Conceptual model

A conceptual model is a representation of a system. It consists of concepts used to help people know,
understand, or simulate a subject the model represents. In contrast, a physical model focuses on a physical
object such as a toy model that may be assembled and made to work like the object it represents.

The term may refer to models that are formed after a conceptualization or generalization process.[1][2]
Conceptual models are often abstractions of things in the real world, whether physical or social. Semantic
studies are relevant to various stages of concept formation. Semantics is basically about concepts, the
meaning that thinking beings give to various elements of their experience.

Overview
See digital twin, simulation

Models of concepts and models that are conceptual

The term conceptual model is normal. It could mean "a model of concept" or it could mean "a model that is
conceptual." A distinction can be made between what models are and what models are made of. With the
exception of iconic models, such as a scale model of Winchester Cathedral, most models are concepts. But
they are, mostly, intended to be models of real world states of affairs. The value of a model is usually
directly proportional to how well it corresponds to a past, present, future, actual or potential state of affairs.
A model of a concept is quite different because in order to be a good model it need not have this real world
correspondence.[3] In artificial intelligence, conceptual models and conceptual graphs are used for building
expert systems and knowledge-based systems; here the analysts are concerned to represent expert opinion
on what is true not their own ideas on what is true.

Type and scope of conceptual models

Conceptual models (models that are conceptual) range in type from the more concrete, such as the mental
image of a familiar physical object, to the formal generality and abstractness of mathematical models which
do not appear to the mind as an image. Conceptual models also range in terms of the scope of the subject
matter that they are taken to represent. A model may, for instance, represent a single thing (e.g. the Statue of
Liberty), whole classes of things (e.g. the electron), and even very vast domains of subject matter such as
the physical universe. The variety and scope of conceptual models is due to the variety of purposes had by
the people using them.

Conceptual modeling is the activity of formally describing some aspects of the physical and social world
around us for the purposes of understanding and communication."[4]

Fundamental objectives

A conceptual model's primary objective is to convey the fundamental principles and basic functionality of
the system which it represents. Also, a conceptual model must be developed in such a way as to provide an
easily understood system interpretation for the model's users. A conceptual model, when implemented
properly, should satisfy four fundamental
objectives.[5]

1. Enhance an individual's
understanding of the representative
system
2. Facilitate efficient conveyance of
system details between stakeholders
3. Provide a point of reference for system
designers to extract system
specifications
4. Document the system for future
reference and provide a means for
collaboration
Comparison model highlighting conceptual model role in
system process
The conceptual model plays an important role
in the overall system development life cycle.
Figure 1[6] below, depicts the role of the
conceptual model in a typical system development scheme. It is clear that if the conceptual model is not
fully developed, the execution of fundamental system properties may not be implemented properly, giving
way to future problems or system shortfalls. These failures do occur in the industry and have been linked
to; lack of user input, incomplete or unclear requirements, and changing requirements. Those weak links in
the system design and development process can be traced to improper execution of the fundamental
objectives of conceptual modeling. The importance of conceptual modeling is evident when such systemic
failures are mitigated by thorough system development and adherence to proven development
objectives/techniques.

Modelling techniques
As systems have become increasingly complex, the role of conceptual modelling has dramatically
expanded. With that expanded presence, the effectiveness of conceptual modeling at capturing the
fundamentals of a system is being realized. Building on that realization, numerous conceptual modeling
techniques have been created. These techniques can be applied across multiple disciplines to increase the
user's understanding of the system to be modeled.[7] A few techniques are briefly described in the following
text, however, many more exist or are being developed. Some commonly used conceptual modeling
techniques and methods include: workflow modeling, workforce modeling, rapid application development,
object-role modeling, and the Unified Modeling Language (UML).

Data flow modeling

Data flow modeling (DFM) is a basic conceptual modeling technique that graphically represents elements
of a system. DFM is a fairly simple technique, however, like many conceptual modeling techniques, it is
possible to construct higher and lower level representative diagrams. The data flow diagram usually does
not convey complex system details such as parallel development considerations or timing information, but
rather works to bring the major system functions into context. Data flow modeling is a central technique
used in systems development that utilizes the structured systems analysis and design method (SSADM).

Entity relationship modeling

Entity–relationship modeling (ERM) is a conceptual modeling technique used primarily for software system
representation. Entity-relationship diagrams, which are a product of executing the ERM technique, are
normally used to represent database models and information systems. The main components of the diagram
are the entities and relationships. The entities can represent independent functions, objects, or events. The
relationships are responsible for relating the entities to one another. To form a system process, the
relationships are combined with the entities and any attributes needed to further describe the process.
Multiple diagramming conventions exist for this technique; IDEF1X, Bachman, and EXPRESS, to name a
few. These conventions are just different ways of viewing and organizing the data to represent different
system aspects.

Event-driven process chain

The event-driven process chain (EPC) is a conceptual modeling technique which is mainly used to
systematically improve business process flows. Like most conceptual modeling techniques, the event driven
process chain consists of entities/elements and functions that allow relationships to be developed and
processed. More specifically, the EPC is made up of events which define what state a process is in or the
rules by which it operates. In order to progress through events, a function/ active event must be executed.
Depending on the process flow, the function has the ability to transform event states or link to other event
driven process chains. Other elements exist within an EPC, all of which work together to define how and
by what rules the system operates. The EPC technique can be applied to business practices such as resource
planning, process improvement, and logistics.

Joint application development

The dynamic systems development method uses a specific process called JEFFF to conceptually model a
systems life cycle. JEFFF is intended to focus more on the higher level development planning that precedes
a project's initialization. The JAD process calls for a series of workshops in which the participants work to
identify, define, and generally map a successful project from conception to completion. This method has
been found to not work well for large scale applications, however smaller applications usually report some
net gain in efficiency.[8]

Place/transition net

Also known as Petri nets, this conceptual modeling technique allows a system to be constructed with
elements that can be described by direct mathematical means. The petri net, because of its nondeterministic
execution properties and well defined mathematical theory, is a useful technique for modeling concurrent
system behavior, i.e. simultaneous process executions.

State transition modeling

State transition modeling makes use of state transition diagrams to describe system behavior. These state
transition diagrams use distinct states to define system behavior and changes. Most current modeling tools
contain some kind of ability to represent state transition modeling. The use of state transition models can be
most easily recognized as logic state diagrams and directed graphs for finite-state machines.

Technique evaluation and selection

Because the conceptual modeling method can sometimes be purposefully vague to account for a broad area
of use, the actual application of concept modeling can become difficult. To alleviate this issue, and shed
some light on what to consider when selecting an appropriate conceptual modeling technique, the
framework proposed by Gemino and Wand will be discussed in the following text. However, before
evaluating the effectiveness of a conceptual modeling technique for a particular application, an important
concept must be understood; Comparing conceptual models by way of specifically focusing on their
graphical or top level representations is shortsighted. Gemino and Wand make a good point when arguing
that the emphasis should be placed on a conceptual modeling language when choosing an appropriate
technique. In general, a conceptual model is developed using some form of conceptual modeling technique.
That technique will utilize a conceptual modeling language that determines the rules for how the model is
arrived at. Understanding the capabilities of the specific language used is inherent to properly evaluating a
conceptual modeling technique, as the language reflects the techniques descriptive ability. Also, the
conceptual modeling language will directly influence the depth at which the system is capable of being
represented, whether it be complex or simple.[9]

Considering affecting factors

Building on some of their earlier work,[10] Gemino and Wand acknowledge some main points to consider
when studying the affecting factors: the content that the conceptual model must represent, the method in
which the model will be presented, the characteristics of the model's users, and the conceptual model
languages specific task.[9] The conceptual model's content should be considered in order to select a
technique that would allow relevant information to be presented. The presentation method for selection
purposes would focus on the technique's ability to represent the model at the intended level of depth and
detail. The characteristics of the model's users or participants is an important aspect to consider. A
participant's background and experience should coincide with the conceptual model's complexity, else
misrepresentation of the system or misunderstanding of key system concepts could lead to problems in that
system's realization. The conceptual model language task will further allow an appropriate technique to be
chosen. The difference between creating a system conceptual model to convey system functionality and
creating a system conceptual model to interpret that functionality could involve two completely different
types of conceptual modeling languages.

Considering affected variables

Gemino and Wand go on to expand the affected variable content of their proposed framework by
considering the focus of observation and the criterion for comparison.[9] The focus of observation considers
whether the conceptual modeling technique will create a "new product", or whether the technique will only
bring about a more intimate understanding of the system being modeled. The criterion for comparison
would weigh the ability of the conceptual modeling technique to be efficient or effective. A conceptual
modeling technique that allows for development of a system model which takes all system variables into
account at a high level may make the process of understanding the system functionality more efficient, but
the technique lacks the necessary information to explain the internal processes, rendering the model less
effective.

When deciding which conceptual technique to use, the recommendations of Gemino and Wand can be
applied in order to properly evaluate the scope of the conceptual model in question. Understanding the
conceptual models scope will lead to a more informed selection of a technique that properly addresses that
particular model. In summary, when deciding between modeling techniques, answering the following
questions would allow one to address some important conceptual modeling considerations.

1. What content will the conceptual model represent?

 2. How will the conceptual model be presented?
3. Who will be using or participating in the conceptual model?
4. How will the conceptual model describe the system?
5. What is the conceptual models focus of observation?
6. Will the conceptual model be efficient or effective in describing the system?

Another function of the simulation conceptual model is to provide a rational and factual basis for
assessment of simulation application appropriateness.

Models in philosophy and science

Mental model

In cognitive psychology and philosophy of mind, a mental model is a representation of something in the
mind,[11] but a mental model may also refer to a nonphysical external model of the mind itself.[12]

Metaphysical models

A metaphysical model is a type of conceptual model which is distinguished from other conceptual models
by its proposed scope; a metaphysical model intends to represent reality in the broadest possible way.[13]
This is to say that it explains the answers to fundamental questions such as whether matter and mind are
one or two substances; or whether or not humans have free will.

Conceptual model vs. semantics model

Conceptual Models and semantic models have many similarities, however the way they are presented, the
level of flexibility and the use are different. Conceptual models have a certain purpose in mind, hence the
core semantic concepts are predefined in a so-called meta model. This enables a pragmatic modelling but
reduces the flexibility, as only the predefined semantic concepts can be used. Samples are flow charts for
process behaviour or organisational structure for tree behaviour.

Semantic models are more flexible and open, and therefore more difficult to model. Potentially any
semantic concept can be defined, hence the modelling support is very generic. Samples are terminologies,
taxonomies or ontologies.

In a concept model each concept has a unique and distinguishable graphical representation, whereas
semantic concepts are by default the same. In a concept model each concept has predefined properties that
can be populated, whereas semantic concepts are related to concepts that are interpreted as properties. In a
concept model operational semantic can be built-in, like the processing of a sequence, whereas a semantic
model needs explicit semantic definition of the sequence.

The decision if a concept model or a semantic model is used, depends therefore on the "object under
survey", the intended goal, the necessary flexibility as well as how the model is interpreted. In case of
human-interpretation there may be a focus on graphical concept models, in case of machine interpretation
there may be the focus on semantic models.

Epistemological models
An epistemological model is a type of conceptual model whose proposed scope is the known and the
knowable, and the believed and the believable.

Logical models

In logic, a model is a type of interpretation under which a particular statement is true. Logical models can
be broadly divided into ones which only attempt to represent concepts, such as mathematical models; and
ones which attempt to represent physical objects, and factual relationships, among which are scientific
models.

Model theory is the study of (classes of) mathematical structures such as groups, fields, graphs, or even
universes of set theory, using tools from mathematical logic. A system that gives meaning to the sentences
of a formal language is called a model for the language. If a model for a language moreover satisfies a
particular sentence or theory (set of sentences), it is called a model of the sentence or theory. Model theory
has close ties to algebra and universal algebra.

Mathematical models

Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical
models, differential equations, or game theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with
a given model involving a variety of abstract structures.

A more comprehensive type of mathematical model[14] uses a linguistic version of category theory to model
a given situation. Akin to entity-relationship models, custom categories or sketches can be directly
translated into database schemas. The difference is that logic is replaced by category theory, which brings
powerful theorems to bear on the subject of modeling, especially useful for translating between disparate
models (as functors between categories).

Scientific models

A scientific model is a simplified abstract view of a complex reality. A scientific model represents empirical
objects, phenomena, and physical processes in a logical way. Attempts to formalize the principles of the
empirical sciences use an interpretation to model reality, in the same way logicians axiomatize the principles
of logic. The aim of these attempts is to construct a formal system that will not produce theoretical
consequences that are contrary to what is found in reality. Predictions or other statements drawn from such
a formal system mirror or map the real world only insofar as these scientific models are true.[15][16]

Statistical models
A statistical model is a probability distribution function proposed as generating data. In a parametric model,
the probability distribution function has variable parameters, such as the mean and variance in a normal
distribution, or the coefficients for the various exponents of the independent variable in linear regression. A
nonparametric model has a distribution function without parameters, such as in bootstrapping, and is only
loosely confined by assumptions. Model selection is a statistical method for selecting a distribution function
within a class of them; e.g., in linear regression where the dependent variable is a polynomial of the
independent variable with parametric coefficients, model selection is selecting the highest exponent, and
may be done with nonparametric means, such as with cross validation.
In statistics there can be models of mental events as well as models of physical events. For example, a
statistical model of customer behavior is a model that is conceptual (because behavior is physical), but a
statistical model of customer satisfaction is a model of a concept (because satisfaction is a mental not a
physical event).

Social and political models

Economic models

In economics, a model is a theoretical construct that represents economic processes by a set of variables and
a set of logical and/or quantitative relationships between them. The economic model is a simplified
framework designed to illustrate complex processes, often but not always using mathematical techniques.
Frequently, economic models use structural parameters. Structural parameters are underlying parameters in
a model or class of models. A model may have various parameters and those parameters may change to
create various properties.

Models in systems architecture

A system model is the conceptual model that describes and represents the structure, behavior, and more
views of a system. A system model can represent multiple views of a system by using two different
approaches. The first one is the non-architectural approach and the second one is the architectural approach.
The non-architectural approach respectively picks a model for each view. The architectural approach, also
known as system architecture, instead of picking many heterogeneous and unrelated models, will use only
one integrated architectural model.

Business process modelling

In business process modelling the enterprise process

model is often referred to as the business process
model. Process models are core concepts in the
discipline of process engineering. Process models are:

Processes of the same nature that are

classified together into a model. Abstraction for business process modelling[17]
A description of a process at the type level.
Since the process model is at the type level, a
process is an instantiation of it.

The same process model is used repeatedly for the development of many applications and thus, has many
instantiations.
One possible use of a process model is to prescribe how things must/should/could be done in contrast to the
process itself which is really what happens. A process model is roughly an anticipation of what the process
will look like. What the process shall be will be determined during actual system development.[18]

Models in information system design

Conceptual models of human activity systems

Conceptual models of human activity systems are used in soft systems methodology (SSM), which is a
method of systems analysis concerned with the structuring of problems in management. These models are
models of concepts; the authors specifically state that they are not intended to represent a state of affairs in
the physical world. They are also used in information requirements analysis (IRA) which is a variant of
SSM developed for information system design and software engineering.

Logico-linguistic models

Logico-linguistic modeling is another variant of SSM that uses conceptual models. However, this method
combines models of concepts with models of putative real world objects and events. It is a graphical
representation of modal logic in which modal operators are used to distinguish statement about concepts
from statements about real world objects and events.

Data models

Entity–relationship model

In software engineering, an entity–relationship model (ERM) is an abstract and conceptual representation of

data. Entity–relationship modeling is a database modeling method, used to produce a type of conceptual
schema or semantic data model of a system, often a relational database, and its requirements in a top-down
fashion. Diagrams created by this process are called entity-relationship diagrams, ER diagrams, or ERDs.

Entity–relationship models have had wide application in the building of information systems intended to
support activities involving objects and events in the real world. In these cases they are models that are
conceptual. However, this modeling method can be used to build computer games or a family tree of the
Greek Gods, in these cases it would be used to model concepts.

Domain model

A domain model is a type of conceptual model used to depict the structural elements and their conceptual
constraints within a domain of interest (sometimes called the problem domain). A domain model includes
the various entities, their attributes and relationships, plus the constraints governing the conceptual integrity
of the structural model elements comprising that problem domain. A domain model may also include a
number of conceptual views, where each view is pertinent to a particular subject area of the domain or to a
particular subset of the domain model which is of interest to a stakeholder of the domain model.
Like entity–relationship models, domain models can be used to model concepts or to model real world
objects and events.

See also
Concept
Concept mapping
Conceptual framework
Conceptual model (computer science)
Conceptual schema
Conceptual system
Information model
International Conference on Conceptual Modeling
Interpretation (logic)
Isolated system
Ontology (computer science)
Paradigm
Physical model
Process of concept formation
Scientific modeling
Theory

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Further reading
J. Parsons, L. Cole (2005), "What do the pictures mean? Guidelines for experimental
 evaluation of representation fidelity in diagrammatical conceptual modeling techniques",
Data & Knowledge Engineering 55: 327–342; doi:10.1016/j.datak.2004.12.008 (https://doi.or
g/10.1016%2Fj.datak.2004.12.008)
A. Gemino, Y. Wand (2005), "Complexity and clarity in conceptual modeling: Comparison of
mandatory and optional properties", Data & Knowledge Engineering 55: 301–326;
doi:10.1016/j.datak.2004.12.009 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.datak.2004.12.009)
D. Batra (2005), "Conceptual Data Modeling Patterns (http://www.accessmylibrary.com/articl
e-1G1-130345978/conceptual-data-modeling-patterns.html)", Journal of Database
Management 16: 84–106
Papadimitriou, Fivos. (2010). "Conceptual Modelling of Landscape Complexity". Landscape
Research, 35(5):563-570. doi:10.1080/01426397.2010.504913 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0
1426397.2010.504913)

External links
Models (http://www.iep.utm.edu/models/) article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

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