not aimed at the
service of God . "102
It is characterized by Socrates negatively in terms of qualities. First, its
temporality: it is, as opposed to the world-to-come, a momentary pleasure, like a
chance eye glance'v- followed by lengthy periods of grief. 104 Human life in this
world resembles an unreal moving shadow. lOS
Another important characteristic involves Time's treacherous and changeable
(taghayyur)106 conduct toward its clients.w' which makes it similar to a mirage:
"its seeker regards it as a potential source of satisfaction for his thirst, fatiguing
between these two qualities is quoted by al-Ibshihf in his musuuraf, ii 255,21: "The wife of
lmran b. \:Iallan had one of the most beautiful faces among people, while he had one of the
ugliest. One day he said to her : 'I and you will, with God's will go to paradise.' She asked : 'How
is that?' and he replied : ' Because I have been [given a woman as beautiful] as you, whereas you
have been given a man as ugly as I, but have forbeared me. Both the grateful and the forbearer
enter paradise.'''
100. Kleine Pauli , Y I p.332.
101. STOB . 172,7.
102. In EI 2 vol. I p.626.
103. HISNFM 72,10; IAU 149,23 ; SRA 73v15.
104. MMH 98,7; VMS 39r8 ; IAHS 104,16. Compare Al-Bukharl, riqiiq, 5. For other parallels, see
Wensinck, Concordance, s.v. dunya (vol. II p.(53). Al-Ghazall attributes the following saying
to Jesus Christ: " How many momentary passions have left a long grievance to their folk!"
(i!;ya', III 203, 5.)
105. M M H 104,10; SRA 63rl3; IAHS 106,12. The comparison between this world and shadows is
also made by Plato in his analogy of the divided line, Rep . 509-510, as well as that of the cave ,
ibid. 5 I I; 514. In Arabic literature the comparison occurs in Ibn al- t Arabi's al-akhliiq, p.
28,16 . See also al-Ghazalt, op.cit, III 214,13 and also al-Nuwairi, nihiiyat ai-arab , vol. Y,
230,11. Compare also OT , I. Chron, XXIX , 15.
106. MMH 104,15.
107. MMH 104,15; SRA 63v4; lAHS 108,9.
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himself in search of it, but when he reaches it the illusion betrays him," his hopes
allude him, and he remains thirsty. lOS It is also similar to a treacherous sea whose
farer is called 'gambler'ifhe survives his voyage. Otherwise he is called 'dupe'. 109
This world is similar to a path in which a thorn is hidden in the soil. He who does
not know his way, steps on it, to be pricked and hurt by it. I IO He who believes
that this world might conceal his vices should rather stop basing himself on
relevant evidence drawn from other people's experience and on scrutinizing this
world's passing away . I II
This world's transitoriness is apparent in its sweetness that is always followed
by bitterness, whereas its opposite, the world-to-come is bitterness followed by
sweetness. 112 It is nothing more than the legacy of past epochs, the remains of
past ages, and the receptacle of misfortune.U!
It is told that the pleasures and comfort of this world were enumerated by a
jester, in response to a question put to him by Socrates: "Eating delicious sorts of
meat, drinking pure wines , having sex and cloths. " So crates's reaction to this
was: "This view is not reprehensible for him who is satisfied with resembling
apes, with turning his stomach into a cemetery for animals and with preferring
the cultivation of perishable things to everlasting ones. "114
These pleasures are liable to cause evil ('iifiit) I 15 and what is worse, to veil God
from one. 116 On the whole, this world is a prison to him who renounces it and a
paradise to him who loves it. 117
The influences and results of thi s world are mostly negative. Cultivating it
108. MMH 104,8; SRA 63rll ; IAHS 106,9. This world as deceiving see al-Ghazall, op .cit. III
204,20; III 211,7.
109. MMH 104,6; YMAH 148,4;SRA63r9; VMS 39v12; IAHS 106,5. The simile of this world asa
sea seems to be of foreign origin. The attitude of hadith to the sea is by and large a negative
one. See e.g. " Iblis's (Satan) throne is (set) on the sea" (Ibn Majjah , muniifiqin, 66), or
"Temptation surges as the sea does" (al-Bukharl, ~aum 3 etc.).
110. MMH 95,2; SRA 59v13.
III. IAHS 108,5.
112. IAHS 104,18.
113. MMH 113,11 ; SRA 68v15.
114. KAS 28,23; ASMSH 15v8; MHH 212,1; MKHAA 90,11. Comp are Plato , Phaedo , 64bwhere
the bodily pleasures are enumerated by Socrates in a manner very similar to that in our saying.
115. VMS 38v6.
116. HISNFM 67,19; SRA 61r8.
117. MMH 95,1; IAU 147,30; SRA 59v12. Compare Plato , Phaedo 62b. This passage has been
translated into Arabic. See Ch. Burgel (1974). In Islam ic literature likening this world to a
prison is a common motif, and only a few examples will suffice here: In hadlth literature:
Muslim, 53,1; Tirmidhi 34,16; Ibn Majjah 37,3; Ahmad Ibn Hanb al II 197; 323; 389; 485.
Al-Tabart, 'Alli AI-Din (VI century H.) in his book makiirim al-akhliiq, Kirbila, n.d., p. 508,14
attributes a similar saying to the Prophet: ,,' Ali, this world is the believers' prison and the
non-believers' paradise". RIMU II 413,17 attributes the same saying, with slight variations to
al-Biisanji.
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imparts toil (taCb) in it and misery (shaqii') after having left it, while cultivating
the world-to-come (al-iikhirah) imparts peace (riil)ah) in this world and ease
(tanaCCum) in the world-to-come.U'' This world diverts one from one's true aim,
namely that which incorruptible, 119 and it changes people's status from humility
to high status and vice versa120 but like Time and Fate, it admonishes those who
seek it. It shows clearly its evil misfortunes, its rapid passing away (zawiil), its
abandonment of its clients, and its regular betrayal of its lovers. He who accepts
its advice is wise and he who fails to do so is careless.121
Besides its negative role, there is a positive role for this world, namely, its
being a transit (rna' bar) to the world-to-come. He who prepares provisions for
his journey there is safe from the deserts that are on the way which frighten
others about their destination.t-? or as Socrates wrote to the king of his time
after the latter's child had died: "God, may He be exalted, has created this world
of misfortune, and the world-to-come a world of reward . He has made the
misfortune of this world the cause for the reward of the world-to-come, and the
reward of the latter a substitute for this world's misfortune. What He takes He
takes for what He gives, and when a man suffers tribulations, he does so in order
to be rewarded ."123
How should one behave toward this world? The question is essential, because
people can be categorized according to their behaviour: "People are of four
kinds : generous, miserly, wasteful, and moderate. The generous one is he who
gives his portion in the present world for his portion in the world-to-come; the
miserly one is he who gives neither of his worlds its due portion: the wasteful
person is he who joins both his worlds for the sake of this world, and the
moderate one is he who gives each its proper portion. "124
Seekers of this world are those who monopolize some of its vanities rather
than take victuals from it;125 they resemble pictures on a scroll: whenever some
118. MMH 98,1; IAHS 100,15.

119. MMH 91,15; IAU 147,19 ; VMS 38r15. This world as a hindrance between man and Allah -
see al-Ghazall, op.cit. III 201,20.
120. IAHS 104,11.
121. IAHS 108,1.
122. M M H 96,3. The need to prepare provisions in this world for the next is a common theme in
Islamic religious literature. See e.g. al-Ghazali, op.cit . III 211,31. Also, Ibn Qayyim al-
J auziyah's book is entitled ziid al-musiifir (i.e. "Provisions for the Traveller"). For this world as
a corridor to the world-to-come ('AlI), Compare also IDM 40,15 ; RIMU IV 389,23; IAHS
98,18.
123. HISNFM 67,5; HIMF 20,17; MMH 100,18; UMLA 464,2; SRA 61r4.
124. ASMSH 15v14; MHH 281,15. The division of people according to their attitude towards
money and property is reminiscent of Aristotle's account of the same thing . Cf. Eth. Nic. Bk.
IV ch. 1-2, where properties such as liberty, prodigality and meanness are dealt with.
125. IAHS 100,4. Compare al-Mawardi, adab al-dunyii wal-din p. 96 (the Prophet).
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appear others vanish, 126 they lose in any case : if they attain the goals they hoped
to attain, they leave their achievements to others, but if they do not, they die in
grief. 127 They never lack grief, either over having missed that which passed them
by or as a result of fear of losing those things they have indeed attained. 128 They
suffer from envying those above them and from being envied by those below
them, which might result in forceful destruction.P?
The attitude one must adopt toward this world is inverse to the one that
should be adopted toward one's own soul: he who holds his soul in esteem,
considers it insignificant, and he who belittles his soul, the earth and its
inhabitants, are all-important to him.P? The conclusion we must draw is that
one ought to abstain from this world if one is certain about its passing away131 a
position that in addition to its inducing the right conduct will bring him the love
of its people. 132 The meaning of th is way oflife is contained in Socrates's words:
"In this world, be content with food which reaches you, restrict yourself to the
drink which quenches your thirst, be satisfied with the dress that covers you,
make do with the houses that will shelter you, and serve only yourself, thus your
heart will be at peace and you will be able to dispense with your circumventions.
Make your shoes your vehicles, the earth your bed, the moon and stars your
lamp, knowledge your goal, action your care, studying wisdom your main
interest. Thus you will belong to the best of your contemporaries and join those
praised brethren of yours who have passed away . 133
Caution is also recommended for the sake of security, because he who does
not exercise caution deserves to be tried by this world's misfortune. 134 The lesson
that this world teaches, namely, to live ascetically, should be learned by all
intelligent people, particularly if it is a lesson drawn from someone else's
experience.135
Those who fail to draw these conclusions are negligent (aghfiif) 136 and foolish!"
126. HISNFM 63,6; HIMF 18,26; KHI 16v6; IMKA 75,11; MMH 100,10; IAU 148,9; SRA60v12;
VMS 39r14; TTM 251, II. This saying , as F. Rosenthal points out in Four Essays p.5, appears
in many illuminated Arabi c Mss.
127. MMH 96,1; IAU I 48,3; VMS 39r3; IAHS 98,11; KHNS 22v14; MMH 103,16; SRA
62VI3 ;IAHS 102,19 etc.
128. KHNS 22v14; MMH 103,16; SRA 62v13; IAHS 102,19.
129. KHNS 22vll ; MMH 95,17; IAHS 98,5.
130. HISNFM 64,7; HIMF 19,8; TNH number 5. IAHS 106,3.
131. MMH 98,3; IAHS 100,18; MMH 95,19; IAHS 98,9.
132. IAHS 98,9.
133. MMH 103,19; IAHS 104,1; SRA 63rl. This saying may represent a Cynic tradition.
134. IAHS 106,1.
135. IAHS 102,14.
136. IAHS 100,13.
137. MMH 95,7; SRA 60r3; VMS 38v16; IAHS 96,8.
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in toiling and endeavouring to cultivate this world, in spite of their being certain
of its temporariness. 138 However, they are the majority of people.P? They fail to
perceive the damage of seeking this world: loss of life, bloodshed, 140 destruction
of one's own SOU1,141 deafness to wisdom, and blindness to the light of
perception, 142 quick fatigue in this world.t-' regret inadiimahi (as opposed to the
peace (sa/amah) attained by its forsakers), 144 and even death: "The seeker of this
world is short-lived (qastr al-iumrv and much troubled by worrying thoughts
tkathir a/-fikr). "145
One must not envy the beauty of this world because it is easily annihilated, but
rather one should compete for that which lasts and is permanent.!"
This warm recommendation of asceticism taken from Socrates is not the only
recommendation in the body of sayings. Another is expressed by Socrates thus:
You must prepare for misfortune, for you live in a place where inhabitance
is by no means ever free from it. Therefore, prepare for calamity prior to
its befalling you, so that when it does you will have been ready for it with
forbearance, If, however, it evades you, this will come with you having
been prepared for it. Know that preparation for calamity is like the
preparation of seeds in time of abundance for the drought. 147
Another Socratic recommendation is:
Do not debase your pure souls by cultivating this inferior world, but
rather, be like the birds in the sky that fly out in the morning from their
nest, caring for nothing except obtaining their food . Once they do, they
return to their nests caring for nothing except satiety; be like wild beasts
that descend from their territories and mountain peaks, and once they fill
their stomachs, return to their caves, neither planting nor harvesting,
knowing that their Creator created their food toO. 148
138. MMH 91,15; IAU 147 ,19; VMS 38r15.

139. IAHS 108,7.
140. IAHS 106,20.
141. MMH 95,14.
142. MMH 111,16; SRA 67v10; UMLA 331; YMAH 114,17; (Plato). For light as a symbol of
knowledge and truth see e.g. al-Ghazali, op.cit. IV, a 3603, 4-7 (as quoted in H. Lazarus-Yafeh,
Studies 295).
143. MMH 95,4; IAHS 98,1.
144. IAHS 102,17.
145. MMH 104,5; IAU 148,13 ; VMS 39v12; IAHS 106,7.
146. SRA 70v5.
147. KFF 39r2; MMH 117,12; SRA 71r8.
148. MMH 96,7; IAHS 100,6. The idea of complete reliance upon Allah for next day's food , as well
as for other things (tawakkul) , has a parallel in Greek . See Hippocrates, On Food 15, where the
author points out that "nature is enough for everything in everything." For tawakkul and daily
livelihood see B. Reinert , Die Lehre, Berlin 1968, pp . 71- 78.
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These precepts basically represent a stand point of equanimity and preparedness

for misfortune: He who knows this world will neither be happy because of its
goods nor be grieved by its evil. I49
There are , however, three things for which this world is usually sought:
position ('izz), wealth (ghina) , and comfort (ra~ah). Contrary to popular belief,
the true means for achieving the first is by asceticism, the second by sufficiency
(ghana'), and the third by minimizing one's efforts, 150 i.e., all may be attained by
means that cancel them out.
A more realistic approach is taken by Socrates when he recommends
moderation, rather than asceticism, vis-a-vis this world , which is like a blazing
fire kindled on a road . He who takes from it enough to light his way escapes its
harm, but he who sits down by it in order to acquire and hold it, will be injured
by its heat. 151 Whoever takes from this world more than is sufficient, takes things
useless to him, whereas he who takes from it only what suffices him is led to
well-being. 152
The intelligent person must make use of this world for one of two purposes
only : either doing those things that will bring him to paradise in the world-to-
come, or those things that will bring him praise after he dies. 153 These objectives
may be regarded as the only worthwhile worries and preoccupations (hamm) in
this world .'> The share of one who sells the transitory for the enduring, and the
present for the future is a glorious one.P>
In all, the world represents a gain for the astute and a loss for the fools. 156 This
negative view of this world Arabic Socrates shared with the Quran, as in both it
is regarded it as a transitory stage to the world -to-come.P ?
One of the most salient characteristics of th is world is property and
possessions. These were alien to Socrates, who regarded possessions as the
source of grief l 58 and a troubled mind.l >? and as they are being served, they
149. HIMF 19,29 Compare IFIM 52,10. Cf. Quran, 4,152 and 57,23.
150. MKHAA 112,14.
151. KHNS 22v9; MMH 95,13; IAU 147,32; VMS 39rl ; IAHS96,21; TIM 1136,28; See also MMH
103,19; IAHS 104,1; SRA 63rl ; Also, "Plato's will" in Badawi, Platon , 245,6.
152. MMH 96,5; IAHS 100,1.
153. MMH 98,5; IAHS 102,1.
154. MMH 113,4; SRA 68v9. Compare MTA (Cairo 1905) p.130.
155. IAHS 102,4.
156. HISNFM (mss . Miinchen) 43v5; HIMF 19,11; UM LA 236,5.
157. E.g., Quran, 57,20.
158. KAS 30,4; ASMSH I. 561; BHQH 22v7; MMH 125,12; MHH 212,10; IAU 149,36; IM N 151;
AIMZA IV 138,14; TTM /74,12 . See also ' Abbas, maliimih , where a poetic stanza is quoted to
the same effect. To a disc iple of his who expressed aston ishment over not having seen him sad
ever, Socrates said : "This is because I do not own anything the loss of which would sadden me."
- ASMSH 15r3; MKHAA 86,6; HIMF20,32; IAH S 108,12; KAS 28,9; Cf. Gut as,op. cit. for
a genealogical analy sis of this saying - MKHAA 283, and also 284.
159. MKHAA 86,1; MHH 212,11. (In this version the sanction is the intensification of poverty).
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deprive their servant of his freedom .160 Lack of possessions, on the other hand,
rescues man from other peoples's envy and enmity.tst There are kinds of property
that are laudable, though: These are bodily health,162 and that kind of property
that not only remains.ts! but even grows,l64 much as its owner would spend it.
The way of spending one's property is more important even than acqu iring it in
the first place .165 According to a famous anecdote, Socrates replied to one of the
king's chieftains who, upon seeing him eating dry grass, invited him to join the
king 's service so that he would not be forced to eat that humble food: "And you,
had you been able to eat dry grass, you would not have been forced to serve
someone who is your equal. "166
COSMOLOGY
Socrates, like several other well-known Greek philosophers, is alleged to have

maintained the creation of the world by God.
The view of all men of truth (ahl al-haqqi among all the religious groups is
that the world has been created out of nothing and it was created by the
Creator, may He be exalted. God, may He be exalted, had existed while
nothing else existed with Him. Th is [view] they (i.e. men of religion)
shared with a group of the pillars of wisdom and the most anc ient
philosophers, such as Thales, Anaxagoras, Anaximenes, and their
Milesian followers, as well as such [sages] as Pythagoras, Empedocles,
Socrates, and Plato from Athens, and also a group of poets and ascetics,
who held a particular opinion of how the creation took place .167
Among the Arab authors who held th is view was Jabir Ibn Hayyan, and he
160. MKHAA 88,11.

161. KHNS 22v7; IAHS 96,19; IEMM 86,11 (Plato); another version in KAS 30,4; MMH 125,13;
IAU I 49,26; IGMP 102,20; IAHS 96,15 . A third version - KAS 30,5; MHH 212,11; MMH
103,3; SRA 62r15.
162. KHI 17v2; MMH 101,13; SRA 61r14; VMS 39r17.
163. MMH 122,10; KHNS 14vl5 (Plato).
164. MMH 109,7; IAU 148 ,22; SRA 66rll.
165. KIHNF 7r19; AHTBD 60,7; MHH 213,19; SRA 66r12. Also - MMH 124,15; SRA 74rl I;
IAU 149 ,19.
166. SRA 73v3; IHKR 109-110; MMH 77,9. Compare D.L. vi,58: "... that Plato saw him washing
lettuces, came up to him and quietly said to him : ' Had you paid court to Dionysius, you would
not now be washing lettuce s,' and he, with equal calmness made answer : 'If you had washed
lettuce s, you wouldn't have paid court to Dionysius. n, Also , see BH LS p. II I xxxii ; STER g.v.
192(Diogenes). Compare al-Qushairi , risiilah, i, 75, 15-16 (as quoted by Rosenthal, Freedom ,
104, note 324).
167. SNIK 5,1.
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122 TEACHINGS
summoned up Socrates for support of the point that creation took place in a
short time: "Porphyry said : 'We see that among those who adopted this view was
Socrates the sage . These [men] did not doubt that much knowledge came to him
naturally with little effort (riyiir.jah) ."'168
These views are in accordance with basic views in Islam that concern the
creation of the world,169 namely that God created it ex nihilo at a certain
moment in time and that nothing had pre-existed Him. Not everyone agreed on
the world being created in time: "The world is eternal in essence [but] created in
attributes. This view is shared by Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Socrates and the
Dualists.r?"Spatially , the existent is not infinite, because had it been so, it would
have to be part of a potential being, and the existent is actual rather than
potential. "171
Regarding the possible destruction of the world, it is said in an Arabic
translation of Proclus: "Socrates sa id in the beginning of the Timaeus that
everything that comes to be passes away, but he did not attribute [this view] to
himself but rather to revelation (wa~y)."172 The Arabs followed Plato in divid ing
the world in two. This division recurs several times . According to al-Shahrastant
the world is constructed of two main parts: the one is the world of meaning
('iilam al-ma'nii), in which two components participate: the world of divine
sovereignty ('iilam al-rubiibiyah ') and the world of the Intellects ('iilam
'al-'uqul). The second major part of the world is the world of Forms (iilam
al-suwari, which is too, divided in two : the corporeal Forms, i.e. the world of the
spheres and elements, and the other part is the spiritual Forms, i.e., the world of
suspended images.!" These, Socrates maintained, are created by God through
the mutual contact made by "these worlds". As a result, the spiritual Forms
come into being within the informed beings, their individuality springing from
the relationship and accumulation of natural accidents in these beings. 174
168. GHPK 377,5.

169. AI-Ghazlili, tahifut, th ird and fourth discussions.
170. AI- 'Allamah, anwiir, 28,13. The full text is worth quoting: "Know ye that people have been
strongly at var iance over th is point (i.e., th e creation of the world) . Their precise views were:
the world must be either (I) created both in essence and in att ributes - which is the view of all
the Muslims , Chri stians, Jews and the Magian s, or (2) it is eternal in essence and attributes,
which is the view of Aristotle , Theophrastu s, and Them istius, Abu Nasr (i.e., al-Fiiriibi), and
Ibn Sinii. These were of the opinion that the heaven s were eternal in essence and attributes
except for their motions and states . The latter are eternal in species, i.e., every created thing has
its equivalent prior to it ad infinitum, or (3) etern al in essence but not in att ributes, which is the
opin ion of Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Socrates , and the Du alists."
171. FFM 19,15.
172. PKA 39,16.
173. SRI 231,15.
174. risiilah fi tiirii' al-hukamii' al-yiiniiniyin, in Badawi, Pia/on , 310,14.
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This division brings to mind the one made by Plato in the Republic, which is
generally known as "the divided line."There are, however, some basic differences
between the two accounts. Plato, as is known , divided the line into two main
sections: the visible and the intelligible . The first main section is subdivided into
two parts: first shadows, and second animals, plants, and manufactured things.
The second main section is subdivided into objects of dianoia, and the Forms. 175
This difference in the contents of the fourfold division is not the only one.
Whereas Plato is interested not merely in a description of the world, but also in
ways of knowing it, al-Shahrastanl's report concerns only the first of these
interests. He also skips the complicated Platonic mathematical analysis of the
various parts of the divided line and their mutual relationships .!"
Socrates's picture of the supra-lunar world, which is spherical, was influenced
by his idea of the transmigration of souls. According to this view, put forward by
al-cAmirI, the question of cosmology was one of the two matters on which
Socrates had held opinions different from those of Pythagoras, his teacher: "He
said that the heaven is the second creation (nash'ahs which is formed by the stars.
The reason for [the stars'] fixedness in [the spheres] is the velocity of the spheres
which contain them . Everything that moves, [does so] towards some state of
rest, and whenever the spheres stop [rotating], their stars scatter and they
surround the earth so that they touch one another and form a fiery circle. "177
There is also an Arabic translation of Galen's commentary on Plato's Timaeus,
in which Plato's division of the world into two parts is mentioned: "Socrates is
often found in the Republic to call 'sensibles' by this name without explaining
[why they are] thus named . Rightly he here calls every sensible 'that which comes
to be' and every intelligible only 'that which eternally is." ' 178
Another source, also translated into Arabic, which touches upon the problem
of the duality ofthe world is Plutarch who reports that Socrates and Plato were
both of the opinion that the Forms were elements (jawahir) detached from the
essence. This essence is based in the mind and in the images that are attributed to
the god, who is identical with the intellect.t'?
As for the elements of the world, what is reported by Abu Hayyan as
Socrates's view is very close to that of Anaximenes: 180 "Socrates said: 'Had water
accepted rest, it would have become earth; had earth accepted movement, it
175. Plato , Rep. 5lOA ff.

176. Ya'qiibI, ta'rikh, i 134,6.
177. AAA 8v16.
178. GTP 4,6; Cf. Plato, Rep. 529 B.
179. FAT 163,13.
180. See Simp!. Phys. 24,13. F. M. Cleve, The Giants of Pre-Socratic Philosophy, i 150-1. The
author mentions Anaximander as one of the transformists .
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would have become fire, and had fire had obtuse angles, it would have become
air. '''181
Al-Khawarizrnl takes a different approach toward both Socrates and the
problem of the world : he denies the piety of Socrates on the one hand, and
attacks his views on religious grounds:
The physicists (tabNyun) Soc rates and Plato, the leaders of heresy ,
maintain that the root of the world consists of four th ings that are the
natures of the world: heat and cold , which are active , and humidity and
dryness, which are pa ssive. Some say that the composition of these four
th ings comes about without any agent, while some say that these natures
are agents that govern the world according to the ir natures. They say :
"The natures strive [among themselves] within the bodies : sometimes heat
has the upper hand over the cold , and the phys ician does not know to what
extent it does . As a result of the ignorance of the physician, the body dies .
Were it not that the natures strive [among themselves], no one would die ."
The decisive answer to these heretics (zaniidiqah) is the following : "Do you
acknowledge the Creator, for the creation necessarily needs a creator, or do you
doubt Him?"182
This idea that is expressed in this paragraph, far from being Socratic, is
actually a combination of notions derived form Aristotle, Anaximander, and
Galen,183 among others. It serves the Arab writer very well in his attempt to
attack Greek philosophy for its heresy, because, as we have already seen , not all
Musl im writers were that enthusiastic about having Socrates, or any non -Muslim
for that matter, be regarded as one. The theological implications may be
far-reaching: not all his alleged views were acceptable to Islam.
Three Arabic sources give a different report of the Socratic theory of the
world's pr inciples, one of which is in fact a Greek conception. All three sources
establish that there are three world principles. The first source is an Arabic
version of Pseudo-Plutarch, according to which the three principles are God,
Substance «un~ur) and Form: "Socrates and Plato whose views were identical
about everything, both held that the principles are three: God , may He be
exalted and dear, Substance and Form. God is the Intellect, and substance is the
first sub stratum for body [that exists] in the images and thought ascribed to
God, may He be exalted and dear. As for God, He is the intellect of this world ."
The other Arabic sources probably derive from this version of Plutarch, too, or
a similar translation from the Greek. Of these, the first is al-Balkhi, whose
181. HTM 271,18.

182. AI-QazwInI, Jamal al-dln , mufid a/- ' uiam, 56,17; (GAL S i 914).
183. Cf. Plato, Tim . 28 A. A. H. Wolfson , Kalam , 382; Maim onides, daliiku al-hii'irln, 150,23.
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version is slightly shorter than the Arabic Plutarch. The second is al-Shahrastani,
who admits to having based himself upon Plutarch, although his differs from
that text in detail: "On the subject of the principles, Plutarch reports [Socrates]
to have said: 'The principles of things are three, namely the efficient cause,
Substance, and Form. God, may He be exalted, is the agent, Substance is the
first substratum for coming to be and passing away and the Form is an essence
without body ."'184
In the above passage, as in many other passages, the Arabic term for the Greek
"god" is the name of God (i.e., Allah). This is the case in all three versions , which
either signifies the intention of the Arab authors to "adopt" these texts and adapt
them to Islamic use, or this manner of translation may have been due to a
position that only recognizes the name of God in the singular rather than in the
plural. 185
ALCHEMY
One of the most interesting and surprising aspects of the Socrates described in
Arabic literature concerns his involvement in alchemy . With regard to this
realm , three main topics are usually discernible: the balance (mlziin) , water, and
stones.
The idea of the balance, which is mostly connected with the name of the
renowned (and according to some, mythical) alchem ist Jabir b. Hayyan , was
attributed by the Arabs to the authorities of the past. Not infrequently these
authorities were Greek philosophers, in particular the well-known ones, such as
Empedocles and Pythagoras. In two passages, Jabir attributes to Socrates an
association with the balance. Socrates he says belonged to these ancient prophets,
Greek and others, who had received alchemy from God . 186 The first passage
reads : "Ballniis l87 based his proofs on what Socrates had said : 'If the outcome of
the [idea of] the genus is that they (i.e. the genera) fall under Nature, it is clear
that the balance is not upset. "'188
184. FAT 141,1; al-Balkhi, known as al-MaqdisI, Mukhtar b. Tahir. The book is falsely attributed
to al-Mas'udt. Also see Diels, Dox. Graec. 288 a.
185. Although the term i/iih (a god) as a generic noun was in use by Arab tran slators. See e.g., Ibn
Rushd, tafsir, vol. 4, p. 1614,6, the Arabic translation of Aristotle 's Metaphysics, I072b25 , and
other instances. The translation of the same Greek term as Allah also occurs in the same book,
e.g., p. 389,1 and other instances.
186. As attributed to them by Khalid b. Yazld b. Mu 'awiyah. Cf. Ruska (1925) 295.
187. For Balinus see F . Rosenthal, Das Fortleben, p. 332, where he identifies him with Appolonius
ofTiana. Balinus reportedly wrote a book by the title sirr al-khaltqah, ms. Istanbul, Koprulu
872. See also J. Ruska, Tabula Samargadina, and also Berthelot, op .cit. III p.19 on Jabir and
Appolonius. Compare U. Weisser (ed .) sirr al-khaliqah .
188. GHPK 159,10.
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What is this science of the balance? It seems to have been an attempt to reduce
all sciences to a quantitative system, which would link the "soul of the world" to
every object, both below and above the sphere of moon. It is a combination of
the physics of the time, like the four elements and the four qualities of the
sublunar world, of Neo-Platonic ideas, such as the concept of the soul of the
world, and an Ismii'IlI religious approach. 189 In the second passage, the balance
is connected with the humors, which, in turn are linked with the whole world : "If
it exists, humors exist and the world exists and so does the balance. This is
Socrates's theory which we have clarified in the Book ofHumors (k . al-mfziij) ."190
The link between Jabir and Socrates was even stronger than is indicated in the
above citation. There apparently existed a book by Jabir by the title of k.
musahhahiit Suqriit (The Book of Corrections of Socrates), now lost. Some
excerpts from this book, however, can be found in Jaldaki's nihiiyat al-talab.
Jabir himself criticized the theories attributed to Socrates, but he also adopted
them himself. As for the real origin of these views, P . Kraus held!?' that no
ancient writer could have ascribed alchemical writings to Socrates. Sezgin'??
does tend to accept a Greek origin to that attribution, while E. Stapleton
maintains that these texts may have represented the alchemy practiced by the
Harranians.r"
Water is reported by Jabir to be an important component in the construction
of the universe, along with other elements, such as the Elixir, the stone and so
forth. This view he also attributed to Socrates:
The father and master of all philosophers, Socrates, concentrated his

attention on the airy mixture extracted from steam, saying: "If its (the
earth's) sphere had been put to turn around the water at such distance that
nothing save the steam reaches it, and if the sphere, which [Socrates]
sometimes called 'sphere' (falak), and sometimes 'circle' (dii'irah), is riddled
with small holes, and within it there is another similar circle, divided
equally in halves, existence would be more harmonious than otherwise,
and know that."
We must say something about Socrates's view of the water, what [kind of]
water it is, and how, according to Socrates, it is possible for the form of the
half to emerge. Socrates thinks that the water is a part of the sharp
189. For the ideas attributed to Jabir concerning the balance see S. Pines, (1940). Also H. Corbin,
Histoire, I pp. 185-7 .
190. GHPK 263,3.
191 . This information has been taken from P. Kraus , Jabir, p. 64 (204). The book by Jaldaki is in a
ms. in Cairo, tabi'iyiit; ii4 , t. II foJ. 476.
192. Sezgin, GAS IV p.lO.
193. H.E. Steplton, Ambix 5 (1953-6) 7-8.
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TEACHING S 127
(J:ziiddah) waters, so that he says: " Flying water (mii' al-{ii'ir) and light pure
green copper (J:zulqus) and sharp salt."
This means that you should know that Socrates always called this water
"the water of life," because this [water] is regarded by him as the most
potent water, as it does everything through the most proximate interference
with other things , and it does both things and their opposites, such as both
analysis and synthesis and their like.
Let us first explain this view of Socrates and what he meant by it. "Flying
water" is, according to him, the shells of living eggs; copper is bronze
(zinjiir) , and sharp salt is, according to him, the mother of salts, namely
Sal Ammoniac (niishadurzs. When three stones [are] put together in equal
proportions and distilled, the water, which [Socrates] mentions, issues. It
is, by God, as he said, in this water that product should be cooked, and it
will thus be a wonder. Socrates had said the truth about this. You should
know what need made Socrates seek for this [water], namely that it issues
in the balance (?).
As for the form of the half, if [the form] is a circle, which is the most
common [case], it would have to be like ten and twenty, and in a similar
manner. If it is something other than a circle, then [it will be] according to
that [form]. 194
Another hint at Socrates's interest in this discipline is given by Jabir in his book
mawiizin, where he mentions the value Socrates and Pythagoras had each
attributed to different kinds of stones, twenty-four in all. 195
The attribution of an interest in alchemy to Socrates is a typical example of
how the Arabs could take a historical person and turn him into a contemporary
participant in their own scientific or religious disputes. This example, however,
does not necessarily mean that it was their doing, although there is hardly any
evidence to the contrary.
RHETORIC
This domain of Socrates's work won but one very short remark in the Arabic
sources . According to that source, he was one of the Greek rhethoricians, 196
though no additional details are given. This attribution could mean that he was
thought of as a Sophist, but as the term itself in transliteration meant in Arabic
194. GHPK 389,3.

195. Jab ir, mawiizin, quoted by Berthelot, op.cit. III 121,5.
196. HTMW 215,3.
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128 TEACHINGS
someone who is sophistical and misleading in 'his argumentation, the term

"rhetor" was employed.
ETHICS AND VIRTUE
Socrates's great contributions to the field of ethics was well recognized by the
Arabs, who ascribed many sayings and anecdotes of ethical nature to him. As
great an Islamic philosopher as al-Farabr, who cannot be accused of drawing his
information just from the oral traditions, characterized "the way of Socrates" as
consisting in the investigation of justice and the virtues, a point to which L.
Strauss has called our attention. 197
The term used by al-Shahrastant to denote ethics as a domain of interest for
Socrates is tahdhib al-akhliiq ; another term for that purpose is riyiidat al-nafs
(training of the soul); both terms are loaded with Islamic connotations.
Socrates belonged to a group of philosophers who took great interest in social
justice: "You, brother, who despises the intellect and take pride in property,
think of yourself as belonging to the group of Plato and Aristotle. Did those
[philosophers] accumulate one dirham upon another, one dinar upon another?
Or were they rather advocating restraint and avoidance of [property] in their
books as well as help to the weak and the widow against violence and injustice?"!"
This topic is a salient one in Islam 199 as it is in Judaism and Christianity, and the
quotation implies that here again Socrates is likened to the prophets and
thinkers of these religions.
Basically, a man who cannot separate good from evil, which are two
[contradictory] paths that are deservedly taken by different people,20o is not
worthy of human society (alhiqhu bil-baha>im),201 according to the Arabic
sources. Innocence and culpability, through which the virtues (fatja>i/) are
attained, are acquired by actions of the bodily organs.w- and it is the duty of the
intelligent person to guard himself against anything that might damage his
virtues. 203 These are always to be sought and acquired iiktisiib al-fatja>i/), and no
197. Strauss, (1977) 398. See also M. Mahdi, Al-Farabi's Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, 22,5.
198. AbO Hayyan al-Tavhldl, akhliiq al-wazirain , 324, 13. The term inology here is more reminiscent
of the OT rega rding the widow and the orphan. See e.g. Dew. 14:28; 24:17; 26:12; Ps. 82:3.
199. In Hadith see e.g, AbU Dii'Od 17,10; Nasa'! 30,12.
200. HISNFM (mss. Mu nchen) 41r9; H1MF 18,28. Compare Alexand er Aphrodisias, de Fato cp.
28 p.199,7 (Bruns) , and von Arnim, op .cit. III 165,16.
201. MMH 100,15. Compare Galen , de H. et Plat. Deer. VIl2(208.59 Im) de Chrisippi Libro, von
Arn im, op .cit. III 60,16.
202. MMH 85,12; SMN 282,3; IAU 144,29 ; SRA 52r19.
203. HISNFM 66,15.
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TEACHINGS 129
causes are allowed to hamper one from doing SO.204 Socrates himself started this
task the day he began reproving his own soul (taubikh nafsihl).205
A man ought to know the value of things, so that his own value (ja(jI) can
become known,206 but results take precedence over manners and status: "There
is no use in status (Cizz) that leads to humiliation (madhallah) nor in joy that
leads to loss. ''207 By cultivating proper intentions one will be befriended by the
Good itself,208 and by practicing good deeds one becomes even better than the
good,209 as good manners (~iilil] aI-akhIiiq) act to purify him who practices
them. s'? The good deed should be done for its own sake , and therefore its value is
greater than that of its reward ."! His attitude toward good deeds classifies a man
into one of three groups: the virtuous ifiifjiI) of the highest degree are those who
do good deeds on their own initiative; those of the second degree are those who
are driven to good actions upon hearing about them from other people, and
those in the third degree are those who belong to neither group. These are the
base villains.U-
Apart from the value of doing good for its own sake , there are consequences
and results of doing it, such as praise and good outcomes. Thus avoiding evil
deeds guards one against their harmful results ;2131audable deeds (al-fi l al-jamih
are pastures of pleasurej-!' do ing favours (ma(ruj), preferably in a concealed
manner.s'! brings future good results, just as planting a vine brings wine. 216
Favours must be given at the right time and in the right measure. Therefore,
one must not be out accepting favours that are not in the right place, nor give
one's donations unbecomingly, because man y ignorant people give at improper
times and withhold gifts in time of need. s'" He is to be thanked , who promotes
truth and right (l]aqq).218 Such thankfulness is both an obligation and a pact
204. MMH 85,3; SMN 281,20; IAU 144,23; SRA 51v14.

205. MMH 115,15; SRA 70r8; VMS 41r3.
206. MPGH 415,8.
207. VMS 39r5.
208. MMH 118,17.
209. MMH 118,8; SRA 71v6; 10M 59,5 (' All b.a. Talib) ; IARIF II 279,9 (' All), ibid. II. 281;18 ;
HISNFM 53,11 (Aristotle) ; IAU I 62,27 (Aristotle); 1M I 27,14.
210. See above, note 205.
211. UMLA 434,3.
212. MMH 116,3; ASI 184,3; MKHAA 110,1; SRA 70r3. Comp are MMH 299,16; AHTBD I 58,3.
Cf. Gutas , op. cit. 324-5; A. J. Arberry (1955). M. C. Lyons (1960- 61) 35-57. Aristotle ,
Nic.Eth. 1095blO.
213. MMH 117,18.
214. MMH 118,18; SRA 72rl.
215. MMH 119,8; SRA 72r1I ; 1M I 27,23.
216. UMLA 434,10.
217. MMH 99,5.
218. MMH 119, 10; SRA 72rI 2.
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130 T EACHINGS
(rnfthiiq) .219 Evil lies in giving that which one does not deserve , as well as in
holding back that which one does deserve.P?
Ignorance of virtue is equivalent to death.?" and therefore, as long as one
lives, one must not be content with want of good in oneself. 222 One ought to be
the first in doing good ,m even in the face of other people's contemptv- or
disapproval. 225
Finally, a word of warning: an unjust person will not be benefited by caution,
the implication being that his best course of action is to become just. 226
There are some other bas ic qualities the advocating of which was attributed to
Socrates that are also essential in the Islamic tradition . Among these is good
character (husn al-khuluq) , which, in contradiction to outworldly beauty (jarnii!)
is inward beauty (bii{in) .227 This does not mean that the one excludes the other.
Quite the opposite: if you add good character to good looks, you become
perfect. If, on the other hand, you are ugly, you must not add bad character to
your ugly looks, but rather add good character in order to conceal the ugliness.Pe
One may find out about one's position in the matter by looking in the mirror: if
one finds one's face ugly (qabl/;l), one must not add ugly deeds to one's ugly
face.F?
Essentially, not only does good character prevent one from committing ugly
deeds, because the two are opposed to each other,230 but it also absolves one
from sin, whereas bad character is punished during one's lifetime and one's sins
remain unforgiven.P! Good character also conceals vices, whereas bad character
conceals virtues.P? Good character creates good deeds, engenders love, and
219. MMH 116,8; SRA 71v4.

220. AHADM II 93,8.
221. KHl17v4 .
222. SMN 282,4.
223. MMH 119,10.
224. KHI 17v7; MMH 116,8; SRA 70v4.
225. KH117v8 ; MMH 66, 17(Pythagoras); IAU 149,11; SRA 70v13; YMS4Ir4; TNH number 62.
226. MMH 118,18; SRA 72rl.
227. HISNFM (mss. Miinchen) 50r3.
228. SRA 67rl3; VMS 40v3; MMH 82,3. Compare STER 72/176 (Diogenes); D.L. VII,19 on the
relation between external looks and intellectual qualities as judged by the use of a mirror; A.
Miiller, op.cit . 515,3.
229. MKHAA 120,6 (Plato); AHTIM II 47,11 (Diogenes); KAM 55 (Plato); SMN 311,3; YMAH
114,21 (Plato); RIMU 1 278,7 (Galen) : Jardaq, 'AIr, 229,19 relates the saying to 'AIr.
230. HISNFM 71,8; HIMF 22,19.
231. HISNFM 71,11; HIMF 22,21.
232. MMH 110,16; IAU 148 ,27; SRA 67r8. A similar idea is expressed in the hadith: "Anas said :
'While we were one day with the Apostle of Allah, may Allah pray for him and bring him peace'
he said : 'Good character dissolves sin as the sun dissolves ice." (Al-Ghazali, op.cit. III 51,8).
Compare also Freeman, K. Ancilla p.108/180 : "Education is a ornament for the prosperous, a
refuge for the unfortunate" (Democritus). Also, Sayre, Diogenes p.63.
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TEACHINGS 131
strengthens friendship. s» brings about a good livelihood and permanent peace

(saliimah),234 safeguards one against separation from one's beloved.P> and
delivers the virtuous from annihilation.sw
Another quality associated with Socrates is justice ('ad/) . The basic meaning
of that Arabic word is "inclination", and later it acquired the meaning of "a
middle term between extremes", excess and deficiency being the breach ofjustice
(or equilibrium) . Justice is thus God's balance, which makes it the balance of all
errors and inclinations.P?
It is by justice that God composed the world,238 and therefore it contributes
endurance to things.P? Essentially, beauty (/;lusn) is justice (or in this context the
meaning of the Arabic word should rather be "equilibrium"), because it is the
cause of all beauty.240
In the following anecdote, the connections between justice, beauty, and
intellect are emphasized: "A king, seeing Socrates wearing a worn-out woollen
garment during a festival , said to him: 'I wish you had adorned yourself on such
a day.' Socrates said to him : 'No ornament is more beautiful than justice, for it is
one of the intellect's noblest faculties. "'241
Adherence to justice results in salvation (najiih),242 and justice guards the soul
against calamities (miiqibiit) .243 One must treat oneselfjustly (ya'di/) in order to
behave likewise toward others.244
Truth is another virtue to which one must adhere, according to the
recommendations of Socrates, who defines the difference between truth and
falsity as the difference between the eye and the ear.245 Socrates also described it
233. HISNFM 69,5; HIMF 21,16; KHI 17r12;

234. KHI 17r10; MMH 110,14; IGIA 20,27; IAU 148,26; SRA67r5; YMS40r16. Compare STOB.
p. 15/5 (Pythagoras).
235. MMH 110,19.
236. HISNFM 71,9; HIMF 22,20.
237. KAS 31,8. See for the concept of Ju stice in Islamic political theory F. Rosenthal, " Political
Just ice and the Ju st Ruler", in Joel L. Kraemer and Ilai Alon (eds.) Religion and Government
in the World of Islam, /OS 10(1980)92.
238. MHH 213,15; GNM 75,23; MKHAA 104,12. The conjunction of justice with cosmogony is
also made by Anaximander (Simpliciu s, Phys. 24.17). Cf. G. S. Kirk and Raven, op.cit.
119-121; 140: See also the connection between justice and the world in Ibn Khaldiin ,
Muqaddimah p.65,13 where a saying to this effect is attributed to Annshirwan,
239. KAS 31,7; MMH 122,7.
240. KAS 31,9; MHH 212,15. The Arabic word husn (tr anslated above as "beauty') has also the
meaning of moral good, as has its opposite . The term'adl also means "moderation," "evenness."
241. UMLA 432,12. For the Muslim concept of justice see E. Tyan, "Adl" in E/2 voll pp. 209-210.
242. KAS 30,6; MHH 212,12; MMH 103,4; MKHAA 86,2; IAU 142,10 ; SRA 62v2.
243. KAS 30,7; BHQH IIr6; MMH 91,12; SRA 57r14; 62v2.
244. SRA 68v3. The saying is quite unclear.
245. MMH 111 ,11.
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132 TEACHINGS
as the intelligent person's sword against falsity (bii!il).246 For this reason one
must only give credence to what is right-- ?and speak the truth , behaviour that is
for the faithful more valuable than property.e"
The person whose shape (~urah) is the most beautiful is he who knows best the
truth,249 the existence of which is the prize (riiJ:zah)250 and the fortune->' of the
wise. One ought not to be ashamed to receive truth from whomever comes with
it, even if he be of an ugly appearance, because truth is held by him in great
esteem and its holder becomes great by its greatness.w Truth separates the slave
from the free man, because the latter guards it for its own sake out of love,
whereas the former guards it as a result of fear. 253
Adab was an important component in Arab culture in the Middle Ages. It
involved manners and general knowledge, good taste and in general - being a
gentleman. Later, the term acquired the sense of a literary genre, of art or
discipline, and recently - the sense of literature in general. In the Socratic
sayings the connotation is that of general good qualities, perhaps equivalent to
the Greek paideia. It is the most pleasant (aladhdh) activity , side by side with
listening to stories one has not heard before.s>' and is the first rule by which one
lives,255 as it is the most advantageous discipline for the young to adhere to,
because it bars them from evil deeds. 256
A clear sign of the ignorant person is that he blames others for his own
mistakes, while the sign of the seeker of adab is that he blames himself for them .
The sign of the adib (he who has already acquired adab) is that he blames neither
himself nor others.P"
Avoidance of adab may bring harm to people : once Socrates was asked for the
246. HISNFM 67,12; HIMF 20,24.

247. YMAH 115,14.
248. HISNFM 62,11; HIMF 18,17.
249. MMH 105,12;SRA 64r2. Compare the idea put forward by Diotim a in Plato 's Symp. 210.
250. KAS 30,24; MMH 103,8; SRA 62v5; TNH number 43.
251. MMH 119,5; SRA 72r8; VMS 41ri7.
252. MMH 120,7; SRA 72vI3. Socrates himself was regarded as such a person.
253. MMH 110,12; SRA 67r3. Compare F. Rosenthal , Freedom 83 and note 247.
254. KHNS 24v4; MMH 107,15;IAU 148,18; SRA 65r II . The idea seems to have been taken by the
Arabs from a Greek source, perhaps STER 470 or STOB. II 219/ I. Cf. IDM 93,8, who
substitutes "hearing" for "looking into " (na?ara).
255. UMLA 434,12. The same spirit , if not style, was that of the early Greeks. See W. Jaeger ,
Paideia, I p. XXIII,38: "Man's education is the tool with which he attain s his true nature ".
Elsewhere (ibid. III,224,34) Jaeger points out Plato's idea that true educat ion is the first and
most praiseworthy of all ideal values (Laws 644 A ). Compare also Cicero, Acad.Pr. II 23:
.....itemque sapientiam, artem vivendi..."
256. KHNS 37v14; MMH 107,17; SRA 65rI3.
257. HISNFM (mss. Munchen) 46r3; HIMF 20,3.
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TEACHINGS 133
reason why a certain person was fat , and he replied: "his neglect of adab".258
Therefore, if you love adab you will find many means to it. Whatever adab you
acquire, you should keep as a treasure; that which you cannot obtain, neither
give it up nor tire of looking for it. 259 The adib must never address anyone who
has no adab, the same way that a sober man must never quarrel with a
drunkard.tw
A number of qualities are less emphasized by Socrates. Among those is
patience (sabr, hilmi. It is through kindness and persistence (rifq, dawam) that
one may achieve what one wants.w! He who exercises patience, which is described
as a fortified edifice,262and closely connected with thankfulness,263 gains. 264 This
quality aids in every deed,265 adds in mastery (su'dad)266 and conceals one from
those who enjoy other people's misfortunes.w' but is much more difficult to
exercise in time of happiness than in times of trouble.268
Contentment (qunu C) is the guide (imam) of self-sufficiency269 and he who
suffices with [only the necessary] victuals is spared from debasing himself.s"
Sufficiency is riches.?" therefore one must accustom oneself to making do
with little, so that one encounters thankfulness when one acquires more, and
thus one's life will improve.F? However, the disadvantages of contentment were
not hidden from Socrates either .s"
258. ASMSH 15rI9 ; MKHAA 92,10. A negative attitude to fatness as a symptom of lack of
spirituality is expressed by Ibn Gabirol, IGMP 6,11 /29 "Robustness and obesity are seldom
the portion of the devotee to study and religion".
259. MMH 98,8.
260. 10M 92,17 (Plato); RIMU 134 ,6 ("It is said ... ");SRA 58v9 (Plato); TIM 175,8; Yiiqiit, asriir
al-hukama', p. 179,8. This saying is a very popular one in Greek literature. See e.g. STER.
P.159/426 (Plato). See there Sternbach's long list of Greek parallels.
261. HISNFM (mss. Munchen) 41r3; HIMF 18,25. For the concept of hilm see D . M. Donaldson,
Studies p. 7: "Tranquility which includes ideas of clemency and forbearance": Ch . Pellat,
" Hilm" in El2 vol. III p. 390-392, where T . Izutsu's suggestion is quoted that this term
translates the Greek atarxia . ibid. (1962-3).
262. MMH 118,3; SRA 71vl ; VMS 41r7 . See Democritus in F. Rosenthal, Fort/eben, 179/56. In
hadith this quality is a very laudable one. See e.g. Bukhari, 23,7 etc .
263. The connection between these two qualities is also hailed in the Quran, e.g., 34,19; 31,31.
264. MMH 119,2; SRA 72r6 ; VMS 4 1rI5 .
265. HISNFM 63, 9; MMH 100, II ; IAU I 48,10; SRA 6OvI3. For sabr see Miskawaihi, tahdhib
al-akhliiq, ed. Q. Zuraiq, p. 20,6. Also see AI-GhazaII , op.cit. part IV.
266. SRA 71v6.
267. MMH 118,17.
268. Risii/ahfi a/-'iirii', in Badawi's Platon , 314,4.
269. MMH 120,13; SRA 67v8; AIMZA IV 138,7. Xenophon, Mem . 1.2.1.: "Though he (i.e.,
Socrates) possessed very little, he very easily made it a sufficiency ."
270. See above, p. 120.
271. HISNFM 66,12.
272. KHNS 34vl ; 38vll ; MMH 111,7; 125,14; SRA 74vll ; MPGH 414,12.
273. See below , p, 148.
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134 TEACHINGS
A virtue common to both the classical tradition and to Islam is that of

adopting the middle course. A famous saying that is here attributed to Socrates,
and which is also attributed to the Prophet.F" is: "The best of all th ings is the ir
middle" (khair al- "umiir awsii{uhii),275 as a heart of moderate temper is the
source of man's happiness. I" Detaching oneself from extremes is the kindest
(arfaq) of all conducts.s"? Exceeding one's limit in this world , and thus going
even beyond the extreme embitters people .t'"
A reputation is better than money, because money, once it is spent it is gone,
whereas reputation remains.P? foolhardiness is the opposite offear; moderation
between the two is a virtue called "courage".280 Generosity means giving
preference to the pleasures drawn from the sweetness of praise over those of
wealth.e" and it brings about fidelity .282 One will never become perfect as long as
one's enemy does not trust one . How can he possibly do whi le even one 's friend
does not do SO?283
Love (' ishq) is a power created by the Creator in order that every living being
should be able to repel the power of death, because it drives the living being to
reproduce, so that its form is preserved in the world . The lover loves beautiful
forms so that his fruits should be the best of both fruit and form .284
Shamefulness is considered a virtue: "Do not befriend him who is never
shameful. "285 And, finally, self-appreciation engenders majesty.286
Intellectual Virtues
The Intellect
Socrates identified the intellect, which is likened to a receptacle to be filled up
274. See e.g. al-Mawardl, adab al-dunyii wal-din, 9,9 (The Prophet) .
275. HlMF 18,22; MMH 100,9; IAU I 48,9; SRA 60v13. Compare Ibn al-Jauzi, al-Hasan al-Basri,
Cairo 1931 , p.34,2.
276. KAS 31,5; al-cAmili, k . al-mikhliih, Misr 13I7, p.lO.
277. VMS 39v5.
278. ASMSH 15v20.
279. MMH 122,15; lAU 149,18 .
280. UMLA 432,13. Compare Aristotle , Eth. Nic. 1107bl ; 1115b24.
281. MMH 118,2; SRA 71rl5; VMS 41r6.
282. KFF 39v7
283. HISNFM (mss. Miinchen) 49v16; HIMF 19,6;AHTSS 89,3; BHQH 3v8; MMH94,16; lAU I
47,29 SRA 59v10. Compare the same idea attributed by MMH 168,5to al-Fudail, a renowned
sufi, d. 803 A.D ., and also al-Sulami, tabaqiit who relates it to Bishr b. al-Harith. lAU 151,4
quotes Plato as the source of this saying.
284. HISNFM (mss. Miinchen) 44r3; HlMF 19,15.
285. KHl 17v5; MMH 116,6; lAU 149 ,11; SRA 70v2. Compare STOB. p.15/5 (Pythagoras).
286. MMH 119,12; SRA 72rl5.
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with perfume (i.e., wisdom),287 with God ,288enumerating the attributes that are
common to both, such as simplicity, uncausedness and true existence.V? God 's
images (takhayyu/iit) are the seat of the Forms wh ich are essences separate from
the elements.P'' On anot her occasion, ho wever , Socrates states that both t he
intellect an d logic fail to describe God 's true essence.s?' Wh atever is only grasped
by the intellect is call ed "t he Perman ent Being" (al-mauj ud dii'imant in contrast
wit h sen sibl es that ar e the th ings that permanently come into being (al-shay- '
al-kii'im dii'iman),292 probably meaning God . The intellect, once defined as the
influence of God on the soul, is ind ispensable for the soul as a gu ide , above
which th er e exists only divine gu id ance.w' Following the inte llect it guarantees
one's right action,294 otherwise one risks perdition. s" The intellect 's relation to
the body is one of opposition: he who enjoys bodily power is d ivorced from the
intellect and resembles beasts (bahii' im) .296 When Socrates was asked: "Do you
not worry (lit. fear) about your eyesight as you read so much?" he answered : "If
eyesight (ba~frah) is sound, I pay no att ention to illne sses of eyesight tbasr)."297
Both ar e somehow connected , as perfect intelligence goe s hand in hand with
perfect ability (qudrah tiimmah ).298
T hin king ought to be co nd ucted prior , during and afte r action in or der th at
sin and erro r be avoide d and th at lesson s be drawn. t?? Human s receive the
inte llect as a donati on (mawiihib) from God , rathe r th an by merit for th eir own
d oin gs, as is th e case, fo r example, wit h manner s (adab) .300
The intelligent person - who is never he who desc ribes himself as suc h, for if
287. MM H 84, 16; IA U 144,19; SMN 28 1,12; SRA 51v10.

288. FAT 163, 13. Co mpa re Anaxagoras, the mind as the pr inciple of the wor ld (Kirk & Raven
op .cit, 372-5) and simila rly Teru llian, On the Sou l, 12,1: "M ind was to Socrates a god" (see
Ferguson , op .cit, p. 307/12.4.6) . See also D.L. VII 134 for the identification of mind and go d.
289. FAT 159,4.
290. FAT 163, 13.
29 1. S MN 279,4.
292. GT P 4,6. Co mpa re The Theology ofAris totle, 6 1-2, where the so ul is said to gra sp the source
of its beaut y. Th is is th e Ara bic translat ion of Plot inu s's Enn. V.8.3. 1
293. BTH 65,4; KAS 30, 18; AS MS H 15r21; SMN 280,8; MHH 211,6. Fo r the hierarchy mention ed
above co mpa re Pr oclus, Elements of Theology, ed . E. R. Dodds , prop.20, p. 23; Plut ar ch, de
Gen. So c. 22,591 B. Acco rding to hadith th e intellect was the first th ing crea ted by Allah. See I.
Go ldz iher ( 1908)3 17 ff.
294. KF F 39r8; MM H 116, 17; SRA 70v 12.
295. KHI1 9,3; M MH 100,14; IA U 14 8, 11; S RA 60v 15. The implicat ion of this saying is th at the
inte llect is a means to over com e dea th . Cf. Aris totle, de An . 408b24- 30, and al-Bustl,
al-rauda h , 32,20.
296. ASMS H 15v18; M H H 281, 19; 374,5.
297. FIH R 10,28.
298. HI S N FM (mss . Miinc hen) 41v7; UM LA 440,16.
299. M KH AA 112,4.
300. HI SN F M 63,13; KH I 16v7; HI M F 18,31; MM H 94,12 ; IG IA 12, 19; BHQH 3v3 (king
Sol om on ); IA U 1 47,29; S RA 59v6 a nd VMS 38vl3 su bstitutes adab with "uliim - science.
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136 TEACHINGS
he does, other people will regard him as a f00130I - cannot possibly do wrong,
because action in accordance with the intellect is a guarantee for doing the right
thing.P? There is strong bond between ethical behaviour and the intellect. Hence
the intelligent person will never tend toward anything base when it comes his
way.303 On the other hand , contrary to the ignorant person, he is characterized
by self-doubts.v' he is oblivious to property.v' he ought not to endeavor to
build anything that he would eventually leave behind, i.e., property. Also, he will
learn from other people's experience whatever he can .306 He conducts a moderate
standard of living, speaks in a civilized rnanner-"? and ha s no enem ies, except the
evil fool , who, in turn, first opposes himself, next, the evildoers, and finally, the
righteous.ws
The intelligent person's manners (adab) , like the fool's reticence, should
signify danger to one .P? He will never demand from himself what he refrains
from demanding from others.'!" and beware of anything damaging (iifah), in
particular, those things that might damage his virtues of excellence (jQlP) .311 He
should speak with the fool as a physician speaks with a sick man .U? His friend is
well off 313 but in the final account he is in a no-win position: his good fortune
(nz'(am) is envied and his misfortunes cause malicious joy.314 It is also better to
have an opponent who is intelligent than an ally who is foolish .u> Still , intellect
301. HISNFM62,12; KHI 16v7; HIMF 18,18; BHQH4rI3; MMH 123,8 ;IGIA 20,26; YMS4IvI9;
TNH number I. Cf. also IFIM 62,4.
302. SRA 58v2; IARIF II 248,10. An idea close to the above - STOB. 109,5 (von Arn im, op.cit. II
163,12); Plutarch, de Comm . No t. cp.21 P 1068 D (von Arnim , op .cit. III 168,18); D.L. VII
100. See also MMH 296,6 (Democritus).
303. MMH 120,5; SRA 72vl I. The personality depicted in the saying is similar to th at depicted in
Greek literature. See Plato, Gorgias, 49Id; Phaedrus, 237e; Symp. I96c; Aristotle, Eth. Nic. A
I I 17b23 ff.
304. MMH 119,16; SRA 72v4; VMS 41r9.
305. SRA 58vl ; For the connection between wealth and wisdom - see Plut arch, de Tranq. Animi,
cp, 12, p. 472 (von Arnim , op. cit. 164,26);Philo , de Sobr ietate §56, vol. II p.226, I6 (von Arnim ,
op.cit. III 156,39).
306. MMH 95,8; SRA 60r4.
307. MMH 120,5; SRA 72vl I.
308. MMH 265,17.
309. MMH 97,15.
310. MMH 112,19; SRA 68v5.
311. KHI 16v20; HIMF 20,12.
312. MMH 103,14; IDM 79,1; IHKR 87; IMN 138; IAU I 48,13; SRA 62v12; VMS 39vlO.
Compare D.L. VI,4. Gnom. Vat. 37/9 .191; Max . Conf. 761 D; Flor. Mon . 509; Cicero , Fate
3.5.19: "The view that the Stoics took from Socrates and clung to tenac iously, that a fool is a
sick man ..."
313. MMH 119,5; SRA 72r8; VMS 41rI7.
314. KHNS 23v5;
315. HISNFM63,12; HIMF 18,30; MMH 113,5; SRA68v10; BHQH II riO; IARIFII247,1 ; MHH
141,18 (al-Ahnaf), Compare Proverbs, 27,6. Cf. Grigniaschi (1978) 158,18.
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TEACHINGS 137
is not the most important thing. Asked what thing was indispensable, Socrates
said : "Good fortune." He was asked: "Why not the intellect?" He said : "Intellect
as such is useless both in the short and the long run without gcod fortune, by
which the fruit of the intellect is to be achieved, and by which its spirit (riil)) and
use is to be gained".316
The intellect is the opposite of ignorance in that it chases the latter away by its
own presence.>!? Ignorance (jahl) consists of stumbling twice against the same
stone318 and anyone, while being in darkness, who comes to perceive what the
senses fail to grasp, should be as happy as a man who, while being in ignorance,
finds light. 319
Ignorance, which can do the greatest damage to man 320 is bound by wishesv!
and the way to escape it is by questions.v-
The ignorant person is characterized by constant laughter and by irritability
and tendency toward quick anger.P! He is always mistaken: either in speech or
in silence. When he is confronted with his inability to act, wherever he walks he
loses his way .324
Knowledge tilm, marifahs

Knowledge was a central topic in all the genres of traditional Islamic literature.
The traditional attitude towards knowledge corresponds to the attitude expressed
in Socrates's sayings and anecdotes. Knowledge, as opposed to ignorance, is
analogical to government in a land 325 or to a spirit in the body.326
316. IHT9,3.
317. HISNFM 73,5; HIMF 23,7.
318. MMH 117, I; IAU 149,12; SRA 70v 14. A saying to the same effect is a attributed by 10M 18,1
to the Prophet. Compare also BHLS p.II /XXVIII. "Another philosopher was asked: 'Which
is the greater fool of all?' He replied. 'He who is tripped up twice.:"
319. MHH 266,6. This isperhaps an echo of Plato's cave parable.
320. HISNFM 69 ,11 ; HIMF 21,23; MMH 114,2; IAU 149,1 ; SRA 69r9 ; BHQH 4v8; IAHS
130,I.Cf. A. Muller, op.cit . p.51. For ignorance as the greatest of pains see F . Rosenthal, A
History ofMuslim Historiography p. 575 quoting al-Haffajt, Compare also D .L. 41, 4. (awliyii'}
as the so urce for this saying but in a negative manner: "He who is incapable ofthe knowledge of
himself will naturally be incapable of the knowledge of his Creator." (See S . Landauer, (1875)
340;374) . Compare Altmann and Stern, op.cit. 208; For the history of the saying see U. von
Wilamowitz-Molendorf, Reden und Vortriige, 171-189 .
321. AIMZA IV 138,8.
322. MMH 119,8; SRA 72rll ; 1M 127,23.
323. MMH 102,1; SRA 61v5 . For laughter in Arabic literature, although only in definition rather
than in attitude, see F. Rosenthal, Humor in Early Islam pp . 132-139. InlJadfth laughter does
not enjoy great favour: the Prophet only used to smile (Tirmidhi, maniiqib, 10), or to laugh
seldom (Ibn Hanbal 5,86) . Further, one is cautioned not to laugh exceedingly for fear that
laughter might kill one's heart (Tirrnidhi, zuhd, 3 etc) .
324. ASMSH 15v19; MHH 282,1.
325. MMH 123,4; VMS 41v9 . For the Islamic attitude to knowledge in relation to political power
see F. Rosenthal, Knowledge, 328 f. In Greek literature see e.g. Plato, Euthydemus, 288, where
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138 TEACHINGS
All virtues are only achieved by means of knowledge, with which they are
indeed identical. Socrates said, therefore: "But we maintain that they can never
exist without knowledge, for moral virtues establish perfection, while knowl-
edge establishes that which leads to perfection".327
Knowledge by itself as well as action in accordance with knowledge are the
tactics most proper for the happy man (sa Cfd)328 and are acquired by experience:
"He who gains experience increases his knowledge. He who has faith increases
his certainty; he who seeks certainty acts [to this end] laboriously; he who
studiously strives to act increases his powers ; he who is being lazy increases in
weakness and he who increases in weakness increases in doubt. "329 The location
of knowledge is at the head of the following hierarchy: "He who calls his soul to
account, profits, he who neglects it, loses. He who is patient, gains, while he who
is not regrets . He who keeps silent is safe and he who learns his lesson gains
insight. He who perceives, understands, and he who understands, knows ."330
It was a basic item of Islamic knowledge that one knows nothings" besides
knowing Him, who although He has no body, exists with all bodies .t" Essentially
knowledge consists in knowing causes.P! but knowing one's own soul is most
important, because the soul encompasses all things and by knowing it one comes
to know all things.v- Another aspect of self-knowledge is that the soul is an
the statesman is said to have a "master knowledge."

326. SRA 58v3; BHQH 12r12. Compare Gnom. Vat. number 55, where Aristotle is credited with
the saying: "Those who do not understand something wise are not alive." In Arabic litera ture
see F. Rosenthal, Knowledge, 320- 1.
327. ASI 412,4. Plato identifies true virtue with wisdom . See e.g., Phaedo, 69a-c; Protagoras,
357-358 etc.
328. UMLA 438,14. Arabic parallels to this idea, see F. Rosenthal, Knowledge, 241.
329. HIMF20,14; KHI 17r3; UMLA 236,9; MMH 123,17; BHQH 4r10; IA U 149,20; SRA 73v12.
330. MMH 119,2; SRA 72r6; VMS 41rl5.
331. IQUA I 52,24; MMH 125,7; IAU I 49,25; S RA 74v5; VMS 41vl I. No dir ect sour ce to this
saying has been found, but see STER 267 (Democritus); D.L. 41,4 (according to A. MOller
op.cit, 514,27. Parallels from Arabi c gnomologicalliterature - MMH 50,13; 167,15 (Plato),
302,13 (Archigenes); MKHAA 130,9 (Plat o); [AU I 30,23 (Hippocrates) and many oth er
instances. al-Jahiz, al-bayiin wal-tabyin, Cairo 1956, II 97,4 (' Umar b. ' Abd al-' AzTz), al-
Mawardl, adab al-dunyii wal-dtn 58,18.
332. MMH 85,5; SMN 282,1; [AU I 44,24; SRA 52r3.
333. MMH 106,20; SRA 64v12.
334. IMN [52; MMH 93,7; IAU [47,21; SRA 59r2; AI-Mas'udT, murtij al-dhahab, [V p.64. ' AITb.
Rabban a[-TabarT,flrdaus al-hikmah, Berlin 1928, p. 34. Compare A. Altman and S. Stern ,
Isaac Israeli , p.27: "M an , ifhe acquires a true knowledge of himself, viz. of his own spirituality
and corporeality, comprises the kno wledge of everything, viz of the spiritua l and corporeal
substance." See also G. Vajda, (1949) 96, where the same idea is att ributed to Ibn Saddiq .
Other authorities who are credited with this idea are St. Thomas, In Met. Lib . lib. XII lect XI.
Ikhwan al-Safa' relates this view to the Prophet, Rasii'il, Cairo 1928, III 35I. Ibn Stna quotes
the sages (IJukamii') and saint s (awl iyii"; as the source for this saying but in a negati ve manner:
"He who is incapable of the knowledge of himself will naturally be incapa ble of the knowledge
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TEACHINGS 139
invaluable jewel: whoever knows it will guard it against all but its own kind,
while he who does not, will waste it out of place.P> Knowledge is a guarantee
against perdition.vv and self-knowledge is an indication of one's wisdom.v?
The knowledgeable person is religion's physician and money is its ailment.
When you see a physician drawing an ailment to himself, however can he heal
others?338
Training and Education

The Arabs were aware of Socrates's views about knowledge and the way
teaching is conducted : Ibn sres relates to Plato's dialogue Meno, where he tells
about Socrates's illustration of knowledge as recollection with the help of
Meno's illiterate slave and the Pythagorean theorern.P?
On the more anecdotal level, it is told about Socrates that he studied music as
he was asked : "Are you not ashamed to study at your old age?" and he said:
"Being ignorant at the prime of old age is more shameful".34o To the question
posed to him regarding his reasons for clinging to the young he replied: "I do this
because it is the foals that are tamed, never old horses. "341 It is also told that he
of his Creator. " (See S. Landauer (1875) 340; 374). Compare Altmann and Stern, op.cit. 208;
For the history of the saying see U. von Wilamowit z-Molendorf, Reden und Vortriige, Berlin
1926, pp. l7l -189.
335. MMH 93,9; SRA 59r4; 68rl5; VMS 38v4.
336. M MH 93,13; IAU 147,23 ; SRA 59r7; the same idea in a different word ing in MHH 265,20.
337. MMH 126,4; SRA 75r6.
338. HISNFM 64,2; UMLA 236,2; HIMF 19,5; MKHAA 102,1; MMH 94,14; SRA 50v8; VMS
38v14. Also Tashkopruzadeh, 37,12, where he attributes this saying to Je sus Christ. The
comparison between knowledge and medicine is made also by Anthisthenes, one of the early
Cynics "T he lecture room of a philosopher is a hospital; you ought not to walk out of it in
pleasure but in pain. " (Epictetus , Arrian, 3.23.30, translated by Sayre, Diogenes 58). Compare
also Gutas, op.cit, p. 308.
339. ISSM 74,13.
340. KHNS 24v4;38r2 ; ASMSH 15r5; MHH211,12; MMH 107,7;SRA65r6; YMS40r4;MKHAA
96,7; IHKR 83,14. See Gutas 's analysis of the Greek Sources and parallels . e.g. STOB . III
29,68; STER VII /91 ; Max . 91.825 C; D.L. 32. A trace ofthesame anecdote may also befound
in Lucian, The Dance, 25: "And yet, Socrates (the wisest of all men, if we may believe Apollo
who said so) not only commended it (i.e. music), but wanted to learn it, attributing the greatest
value to observance of rhythm and music, to harmonious movements and to gracefulness of
limb, and he was not ashamed, aged as he was, to consider it one of the most important subjects
of stud ies." In Islamic literature see e.g. IARIF II 209,15 (Abu 'Amru b. al-'Alli').
341. HISNFM 72,14; HIMF 23,3; KHNS 37v6; MHH 213,9; MKHAA 102,6; IHKR 84,12; SRA
58v10. (A different version ofthe same saying) . In Greek literature horse-taming as an analogy
for human education is a rather common mot if. See e.g. Xenophon, Mem. IV.!.3: "Horses of
the best breed which are high spirited and obstinate, become, if they are broken in when young ,
most useful and valuable, but if they are left unbroken, remain quite unchangeable,
unmanageable and worthless; and that when bounds are of the best blood, able to endure toil,
and eager to attack beasts , tho se well trained are most serviceable for the chase...", See also
Aeschines of Sphetius, Oxyrynchus Papyri, 13.1608 fro I (Ferguson, op.cit. p. 214/8 .23.1);
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140 TEACHINGS
once looked at an old man who wished to study philosophy but was ashamed to
do it and said to him: "You are ashamed to improve on your present state!"342
The material that ought to form the student's curriculum was also dealt with
by Socrates: a youth ought to learn all the sciences which he would be ashamed
not to know,343 and anything which improves his life. 344 Mo re specifically,
mathematic s is the most important discipline, because through it one arrives at
the highest point of philosophy, thence to the goal s of th e Good .345 Socrates
said: "Just as the wrong is deduced from the right, the smoot h will not be known
by anyone who does not know th e coarse, and the thing which cau ses joy is the
same which causes sad ness."346 It is in the interest of one to befriend the
knowledgeable ('ulamii') with the help of whom one will become virtuous, and
by glorifying whose value on e will be entrusted with their secrets.> ? Knowledge
is acquired by studiousness, patience (sabr), by an understanding mind (dhihn)
and [with the help of] a guide who teaches the seeker of knowledge .v" Such a
teacher is like a horse tamer: when he neglects his horse, it bolt s.>? Socrates
compared himself to a farmer who plants, the soul s of his students with field s,
and study to water that cause s plants to grow. If the field is not clean and water is
wanting, the seed will not thrive.vv Children must never be compelled to follow
their parents' foot step s, because the y are created for a n er a which is different
from that of their parents.t>' The y must, however , be told th at whoever fails to
withstand learning with its difficult ies, will ha ve to with stand the miser y of
ignorance.v -
Se neca. On Tranqu ility of Mind, 17.4: "S ocrates d id no t blush to play with kids" ( Fe rguso n,
op .cit . p.I96). On the other hand , a nd perhaps to put as st ro nge r emphasis o n Socrates's
beh a viou r, Plat o. Rep . 329 A q uotes Ce pha los as sa ying th at o ld peopl e e njo y o ld peopl e's
co mpa ny as the yo ung e njoy th at of the yo ung.
342. IA U 142,14 ; S RA 60 r 14; IDM 93.12 ; MKH AA 106,9; MMH 70. 13 ( Pythago ras ); KIH NF
9vl5 (P ythagoras); al-Mawardi, op.c it. 26, 13 ("o ne of the sages"). See G utas , op.c it. p. 323.
343. M MH [15,13 ; S RA 70r6; KIH i'iF 9v [4 (P la to) .
344. TIM 1146 .1; HIMF 23,2.
345. KAS 29.24: MMH [21.17: SRA 73r 10.
346. HIMF 18,13: MMH 100,8; S R A 60v9; KHI 16v3; IGIA 31.12; HI SN FM (mss. Munchen)
39v8.
347. MMH 116.13; SRA 70v7 .
348. HISNFM 73,9; HIM F 23.11.
349. KH NS 22v4; MMH 94,5 ; S RA 59v2: VM S 38v10.
350. MMH 91.13; S RA 57r14 . Fo r the simila rity bet ween ed uca tion a nd ag ric ulture see STOB.
2.3 1. 103: " Edu cati on is like a fert ile fie[d. produces blessing ever ywhe re." ( English tr an slat ion
by Ferguson, op .cit, 294). See also, W. J aeger, Paideia, 1309 f. wher e the reader is referred to
Plat o, Tim . 77 A a nd Hipp. LWI's 3.
35 1. S MN 282,14; MKH AA 11 4,1; YM AH 142,4 ( P lato): HI S NFM 77, 1 ( Pla to) . Also co mpa re
MKH AA 136,7 ( Pla to) .
352. RI M U 145,3. also . Tas hk o pr uzade h, miftiih , 13. 1. H H on ly quo tes u p to t he wo rds "religio us
du ties."
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TEACHINGS 141
The student should fulfill a number of conditions: he must be a youngster

whose mind is vacant for studies, who pays no attention to the world, whose
temperament is sound, who loves knowledge to the degree that it is preferable to
him to anything else, who speaks the truth, who is by nature just, pious,
trustworthy and knowledgeable about religious duties. He would refrain from
doing things prohibited by the religion of the Prophet and practice the laws and
customs laid down by the Greeks along with those of his society. He would never
be bad-mannered but would be compassionate toward those beneath him
socially . He would neither want anything to excess, nor fear death. He would
only earn as much money as to satisfy his needs because paying attention to
livelihood compromises leaming.w'
Wisdom {hikmahi
Wisdom is likened by Socrates to a ladder by means of which one can reach the
Good .354 This view, it is said, he shared with Pythagoras and he added to the
latter's argument by saying that every noble person who penetrates pure wisdom
has also absolute goodness.v"
Wisdom is basic to one's perfect nature, as it is called "the sun, root, and
branch of the wise. "356 It is the light of nature's essences" and contradicts, along
with modesty «iffah) drinking, amusernent.w greed.t'? and evil. It is told about
Socrates that one day a fool cursed him, but he prevented his friends to shut that
man up saying: "Whoever allows evil is not wise."360
Between wisdom and lusts there exists a relationship of opposites: when the
former in a person has the upper hand his lusts serve his intellect, and vice versa.>!
353. I 107,6. For the qualities and demands from the student see Burhan al-Din al-Zarniijl (12th
century) tdlim al-mutdallim, chs. 5-8;11-13 . See also' Abd al-Karfm M. al-Sam'ant (12th
century), adab al-Imld', part Ill. Ibn Jum'ah, tadhkirat al-siimt, ch.3. (For this reference I am
indebted to my friend Avner Giladi of Tel Aviv University) .
354. KAS 30,7; MMH 91,10; SRA 57r12; BHQH 37rlO.
355. AAA 8v23. See below, p. 163.
356. MPGH 194,4. The sun as a symbol for wisdom , or generally , the relationship between the two,
is a very popular motif in Greek as well as in Arabic literature. I could find only one parallel -
STER 314.
357. MMH 111,19; SRA 67v12.
358. MMH 122,1; BHQH 22v8. The preference of knowledge over passion was heralded by Greek
philosophers according to al-Jahiz, baydn, Misr, n.d .1 99, I.
359. HISNFM 65,4; KAS 30,20; MHH 211,2; KFF 16vl; HIMF 19,21; ASMSH 14v16; GNM
134,5; AIMZA 138,11.
360. MMH 122,5; SRA 73r13; al-'AmilT, op.cit. 61. Another version ~ KAS 31,4; IHKR 86,11.
Compare Gutas, op.cit, 326. An approach diametrically opposed to the one expressed in our
saying is given in a number of Arabic texts , e.g., Ibn Qayyim al-Jauziyah 's ziid , 111214,7, where
an anecdote is reported that 'Umar killed a man who had cursed the Prophet, thus setting this
sort of conduct as a rule.
361. SMN 282,13.
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142 TEACHINGS
In quite a number of sayings, wisdom is defined as the tool for escaping death:
"Prisoners of death, break your bonds by means ofwisdom!"362On one occasion,
Socrates was asked what was it that he had gained from learning ph ilosophy, to
which he answered : "Through it (i.e., ph ilosophy) I resemble him who , standing
on the shore, watches the fools drown."363
Another use of wisdom has to do with its being regarded by So crates as the
medicine for souls , the wise person being their healer.w Not only is it the most
advantageous thing, but the most pleasant one as well.3 65 In comparison to
property, it always comes out winning: "Wisdom is incorruptible wealth . Travel
in search of it must not be a burden to you , nor must pains be taken for its sake.
How unreasonable (ma'jibah) is the fact that merchants risk their lives at sea in
an attempt to increase their perishable property, while youths regard it as an
enormous effort to make a noon-time walk to someone from whom they may
seek to increase their adab and inexhaustible wisdom!"366
In another saying a word of wisdom is compared to money.w? and yet in
another, Socrates indicates that wisdom and wealth are mutually exclusive.w
Socrates was asked by a rich man : "What has wisdom spared you to have made
you a pauper?" to which he repl ied: "It has spared me that which has made you
more miserable than me."369
A number of qualities characterize wisdom: first of all thinking of the long
run, particularly in taking bad consequences into account, taking precautions
against them, and assuring good results of one's actions thusn al-'iiqibah),370 a
type of behaviour which is called "determination" (J:zazm).371 Secondly, it is an
attitude that brings about salvation (najiih).372
362. KAS 30,8; ASI83,12; MHH 213,16; MMH 121 ,19; TTM 174,17.
363. SRA 68v13.
364. SRA 65v12. See David 's Prolegomena , ed. A. Busaw , CAG XVIII. II Berlin 1904, p. 25,7-8
where philosophy is compared to medicine . Cf. also MKHAA 102,1; IHKR 99,5 (Pythagoras).
The wise (shaikh) as a physician - see al-Ghazali, il]yii' , III 61,26 ff. Compare Gutas, op.cit .
233-4. Also, K. Freem an , Ancilla , the chapter about Democritus.
365. SRA 58r5.
366. MMH 98,10; IA U I 49,18 . Compare lsocrates, To Demonicus 19: " For wisdom of all
possessions is imperishable."
367. MMH 98,16.
368. ASI 60,6. Compare STOB . 1.95.35 (Di ogenes) : " Diogenes said that virtue could not dwell with
wealth either in a city or in a house ." Abu Hayyan al-Tauhidl attributed this saying to Plato, as
quoted by F. Rosenthal, Knowledge, 326.
369. KAS 31,2; MMH 109,8; SRA 66rl3. The same ques tion also in STER.182 (Diogenes).
Compare also A. Muller, op.cit. 517,8 .
370. HISNFM 66,17; KHI 17r1; HIMF 20,13.
371. UMLA 437,14. Cf. Xenophon , Mem . III .IX. I. The term hazm may also mean "prudence",
"precaution". See Lane , Lexicon, vol.1I p.561.
372. MMH 119,5; SRA 72r8; YMS 41r17; KFF 39v7.
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The wise man is also recognizable by his self-contempt ,373 by his indifference
to praise and blame (a state that is attained when he has both ears open to
wisdom and is deaf to the chattering of foolsj-" by his overpowering all bodily
passions.F" by silence 376 and by his treating other people like a physician treats
the sick .377
VICE
Vice (kha!a') is defined by Socrates as "giving that which one does not deserve,
as well as holding back that which one does,"378 and is recognizable by its bad
results. Hence, one cannot avoid it unless one knows it and that is conditioned
by one's errors, which is the reason why people err so frequently.P?
In the same way in which all external symptoms that show on the body
necessarily follow from illnesses as well as the unnatural things within it, so
harsh talk and improper acts , which the soul shows, necessarily result either
from psychic disease or from something unnatural that is rooted within the soul.
Consequently, he must not be given credence who has uttered harsh words or
has committed an improper act, but who later claims that he has nothing
untoward in his soul. For just as a person in whose body there is a disease only
feels it in the actual time of sickness, whereas the physician feels it always, he
who suffers from psychic pain only feels it at the actual time of sickness, while
the psychiatrist (!abrb al-nafs) feels it also when the sickness is inactive.w'
Since vice is a psychological matter you must remove from your heart all pain
that occurs in it and thus do away with the root of all evil. 381A person who is evil
is so by nature and ought to be regarded as a living dead 382 in whom there is no
point in looking for good.383 Vices (dhuniib) do away with rational proofs384and
are not to be underestimated: "Do not regard your sins small when you regret
373. HISNFM (mss. Miinchen) 54v5.

374. SRA 58v6.For indifference in the Sto ic tradition see e.g. Plutarch, Les Sto iciens, 139,16 (von
Arnim, op.cit. III 149,28).
375. HIMF 20,26; UMLA 236,13; MMH 101,3; BHQH 4v7; IAU 148,12; SRA 61r8; VMS 39r16.
See IFIM 56,19. Compare STOB. II 115,5 (von Arnim, op.cit. III 149,28).
376. IAHS 80,16.
377. MMH 109,5.
378. AHADM II 93,8. This description reminds one of Plato's definition of justice. See Rep. 331 D.
379. HISNFM 65,1; IMKA 86,11; HIMF 19,19; UMLA 236,7; MMH 96,12.
380. MMH 124,1.
381. MMH 84,17; SMN 281,12; IAU 144,19; SRA 51vlO.
382. HISNFM 63,18; HIMF 19,4; BHQH 3v6.
383. KHI 17v5.
384. HISNFM 67,1; HIMF 20,21; UMLA 236,12.
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even smaller ones, nor overestimate your workings when you need even greater
ones .''385 One is to beware of vice 386 because injustice (jaur) spoils manliness
(muruwwah) and shatters honour and virtue.w' Since you know the harm vice
(lit. fault, blemish - Caib) causes, you should beware of it and if you fall into it
you must not tire of making every effort to get out of it.388 Avoiding evil is an
obligation, the reward of which is the love of good doers. 389 One must not even
talk or think about things that one is ashamed to dO,390 and on the whole,
Socrates thought that shame was a good quality and recommended it to his
disciples."! Furthermore, those who fail to feel ashamed must not even be
considered.t'? You must realize that nothing you do will pass unnoticed by
people: for although things may remain concealed for a while, they later will be
uncovered.w' Even if you commit a crime unwittingly, you deserve no pardon.e-
Impotence is discernible in a man through three characteristics: unconcern for
the good of his soul, his little opposition to his desires, and his accepting his
wife's views in matters she knows and those she knows not. 395
There are number of vices specially dealt with by Socrates. First and foremost
are bodily passions and lust. Pleasure (ladhdhah) is a strangling-cord made out
ofhoney396 (although al-Razi is reported to have expressed Socrates's view that
pleasure is but the restoration of the body's natural state'?"). Al-Farabi, however,
explained Socrates's view of the conflict between the noble and the pleasant
385. HISNFM 67,3; MMH 123,15.

386. MMH 84,19.
387. MPGH 414,18; MMH 126,1; SRA 75r2. For muruwwah, see I. Gold ziher , " Muruwah und
Din" in Muh . Stud. vol. I. Also M.M . Bravemann, Spiritual Background, 1-7.
388. MMH 99,12; SRA 74v4.
389. KFF 39rIO; MMH 116,12; SRA 70v7.
390. MMH 102,2; lAD 141 ,18; SRA 61v6; KHI17v4-1O. MKHAA 74,8 (P ythagoras). Cf. Guta s,
op .cit. 248. Compare IGMP 64,9: "It was said to a wise man : 'What is decency?' He said: 'To
avoid do ing in secret that which we are ashamed for doing in public'''. Also, Yaqut, asriir
al-hukamii', p. 104,17 In Greek literature - see H. Chadwick, The Sentences of Sextus,
Isocrates, To Dem onicus , 15; STOB . III.I.32 (Pythagoras); D.L. I 36 (Thale s); Max . 59;
Sext.16 (Gild meister , "Pythagrorasspruche" (1870) 81-89, especially p.87 note 6.
391. MMH 102,6; SRA 61v10.
392. lAD I 49,1 I. Compare STOB . p.15/5 .
393. MMH 122,12. Compare Isocrates, To Demonicus, 17.
394. ASI 84,3.
395. MMH 114,9; SRA 69vl ; IAHS 130,14. In hadith a negative attitude is expre ssed in the story
that the Prophet, upon being asked about a Pers ian queen said : "A people who entrust their
business to a woman shall never succeed." (Bukhart, 92,18; TirmidhT 31,75; Nasa'! 149,8 .)
396. 10M 74,7; IHKR 87; ASI 84,6; ASMSH 15v9; MHH 212,1; AHADA 1I93 ,5; MMH 103,15.
Compare D .L. VI,51: "Ingratiating speech he (i.e. Diogenes) compared to honey used to choke
you ."
397. See Mohaghigh, op. cit. 249,7, where he quotes N~irT Khosrow's ziid al-musiifirin in a report
on Abu Bakr al-Razl's lostftmiihiyat al-ladhdhah . There , a whole relevant section of Plato's
Philebus 24 CoD is cited .
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TEACHINGS 145
rather than their harmony, by his moralism.v" The greater man's ability, the
smaller is his desire (shahwahs .r" This aspect of life was so important to
Socrates that he inscribed it on his seal: "He whose passions overpower his
intellect is disgraced . "400 Desires, therefore, mu st never take precedence over
one's intellect, to the extent that amputating one's limbs is preferable to
submitting to one's desires .w' Besides disgrace, there are some far-reaching
consequences to such giving in to desires. In the short run one is blameworthy
(madhml1m) and in the long run one is regretful (niidim) and vice versa.w?
Furthermore, he whose soul fails to overpower his body, the latter becomes the
former's grave.w!
An anecdote that may serve to reveal Socrates's views on desire is the
following: "He looked at one of his high-ranking disciples who was eyeing
Hyparchia, the woman-philosopher, a most beautiful woman, and said to him :
'What is this insignificant interest you are taking?' to which his disciple answered:
'The marvel of nature's act in Hyparchia's appearance'."
Socrates said to him : 'Beware of becoming a vehicle to your passion lest it will
drive you to vices . You should bear in mind that looking at Hyparchia's outer
shape will destroy your eye, while looking at her inner form will sharpen it. "'404
Lust is so evil that whoever helps you attain it is the worst of all people.ws
There are, however, some laudable desires tal-shah wah al-hasanahy , although
Socrates does not give any details about them.406
Along this general description of desires, specific advice and recommendations
with regards to passions are given: one ought to kill one 's desires in order to live
forever.w' or at least one ought to overpower them. Otherwise, in the final
account the pursuer of desire will regret it. 408 Success in overpowering desires is
the sign of the strongest of kings.w? and the power with which this goal can be
achieved is one of the most potent remedies for the soul's illnesses.s!v
398. See Strauss, "FarlibI's Plato", 385.

399. MMH 113,6; SRA 68vll ; VMS 40vll.
400. KIHNF IOr8; BHQH 45v9; IAU 147,18. See also IMKA 116,4.
401. BHQH 13r12.
402. KIHNF 19r8; BHQH 45v9. See also IMKA 116,4. Compare Plato's will in Badawi's Platon ,
240,15.
403. KHI 17v9;ASI 84,4; MMH 67,11 (Pythagoras).
404. KAS 29,18; A different version is quoted by MKHAA 108,1 ; cf. also Gutas, op.cit. 323-4.
About Hyparch ia see Pauli-Wissowa, RE VIII 1662; D.L. VI 96-98.
405. ASMSH 15r20; MKHAA 92,12.
406. MMH 102,7; SRA 61v12.
407. MHH 212,12; MKHAA 86,2.
408. MMH 93,1; SRA 58r13; 68r12.
409. KHNS37vI3; HIMF94 /61 ; ASMSH 15r21; MKHAA84,6; MHH211,5; MMH 107,14;IAU
148,17 ; AHTBD 476,6. Compare AHTBD 206,15: "Diogenes, who was Greek, was asked:
'Who is more virtuous , the Greek or the Persian king?' He replied: 'He who masters his desires
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146 TEACHINGS
Some desires are destructive to the soul , e.g. , intoxication, greed, lies, and
anger, and these ought to be overpowered as a matter of personal security."!
Other desires are those characteristic of youth, the overpowering of which is
one's finest garment.v'?
A sure means to ascertain that one's desire does not exceed oneself is to want
only that which is within one's reach.t!' This reflects a more realistic view of
desires : "Do not exaggerate in following your desires, for you are subject to
vicissitudes. Consequently, examine what these bring you ."414 Conversely, a
fanatical view, also supposedly held by our philosopher, is expressed in the
following anecdote: "One of his disciples said to him during his illness: 'Should
we not sacrifice a bird (sic!) for you?' He answered : 'The hearts of those who are
thoroughly versed in knowledge of the truths are pulpits for the angels ; the
stomachs of those who enjoy passions are graves for all kinds of animals. "'415
This view indicates that according to our Arabic traditions, even eating may be
interpreted as giving in to desires, and in addition, that some Arabs, although
conscious of the story of Socrates's last words misinterpreted it totally.
On the whole, Socrates is reported to have held the view that passions are to be
eliminated, so that the person may live.4 16
Anger is forbidden by both religion and law: "Just as those who only use
bodily senses are prevented from anger by the sensible king when they are in his
better." Compare Plato, Gorgias 491 C; STOB . 4.7.26 (which seems to be the Greek text
closest to the Arabic) ; STER 472; USS, p. 40/228 ; Plato , Gorgias, 491 C ; Isocrates, To
Nicocles , 29: "...and consider that you are in the highest sense a king when you are a slave to no
pleasure, but rule over your desires more firmly than over your people ." Isocrates To
Demonieus 21; "if you govern your pleasures on the principle that it is shameful to rule over
one 's servants and yet to be a slave to one's desires ..."; ibid. 29: "By mastering [his own] desires,
the ruler will learn to rule others." According to Xenophon, Mem . 1.2.1, Socrates was not only
the most rigid of all men in the government of his passions and appetites... Compare also, F.
Rosenthal, Freedom, p.82. In Islamic literature, compare the saying attributed by IDM 22,9 to
the Prophet: " al-shadid man gha/aba mifsahu"("The strong one is he who overpowers his own
soul)." Cf. al-Tha(alibI,jawa'id, 82, II for the same motif.
410. UMLA 432, 12; Ascribing illness and cure to the soul is also done by al-Ghazali, e.g. i~ya' iii 60
ff. where medicine also serves as a model for ethics. ibid. III 62: "The symptoms of illnesses of
the hearts and of their recovery ."There are other instances of the same attitude as well. One of
the soul's ailments is desire, cf. Ibn Miskawaihi, tahdhib al-akhldq 176,3-4.
411. MMH 98,14.
412. MMH 102,3; SRA 61v7.
413. MHH 346,8; MMH 97,9; IAU I 30,29 (Hippocrates): IAU 148,5. Cf. al-Farabl in Chiekho, op.
cit. 699,15.
414. KFF 39rl6; MMH 113,14; SRA 69r3.
415. MKHAA 112,11; SMN 282,16. The anecdote is connected with the Greek story of Socrates's
last words concerning the cock for Asclepius, see Plato, Phaedo, 118. In the Arabic version the
term used is "bird" rather than "cock ." A similar saying is reported by MKHAA 128,6 as said
by Plato. Compare also Gutas, op.cit p.113.
416. MHH 212,12; MKHAA 86,2.
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TEACHINGS 147
presence, so those who utilize the psychic senses ought to be prevented from
anger by fear of the intelligible king, in whose presence they are . "417
What anger does is to oust men from human society.su Beware of anger,
my son, for when it flares up it makes a man forget everything, until he
resembles a house on fire , filled with screams and smoke, so that no eye
can see nor ear hear anything in it.
Furthermore, just as a drunkard in the state of intoxication can not know
the ugliness [of intoxication] until he sees it in somebody else, so can an
angry person only know anger's ugliness through its effects [on somebody
else] that he sees. Just as an emaciated face , yellow nostrils and sunken
eyes are among the symptoms of[approaching] death of the bodies in sick
people, so the change which the face undergoes on account of anger is
among the symptoms of the death of the soul .t'?
Anger is merely self-punishment. It is told about Socrates that he passed by a
man shaken with rage, hitting one of his servant boys for a crime the latter had
committed, and Socrates said to him : "What is it that 1 see you doing?"
The man said : "This servant of mine has committed a gra ve crime , which has
enraged me."
Socrates said to him: "Had you allowed anyone who has committed a grave
sin against you to punish your soul, it (i.e., your soul) would very quickly fly
away from your injustice. "4 20 Anger spo ils manly virtues and shatters other
virtues as well. 421 It may be that there are no effective stratagems against it: "I
have more hope (said Socrates) for a ship tossed about by the winds and battered
by the waves than for a man who se anger flares up. The reason is that a ship
under these conditions is governed by the sailors who tend to it and rescue it by
means of various devices , whereas the soul, when foaming with rage , can hope
417. MMH 124,9; SRA 74r5 .

418. KIHNF 8v20 (Thales); BHQH 20rll ; MMH 297/47 (Sophocles, bis). Hadith literature
abounds with sayings to the effect that the Prophet himself was often angry. See e.g . Muslim
jarjii'it 159 etc .
419. MKHAA 106,1; Compare Plutarch , de Cohibend, vol. 11l 452 D (11l 157,4-6), 455 E
(IlI,664,15-21). See also Gutas, op .cit. 320-332. In Islamic literature the idea is taken up by
MTA pp 171,5; 171,22-172,5 as well as by al-Ghazall, i~ya', Bulaq 1289/ 1872-3,l1lI55,21-25;
155,28-156,1.
420. KFF 44v4; MMH 121,4; al-'AmilI, op .cit. p.69. A far echo of thi s anecdo te may be traced in the
follow ing quotation from Xenophon 's Mem . 11l, XlII ,4: "Another person beat ing his attendant
severely, Socrates asked him why he was so angry with the slave. ' Because', said he, ' he is very
gluttonous and very stupid, very covetou s and very idle.' ' And have you ever reflected,'
rejoined Socrates, ' which of the two persons deserves the greater numb er of stri pes, you or your
slave?'"
421. ASI 131.12. Compare AIMZA iv 130,15 (Aristotle).
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for no device whatsoever because the humiliation and submission which further
anger are in relation to it like a heap of wood in relation to fire , which stirs it up
and adds flames to it. "422
The only possible means to overpower (lit. "cure") anger is by reticence and in
its turn, anger is to be employed to overpower (lit. cure ) desire .v- But, the
excessive use of the faculty of anger is called "boldness"(iqdam), which is the
result of the soul's negligence to consider the consequences of its actions.s>
Socrates himself set an example for the right attitude toward anger when a man
of common origin cursed him and humiliated him , but he did not become angry.
He was asked: "Why don't you become angry?" and he replied: "This man is of
necessity either saying the truth or he is lying . If it is the former, I must not be
angry. If it is the latter, I need not be angry, not being what he claims . "425 There
are some additional bad qualities that are minor and lessemphasized by Socrates:
self-conceited people (Al-mu 'jab bi-nafsihiy find in themselves more than there
is to them or overestimate their mastery.s> Nothing, on the other hand , is more
harmful than self-contentment, because it satisfies one with little, thus preventing
one from attaining greater achievement. 427 Self-interest in general casts doubt
on the possibility of finding the right path,428 in particular for him who accepts
undue praise.v?
Bad Manners (sii' al-khuluq) is a quality that reveals all one's faults 430 besides
causing disturbances in one's own life and causing one to be despised by one's
associates.w ' Therefore, governing one's manners, as well as one's desires and
views is the most important kind of self-government.e?
Sadness is one ofthe heart's two defects, side by side with worry. Whereas the
former engenders sleep, the latter engenders insomnia. This effect is such because
in worry, a thought is involved that [contains] fear about the future , which [in
turn], leads to insomnia. Sadness, on the other hand, involves no thought, since
it deals with that which has already passed and is done. Socrates also said that
"the heart is made offrozen blood . Sadness stirs up natural heat which melts the
422. MTA (Cairo 1966) 195,1.

423. KAS 30,23; MKHAA 102,8; MMH 103,9; IAU 149,17; SRA 62v7; VMS 41v5; IHKR 79,14.
Compare Ibn Hanbal , 239, for the same idea.
424. UMLA 438,15.
425. KFF 39vI.
426. KAS 31,1; MMH 103,12; SRA 62v10; VMS 39v9.
427. MMH 94,13. This view may be in contrast with the above recommendation of contentment.
428. RIMU i 19,5.
429. UMLA 434,6.
430. MMH 110,16;IAU I 48,27; SRA 67r8.
431. KFF 39v7;
432. MMH 124,19: SRA 74rl4. Socrates does not become angry. See Seneca, Epist. ad Lucullum,
76,4.
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TEACHINGS 149
frozen blood. Therefore sadness is hated for fear of malignant ailments which
might stir up the [body] temperature, melt the frozen blood and consequently
causes the breaking down of the [body] composition. "433
Sadness is the heart's disease.s> sorrow (ghamm) presses it, and worry (hamm)
wounds it. 435 Furthermore, all these constitute danger to the intellect: "sadness
(huzn) confuses the mind and cuts off [all] stratagems. [Therefore], when
something saddening comes upon you, suppress sadness by deliberation and
fully employ (lit. empty) your mind, working out stratagems in [doing that] the
results of which will be laudable. "436 As the damage caused to people's intellects
by sadness is public knowledge, it is surprising to find anyone who is sad,437 and
the difficulty involved in turning such a person away from his sadness is far
greater than turning a happy person away from his happiness.w
Hope (amal) is the thing most remote (ahead) from one,439 is a branch of the
evil soul 44o because it causes one to forget death.w' Miserliness is a quality of
base souls 442 that likens those afflicted by it to mules and donkeys that carry gold
and silver while feeding on straw and barley.w' Stingy people's attitude towards
themselves is an indication of their attitude towards others .s-'
Ingratitude is another bad quality that puts future favours coming to one in
jeopardy.v" The only person who may at all be satisfied is the envier of happiness
(I)iisid ni'mahi, and that is when happiness is done away with. 446
There is no greater harm to both noblemen and common, nor more
blameworthy consequences than hasty belief in slander, especially about those
433. SMN 282,12; IAU 129 ,10; IAHS 110,8 (Hippocrates); AHTIM II 47,15 (Hippocrates).
434. HISNFM 63,3; HIMF 18,23; IGIA 34,15.
435. HISNFM 63,2; HIMF 18,23.
436. MHH 266,12; For the intellect as doing away with grief, see Plutarch (in H. Stephanus,
Thesaurus, vol. V p. 436).
437. MMH 105,8; SRA 63v15; YMS 39v16. The same attitude is manifested also in D .L. 118(von
Arnim, op. cit. iii 261,17). Also compare Liddle & Scott, Lexicon, p. 1736.
438. HISNFM 65,7; HIMF 19,24; BHQH 3vlO; Freytag, III 517.
439. HISNFM 73,2; HIMF23,5; MMH 105,6; IAU 148,15 SRA63vl3. The opposite view was held
by Diogenes, who , according to STOB.IV 46,20, said that hope was the most elevated quality.
440. MMH 111,15; SRA 67v9.
441. UMLA 437,13. According to al-Ghazall, op.cit. IV 456-8, optimism and feeling of security
against death (till at-amah were reproachable qualities.
442. KFF 39v6; MMH 117,19. Compare Xenophon, Mem. ILVL21 and also STOB. 3.10.46.
443. MMH 111,13; SRA 67v7;
444. MMH 93,11; IAU 147,22 . The quality is also condemned in the Quran, e.g., 25,67.
445. MMH 120,2; IAU 149, 16.For this quality in Islamic ethics al-Ghazalt, op.cit. IV 60-141 "The
Book of Forbearance and Thankfulness", and in particular pp. 80-141, where the relevant
passages are quoted from the Quran.
446. KAS 30,13. Compare STER p. 180/485, where Socrates describes envy as a wound for truth.
In Islamic literature see al-Ghazali, op.cit. III 189-201, and also Ibn Majjah, Zuhd 23.
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in high places.s-? the spreading of which is forbidden even if it is true .448

Hastiness leads to regretr'-? lies are blameworthy.w and he who errs , swerving
from truth and denying it after having accepted it, is far from forgiveness and is
in for a bad death. He, on the other hand, who errs before accepting the truth or
[even] knowing it does attain forgiveness .e>'
Intoxication is the absence of the soul and of the intellect. It leaves the soul
like formless matter, unable to act. 452
There are some actions that cause exactly the opposite of their originally
intended goals . Thus asking for more than one's needs cause s deprivationr'v
"perusing something the outcome of which is doubtful is liable to result in its
loss; "454 greed (fame) is haunted by poverty (jiqr); [mere] sighs of admiration will
never produce power ('izz), and he who tries to precip itate the attainment of
comfort (rii/:wh) by laziness misses his target,455 his haste causes frequent
stumbling.vs
HUMAN RELATIONS
Man and Woman
Human relations are the substratum on which people function . The basic
components of these relations is the relation between man and woman, about
which Socrates had much to say, both as a philosopher and from personal
experience.
Essentially, his attitude toward women is a negative one . Women are
connected to evil and abhor the good, a view that caused him to escape from
them.v? Seeing a sick woman on one occasion, Socrates said : "Evil recompensed
447. HISNFM 66,17; HIMF20,13; KHI 17rl. Compare in hadith literature al -BukharI, ~a~I~, ada b
49.
448. MMH 102,9; SRA 6Iv13 . The SRA version has "even if it be false".
449. KFF 39v7.
450. KHI 17vlO.
451. MHH 212,12; MMH 121,20. Compare MMH 99,18.
452. MMH 109,12; SRA 66v2; According to D.L. VII 118it was Zeno who maintained that agood
man may drink but may not get thereby intoxicated. The puni shment in Athens for a crime
which was committed in a state of intoxication was doubled according to Aristotle, Nic. Eth.
1113b32. Plato through Alcibiades says (Symp . 220a) that no one had ever seen Socrates
drunk. The attitude of Islam to both drink ing and intoxication is strongly prohibitive.
453. MMH 111,13; SRA 67v7.
454. UMLA 440,15.
455. MHH 265,16.
456. HISNFM 63,10; MMH 100,12; IAU 148 ,10.
457. MMH 115,6; SRA 69v15; IAHS 132,7.
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TEACHINGS 151
by Evil. "458 He reacted in a similar way when he saw a woman carrying fire : "The
carrier is worse than the carrieds-? and hotter." A woman who was putting on
make up met with the following remark made by Socrates: "[This is] a fire oflittle
light but which still burns everything around it. "460 Another one, "A fire fed on
so much wood (i.e., perfume) that its heat gets strong and its harm increases."461
In the same spirit is the anecdote about a woman who had died, and when she
was being buried, other women were wailing after her coffin. Socrates said : "Evil
is hurt because of the loss of evil. "462 As a result of his general attitude, Socrates
regarded marriage as worse than death: "When Socrates was told that a certain
personal enemy of his had died he said: 'I wish you had broken to me the news
about his having got married...'."463 Women, according to Socrates, are the
antithesis of wisdom - he who wishes to be strong enough to acquire it should
renounce their power over his soul. 464 They degrade one's status, stir up
revenge,465 and lead to low-mindedness (naqs al-himmahi. Another negative
characteristic that is typical to women is prostitution: "When Socrates was being
led to be executed he saw a woman being taken out to be killed too . He said :
'Had she not known that her crime would bring death to her according to your
[laws]? What is the matter with this unfortunate woman?' Upon being told that
she had committed adultery with a married man he said: 'You are wrong in this
case, because it is no wonder that a woman should commit adultery. It is rather
astonishing if she would act chastely, as lust is natural to her'. "466
Women are connected with Satan: they are the ladder with which he can not
dispense.v? Evil doing is natural to them: Never have they been asked to guard
anything without its ending up lost, nor do they refrain from doing whatever
bad thing they can.468
458. HISNFM 69,12; HIMF 21,24; MMH 114,4; SRA 69rll.

459. MMH 114,3; SRA 69rlO; YMS40v14. Compare BHLS p.9/XVI: "Another philosopher saw a
damsel carrying fire, and he said: 'Behold, fire upon fire, but the bearer is stronger than the
burden.'"
460. HISNFM 69,15; HIMF 21,26; BHQH 4vll.
461. IAHS 130,9; MMH 114,18; SRA 69v9; HIMF 22,23. A similar view is expressed in USS
p.22 / 143. In hadtth the attitude toward women who perfume them selves is a negative one. See
e.g., Tirmidhi, adab, 35.
462. HISNFM 69,13; HIMF 21,25; MMH 114,5; SRA 69r12; BHQH 4v9.
463. SRA 73vl.
464. HISNFM 69,18; KHI 17r9; HIMF 21,29; MMH 114,16; BHQH 5r1; SRA 69v6; VMS 40v17;
IAHS 130,17. For a warning against submitting to a woman see also Democritus, in Freem an ,
Ancil/a, p. 103/ II I. Compare also Freytag, Arabum Proverb. 1II,517.
465. MMH 104,3; SRA 63r7; IAHS 104,7.
466. Ibn Kamal Basha , rujit al-shaikh, Bulaq , Cairo 1309 H., 85, 31. There is an English translation
of the book by the title of The Old Man Young Again literallytranslatedfrom the Arabic by an
English Bohemian, Paris 1898.
467. IAHS 130,1I.
468. HISNFM 72,2; HIMF 22,31. Compare USS p.23/ 149.
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Women cheat: they resemble the oleander tree in that it has glory and
splendour, but when an inexperienced person eats from its fruits they kill
him. 469 Socrates once saw one of his disciples looking at a beautiful woman and
asked him for his reasons. "1 am looking at the beauty of creation that is
apparent in her." "Turn her inside out" said Socrates, "and her ugliness will
become evident to you. "470 A very similar story is told about Socrates, his
disciple and Hyparchia, the beautiful woman-philosopher, but there the
emphasis is on inner sight as opposed to external looks.v" On another occasion
he looked at a woman who was making herself up to go to town and said to her:
"1 think that you go to town not in order to see it but rather to be seen by it. "472
A series of recommendations is given by Socrates to his fellow men with
regard to women. His point of departure, and a most pessimistic one is the
statement: "Three things are most hateful for me: Greek grammar, poverty, and
women . The first 1 have overcome by strenuous study; the second by effort and
patience, but against women 1 could find no device. "473
All contact with women becomes either life imprisonment (astr al-nisii' ghair
mafkiik),474 or results in death: anyone who is a woman's property is a living
dead;415 he who presumably lets a woman conduct his life for him is impotent
(a]az) and liable to die as a result .f" A clever person (kais) will never fall prey to
women, because once caught, his wings are clipped never to grow again r'??
Socrates gave similar advice to a hunter whom he saw standing by a beautiful
wornan.s'" Women resemble a trap,"? and marriage Socrates likened to a
fisherman 's net: those fish which are outside wish to get in and those inside wish
to get OUt. 480 One must keep one's distance from women: "He said to a disciple of
469. HISNFM 72,2; HIMF 22,29; IMN 22,29; MMH 115,1 ; IAU 1149,6; SRA 69vll ; VMS 41rl.
Compare D.L. VI 61, where the beautiful woman is compared to poison. Cf. F. Rosenthal ,
Four Essays, p.13I.
470. HISNFM (mss. Miinchen) 49v4; HIMF 21,14; IAHS 132,21.
471. See above, note 404.
472. KAS 30,14; ASMSH 15v8: MHH 212,7; MKHAA 102,4;IHKR81,9; TIl 127,4(Luqman), Cf.
USS p.42/236; Ovid, Art Amat. 1.99; Aelian (in Ferguson, op.cit. 239, number 9.7.13). The
last version names the woman as Xanthippe. For additional Greek parallels see Gutas, op.cit .
312. BHLS p.9/XVIl: "Another philosopher saw a woman in the theatre looking on as a
spectator and said to her: 'Thou hast not come out to see, but to be seen.'"
473. Muhammad Shaltiit in majallat al-azhar 28 (IX 1956)86.
474. MMH 115,8; SRA 70r2; IAHS 132,11.
475. IAHS 132,13; MMH 115,8; SRA 70r2.
476. IAHS 130,3.
477. HISNFM 69,16; HIMF 21,28; IAHS 130,7.
478. ASI 84,9; TIl 127,5 (Luqman). See also TIM 176,6 and IARIF VLIIL20.
479. HISNFM69,IO; MMH 114,I;SRA69r8; BHQH 19rI3(Diogenes); IAHS 128,18. Also MMH
104,3; SRA 63r7.
480. MMH 109,3; SRA 66r9; ASMSH II 92,18. Compare BHLS 13/XLI (told about Socrates with
a variation about Diogenes).
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his: 'Son, If you can not avoid women, make your dealings with them like eating
dead [animals'] meat, which should only be done under great need and in the
minimal quantity only to maintain life. For if one takes more than one needs, it
will harm and kill one . Women are the same: he who only befriends them
according to necessity will escape [unharmed], while he who does otherwise will
regret it, and will meet with harm and disgrace ."'481
Women are never to be obeyed, even one's wife or sister, 482 nor is one allowed
to promote them in any way: upon seeing a girl learning to write he said : "This is
a scorpion adding [new] poison to its' own",483 a snake to whose fatal venom no
more must be added,484 an arrow which is only sharpened by the teacher so that
the woman may shoot him with it,485 or in general , an evil to which another evil is
added .486
Friends and Friendship
The topic of friends and friendship occupies a considerable portion of the

sayings . The historic Socrates, who advocated friendship, differed from the
Cynic school which seems to have opposed it, although there existed great
ideological affinity between Socrates and that school.
In Arabic literature too, the subject offriendship enjoys great popularity. A
whole range of book-titles is dedicated to it, such as al-Tauhldf's al-sadiiqah
wal-sadiq , as well as central chapters in al-Ghazali's ihyii ' 'uliim al-din (II 125
ff.).
481. HISNFM 71,15; HIMF 22,24; MMH 97,4; IAU 149,4; IAHS 130,21. Cf. Shemtov Ibn
Falaqera, igeret musar, p. 33. and also IFIM 75,20.
482. MMH 114,11; SRA 69v3. A similar view is expressed in al-Tabarsr's makiirim al-akhliiq,
Kirbila n.d. 265,5; and ibid. 265,19. On the other hand , the Prophet did consult with Umm
Salmah, which makes such consultation permissible. See Abu al-Qasim ' Abd al-Rahman b.
'Abdallah b. Ahmad b. AbI al-Hasan al-Khath'ami al-Suhaili,
483. MMH 115,12; SRA 70r5; IAHS 132,17. Compare BHLS p. 9/XV : "A nother philosopher saw
a certain man giving instruction to a certain maiden, and he said unto him: 'Add not
wickedne ss to wickedness. Why dost you poison that which is right and proper by dipping it
into poison, whereby she shall be more able to slay the children of man and to lead captive their
minds?"' , The Islamic attitude towards teach ing women the art of writing is an ambiguous one.
See al-Bukhari, k. al- 'ilm . Cf. F. Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, p.80: "The permissibility
of giving instruction to women: the Prophet speaks of three kinds of persons who can expect to
receive a twofold reward . Among them is the person who gives a good education to his
maidservant.. ." On the other hand see RIMU 99,13 who quote 'Umar as saying that women
should be prevented from writing.
484. BHQH 4vl2 and AHTIM II 31 where Diogenes is making the same compari son.
485. HISNFM 66,5; HIMF 20,5; RIMU 199,13; Anothe r version in BHQH 20r4.
486. MMH 114,6; GNM 163,13; IAU 149,2; SRA69r13; YMS40v16. Cf. E. Miller, " Fragments" p.
219,3-4 (Diogenes). Islamic tradit ion was not exclusivelyoppo sed to learned women. Compare
A. S. Tritton, Materials on Muslim Education in the Middle Ages, London 1957, p. 140.
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154 TEACHINGS
Love, in a very Socratic way, is understood as a sort of madness.v? Friendship

(mahabbahi, which is defined as "mutual affection of the hearts with mutual
harmony ofthe spirits (arwiil) , "488 is a basic component of most people's lives. It
is the father's duty to teach friendship, rather than the history of kings, to his
children, because its value exceeds by far that of gold, 489 or at least it is described
as the most valuable property.sw Friendship should always stand forth whenever
it is being put to the tria1491 and it must be found to be unshakable in the face of
all obstacles or advantages.s'? as Socrates himself experienced, who once
destroyed friendship by accepting a disciple's gift. 493 The sign of a good friend is
a man blocking his friend from erring 494 and his pointing out to him his
shortcomingsw- tactfully.s'"
One may test one's ability to form friendships by exercising a behaviour which
is contrary to one own's tendencies.w? and thereby put one's friend before one-
self, a conduct that is sometimes required in a friendly relationship .
The friend should be treated with love and virtue as one treats the young. On
the other hand, one must not be too friendly and in too short a time, because
later, once one's friend notices any hesitation on one's part, he may react with
hostility.s'" In addition, too close a friendship can spoil a relationship. Therefore,
one must assume a moderate proximity toward people.t"? and refrain from
487 . AA WN 31, II; SM U 4,15. SM U quotes a chain of"narrators" for this saying, very similar to
isniids of hadith: " We have been told iakhbaranii) AbU al-qasim al-Hasan al-T anUkhT who
said : " We have been told by AbU 'AITMuhammad b. al-' Abbas who related this to AbU Bakr b.
al-Marzuban who said : 'Socrates said ... '" The personalities involved are : (I) AbU al-Qasirn
al-Hasan al-TanUkhT may have belonged to the same family as AbU al-Qasim al-TanUkhT
mentioned by Ibn Khallikan, wafdyiit, 630. (2) Abu 'AlI Muhammad b. al-i Abbas I could not
find in the biographies. (3) For Abu Bakr b. asl-Marzuban , see GAL S ii 908.
488. KFF 39v6.
489. MT A (Cairo, 1966) 156,10; (Cairo, 1905 130). Cf. F . Rosenthal (1940) 403, where he refers to
al-Shahraznrt's al-shajarah al-iliihiyah , In this article, Rosenthal compares between the Arabic
text and that of Themistius On Friendship .
490. ASMSH 15r22; MHH 211,7; MKHAA 104,4, IHT 22,10 . Another version - MMH 108,1;
IA U 148,21 ; SRA 65r 14; al-FarabT,fi-al-siyasah, 699, I7 for a variation on this saying . Cf. STER.
471 . Forthe second version see Xenophon, Mem . i.vi.14: "Others have a fan cy for agood horse
or dog or bird, so my fancy , stronger even than theirs, is good friends"(tr. by E. C. Merchant,
London , 1959). Also cf. Marcian, CL xi j214r; Gutas , op. cit. 317.
491. SRA 70vl.
492. U M LA 434,3.
493. MMH 101,18; SRA 61v2.
494. KHNS 44rl.
495. AHTSS 93,5; MKHAA 92,7.
496. AHTIM ii 37,10.
497. MMH 113,17; SRA 69r5 .
498. KHNS 34v3; KFF 38v17; MPGH 414,18; MMH 111,10; 125,18; SRA 74v15.
499. HIMF 18,21; TNH number 4; HISNFM 62,15; KHI 16v4; MMH 94,9; SRA 59v5 ; VMS
38vll.
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TEACHINGS 155
prying into the affairs of one's friends because such a conduct is liable to ruin the
friendship .sv
On the other hand, the friendship you extend to others should be long-lasting,
which will result in your friend's attachment to yoU.50l In order to be able to
maintain a friendship, one must check out a would-be friend in advance. This
examination should consist of inquiring about his conduct with his parents,
brothers, and family as a child, with his friends and about how many there were,
about his ability for gratitude, his inclination toward pleasures and duties, and
his attitude toward money and political power.v"
Once friendship is established, treating one's friend well is done by spreading
his praise as much as possible, because praise is the principle upon which
friendship is based.w' One must also avoid both tough conduct and demanding
fulfilment of any conditions for that friendship.w- It is wrong, therefore to
maintain a friendship of a book-keeping nature (wazn al-qi~ii~).505 One must
never regard all people as equals lest one should lose one's friends .506 Mutual
trust is essential for friendship and even for mere humanity, for he who trusts
and is trusted by no one is the basest (adnii) of all people.50?
It is told about Socrates himself that he gave the following advice to one of his
disciples (Plato?): "Suspect (lit. have low opinion of) anyone whom you know,
and beware of anyone you do not 508 know," - or anyone you hate.509 Socrates
based his adv ice on the precept that a friends' betrayal is counted among the five
things liable to annihilate one's sou1.510
Friendship involves a reciprocal relationship. Therefore "abstention on your
part towards a person who wants you is low-mindedness, whereas your desiring
a person who abstains from you is self-degradation."511 Worthy friendship , then
should only be struck with someone who knows his own value,512 for self-despise
puts the soul in jeopardy.i!'
500. MMH 120,4; SRA nv9.

501. KFF 39r15; MMH 112,1; YMS 40v6.
502. MTA 158,9.
503. MMH 99,7; IAU 148,5. Compare Isocrates, To Demonicus, 33: "When you desire to make a
friend of anyone, say good things about him to those who are wont to report them. For praise is
the foundation of friendship , as blame is that of enmity ."
504. SMN 281,18.
505. MPGH 415,4; MMH 126,1; SRA 75r3.
506. HISNFM 62,13; TNH number 3; HIMF 18,19; KHI 16v2; MMH 123,9.
507. MKHAA 92,14. Cf. Jardaq, ' A If, 222,7, where the saying is attributed to 'An.
508. H1SNFM 66,7; HIMF 20,6; KHI 16v14; MMH 96,14; BHQH 4r2; IAHS 134,4.
509. AI-NuwairI, op. cit., iii 3,11;. the saying here is attributed to the Caliph ' Umar b. al-Khattab,
510. GTNMN 111 ,16. See also GNM 139,10.
511. UMLA 464,14; ZNH IIrlO (al-K\:1alTI, the first Arab philologist, d.n8). HISNFM 80,5
(Aristotle) .
512. MMH 119,18; SRA nv6; YMS 41rll.
513. KHNS 22vl.
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156 TEACHINGS
Anyone who declines another person's request for forgiveness is the most
blameworthy (aPam) of all people.v- It is advisable not to confront your friend
when he is in a rage, but rather you ought to submit to him, later to reproach
him,515 thus exercising flexibility for the sake of friendship.>"
Criticizing others is both a negative and a self-damaging behaviour, because it
enables them to return the criticism in kind .>! ? The right behaviour in social
matters is to ignore other people's defects so that they may behave the same way
to you .518 If you insist on putting someone to the test, do not choose a time of his
inferiority (dhillah) but do it when he enjoys superiority and sovereignty (tasallui
wa-tamailuki, the only position which reflects faithfully both good and bad
qualities.t'?
Avoiding enmity is a sure means to overcome death.v? He aga inst whom
people feel adversity indeed deserves to be strongly feuded.v! perhaps even to
die.
Speech and Reticence

An important component of human relations is speech and reticence, the
importance of which is emphasized by the high ratio of sayings on this topic, 164
out of a total of 800.
Speech, Socrates implies, can alter reality, as it is the rhetorician's profession
to magnify the negligible and to minimize the great,m but the tongue is the
heart's servant'<' or its prisoner (asfrah), as was embroidered on Socrates's
garment. Once a word is uttered, the heart becomes its own prisoner.v-
Therefore, one ought to be happier about a mistake one has not uttered than
about something true one has uttered.v- In any event, if one must speak, let his
speech be as short as possible .vs
As an illustration of this precept, an anecdote is told about Socrates that a
514. MKHAA 94,1.

515. MMH 99,3.
516. MMH 118,8; SRA 71v6; 10M 59,6 ('Ali ibn Abi Talib) ; IARIF II 279,9; ('Ali) ; ibid. II 281,18;
HISNFM 53,15 (Aristotle) ; IAU I 62,27 (Aristotle) .
517. MTA (Cairo 1966) 158,9; Cf. Themistius, On Friendship, 56.
518. KFF 39r6; MMH 116,16; SRA 70v117.
519. KIHNF 37v18.
520. ASI 131,13.
521. MMH 95,17; IAHS 98,7.
522. AHTBD 93,14; Cf. STER p. 138/357 (lsocrates); BHLS p.II /XXV.
523. HISNFM 65,3; HIMF 19,21.
524. IAHS 92,1; Cf. TIM 426,4 (The king of China) .
525. al-Tauhldi, risiilat ai-hayiih , 67,11.
526. MMH 108,7.
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TEACHINGS 157
man was talking to him at length when he was about to be executed . "The long
time" said Socrates, "that has elapsed [since you have started to talk] made me
forget the beginning of your speech. "527 Socrates's conclusion was, that
multiloquence is a symptom of defective intelligence and of inadequate
reflection.w A quality that is most important for one's speech is truth, since
everything one says may be counted against one .529 Someone said to Socrates,
the wise: "The arguments you raised yesterday to the townsfolk have not been
accepted. "
"That they have not been accepted does not distress me. It would , however
distress me had they not been right!"530
Talk is the key to evil and silence is its lock ;531 the harm caused by talk is far
greater than that brought about by reticence, while the advantages of the latter
supercede those of the Iormer.v- which is a recognized truth in most places .v!
Socrates called reticence "the principle of wisdom" (ra?s al-hikmahv> and
pointed to it as the sign of the intelligent person.i" However, when an ignorant
person exercises it, one ought to beware of him .s> In addition to the intellectual
domain, silence is laudable also on an ethical plane, because it is an indication
for the good (aHzusnii) as talking is of the evil (al-sharr) .537
Silence is a good friend (na 'tm al-qarfn),538 or a garment which adorns its
wearer, while talking is one that brings disgrace upon him who wears it;539 it
paves the way for the love and praise (madil;zah)540 of him whose goodness is being
looked up to by others. He, on the other hand, who is loquacious is feared by
all.541
Talk hurts the soul as a blow hurts the body,542 and causes bloodshed.>"
527. AI-Jal;1i:?, al-mahiisin wal-addiid , Cairo 1324 p. 17,14; BMM 425,12.

528. IAHS 82,8.
529. MMH 108,21; SRA 60r5; IAHS 84,17.
530. KHNS 52v17; MMH 116,1; MKHAA 104,9; IAU 149 ,9; SRA 70rll. Compare the exactly
opposite view as expressed by BHLS p.17jLXVII: "Socrates' answer here is:... 'but I should
grieve if they had not been well delivered ." See also Gutas , op.cit , 318.
531. MMH 108,15; SRA 65v15; IAHS 80,1.
532. MMH 108,5; SRA 65v3; IAHS 76,13; 80,6. Another version of the same saying - IAHS 78,25.
533. IAHS 82,4; MMH 108,16; SRA 66r1; IAHS 80,20.
534. IAHS 80,16.The connection between wisdom (or alternatively, unwritten law - I;uk m ) and
silence - see Wahb ibn Munabbih,jiimi', 53, I.
535. IAHS 82,8. See Plato's will, Badawi, Pia/on, 240,13 .
536. MMH 97,15.
537. IAHS 86,7.
538. IAHS 84,3.
539. IAHS 84,9.
540. IAHS 80,8.
541. IAHS 86,5.
542. IAHS 86,3.
543. IAHS 80,5; 84, I.
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158 TEACHINGS
killing (yu!ni),544 and even annihilation (hafak),545 talk's damages extend to

interpersonal relations as well: talk causes rancor (l;iqd),546 and controversy
(ikhtilaf) rises when people talk of things they do not know about.v? Silence has
the great advantage of sparing him who practices it the need to reply to
interlocutors.vs Beyond that Socrates is said to have remarked that "had the
reticent person only earned by his silence the decrease of debate and weariness of
argument, his would be the gain . How much greater is his profit when he thus
secures both a pleasant future and a comfortable present. "549 It is therefore
preferable to talk at night when there is no one around , so you are able to
concentrate and dedicate yourself to contemplating immaterial things.v?
The advantages of reticence are cardinal in the domain of self-security: "He
who takes silence for his treading ground is always close to security (saliimahi
and remote from regret";55I he who locks up his tongue provides security (amina
Cafa) to his own soul. SS2 Such security results from the fact that upon speaking,
one's good qualities may be distinguished from his shortcomings (tamiim min
naqsy, whereas reticence leaves other people in doubt ;553one's silence is taken to
be an incapacity [to talk] reflecting nothing negative on oneself, whereas one's
talk is taken to be a regrettable bavardage.v- Besides, talk reveals one's heart's
secrets while reticence conceals them .555 Silence is a shield against the arrows of
other people's tongues.w in particular when the matter is something that is none
of one's business (rna fa yacni); avoiding talk about such things provides security
in the future and adornment (zain) in the present, and vice versa .w'
Anyone who talks exposes his intellect to criticism (tasaffuh), and anyone
who does so deserves his mistakes to be pointed out against him (zuhur al-zafaf
cafaihi).558 Reticence puts one in the critic's position, whereas talk reverses the
544. IAHS 80, II.

545. IAHS 84,3.
546. IAHS 82,19.
547. HISNFM 62,4; HIMF 18,11; MMH 94,1; 100,6; 334,9; MKHAA 100, 19; [AU 147,25; SRA
59rl4; VMS 38v6; TTM 167,13; cf. IFIM 58,3.
548. IAHS 80,12; 82,1.
549. MMH 108,9; SRA 65v7; IAHS 78,5.
550. MMH 84,1 I; SMN 281,11; IAU 44,15; SRA 51v5.
551. IAHS 82,16; 80,21. Compare al-Jahiz, al-bayiin II 78,10.
552. IAHS 84,4.
553. MMH 108,17; SRA 66r2; VMS 40r12; IAHS 82,12.
554. MM H 108,8; IA U 148,20 ; IAHS 78,3. Compare Plutarch, Moralia 220B/ 4 (Demaratus); Bias
in Moralia, 503 F and Solon in STOB. 15. Compare also M KHAA 150, I the saying attributed
to Plato.
555. IAHS 78,19; 82,11.
556. KHNS 22v21; IAHS 76,12; 84,8.
557. IAHS 78,12.
558. IAHS 82,14; KHNS 23r2; QGNM 10,3; al-Jahiz, bayiin , ii 78. Compare al-Bustr, raudah, 44,14
where a very similar saying is attributed to 'U mar.
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TEACHINGS 159
roles. 559 It is better to criticize one's own words first in order to keep others from
doing SO.560 The same holds true for silence in general - he who does not keep
silent on his own initiative will be silenced by others.w' and he who does until
being asked is better off (arbaJ;) than the other way round. 562 It is told about
Socrates that a man said to him : "If you say a word to me I will say ten to you."
Socrates then answered : "If you say ten words to me I will say none to you ."563
The ability to keep silent is a good indication of the ability to act ,564 but Socrates
advocated talk in the right proportions: "God, may He be exalted, has created
for me two ears but only one tongue so that I hear twice as much as I talk. You"
he told his interlocutor, "however, talk more than you hear. "565
On one occasion Socrates heard someone saying: "Silence is safer for people,
because much talk attracts error." So he said to him: "This will not happen to
whomever knows what he talks about. The ignorant will err whether they talk
much or little ."566
One's best conduct can best be summarized by Socrates's advice: "Please God,
may He be exalted, all your life, and endeavor to go along with the community
imuwdfaqat al-jamiiiahv and to act according to the sbart'ah, for such behaviour
produces unerring conduct «i~mah)."567
The Secret
A very popular element both in general Arabic literature and in the Socratic
tradition is keeping one's own as well as other people's secrets . It is most
disgraceful, says Socrates, that people hide their property in their houses while
exhibiting openly that which is in their hearts. 568
Keeping a secret is a sign of intellectual duty ,569 manly virtue (muruwwahyt"
and magnanimity (si'at al-sadryv" He who does keep a secret is trustworthy
559. MMH 109,2; SRA 66r9; IAHS 86,9.

560. MMH 108,19; SRA 66r4; VMS 40r13; IAHS 84,15.
561. KHNS 23rl ; MMH 108,11 ; SRA 65v9; IAHS 78,8.
562. MMH 108,12; SRA 63vlO; IAHS 78,10.
563. ASI 130,13.
564. MMH 108,14; SRA 65v14; IAHS 78,21.
565. MMH 131 ,17 (Plato); KAS 76,8; IARIF (1935) ii 15; KAS 30,10; HISNFM 75,9. There are
some other Arabi c versions . Many Greek parallels are in existence, for the list of which see
MKHAA p. 287. For the idea in Islamic literature see 'Askart, majmd.
566. KHNS 37v15; MKHAA 104,5; MMH 108,2; SRA 65rl5; IGMP 68,13.
567. MMH 91,5; IAU i 94,12.
568. MMH 125,5; IAU I 49,24; SRA 57r6; VMS 38rlO.
569. IAHS 88,9.
570. IAHS 90,1. Compare Diez, op.cit. 1.82 (Plato); Freytag, op.cit. II,171; III 2590-93.
571. IAHS 86,22.
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160 TEACHINGS
(amfn), while he who makes one public knowledge betrays people's trust 572 and
this ability to keep secrets may serve as a measuring-rod for faithfulness in
general.r" Spreading one's own secret is self-betrayal, and he who acts thus is
liable to be worse with other people's secrets.v-
The keeper of secrets is safe (mastan, while he who reveals secrets is disrobed
(mahtuk),575 as the former's business is concealed from other people.vs Beyond
personal security, which is the result of keeping your own secrets, keeping those
of another is an obligation laid upon you .>" The obl igation also holds in relation
to keeping a secret in response to someone else's appeal. Without such an appeal
doing so is regarded only a favour done voluntarily.F"
You cannot be too cautious with regard to entrusting your secrets to someone
else,579 because spreading them may result in bloodshed.w' whereas keeping
them is a good way to attain one's goals.58t It is more appropriate that you keep
your own secret than have others keep it [for you]. Whatever secrets you ask
[someone] to keep, you have divulged yourself, and therefore you must not
blame anyone for revealing a secret with which you have entrusted him in the
first place. 582 Besides, ifkeeping it is hard for you, for others it is even harder.v-
Keeping someone else's secret brings one happiness (sa'iidah) ,584 praise
(!}amd),585 dignity (qadr) ,586 and security. P? It is the cause for love 588 and it
elevates one to the highest moral degree. Once your reputation as a person who
keeps secrets is established, many will entrust theirs to yoU.589
572. IAHS 86,18; 88,8; 88,14.

573. HISNFM 70,7; HIMF 21,35; Another, shorter version, in IAHS 88,14.
574. IAHS 88,8.
575. IAHS 90,12.
576. HISNFM 62,10; HIMF 18,17; MMH 94,7; IAU 147 ,28; SRA 59v3.
577. HISNFM 70,1; HIMF 21,30; MMH 110,3; SRA 66vlO; IAHS 86,11.
578. MMH 110,4; HIMF 21,31; BHQH 5r3; IAU 14 8,22; SRA 65vll ; VMS 40r15; IAHS 88,4;
90,15.
579. IAHS 88,6.
580. MTA (Cairo 1966) 158,9. Compare Themistius, On Friendship, ibid. p.56.
581. HISNFM 70,2; KHI 17r16; IAHS 88,1.
582. KHNS 23r9; IQUA i,40; IARIF (Cairo 1935)1,36; See also al-Nuwairl, nihiiyah, II,8l ('Amru
b. al-(A~). See also Freytag, op .cit. III 639/155 (as referred to by Halkin , HIMF 22,3).
583. KHNS 23rll ; MMH 110,8; IAU I 48,24; SRA 66v14; IAHS 90,3; IARIF (1940) I 76,6.
Compare al-Jahiz, "r isalah fi kitrnan al-sirr wa-hifz al-lisan " in majmii' rasiiil al-Jiil;i; , p. 43,7.
Cf. al-Nuwairi, op .cit. VI,7.; al-Qurtubt, bahjat al-majdlis , 460,5.
584. KHNS 23r8; IAHS 90,10; See also kalim , 53 (Plat o); amthiil, 159 and asriir, 115.
585. IAHS 86,20.
586. IAHS 86,6.
587. HISNFM 70,2; MMH 110,3; IAHS 88,2. A similar saying - BHQH 5r3.
588. HISNFM 70,2; IAHS 88,1; KHI 17r16.
589. KHNS 23r6; IAHS 88,6. Halkin , op .cit . refers to jamharah, 115; mahiisin, 29; al-Baihaqi
(Mansur) 402; IARIF (Cairo 1935) I 36; al-Nuwairi, nihiiyat al-arab II,81.
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TEACHINGS 161
You should keep other people's secrets exactly as you would have others keep
yours. 590 Finally, Socrates said: "Keeping a secret comprises several virtues,
among which are the maintenance of loyalty, the silence of the tongue, propriety,
correct action, the reduction of perils and the increase of dignity. It insures the
achievement of understanding. ''591
Law, King and Government
Law, kings and government are issues with which Socrates had some personal
experience, and which have been dealt with partly above. Man is a social
creature, and it is within the state that one can live a human life. For Socrates,
once this option was removed, he preferred death to inhuman life. 592 From the
ideological, rather than the biographical perspective, it was his conviction that
one must never contradict the law (sunnah) . These laws are universal for all
nations (umam)593 and are profitable for the rank and file,594 although
philosophy is truer, because it teaches that will (iriidah) is superior to necessity
(tjariirah) . Religious law functions on the religious level as does medicine on the
bodily level, and psychology (a{ibbii' al-nufiis) on the psychological one ,595 and
it is the means for the salvation of wrongdoers, as medicine is the means of
salvation of the sick. 596 Summarily, he who is good in nature adheres to the
Shari<ah.597 Socrates is also credited with having been a law-giver, who expressed
astonishment at the suggestion of patricide.r"
The king's duty is to educate his subjects'"? and to repell injusticew? and evil.
590. HISNFM 70,6; HIMF21,34; KHNS 23r7; MMH 110,6; IAU 148,23; IAHS 88,7; SRA 66V12.
Compare Isocrates, To Demonicus, 22: "Guard more faithfully the secret which is confined to
you than the money which is entrusted to your care."
591. IAHS 90,15.
592. IRPP 37,31 (English translation, ibid. 138,18.)
593. MMH 99,9.
594. MMH 99,9; 85,17; SMN 282,4; IAU 145,1.
595. UMLA 432,15. Compare in Greek tradition: STER 294/537 (Timotheus) : Plato, Gorgias463
A-466A. The law as springing from a divine origin is a Socratic tradition. See Xenophon,
Mem . iv, iv, 19. Cf. Gutas, op. cit. 315.
596 MKHAA 104,2;AHTBD I 476, 9; IHKR 86, 16-87, I; MMH 91, II; SRA 57r13. For the idea that
medicine depends on Allah , and only then on the physician see al-Ghazali , i~yii' , iv 285,24,
where the author maintains that the physician's task is merely a psychological one, whereas
Allah does the medical work. For Plato's view on medicine-statemanship see Laches, 195 C;
Laws 857 C.
597. MKHAA 112,10. "Nature" here translates tabi'uh. It seems that the contradiction reflects the
original Greek concept of nomos vs. physis.
598. AI-TauQIdi, basii'ir, i 451,14.
599. MMH 97,13.
600. UMLA 432,12. The saying regards the king as a shepherd, as in hadith' literature. See e.g.,
Bukharijum 'ah II etc: kullukum ra'tn wa-kullukum mas 'ii/ 'an ra 'iyatihi ("all of you are
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162 TEACHINGS
Justice.s'" religion and intellect are essential to him 602 as is his dissociation from
evil persons.w- Socrates reccommends that someone who is about to assume
leadership should train himself in forbearance toward people's ignorance and
bad character.w' In actuality, one should avoid serving kings, if one wants to
adhere to Truth. However, befriending men of government is only advisable
prior to their assuming office, because these people relate truly only towards
those whom they have known before. All their new aquaintances behave toward
them with flattery .60S If one wishes to exceed the king in practicing Truth, one
risks punishment as a mutineer.sw Lastly, freedom means one's service to the
Good 607 and independence of passionss" and ignorance.w?
PSYCHOLOGY
In Arabic, as in Hellenistic civilization, what we call "psychology" involved a

conglomeration of very diverse topics and discussions. All these deal with the
human soul in one way or another, beginning with ethics, and running through
the theory of dreams, the transmigration of the soul and resurrection, to the
relations between the soul and the world, or God. Many of these subjects were
discussed by Socrates, according to our authors.
Miskawaihi, an Arab scholar who was well acquainted with Greek ethics,
shepherds, and all are responsible for your flock ."). For a similar attitude in Greek literature
see e.g., Plato, Politicus 261 D; Gorgias 517 A (referring to Pericles) .
601. UMLA 438,7.
602. GTNMN 76,11. See F. R. C. Baigley's English translation from the Persian (GNM 91,12).
603. MM H 99,10 ; IAU 148,7; YMS 39r9. Compare Isocrates, To Nicocles, 27: "When you put men
in charge of affairs which are not under your personal direction , be governed by the knowledge
that you yourself be held responsible for whatever they do ." In our saying the text readsji:l'inna
jami' 'uyiibihim mansiibah 'ilaika ("because all their faults are attributed to you.")
604. ASI 284,5; MMH 99,16. The use of terminology here resembles that used to report Socrates's
reasons for marrying Xanthippe.
605. MMH 123,5. See I. 'Abbas, maliimih, 142, who refers to Ibn al-Muqaffa"s al-adab al-kabir
121,1 for a similar view.
606. MMH 104,18; SRA 63v6. The negative attitude to serving government finds an echo in D.L. ix
20, where the following statement is attributed to Xenophon: " ...and again that our encounter
with tyrants should be as few, or else, as pleasant as possible." For the relations between the
scholar and the king, see F. Rosenthal's Knowledge 330.
607. MMH 113,12; SRA 69rl. Compare F. Rosenthal Freedom , 81 note 240.
608. UMLA 434,8 . Similar ideas are common in Greek literature. See e.g., Xenophon, Mem . iv,v,3:
'''Do you (Euthydemus) cons ider him, then, who is held under control by the pleasures of the
body, and is rendered unable by their influence, to do what is best to be free?"By no means'
replied Euthydernus." See also F. Rosenthal, Freedom , 88 note 273.
609. UMLA 434,7 . The idea that sages are free men is common in Stoic literature. See D.L. vii 122
(von Arnim, op . cit. iii 158,24.) See also F. Rosenthal, Freedom 85 note 258.
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TEACHINGS 163
claimed that the silent philosophers, including Socrates, had made ethics
dependent upon psychology: "The sages prior to this man (i.e., Aristotle), such
as Pythagoras, Hippocrates (i.e., Socrates), Plato, and others similar to those,
all agreed that the virtues and all kinds of happiness are located in the soul alone .
Therefore, when they divided up happiness, they placed all of it in the faculties of
the soul, which we have mentioned at the beginning of this book (namely
wisdom, courage, chastity, and justice). They further agreed that these virtues
suffice for [achieving] happiness, wanting no other bodily or non bodily virtues
[to achieve it]. For if a man has achieved these virtues, his happiness cannot be
harmed by being sick, crippled , or afflicted with any bodily illness. ''610
Socrates is reported to have put the relations between the soul, the body,
Nature, the Intellect, and God in hierarchical order:
In adding onto Pythagoras he (i.e., Socrates) also said that every noble
person who [looks?] for pure wisdom attains by it absolute goodness. The
highest stage of goodness for humans is to be satisfied with one's true
Master only 'may He be exalted' as an intermediary between oneself and
one's master. He, on the other hand, who needs an intermediary between
himself and his Master for attaining wisdom is low in the echelons of
servitude [of God]. The more the stages between oneself and one's Master,
the lower is one in the echelons of servitude. If the body is in need of
Nature's influence for its interests, Nature, to carryon its activities, needs
in its turn the leadership of the soul. And the soul, in making its choice,
needs the supervision of the intellect. Above the intellect, there is nothing
that provides any explanation except the Divine guidance. It is proper
[,then,] for him who is aided by clear intellect in all events to be seen
delighted in his sat isfaction with his Master. On the other hand, it is
proper for him who follows [his] bodily lusts, who bends to natural needs
and who acts favourably to [his] soul's desires , while not clinging to the
necessities of the intellect, to be remote from the intellect, to be remote
from his Master, low in the echelon. Hence, he who adheres to the many
principles without elevating by [his] intellect to the First Truth, attains no
goodness at all.611
This statement clearly echoes Neo-Platonic ideas and specifically the three
Plotinian hypostases, namely the One, the Active Intellect, and the World-
Soul;612 he calls upon people to oppose the body and to remain pure of all that is
bodily, so that after death they may go to their proper places .s'!
610. MTA 87,9.

611. AAA 9a5.
612. See e.g., Plotinus, Enn. iv,3 [27] 5;12 etc. also, Proclus, Elements, e.g., 22,1 and 96,23 ff.
613. BTH 65,2.
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164 TEACHINGS
Belief in the transmigration of the souls was the point of Socrates's theory of
recollection. According to this theory, all knowledge is nothing but recollection
of what the soul has already known from pre-natal learning :
{Phaedo 70c3 ff} Socrates said in the Phaedo : "From the sayings of the
ancients we recall that souls go from here to Hades, and then return here.
Thus the living come from the dead , and things come to be from [their]
opposites. Those who died become dead from the living, and hence our
souls exist in Hades . The soul of everyone becomes happy or sad because
of something which it regards as belonging to it. This affection (i.e., being
happy or sad) ties and nails it to the body and turns it into a bodily form.
That [soul] which is impure cannot possibly go to Hades, but rather it
quits the body while still engrossed with it, until it quickly falls into
another body , as if firmly placed in it. Therefore, in no way does it
participate in existence with the One Pure, Divine essence."
He then said: "If the soul indeed exists, our learning is nothing but
recollection of what we have learnt in the past , because our souls [were]
somewhere, before they entered this human form. And when people see
something which they were accustomed to seeing in their youth, this
affection (i.e., seeing) strikes them, and, for instance, the cymbal reminds
them of the boy who used to play it after they have forgotten him.
Forgetting, then , is the departure of knowledge, while knowledge is
recollection of that which the soul had known before coming into the
body."614
This is obviously not itself a direct translation although it may nonetheless be
derived from one. The following are the main differences between the Greek and
Arabic versions:
(a) The Arabic version is not presented in the form of a dialogue, but rather as
a lecture delivered by Socrates.
(b) The Arabic version starts immediately with the saying of the ancients,
omitting the question that prompted Socrates to recall the ancients.
(c) The Arabic version passes over the whole section from 70c8 (starting with
the words kai ei touto) to 72e2, which gives argument for the immortality ofthe
soul based upon the logic of opposites. AI-BIrunI merely gives an interpretation
of the gist of the passage instead of a translation, and he passes on quickly to the
theory of recollection.
(d) The explanation of the theory of recollection itself is also given in the form
of a summary (of Phaedo 72e to 76cl4) rather than as a full tran slation .
614. BTH 43,9.
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TEACHINGS 165
On the more popular level, Socrates maintained that the soul is the equivalent
for everything. Hence, he who loses his soul, loses everything with it. 615 There is
an affinity among souls that results from their similaritiess« and the agreement
of their concerns.s!' However, had the souls known what was in store for them,
they would have flown away immediately.sw Pure souls are themselves saved
and also engender salvation for others."? Souls that are noble can be recognized
by their acceptance of Truth,620 by their stable goals 621 and by their accord with
their bodies.s-? The highest degree of human soul is the rational one tal-nafs
al-niitiqah), It is defined as the substance endowed with faculties and senses
toward which it moves.s-' although those only hinder it from attaining
illumination.s>' This soul is, according to one source that claims agreement on
this point between Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, to be distinguished from the
intellect.s> The body, on the whole, is but an instrument for the soul,626 by
means of which the latter is to arrive at its goals, i.e ., the Good. 627 Therefore, the
soul is more important than the body and it should be given preference over it,628
although both are subdued when one manages to subdue one's body.629 The
relationship between body and soul is again taken up by al-Blrtinf in another
paraphrase from the Phaedo:
When the soul is joined with the body, wishing to examine something, it
subdues itself then to it (i.e . the body). It is through reasoning ifikrah) that
matters of essence (huwiyiit) become manifest to it.
[This] reasoning [functions], then, at the time when no hearing, sight, pain
or pleasure affect it, [i.e.] when the soul is by itself, having relinquished the
body and the cooperation with it as best as possible. The soul, of the
philosopher in particular, is that which disdains the body and strives to
divorce from it. If we, in this life, use the body insofar as to cooperate with
615. KHNS 22v3; MMH 93,16; The idea reflected hereis that the whole universe is interconnected.
This view is refuted by Aristotle, de. An. 411a7.
616. MMH 93,5; IAU 147,20 .
617. MMH 93,6; IAU 147,21; SRA 59ri ; 68v2.
618. HISNFM 73,7; HIMF 23,8; IG 31,20; TIM ii 45,14. Cf. Plato, Phaedo, 63a ff.
619. MMH 93,3; SRA 58ri5; VMS 38v2.
620. MMH 92,14; SRA 58ri ;
621. TIM ii 47,6 ff.
622. KHNS 22v5.
623. SMN 282,18.
624. MMH 84,14; SMN 281,11; IAU i 44,17; sra 51v7.
625. risiilahfiiirii', in Badawi, Pia/on, 313,6.
626. TIM ii 34,12.
627. In Arabic - al-hasan. MMH 125,4.
628. KFF 38V5; ASI 60,4.
629. ASI83,14.
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166 TEACHINGS
it only when necessary, acquiring nothing of its nature, but on the contrary,
repudiating it, we approach knowledge (maCrifah) through relieving
ourselves from the body's ignorance. We then also become pure, thanks to
our knowing ourselves to the extent that God sets us free . It stands to
reason that this is true.630
DEATH- AFTERLIFE- RESURRECTION
Arab reports of Socrates's psychology are in accordance with the Platonic

tradition, connecting his treatment closely with death, afterlife, and resurrection.
In these reports, Islamic monotheistic ideas are combined with traditional
Plotinian ones, which they seem, in a way, to complement. If for Plotinus and his
school, the One is not called by a specific name, Muslim philosophers and
literates identified the two . The same holds true for the general idea of
immortality of the soul and its role in Greek thought, in relation to personal
immortality and resurrection that play an important role in Islam, where the
very dogma of reward and punishment cannot be sustained without it.
The basic idea which is common to both Plato and Islam is that death is by no
means the complete and final end of human beings. Differences arise over
whether it is only the soul th at survives, or whether the body too is resurrected .
Al-Ghazali maintained that it is not merely true that people are resurrected after
death, but also necessary, since it is logical to think that God can resurrect
people just as He can create them in the first place .631 No Arab writer, however,
mentions resurrection as one of the ideas attributed to Socrates. On the contrary,
he is said by al-Shahrastant and others to hold wrong ideas on this point. "Only
that he (i.e., Socrates) holds, concerning the resurrection of the dead, weak
opinions, which are far from the pure philosophical views and diverge from the
schools which adhere to the truth. ''632
Another point of agreement between Socrates and Islam is the fate of the soul
after it is separated from the body. In a short paragraph translated from the
Phaedo, al-Bfrtinl, while describing the manners of the Indians, states the
following:
Socrates points out to a similar [idea] in the Phaedo when he deals with the
soul hovering around graves because of possible traces of bodily love [that
remained in it] . He says: 'It is said about the soul that it is used to collect
630. BTH 53,20. Compare Phaedo 65b ff.

631. Al-Ghazall, i1)yo', i 114,11. Compare J . Wensinck , Creed, 130, art . 23.
632. SATU 23,6; IQ 198,7; IAU i 43,16. A slightly different version in SRA 50r5.
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TEACHINGS 167
from each of the body's members things that are joined [into it](, i.e. the
soul) while it lodges in this world, and also [accompany it] in the world-to-
come once this soul is unfastened from the body, and separates from it
upon its death. '633
Immortality is a different matter: "Socrates, the wise ascetic" is reported by

Ibn 'Arabi to have held to the immortality of the soul. 634
AI-BIrunI, in an excerpt from what seems to be a faithful paraphrase on Plato's
myth of the soul in the Phaedo, has much to say about Socrates's views on the
subject. According to him, Socrates held that the soul was a substance entirely
different from the body, and that there is a correlation between the deeds of a
man on earth and the fate of his soul in the world-to-come:
Socrates said in the Phaedo : "The body is earthy, heavy and ponderous,
while the soul, which loves it, is transferred and drawn to where it can
watch the body, because of the soul's fear of the unformed and of Hades,
the gathering place of souls. Thus it lingers and hangs around tombs and
burial places. Some souls have been seen there appearing (lit. 'imagined')
in the form of shadows; and indeed [they are] apparitions of souls which
have not departed purely, but which retain some visible part."
Then he said that it seemed that these were not the souls of the good, but
rather belonged to the bad, who in these wanderings are suffering
vengeance for their former evil life (lit. "bad food'). {BTH 50}They stay in
this state until they are linked again to a body, due to the passion for the
bodily which rules them. Their link will be to bodies whose qualities are
similar to the qualities which the souls had in this world. Thus he who had
nothing but food and drink [in this world] will {Phaedon 82a} enter into
such as donkeys and [other like] animals. He who preferred injustice and
tyranny into such as wolves, hawks and kites.
And he said to the gathering: "Had I not been sure of my joining firstly to
wise gods, beneficial masters, and then dead people who are better that
those here, my avoidance of grief over death would have been unjust."
As for the places of reward and punishment, he said: {Phaedo 107d6}
"When a man dies, Daimon (dhiimun), who is one of the divinities.e> leads
him to the gathering-place of judgement, wherefrom a special guide leads
him, along with those gathered there to Hades, where he remains for the
many long cycles of time alotted to him ."
Telephos has already said: "The road to Hades is straight imabsiuahs";
633. BTH 477,8. compare Phaedo 80d5 ff.

634. Ibn 'Arabi, bulgha, 195a3.
635. In BTH zabiiniyah, which seems a mispr int for rabbiiniyah.
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168 TEACHINGS
but I say that had it been straight, or a single one at that, the guide would
be dispensable.
{Phaedo I08a} As for the soul that is desirous of the body, or whose deeds
were evil, unjust and similar to murderous souls, it flees from there and
flutters in every kind [of bodies] until time will have passed and it will be
led of necessity to the abode that conforms with it (lit. is similar to it). The
pure soul, however, meets divine companions and gods for guides
(quwwiidan iilihah) and it inhabits the places proper [for it] {Phaedo
108c5}.
{Phaedo 113d2} Those dead who have led a middle life board ships that
had been prepared for them in Acheron (akhiiriins . When they have payed
the penalty (lit. were taken revenge from) and were purged from the
injustice [they had committed], they wash and receive honours for the
good deeds they had performed respectively. {Phaedo 113e2} Those who
have perpetrated grave sins , like theft from sacrifices offered to the gods or
robbing {BTH 51} great sums of money, or by killing unjustly, or
recidivistic breaking of the law, they are thrown to Tartarus never to leave
it. Those who regret their sins committed throughout their lives, but
whose offence do not reach the mentioned degree, such as perpetrating
[sins] against their parents by addressing them angrily, or killing [people]
by mistake, are ejected into Tartarus for a whole year to be tortured . Then
the waves throw them into a place from which they call out to their
plaintiffs, asking them to be content with the punishment, so that they may
be saved from their ordeal. [If the plaintif] is satisfied, [they are saved]. If
[on the other hand he is not, the sinners] are taken back to Tartarus and
their tortures last until their plaintif is satisfied with them.
{Phaedo 114b7} Those whose lives were excellent leave those places on
this earth, [and] are given rest from prisons and dwell in the pure earth.
Tartarus is a great canyon and abyss into which rivers flow. The
punishments of everyone are described by peoples according to what is
[considered] the most terrifying [punishment] known to them. The western
side is characterized by eclipses and floods, while [Socrates] descr ibes
[Tartarus] in a manner that indicates outbursts of flames in it and as if he
meant by it the sea awqnus (i.e ., the ocean), in which there are whirlpools.
These expressions no doubt reflect the beliefs of the people of the time .636
The greater part of this account is a translation from parts of Plato's PhaedoP!
but there are some differences from that text that are worth mentioning. First,
636. BTH 49,12-51 ,14.

637. Phaedo Il3d . See Burget, (1974).
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TEACHINGS 169
there is a gap between the account of the controversy between Socrates and
Telephos cited there and the present discussion. In the Greek, a lengthy
geographical description is given, including an explanation of the geography of
Tartarus.s" which in the Arabic text follows the main argument. There are some
differences of order between the two texts, e.g ., word order. While in the Greek
text the adjectives describing the body are "toilsome, heavy. earthy, and visible,"
the Arabic text has "earthy, heavy, and ponderous," omitting the adjective
"visible. " Also, the sinners' regrets , precedes in the Arabic the description of the
sins, contrary to the order in Greek.
Furthermore, no differentiation is made in the Arabic text between the
destination of murderers, which according to the Greek text is Cocytus, and that
of those who strike their parents, the Pyriphlegethon. On the other hand, as a
rule, while the Arabic text specifies the length of time which "lesser" sinners have
to serve in Tartarus, the Greek does not. Another addition was made by
al-Birunf as he found it necessary to explain to his non-Greek readers what
Hades was, by adding "the gathering place of souls."
It seems that the translator tried to avoid the use of Greek words like "hybris"
or names, e.g., that of the river Acheron, perhaps because of his presumption of
ignorance and lack of interest on the part of his readers. He could have dropped
these names for religious reasons . As long as there is some parallelism between
the views of sages of the calibre of Socrates and those of Islam, all is well. Too
many details might disturb the resemblance and stress the differences between
the two. Al-Biruni's concluding remark about the sociology of punishment seems
to be his own addition, one that he was in a good position to make, thanks to his
vast knowledge of peoples and traditions as well as to his personal experience. It
is also noteworthy that al-Blrunf does not hesitate to use, in his semi-translation,
the plural form of "god",639although in references to Greek gods, other authors
find the round-about way to avoid this use.
Some more details are quoted by al-Btrunt regarding the fate of the soul after
death:
{Phaedo 79d I} Socrates said : "The soul's essence departs to the holiness
whose life is eternal and forever unchanging because of its resemblance [to
this holiness], when it ceases its inclination [to the body] and becomes
similar to [this holiness] as regards eternity. The reason for this is its being
acted upon by it, by means of something akin to touch, and this being-
acted-upon is called 'intellect'. "
He also said : "The soul strongly resembles the immortal, incorruptible,
638. Phaedo, 112d ff.

639. E.g. BTH 50,15.
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170 TEACHINGS
divine essence which is the sole eternal intelligible, while the body is
contrary to it. When these two are combined, nature orders the body to
serve and the soul to govern. When they are disconnected , the soul departs
to a place other than that of the body. It enjoys that which resembles it and
rests from [its] inclination [to the body], from stupidity, anxiety, passion,
and savagery as well as other human kinds of evil. All this is on condition
that it is pure and is repelled by the body. If, on the other hand, it stains
itself by suiting itself to the body, by being servile and passionate toward it
to such a degree that the body is enchanted by it through passion and
pleasures, then it can see nothing more real than the bodily and contact
with it."
The main difference in this paragraph between the Greek and the Arabic texts
is one of order, besides a certain amount of omission. Here, too, the form of the
dialogue has not been used in the Arabic text; and the structures of the two texts
are different. The first sentence is a translation of Phaedo 79d I-d7, with some
significant omissions. The second sentence of the Arabic text starts as a
translation of Phaedo 80bl-5, but its concluding words "while the body is
contrary to it" are a summary of a whole paragraph in the Greek text. The third
sentence translates Phaedo 7ge8-80a2, thus departing from the order of the
Greek text. The next Arabic sentence corresponds to the Greek 81a4- 7. Then
comes a sentence that is not a direct translation but an Arabic summary. The last
sentence is a translation of Phaedo 81b 1-5.
Another, although minor, point concerns the Arabic conjunction "passion
and savagery", which parallels a Greek noun with an adjective: kai agrion
eroton, a difference that could be used for learning about the then current
method of translation from the Greek into Arabic (perhaps through the Syriac),
and also, perhaps, about the identity of the translator of that text. The last point
of comparison, and a striking one at that, is the change of subject and object
between the soul and the body. While in the Greek original, it is the soul that is
enchanted by the body, the Arabic text reverses the relation. It is the body that is
enchanted by the soul (81b2). As the Arabic text does not contain any other
recognizable scribal error, and it is difficult to imagine al-BlrunI misunder-
standing such an elementary point, the reversal of the relation would seem to be
due to an error of translation in the version he quotes.
The fifth excerpt from al-BIrunI is short and occurs more than once. It
corresponds to Phaedo 81b8: "Socrates hints at something similar in the Phaedo
[when he asks about] the soul which hovers around the tombs due to some traits
of bodily passion which may have been left in it (i.e., the soul). As he puts it: 'The
soul is said to be in the habit of collecting from every member of the body
something which combines together and which resides in this world, and also in
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TEACHINGS 171
that to come, once [the soul] takes leave of the body and departs from it on its
death'."
It is noteworthy that the correspondence between the Greek and the Arabic
texts exists only with regard to the first half of al-BTrunT's statement, and is by no
means a translation.
The attitude Socrates takes towards death is one of welcome, an attitude that
is shared by Islamic writers, such as al-Ghazall.v'? Socrates's view that the soul
not only survives the body, but also pre-exists it, was known to the Arabs.
"According to Socrates's views, the souls of humans existed before their bodies
in some way, either connectedly as one whole, or separately, according to their
essence and qualities, later to become connected with bodies for the sake of
perfection and eternity, the bodies being their receptacles and organs. When the
bodies pass away, the souls return to their totality. ''641
Socrates held the view that the soul transmigrates after death: "Plato and
other philosophers such as Socrates, maintained [the theory of] transmigration
(naql), although transmigration has some self-contradictory aspects ."642 Those
souls that are subjected to this process are the impure ones, and they receive
bodily forms. "Different souls face after death different fates. Any soul having
been impure and evil is to remain on this flame-encircled earth, while heaven is
the lot of the pure ones, serving as their earth. Their [relative] heaven shall be a
luminous one, nobler than this heaven, and there pure beauty and pleasure are
[to be found]. "643 In his conviction in the transmigration of the souls , Socrates
belonged to the pre-Islamic "twelfth erroneous sect" of some philosophers.w
Not only was Socrates's preoccupation with death a strong one in the above
account but this attitude is manifested in sayings attributed to him . Death is first
described as a prolonged sleep,645 is the thing closest to man,646 the most hateful
one (aulJash)647 and inevitable.e" Its function is both positive and negative . On
640. AI-GhazaIT, il}yii', iv 496,13.

641. SMN 280,17; Plato, Phaedo, 72d for the theory of the soul's pre-existence.
642. SHI221 ,15.
643. AAA 8v20.
644. Al-Isfara 'inT, tabsir, 120,1.
645. "Al-naum maut khafif wal-maut naum {awll." MMH 111,12; IAU i 48,29; SRA 67v6; VMS
40v5; IHKR 87,14; GTMNM ("a sage") . Compare Plato, Apol. 40 C; Plutarch, Moralia, 107
D; Woelffel in, ad. Senecae Monit. 116 p. 27 and also USS p. 25/161 ; von Arnim, op. cit. i 60, I;
Sext, II Pyrrh. iii 207,147 sq .; Homer, Od. xiii 80; ii 23; xi 241. The same saying is attributed by
SMN 289,15 to Solon and by MKHAA 76,7 to Pythagoras. Compare F. Rosenthal, (1937)57;
59 and 62.
646. Death here in Arabic is ajal. HISNFM 73,1; HIMF 23,5; IAU i 48, 15; SRA 63V 13; IHT 22,9;
al-Jahiz, bayan, 155,3.
647. HISNFM 73,4; HIMF 23,6; MMH 105,7; IAU i 48,16; SRA 63v14.
648. MHH 265,14; IAHS 116,5.
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172 TEACHINGS
the one hand, it releases one from one's body,649 hence, from sin, by releasing one
from passions.sv and, in general, from the toils of this world.s-! It also releases
one from personal enemiese? and rids the world from its sinners.s-' On the other
hand, it brings rest from great tiredness.s>' and compensates for life's unjust
discriminations as practiced by some people by treating all equally.v" Another
of its advantages is that it puts one in contact with departed loved ones .656
With regard to life, death is both a cause and a result.657The better life one has
conducted, the better one's death will be. 658 It is in any case preferable to life in
the abode of disgrace. 659 Or perhaps put differently, the rational soul lives, as the
appetitive one dies. 660 Death is a corridor and transfer to the world-to come661
and to eternal life.662 The stand taken toward death differs according to different
people: sinners hate it,663 while the righteoussw and the intelligent love it because
of its goodness for them. 665 Hatred of death is an expression of anger aimed at
God, which is a sign of disbelief666 and lack of awareness and confidence in one's
649. IAHS 120,21.

650. MMH 106,3; SRA 64RI2; IAHS 122,1; 122,19.
651. IAHS 114,23.
652. IAHS 116,20 .
653 . MMH 106,6; SRA 64rI5; IAHS 122,6. A different version in MMH 58,15 . A third one -
M M H 106,5; IAU i 48 ,16 ; SRA 64r 14 etc . Compare al-Bukharr, riqiiq , 43; Muslim,jana 'i z,
61,63 etc ., wh er e th e belie ver who dies finds rest iriihah) from this world's troubles whereas the
sinner tfiijir) finds rest from this world 's property. A similar idea is attributed to the prophet:
" Ya' AIr, maut al-faj'ah riihah lil-mu'min wa-khasrah lil-kiifir ." ("Ali , sudden death is rest for
the believer and loss for the non-believer.") al-Tabarsr, makiirim, 509,1.
654. IAHS 116,7.
655. MMH 106,10; SRA 64v4 ; IAHS 122,14.
656. IAHS 118,7.
657. MMH 84,7; SMN 281,9; IAU i 44,12.
658 . KHNS 22v16 ; MMH 105,21; SRA 64rlO; IAHS 120,8.
659 . MMH 106,2; VMS 39v17 ; IAHS 120,22 .
660 . HISNFM (mss. Miinchen) 41r2 ; HIMF 18,24; KIHNF 9vlO . Another version of the same
saying in KAS 30,6 ; M M H 103,4 etc . Compare H. F. von Diez , Denkwiirdigkeiten, i, 7/3 . An
explanation to the idea may be found in th e number 82 : "If you c hoose to be alive, die so that
you won't rejo ice with people's praise nor grieve with their abuse." Also compare N. T ., John
12,25 ; Math. 10,32; Marc 8,35 ; Luc . 17,33 . In Arabic literature see Miiller (1877) 519 ,28
(attributed to Hippocrates) ; IG M P I02,19 ; al-Jabiz, bayiin , 169,8 who also ascribes this saying
to Abu Bakr, and ihid. iii 127,8, where it is ascribed to al-Samau 'al b. "Ad iya .
661. SRA 60v3 ; KH NS 22vI7; MMH 105,15 ; 106,1; SRA 64r4 ; 64rll ; IAHS 116,9; 120,9; YMAH
148,6 (Plato). A similar idea in Seneca's Epistle to Zenon , in von Arnim , op. cit , i 48 ,32.
Compare Altman and Stern Isaac Israeli, 28 ff.
662 . IAHS 120,7.
663 . IAHS 124,1.
664. IAHS 120,18; 124,1.
665. MMH 106,9; SRA 64v3 ; IAHS 122,9.
666 . IAHS 120,13 .
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TEACHINGS 173
past deeds in life.667 Belief in the world-to-come facilitates the departing from
this world by death. 668 As for death, the proper attitude to be adopted toward it
is to despise it and not fear it. Thus it would be avoided or at least it would
become easier,669 because its bitterness consists of its fearfulness .s"? If you kill
yourself voluntarily, natural death will turn into life for you . (This saying
probably means that giving up one's life in this world grants one the true life in
the world-to-comej.s" On the other hand, al-Birtlnf quotes a translation of the
relevant paragraph from Plato's Phaedo where suicide is being objected to:
Socrates said : "One must not kill oneself before God provides a necessity
or coercion, the like of which has occurred to us." He also said : "We,
humans, are like prisoners. It is unfit for us to flee or to free ourselves from
prison, because the gods take interest in us, being their servants."672
One group of sayings attributed to Socrates is obscure and Pythagorean in
nature, but it falls in line with his general attitude, e.g., "Kill the living person so
that he should live through his death. Kill him either by means of an ornamented
or unornamented knife,''673 and "Do not be an ant when death comes.''674
A certain measure of love of life is expressed in the following anecdote: "He
once journeyed on a boat. When the weather turned stormy, he asked the captain
about the thickness of the boat's boards. Hearing that they were two fingers
667. IAHS 118,14; 124,10.

668. MMH 105,19; SRA 64r9; IAHS 118,9.
669. SMN 281,17.
670. KKS 29,13; MHH 213,17; MKHAA 104,1; SMN 302,14 (Hippocrates); (AU i 48,21; SRA
66rll ; TIM 175,7; TIl 126,3; Ibn 'ArabT233,a2.
671 'Al-maut mautiini: maut {ahtf wa-maut iradf. Faman amiita nafsahu mautan iriidian, kana
al-maut al-tabi'Llahu hayiih ," KFF 44vl ; KAS 30,2; BHQH 22vl" IHKR 81,14" Ibn Sina,
risiilahfi al-ghamm min al-maut, 52,5 (Plato); MMH 105,9; SRA 63v15; MMH 50,6; lAU i
29,26. See F. Rosenthal (1940) 409, who refers to al-Far abi, ora', ed. Dieterici 82, and also to
Miskawaihi, a/-fauz al-asghar , (Cairo, 1325/1907) 57; al-ShahraziirI, al-shajarah, fol. 87b;
Compare also Altman and Stern, op. cit, 201: "al-Farabi, Ibn SIna and many others cite in
Plato's name the saying 'Die voluntarily and thou wilt live by nature.'" See also ' Abbas,
maliimih, 160, who quotes Abii al-i Atahiyah, the famous poet (d. 998) in his al-risiilah
al-hatimiyah, 50, no. 54: "The death of souls is their life and their absence is their presence, as
they join their higher world ."The idea is also attributed to the Caliph Abii Bakr, who, allegedly
directed it at Khalid b. al-Walid, the renowned military commander upon sending him off to
fight rebels (al-Nuwairi, nihiiyah, iii 3,3). Compare also talmud, Tamtd fol. 7a: "Alexander the
Macedonian, having asked the sages of the south (of Israel) : 'What should one do in order to
live?' they answered: 'Kill oneself.' 'What should one do in order to die?' 'Keep oneself alive.?'
For other Jewish sayings to the same effect see Altman and Stern, op. cil. 202.
672. BTH 481, I. Phaedo 62b7-9. In the Greek text the order of the two parts of the quotation are
reversed .
673. SMN 281,15.
674. SMN 281,17.
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174 TEACHINGS
thick Socrates said : 'Between us and death there are two fingers. Return to
shore! "'675
V ARI A
Apart from those sayings which ma y be grouped according to topic, a number

of sayings are singular and unique, and deal with various subjects. A few
examples will suffice here : "Sow in th e black and harvest in the white ,i.e. sow in
tears and harvest in jo y";676 "hit the citron with a pomegranate"677 and other
such saying s.
675. S RA 58v 13; IDM 89,4 ( Hiajarsls a l-As hkun ). For the Greek origin of th e say ing see F.
Rosenth al ( 1958) 37.
676. MM H 85, 16; SM N 282,4; )A U 144,32; SRA 52vl.
677. SM N 282,2.
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CONCLUSIONS
It is only because we are so well acquainted with the popularity of Socrates in

Western-Christian literature and know so well his role in the history of Western
philo sophy that his "adoption" by religious thinkers as well as by the civilized
Islamic rank and file causes us so little surprise. On the face of it, his entire
background, his beliefs, language, way of thinking, values , political
circumstances, religion and life-style differed dramatically from those of the
Arabs. Yet, the degree of his popularity in mediaeval Arabic literature is
considerable. This pheonomenon can be accounted for by technical reasons,
such as "The books that were translated into Arabic from the Greek and Syriac
contained stories about him," or "The Arabs did, after all, live in a Hellenistic
region." These kinds of reasons , I should agree, do carry some weight, but they
seem to fall short of a full explanation. There is, however, another reason that
seems to me to be a deeper one: the Arabs (like the Christians later) were in need
of a link of principle to Greek culture, one that would avoid the slippery, purely
rationalistic-philosophical connection. In the person of Socrates, they found
such a link : his way of life, beliefs, and interest in ethics were easily interpreted as
conforming to monotheism in general and to the tenets of Islam in particular.
Socrates's trial and death are well documented in Arabic. Basic traits of his
metaphysics are reported , but the most important transmission are his views
about ethics . In some cases, sayings and anecdotes were translated that have
Greek parallels. In some cases the Arabs seem to have invented the material
from whole cloth. In both cases, the terminologies and vocabularies used are
very significantly Islamic.
It therefore seems to be the case that from the point of view of contents ethics
was utilized as a common ground between Greek tradition and Islam (or
Christianity), and from the technical point of view the aphorismic , anecdotal
character of the material, common to both Greek gnomologicalliterature (e.g.,
Diogenes Laertius) and to hadith literature served the Arabs of the time,
enabling them to "convert" Socrates into Islam .
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Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
GENERAL INDEX
'Abbas, I. 3446 102 162 173402 Allah 103 106 107 117 119 130 161
' Abd al-Kartm M. al-Sam'ant 141 ' Allamah, al- 36 122
'Abdallah b. Salam 97 Alon, I. 1499107 131
Abraham 51 61 64 89 Altman, A. 137 138 172 173
Abu 'Abdallah M. b. Amayal al-Taimurl Amarus 71
100 'A.milI. al- 134 141 147
Abu al-'Atahiyah 173 'AmirI, Abu al-Hasan al- 13 15 16 108 109
Abu al-Darda' 90 123
Abu al-Khair Ibn al-Suwar 47 Ammonius 61 3 1420108 109
Abu al-Qasim al-Hasan al-Tanilkhl 154 Ammonius the son of Hermias 14
Abu al-Qasim al-Katib 16 Ammonius Saccas 14
Abu 'All Muhammad b. al-fAbbas 154 'Amru b. al-'A~ 160
Abu 'Amru b. al-'Ala' 90139 Anacharsis 53
Abu 'Umar b. M. b. 'Abbas 27 Anas b. Malik 98 130
Abu Bakr 35 90 172 173 Anawati, C. G. 50
Abu Bakr b. al-Marzuban 27 154 Anaxagoras 415693 121 122135
Abu Da 'ud 128 Anaximander 124 131
Abu M . ' Abdallah b. A. b. Zabr 53 Anaximenes 41 121 123
Abu Nasr 14 Anbaduklis (Empedocles) 55
Abu Sulairnan al-Mantiqi al-Sijistani 15 16 Ancients 88
3942 Andalus 41
Abu Tal ib al-Jarrahi 95 Andrae, T . 90
Acheron 168 169 Anger 43 83 137 146 148
Ach illes 71 Anisbah 41
Adultery 151 Animals 123
Advice 7 Annihilation 106
Aelian 42 85 152 Anthropomorphism 24
Aeschines of Sphetius 47 6698 139 Ant igono s of Carystu s 16
Aeschylos 113 Antioch 57
Aesop 87 Antisthenes 20
Afnan, S. 26 106 Anu sh irwan 131
After-l ife 86 166 Apollo of the Sun 68 81 82 87 92 139
Agapius 42 84 98 Apostle of God 64 130
Ahmad , Prince 19 Appolonius of Ti ana 125
Ahnaf', al- 136 Aqiva, Rabbi 96
Air 124 Arabic 12 15-2031 -34394042616264 77
Aither 115 7884 103 123 170 175
Ajax 71 Arabs 12 1929-32343542444550626776
Alchemy 94 102 125 127 808186959699 104125127128139
Alcibiades 66 150 146175
Alcohol 91 Arberry, A. J. 1821 129
Alexander The Great 39 42 57 66 85 173 Archelaus 55 58
Alexander Polyhistor 20 Archigenes 20 55 138
Alexander Aphrodisias 84 128 Archon 3287
Alexandria 1633 ArdashIr 42
' All Ibn elsa 95 Ar ist ides 56
' All b. AbI Talib 116 117 129 138 155 172 Ar isto Chiu s 107
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
188 GENERAL INDEX
Ariston 55 Bias 42
Aristophanes 29 30 32 62 80 Bishr b. al-Harith 134
Aristotle 121420303942475558828688 Black stone 64
92-95107-110 117 122 124 125 128 129 Blame 143
134-136138147 ISO ISS 163 165 Bloodshed 157 160
Arkesilaus 98 Body 246061 787995 100 103 124 125 137
Arkoun, M. 13 35 138143-145157162-168170-172
Armstrong, A. H. 105 Boehm, B. 88
Arnirn, A.F.A . von 25104107 III 128136 Boilot, D . J . 15
143 149 162 171 Botany 1723
Arrian 57 Brahaman 15
Artahshast 42 Bravemann, M . M . 144
Artaxerxes 42 56 Bravery 45
Asceticism 2729454748516589-91 119 Bukhart, al- 27396485909197115116133
120 144 150 153 161 172 215
Asc1epius 75 87 109 146 Biilus 14
Asia 4157 Buqrat 31
'Askart, Abu Hilal al- 159 Burgel, Ch . 1433 116 168
Astrology 14 IS Burnett, J. 56
Astronomy 14 15 Busanjl, al- 116
Atheists 88 Busaw, A. 142
Athenians 50 56 65 67 78 80 Bustt, al- 135 158
Athens 3241 50565759626566687677 83
86 121 132 Cairo 17
Atlantis 56 Calvin 87
Attributes, Divine 6394104-109 122 Carystus 16
Aulus Gellius 54 Cause. Efficient 125
Aya Sofia 20 Cause, Active 103
Azkhanls 47 Cause 138
Cause, Final 102
Babylon 5161 Caution 118
Badawi, 'Abd al-Rahrnan 2182120122133 Cebes 71 79
145 157 165 Cephalos 140
Baghdad 15 19 22 Certainty 138
Baigley, F. R. C. 162 Chadwick, H . 144
Baihaql, Ibrahim b. M. al- 160 Chance 7685
Balance 125126127131 Chaos 115
Balintis 125 Character, Bad 53 130 162
BalkhI, Abu Zaid A. b. Sahl al- 1388 103 Character, good 44 130
110 124 125 Chastity 163
Barrel 49 51 58 Chiekho, L. 146
Batil 84 85 132 Chiton 42
Beauty 119130131152 Christianity 22 65 87 175 128
Beer 64 Christians II 36 85 88 122 175
Being 103 Chronos 115
Belief 48 Chroust, A. H. 86
Bellamy, J. A. 91 Church fathers 31
Benz , E. 31 Cicero 7 165055 102 103 132
Berman, L. V. 99 City, the Excellent 103
Berry, G. G. 55 C1eantes 107
Berthelot, P. E. M . 100125 127 Cleobulus 42
nrrnnr, Abu al-Raihan al- 141533404256 Cleve , F. M. 123
8183104164-167169-171 173 Cock 8291
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
GENERAL INDEX 189
Cocytus 169 Dunlop , D. M. 15202231 3362

Comfort 120
Earth 71 72 118 12.> 126 167 168 171
Contentment 133
Echecrates 68 75 76
Corbin , H. 107 III 126
Econom ics 101
Cosmology 14 121 123
Education 23 78 130 132 139 140 153
Courage 44 4581 134 163
Egypt 5557
Craneum 57
Egyptian 94
Creation 106 121 122 123 152
Elements 72 104 113 122 123 126
Creator 59616369104-108119121 124134
Eleven, The 68 74 76 81 87
Crime 144 147
Elixir 126
Critias 55 56 66
Empedocles 41 425572 104 108 121 125
Crito 33 68-70 73-75 77-809798
Enemy 4552112134136151172
Crucifixion 87
Enmity 83 112 121 155
Cynics 30 33 139
Envy 91 121 149
Cyrus 42
Epictetus 16 30 139
Epicurus 98
Dara 42
Erabos 115
Daiber, H. 14 15 33 93 100
Erostrophos 31
Daimon 167
Error 135
Daman , T. 31
Essence 103-108 122 123 135 164 169 170
Damascus 17
171
Darious 42
Eternal 63
David, King 35 57 90 142
Eternity 105 106 III 169
David-Weill, J . 90
Ethics 1318229596128146149162163175
De Goeje, M. J . 94
Europe 41
Death 20222425 3445505254575860-63
Euthydemus 162
666769717477-88929698100101 114
Evil 23 54 60 61 63 64 69 83 91 116 120
115 119 130 134 135 141 142147 149
128-130141 143-145149-151153157
150-152 156 161 163 166 167 169
161 170
171-173 175
Existence 105 106 108
Delos 68 76 77
Existing 106
Demaratus 158
Democritus 555697130133136138142151 Faith 5661 90 138
Demon 88 Fakhri, M. 203940
Derenbourg, H. 161755 Falshood 69 132
Desire 8291111112115144-146148163 FarabI, al- 13 144561 6584859396 100103
Destiny III 112 III 122 128 144 146 154 173
Diels, H. 21 56 125 Falun 8485
Diez, H. F., von 159 172 Fatalism 45 IJI 112115
Dignity 160 Fate 247283111112-115117
Dio Chrysostom 57 Felicity 103
Diogenes 3031394047495057819398 III Ferguson, J . 586698 135 139 140 152
121 130 139 142 144 145 149 153 Finitude 106
Diogenes Laertius 16303233478081 176 Fliigel, G. 14
Diotima 132 Foerster, R. 44
Disgrace 172 Food 5052 118 119 167
Distinguished 105 Forbearance 53 119 162
Dodds, E. R. 80135 Forgiveness 114 150 156
Donaldson, D. M. 18 133 Form 94103-106122-125135
Donator 105 Fortune 46 114 132 136 137
Dozy, R. 106 Freedom 77 121 162
Drunkard 85 133 Freeman, K. 97 130142151
Dualists 93 122 Freytag, G. W. F. 149 151 159 160
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
190 GENERAL INDEX
Friedlaender, P. 48 Ifadfth 35 39 40 64
Friend 423304871 83 95 97 112 134 136 l;IajI Khalifah 99
153-155 Halkin, A. 2131 160
Friendship 7183114131153-156 l;Iallaj, al- 106
Fudail, al- 134 Happiness 13 48 65 82 113 133 134 149 157
160 163
Gabriel, Arch-Angel 96 Harith, al- 134
Galen 141883 110 123 124128130 Harnack, A. von 67
Gamliel, Raban 108 Harraneans 20 56 126
Gardaq 114 Hasan b. Suwar, al- 31
Gardet, L. 50 Hasan al-basrf 14 134
Gatje , H. 63 Health 121
Geffcken, J . 44 92 Heavens 122123 171
Gellius 4654 Hebrew 163643
Generosity I 131 Heller, B. 55
Genus 105 106 Hellespont 86
Geog raphy 14 15 Helot, L. A. 55
Ghazali, al- II 235053566364 9192 97 105 Hemlock 34 78-80
107113115-117119122130133142146 Henna 85
147 149 153 166 171 Henning, W. B. 21
Giladi, A. 141 Heracleitus 56
Gildmeister, J. 144 Heracles 71
Ginzberg, L. 64 Heresy 124
Glucker, Y. 56 Herod 57
Gnostics 33 Hesiod 72
God 242746-48505760-646775818790 Hiajarsls al-Ashkuti 174
949697100103-111115-117121-125 Hicks, R. D . 16
1271 31135159162163166-169172173 Hieronymus 18
Goldziher, I. 64 90 135 144 Hippocrates 1831448395110 III 119138
Gomperz, Th . 44 55 146149163 172 173
Good 4483107129130140141143150162 l;Iira' 49
Goodness 105 106 109 141 163 Hisham b. al-Hakarn 107
Government 244587 137 161 162 History 14 18
Gr ace 97 Homer 71 72 171
Grammar, Greek 152 Homosexuality 65 66
Grat itude 114 155 Honour 83 144
Greece 30 Hope 116 147 149
Greed 43 146 150 Hostility 154
Greek 15202226333439-4277 80 94124 Houtsma, Th . 53
169170175 Hunain ibn Isl}aq 15 16 1720363942
Greeks 1441 4253576283889397 141 Husari, al- 43 84
Grief 118120149 Hyparchia 145 152
Grigniaschi, M. 136 Hypostases 163
Gutas, D. 15203957588485 114 120 129
139-142146152154157161 lamblichus 33
Guthrie, W. K. C. 67 Iblis 116
Ibn AbI Hadld 60
Hakim, al- 100 Ibn AbI Usaibi'ah II 17316799
Harith al-Muhasibt 91 Ibn AbI Dunya 91
Haarbriicker, F. 59 Ibn al-Athlr 55
Haarmann, U. 88 Ibn al-Harnmar 18
Haddad , R. 36 Ibn al-Jauzr 103 134
Hades 164 167 Ibn al Mutran al-Dirnashql 41 48
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
G ENERAL INDEX 191
Ibn a l-M uq affa' 41 162 Islam II 2229 33 35 36 45 50 62- 64 80 86 87

Ibn al-Nadim 31 5699 89 9 1 9297 104 107 III 122 124 128 134
Ibn al-Qifti 17 31 57 67 79 94 150 166 169 175 176
Ibn ' Aq ni n 18 Iso c ra tes 195497 110 113 142144 146 155
Ibn 'A ra bi 39 90 115 167 1561 61 162
Ibn But lan 82 Isu tsu, T. 133
Ibn Gabirol 133 Ivri , A. 88
Ibn Hanbal , A hma d 116 137 148
Ib n Hazrn 90 Jabalanl, al- 85
Ibn Hindii 20 39 Jabir b. Ha yyan 18 3465 93 1021 21 125-1 27
Ibn Hisharn 96 J aeger, W. 45 132 140
Ibn J uljul 1718565879 86 J a' far al Sad iq 107
Ibn Jum'ah 14 1 Jah iz, al- 3484 91 138141 157158160171
Ibn Kamal Basha 151 172
Ibn Khaldiin 131 Jaldaki 34 126
Ibn Kh allikan 154 J ardaq 130 155
Ibn Majjah 114 116 149 Jennies 92
Ibn Masarrah 13 J esu s Ch rist 32 57 61 8788 90 96 98 99 110
Ibn Q ayyim a l-Jauz iya h 117 141 115 139
Ibn Qutaibah 95 J ews 1857 64 85 122
Ibn Ridwan 82 J ohannes Gra m ma ticus 14
Ib n Ru shd 6585 106 125 J ohn of Damascu s 107
Ibn Saddtq 138 J ohn Ph ilop on os 108
Ibn Sa ' d 85 J ohn th e Bapt ist 57
lbn Si na 11131 84647 56 85 881111 221 38 Jud a ism 22 128
139 173 Justice 4446 64 69 128 131 1431 62163
Ibn Wahb 40 Just in Ma rty r 88
Ibn Zur'ah 95
Ibshihi, al- 115 Kalam 22
Ideas 126 Karnead es 98
Identity 104 Kha lid b. a l-Walid 173
Id ol 59- 61 63 65 66 69 89 Kh a lid b. Yazid b. Mu ' aw iyah 125
Idolatry 57 93 Kha wa rizrnl, al- 92 110 124
Idrisi , a l- 88 Kh ayyat, al- 64 106
Ign or anc e 9 1 1131241 301 37140 1621 661 69 Kh iqr at is 68
Ikhwan al-Safa' 48 6578 8691 138 Khomein y, Ruhall a 92
Im ag es 122 123 Khurasan 13 22
Immortality 13 77-79 80100 164 166 167 Ktlant, al- 95
' Imra n b. Hattan 115 Kindi, Ya'qu b b.Jshaq a l- 1316-20343639
Incorpor ealit y 105 50 56 60 6 1 66 80
India 1430 King 3245474856- 62 66 677981838791
Indi an s 22 166 98117121 131 1451461 54161 162
Injust ice 466984851281441471 611 67168 Kirbila 116
Int ellect 2542-449498 103-105 122-1 24 Kirk, G . S. 131 135
1281 31134-1361411451491581 621 63 Knowledge 2431 83101 105106109111 118
1651 69 122 132 137-139 140 141 164 166
Int ellect , th e acti ve 163 Knowledg e, self 139
Int elligen ce 157 Knowled geable 63 98
Intoxication 25 91 146 150 Koneion 62 80
Isaac Isr aeli 138 Koresh 42
Isfara Tni, al- 171 Kraemer, H. J. 104
Ish aq b. Huna in 145 2 5366 98 Kraemer, J . L. 1541 100 114 131
Isidorus of Seville 18 Kraus, P. 34 102 126
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
192 GENERAL INDEX
Kiifah 19 Maqdisi, al- 125

Kushajirn 48 Marcian 154
Marcus Aurelius 30 88
Lacatanius 65 Marefat, R. 34 65
Lagarde, P. de 31 40 Marquet, Y. 88 91 96
Landauer, S. 137 Marriage 151 152
Lane , E. W. 41 57 142 Mas'ndt, al- 559394 101 103 113 125 138
Law-giver 8891 Massignon, L. 106
Law 2351626769707377-7986919699 Mathematics 94 101 140
141 151 161 168 Matter 103 105
Law, Divine 49 Mawardt. al- 9098113117134138140
Law, Islamic 22 Maximus of Tyre 49
Lazarus-Yafe. H. 119 Mecca 4964
Leadership 162 Medicine 17 18233191 139 142 146 161
Leipzig 15 Meier, H. 30
Letters, Science of the , 100 Meletus 62
Leuc ippus 55 Melissus 56
Levoy , L. 55 Menexenus 54
Levy, I. 87 Meno 55139
Lewin, B. 47 Merchant, E. C. 49 154
Liddle, H. G. 149 Merkle, K. 1621
Life 455960798593 105 106 119 127 140 Metaphysics 227294 101 103 110
152-154159161 167168169172 173 Meyerhof, M. 43
Literature 14 132 Middle 90 134
Literature, Arabic II 12 22 29 32-36 40 44 Middle course 134
466284868792 125 Middle East 36
Literature, Greek 16 31 62 90 Migne, J.P. 10
Literature, Islamic 23 64 Miller, E. 153
Literature, Jewish 64 Mind 123135140
Literature, Syriac 16 31 Mirrors of Kings 45 91
Livelihood 59 Miserliness 149
Logic 185194101 135 Misery 117
Lohse, B. 90 Misfortune 46112114116-120133136162
Lord 27 173
Love 130 132 134 154 157 160 166 Miskawaihi 16 18-203539 146
Loyalty 161 Moderation 120 134
Lucian 1630476062 139 Mohaghghigh, M. 33 40 144
Luck 46 114 Money 23110117134139141142155161
Luganus Demonax 3I 168
Luqrnan 35 55 152 Monotheism 366366104175
Lust 4352141 144 151 Moon 126
Lyons, M. C. 129 Moses 92
Lysandrus The Just 4656 Motahedde, R. 53
Mubashshir Ibn Fatik, al- II 1720213953
Madness 154 59
Magians 122 Muhammad 3549616289
Magis 59 Muhammad Ibn 'Imran al-Tarnlmi 90
Magnanimity 46 MUUer, A. 1654 110 130 137 138 142 172
Mahdi, M. 128 Music 139
Maimonides 18 124 Muslims II 182223273536658590 104
Manicheans 58 82 116122147172
Manliness 83 144 Mu'tazilite 36 64 106
Manners 43 132 148 Myrte 5479
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
GENERAL INDEX 193
Myson 42 Philosophy, Islamic 19

Myst icism 48 88 Philosophy, Greek 11203195124
Ph ilosophy, Political 94
Nasa'i 128 144 Philosophy, Popular 12 1822
Nashshar al-Shirblnl 33 88 Philosophy, Practical 101
Nasir-i-Khosrow 40 144 Philosophy, Speculative 18
Nature 239394119124125132141143145 Phtia 68
161 163 170 Physician 143
Neo-Platonists 39 Physic ists 124
New Testament 172 Physics 55 94 10I 126
Nimrod 64 Piety I 475091 110 124
Nuwairi, al- 91 115 155 160 173 Pines , S. 126
Pittacus 42
Oath 110 Pity 96
Old Testament 115 128 Plants 123
Oleander 152 Plato 12 14 172029-333941 4245-4952
Omnipotent 63 54-5661 6265-67 75-77 84 85 868890
One 63163 92-9799100 102104-107109110 115
Order 106 116119-124128 130 132-134 136-139
Or igen 87 155 163 165 166 167 168 171 173
Orosius 18 Pleasure 4852657087 100 103 115 116 129
Orpheus 72 134139144 146 155 162 165 170 171
Plessner, M. 15
Paganism 67 87 Plotinus 14 105 135 163 166
Pagans 275159104 Plutarch 12 142133505457669899104
Pa in 707187 143 108113123-125135136143147149158
Paradise 116 171
Parents 155 Poetry 57 79 III
Parmenides 109 Poetry, Arabic 2834
Passion 434458115143-146162167170 Po ison 33 46 62 63 80 81
Pat ience 2743 133 140 152 Politics 56 93 94 100-102
Pauli-Wissowa 145 Polytheism 48 89
Paulus the Monk 51 Polytheists 91
Peace 117 119 131 Pontius Pilate 57
Pellat, Ch. 133 Porphyry 14 1531 33 105 122
Pericles 162 Possessions 2350 120 142
Perry , B. E. 15 Potency 105 106
Perseverance 114 Potion 74
Persia 3033 Poverty 4852 150 152
Persians 42 Power 106 109 155
Peter Abelard 31 48 Praise 5195120129134143148155157160
Phaedo 44 68 75 76 Prayer 2787
Phillip, J. A. 16 Principles 103 108 124 125 163
Philo 136 Privation 106
Philosopher (Private name) 108 Proclus 14 107 122 135 163
Philosopher 11-1517-22303134-363940 Proclus the son of philosopher 108
44-46484951 52555660 65 66 76 78 79 Property 2450117120128132136142152
82868891-9699101-103107108110 154159172
III 121124-126128140 142150 161163 Prophecy 496588 110 III
171 175 Prophet II 6265848588-90 92 97 110 116
Philosophers, Divine 93 117125128134137138141144146147
Philosophy 31 35 44 47 48 526692939499 153172
102 139 140 142 161 175 Protagoras 56
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
194 GENERAL INDEX
Pseudo-Plutarch 124 Saddlq 138

Psychiatrist 143 Sa'id al-And alusi 13 17
Psychology 94 103 161 162 163 166 Sabaeans 94
Pyramids 57 Sachau, E. 15 110
Pyriphlegethon 169 Sacrifice 110
Pyrrhon 94 Sadness 25 140 148 149
Pythagoras 20 35 40 42 47 55 57 87 93 94 96 Safraufanus 41
9899104108109121-123 125 127 130 Sage s 75
131 134140141 144 145 163 171 Sal Ammoniac 127
Pythagorean School 93 Salt 127
Salvation 90 131 142161
Samarqand 34 65
Qatawl, Ahmad b. Nasrallah, al- 3148 65 78
Samau'al b. 'Adiya 172
8692
Sanguinetti, B. R. 17
Qazwini, Jamal al-dln al- 78 86 110 124
Sarra], al- 27
Quran 356162647684110114 120133149
Satan 116151
Qurtubl, at- 160
Sayer, F . 305057 104 130 139
Qushairr, al- 90 121
Schacht, J . 110
Schimmel, A. 91
RazI , Abii Bakr al- 1833343940485 I 5295 Schrameier, W. L. III
104 144 Science 1731 102126140
Razf, Fakhr al-Dtn al- 93 Scott, R. 149
Ra ven, J . E. 131 Secret 91 159 160-161
Rayy 33 Secundus 15
Rea son 87 Security 158 160
Reasoning 106 Seneca 5358 140 148 172
Recollection, Theory of 79 139 164 Sensibles 135
Regret 119 158 Seville 18
Re-incarnation 13 Sextus 106 III 144
Reinert, B. I 19 Sexual intercourse 54
Religion 152961-638299128133139141 Sezgin , F. 126
146162175 Shahrastan 22
Reputation 134 Shahrastani, a1- 13 2248 57 60 107-109 122
Resurrection 162 166 123 125 128 166
Ret icence 192390 9 1 136148 156-158 ShahraziirI, al- 53 88 154 173
Revelation I I 1 122 Shaimiin 56
Revenge 43 151 Shaltiit, M. 152
Reward 117 Shame 83
Rhetoric 98 127 Shamefulness 134
Rhodes 16 Shemtov Ibn Falaqera 153
Richter, G. 31 Shtrazr al- 36
Ringgren, H. III 114 Shi'ism 64
Ritter, H. 58 Shishkin, V. A. 34 65
Romans 69 Sickness 143
Rome 686977 Sijistan 15
Rosenthal, E. I. J . 85 88 Silence 137143 157-159 161
Rosenthal, F. 13 15 172430-324144 45 53 Simias 56 71 77 98
557997 106 III 118 121 125 131-133 Simonides 113
137 138 142 146 152-154 Simplic ius 131
Rouseau 88 Sin 2736130 135 143 168 172
Rowson, E. 13 Sinner 97
Ruska, J . 125 Slave 58 132
Ryssel, V. 31 Society 103 128 141
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
GENERAL INDEX 195
Socroniscus 41 Taimurl, Muhammad b. Amyal al- 99

Solitude 45 49 90 Talk 158
Solomon, King 57 135 Tanukht, Abu al-Qasim 'All b. al-Muhsin
Solon 40 42 150 171 al- 27
Sophistry 84 101 Tartarus 72 168 169
Sophocles 147 Tashkpruzadeh 139 140
Sophroniscus 41 54 Taubtdt, Abu Hayyan al- 1146718895 102
Sorrow 149 114 123 128 142 153 156 161
Sosicrates of Rhode s 16 Taylor, A. E. 41 42485354 III
Sothion of Alexandria 1620 Teacher 140
Soul 18 25 2643 45-48 53 60 66 68 71 72 75 Teheran 14
77-808287949599100 102 118 119 128 Telephus 167 169
129 131 135 138 142-151 155 157 Temperance 44
162-171 Tertullian 496784 135
Soul, the Rational 172 Tha'alibt, al- 8591 98 146
Souls, the Transmigration of 79123164171 Thales 41 4294 121 144 147
Soul of the world 126 163 Thankfulness 2783 129 133
Spain 1841 Themistius 122 154 156 160
Speech 2347 156 Theology 3694 100 103 104 107 108 110
Sphere 72 122 123 126 Theophrastus 13 94 105 122
Spiegelberg , H. 31 The ssaly 68 77
Sports 46 Thrasymachus 55 101
St. Agatha 84 Tikritl, Yahya b. Jartr al- 57
St. Augustin 55 Timaeus 55 56
St. Johannes Bonaventura 6784 Time 2483105111-114117122
St. Thomas Aquinas 98 99 138 Timon of Phleius 56
Stapleton, H. E. 126 Timotheos 55 98
Stars 63 82 123 Tirmidhi, al- 2385 114 116 137 144 151
State 78 Tratl s 72
Steinschneider, M. 1721 Trial 61
Stephanus, H. 149 Tritton, A. S. 153
Stern, S. 13155593-95101 137138172173 Trust 155 160
Sternbach, L. 133 Truth 51 656971 83 105 107-111 121129131
Stobaeus 15 32 53 III 132 141 148 157 162
Stoics 33 136 Tyan, E. 131
Stones 125 Tyranny 167
Strauss, L. 61 65 128 145
Strohmeier, G. 34 Ullmann, M. 1599
Study 133 152 'Umar b. al-Khattab 359091 155
Substance 94 124 125 ' Umar 354064 158
Substratum 103 124 125 'Umar b. ' Abd al-'Azlz 138 141 153
Sufi 50 Umm Salmah 153
SuhrawardI, Shihab al-Din al- 47 88 90 Universe 94 126 165
Suicide 4579 173 Usamah Ibn Munqidh 4599
Sulami, al- 134 Ustath 20
Suqratis 41 'Uthman 84 89
Suyutt, al- 55
Syriac 13 15202631 334080 170 Vajda , G. 138
Syrians 31 Valerius Maximus 5784
Van Ess, J . 91
Tabarr ' Ala aI-DIn 116 153 172 Vice 66 116 130 143-145
Tabart, 'AlI b . Rabban al- 138 Virtue 44486671 83 109 128 130 131 134
TabarsI, 85 90 91 136 138 144 147 154 159 161 163
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
196 GENERAL INDEX
Volition 105 World of the Intellects 122

Vows 110 World, Spiritual 48
World, Sublunar 126
Wadad al-QaQi 16 World , This 232426-2848516589-9195
Wahb ibn Munabih 157 103 113 115-120124134167171 172
Walzer, R. 1358 III World-to-come 48115-117120167172173
Waschsmuth, C. 31 Worry 148 149
Water 125-127 Writing 153
Watt, W. M. III
Wealth 48 120 134 136 142 Xanthippe 4353547984 152 162
Weisser, U. 125 Xenophon 16293032334244 45 49 50 54
Wensinck, A. J. 2761 64 97 107 115 166 678084103104110 III 133139142146
West 12 147 149 154 161 162
Wilamowitz-Mdlendorf, U. 137 139
Wine 52
Wisdom 23353641 43-46506566758993 Yal)ya b. 'Adi 15
96-99102105-109118119121 135136 Ya'qubl, al- 939598 123
138 139 141-143 151 157163 Yaqut 5790 133 144
Wisdom , Pillars of 41 121 Yehudah Halevi 106
Wise 63105
Woelffelin, D. 171 Zamuji, Burhan al-Dln al- 141
Wolfson, H. A. 124 Zeller , E. 30 54 79
Women 234572 8190 91 150-153 Zeno 55 104 107 150 172
World 486372 87 94107109122-124126 Zeus 6572 81
131 134141 162 Zophyrus 44
World of Forms 94 122 Zoroastrian s 59
World of Meaning 94122 Zuraiq 133
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
INDEX OF ARABIC WORDS
Adab 98 132 135 142 Huzn 149

Adib 132133 Hybris 169
'Adl 131
Ajal 171 lliih 125
Akhariin 168 Ilhiim III
Akhirah, al- 117 ' l//ah jit ilah 103
Akhliiq 129 '11m 105 137
Allah 89 Imiim 133
Amal 149 Ir iin 68
'Aqil 97 'Tzz 120 129
Armamiinf 81
Asndm 6189 Jiihil 97
Atarxia 133 Jam' 84
Athinah 41 Jauhar 104 107 123
Athtnus 41 Jaur 144
Awqnus 168 Jud 105
'Azfz 105
Kabii'ir 36
Baqii' 106 Khiiliq 105
Kha ir 107
Dahr 111115 Khata' 143
Dawiim 106 Kone ion 62
Dhsman 167
Dhihn 140 Ladhdhah 144
Dhuniib 143
Dunyii 48 89 115 Mai)abbah 154 157
Miihiyah 106
Fatjii'iI 130 Mantiq 41
Falak 126 Ma'rijah 166
Fikrah 165 Mautjit al-awwal, al- 103
Ghamm 149 Maujudiit 106
Ghanii' 120 Mfziin 125
Mufid 92
Hadfth 27353940 61 89 Muruwwah 144 159
/jakfm 105 Mutaka//im 107
/jamd 160
Hamm 120149 Nadiimah 119
/jaqq 129 Nafs al-niitiqah, al- 165
/jayy 107 Najiih 131 142
/jazm 142 Naql 171
Heimarmene 72 81 87 Nasab 53
/jikam 93 Nii!iq 106
/jikmah 50 141 Nushiidur 127
/jilm 133
Husn al-khuluq 130 Qadfm 107
Husn 55 131 Qadr 160
Huwiyah 104 165 Qudrah 105
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5
198 INDEX OF ARABIC WORDS
Qanion 80 Shukr 114

Qumt 133 !jifiit 105 109
Quqnus 81 Sarah 106
Sunnah 161
Rabb 106
Riihah 120 Taqiyah 64
Tartib 106
Saadah 160 Tawakkul 119
Sabr 70 114 133 140
!jadaqah 95
'Uliim al-iliihiyah. al- 103
Sa/amah 119 131 158
' Unsur 103 104 113 124
Samt 107
Sarmad 106
Shah wah 145 Wal]y 122
Shakhs 106 Wujiid 105
Shartan 7882 161
Sharr, al- 157 Zaman 1II 115
Shirk 89 104 Zuhd !l9
Alon - 978-90-04-45243-5

Socrates in Medieval Arabic Literature

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saCRATES IN MEDIAEVAL

H. DAIBER and D. PINGREE

Distributed in Israel by The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University,Jerusalem

© The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 1991

Printed: Graph-Chen, Jerusalem

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

CHAPTER ONE: THE SOCRATIC TRADITION 29

CHAPTER TWO: BIOGRAPHY 41

CHAPTER THREE: TEACHINGS 101

Long vowels are: a; Ii; 1.

HlA Moyses Sefardi, da Amizade.

MRJ Majriti, al-risiilah al-jiimiiah.

OBJECTIVES AND EXPLA NATIONS

This book is an attempt to describe Socrates as he was depicted in mediaeval

I. See below, p. 88.

Al-'Amirf, a. al-Hasan, M. b. a Darr Yiisiif Id. 922).3

al-Biriini, a. Raihiin Muhammad

12-17 - Literature and science

Abu Sula imiin al-Maruiqi al-Sijistiini

lfunain ibn Ishiiq

19. Wadad al-QaQI(l981).

and by Steinschneider to have started the Arabic tradition of biography-

Ibn Abr Usaibi'ah

25. H. Derenbourg, (1898); Other relevant material- M. Steinschneider (1871); A. MUlier(1877);

Ibn Miskawaihi, Ahmad b. Ya qiib

33. See A. T. Arberry (1971)and Donaldson, Ethics ch. 5.

Al-Kindi, Abu Ya qiib Ishiiq

34. Mentioned only by IQ 374,6.

muhiiwarah jarat baina Suqriit wa-Arshijdnis (On a controversy between

35. FIHR 260,4; IQ 374,5.

A/-Mubashshir Ibn Fiitik, AbU a/- Wafii'

Al-Shahrastiini; Abu al-Fath b. "Abd al-Karirn

ORGANIZATION OFTHE MATERIAL

In order to meet its objectives, the present book is a biography based on a

42. See Dunlop, op. cit. ibid.

STYLES AND METAPHORS

In our collection of sayings use is made of metaphors, and to a much lesser

59. MMH 112,8; ASI 120,13; IAU 148 ,18.

75. RIMU II 398,9.

THE SOCRATIC TRADITION

THE SOCRATIC LEGEND BEFORE THE ARABS

I. See Maier , Socrate s, pp. 102-145.

together as do Luganus Demonax'" and mediaeval Christian writers such as

12. Op. cit. 58.

Nasrallah al-Qatawr's History ofPhilosophers (d. 1588). However, it is difficult

23. F. Rosenthal, Das Fortleben, index .

The above story hints at Socrates being suspected of homosexuality. That

AI-KindT relates that a young, handsome Greek nobleman by the name of

involved Socrates's advocating a different kind of paganism from the traditional

Now follows the main story:

179. The present sentence is lackin g in the MMH-IAU SRA version.

185. Cf. Crito 48a ff.

This statement brought a conversation about on the soul's actions, and

213. Th e text renews the use of the first plura l voice.

240. Ikhwan al-Safa ' , vol. 4, p. 99.

256. IAU 145 ,9.

Finally, the sacrifice was attributed to Hippocrates by al-Biruni, who should

266. BTH 26,1.

The fact of Socrates's unjust execution continued to have a profound

281. The Syriac Vitae Aristotelis as cited by Chroust, (I 965) 31 ff.