NAME: JOANA MARIE ARINZA COURSE: GEOL 212

SECTION: BS GEOLOGY 2-2 DATE: 09/26/2020

EXERCISE 1.1
Problem 1: Draw a concept map describing the physical properties and chemical composition of the three major
layers of the Earth (including its sublayers).

Earth’s Internal Structure

Layering by Physical Properties Layering by Chemical Properties

(Solid) composed of the crust and a

Lithosphere rigid, upper part of the mantle
Low density rock, composed of:
Continental crust – older than
oceanic crust, has an average
(Solid, but mobile) layer of weak composition of a granite rock
Asthenosphere mantle made of solid rock moving namely granodiorite, an average
very slowly density of 2.7 g/cm3 c Crust
Transition Zone Oceanic crust – composed of dark
(Solid, but mobile) strong, lower igneous rock basalt, a relatively
part of the mantle, but moves homogenous chemical composition, Mohorovicic
Mesosphere denser than continental crust
slower than in asthenosphere Discontinuity
(about 3.0 g/cm3)

(Liquid) fluid layer due to not

Outer Core enough pressure unlike the solid - High density rock
inner core - Dominant rock: Peridotite Mantle
Lehmann’s discontinuity - Dominant Mineral: Perovskite
(Solid) center of the Earth, solid Gutenberg Discontinuity

Inner Core due to immense pressure existing

- Composed of iron-nickel alloy
in the center of the planet
- 10-13 g/cm3 density Core
-

Problem 2: Compare and contrast the lithosphere and asthenosphere.

Lithosphere Asthenosphere
- part of the
- "sphere of rock" Earth "weak sphere" -
- solid, rigid - made of similar semi-molten, ductile -
- composed of entire material
composed of the rest -
crust and uppermost - takes major of the upper mantle -
layer of the mantle part in Plate
Tectonics higher temperature -
- broken into fragments
(tectonic plates) denser, more viscous -
Problem 3: Explain the concept of seismic discontinuity and how the inner layers of the Earth were inferred and
as well as the types of minerals and rocks it contains.
- A seismic discontinuity is referred to as a boundary between the seismic layers of the Earth where
seismic wave velocities change abruptly due to the presence of different properties such as
composition, packing structure, density, temperature, and pressure. These seismic waves travel more
quickly through solids and on denser materials.
- The Mohorovicic discontinuity is the boundary between felsic/mafic crust and denser, ultramafic
mantle, where wave velocity decreases due to the semi-molten material since it slows down the P
waves and weaken S waves. As the velocity continues to travel at increasing density with depth, a
Low Velocity Zone (100 km-250 km) is marked between the rigid lithosphere and weak
asthenosphere, small amounts of peridotites were inferred to be near melting point at this zone thus
resulting low P-wave velocity. Below the zone are more rigid and solid material with higher seismic
velocity and extends to the transition zone (670 km) between less dense upper mantle and denser
lower mantle, resulting from the change of spinel structure to the perovskite crystalline structure and
the phase-change of ultramafic silicates. Seismic velocities then gradually increase with depth and
reaches an ultra-low velocity zone called as D” or Gutenberg Discontinuity (Core-Mantle Boundary
– 2900 km), since the outer core is liquid, the transition of seismic waves decrease in velocity,
although some anomalous fast velocities were recorded that maybe due to the deeply subducted
mantle plumes. At 5150 km, P-wave velocity increases travelling through the Lehmann’s
Discontinuity, boundary between a molten outer core to a solid inner core. The velocity continues to
increase at depth through the inner core, though it is considered to have an axisymmetric anisotropic
structure due to the alignment of iron-rich crystal.

EXERCISE 1.2
Problem 1: Aside from the radioactive isotopes, are there other isotopes that help drive the internal heat processes
within the Earth?
- It is said that all naturally occurring radioactive isotopes generate heat, but some are only to a certain
extent. The radioactive elements/nuclides that provide the most significant contribution in thermal
production on Earth are Uranium (238U, 235U), Potassium (40K), and Thorium (232Th). Hence, there are
other isotopes from radioactive elements that contribute including Aluminum (26Al), Iron (60Fe),
Lutetium (176Lu), Rhenium (187Re), Rubidium (87Rb), etc.
Problem 2: By using an analogy, explain how heat is transferred from one layer to another. Are there models
explaining the manner and extent of heat transfer within the Earth?
- Regarding the model explaining the manner and extent of heat transfer, as I have researched so far,
there is a pie slice model through Earth’s interior divisions exhibiting the relative proportion and type
of heat flow from each division as shown below:

(From Dye, S.T., Reviews of Geophysics, 50(3), RG3007, 2012.)

 - Looking at the model, the thermal diffusion (conduction) happening from inner core towards the outer
core is analogous to a pot and soup inside, as the pot starts to heat up, the heat diffuses due to thermal
gradient and transfers to the soup, the first to heat up is the areas in direct contact with the hottest part
of the pot (bottom). Convection, then, takes place in the soup. Higher temperature rises, and cooler
temperature sinks thus creating a convection current (frictional heating), which is also taking place in
the Earth’s outer core and mantle. Pores in rocks and soil can be filled with water and air (heat travels
faster through liquids than gas), heat is diffused from the mantle to the crust. Moreover, a small
amount of heat is generated from frictional grinding of tectonic plates like rubbing palms.
Problem 3: Why are radioactive isotopes tend to be much more abundant in continental crust? Why does
Philippines have a relatively low concentration of these isotopes?
- Minerals that contain radioactive isotopes such as Thorium, Potassium, and Uranium are said to be
radioactive. And it is found that the rock with the highest content of radioactive elements are granite,
40
K isotope is commonly concentrated in micas and K-feldspars, while thorium, potassium, and
uranium are also found in clay minerals and zeolites, hence, these rocks and minerals are more
abundant in the continental crust than oceanic crust and so are the decays from the radioactive
elements/nuclides. Moreover, Philippines have low concentration of these isotopes because she is
relatively young to have wide deposits of these felsic/granitic minerals, since according to the
Bowen’s reaction series, they are the latter minerals to crystallize and thus like in countries with old
record of rocks.

EXERCISE 1.3
Problem 1: List two characteristics that are used to determine the processes that created a rock.
- Different rock types undergo different processes for its formation, and in order to determine what
processes are involved, it is commonly useful to classify the mineral & chemical composition and the
grain size of rocks.
Problem 2: Use the rock cycle to explain the statement “One rock is the raw material for another.”
- The rock cycle shows the interactions among the different geological processes in the Earth’s system
leading to the formation of the three rock types. Yet, it does not necessarily go through in one order
only but has several possible paths. Starting off with the magma that crystallizes to form igneous
rocks, it consist of different materials and that includes metamorphic rocks buried at such depth where
they melted and mixed with the magma that is about to reach the Earth’s surface. Extrusive igneous
rocks are then exposed to weathering and erosional agents and break into smaller particles
(sediments), transported and deposited until it lithifies forming a sedimentary rock, although other
some metamorphic rocks also can become sediments after being uplifted from the depths and
undergone these processes. When sedimentary rocks are then buried deep in the crust, they are
exposed to heat and intense pressure responsible for the recrystallization of crystals and thus creating
a new rock (metamorphic rock), still there are some intrusive igneous and even metamorphic rocks
that undergo metamorphism and changes form. And these rocks that reach their melting points, melt
and mix with the magma, and the process takes place all over again and at some point takes over a
very long time.
REFERENCES:

• Abbady, A.G.E., Al-Ghamdi, A.H, 2018, Heat production rate from radioactive elements of granite rocks
in north and southeastern Arabian shield Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Journal of Radiation Research and
Applied Science
• Boden, D.R., 2016, Geologic Fundamentals of Geothermal Energy,
https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.1201/9781315371436-4
• http://webmineral.com/help/Radioactivity.shtml#.X3Wz0mgzZnJ
• http://www.columbia.edu/~vjd1/earth_int.htm#:~:text=When%20an%20earthquake%20occurs%20the,d
irections%20through%20the%20Earth's%20interior.&text=Sudden%20jumps%20in%20seismic%20vel
ocities,are%20known%20as%20seismic%20discontinuities