Circuit Switching:

• It is a physical cable (circuit) from hop to hop where all data moves on the same path point to
point.
• After physical connection exists protocols as HDLC (High level Data Link Control) and PPP
(Point to Point Protocol) are required to maintain the link from hop to hop (switching protocol) and
send data from hop to hop (switched protocol).

• Connection like this is commonly named in market as Leased Line.

WAN speeds:
• DS0 (Digital Service (speed) 0) = 64kbps
• DS1 (T1=1.54 Mbps, E1=2.04 Mbps)
• DS3 (T3=45 Mbps, E3=34 Mbps)
• STM1 (Synchronous Transport Module) =155 Mbps
• STM64=10 Gbps
• STM256=40 Gbps
HDLC:
Initially, the open standard HDLC was introduced.
A. ISO HDLC (High-level Data Link Control protocol):

• Not supported by cisco.

• Cisco takes the standard and modifies it by adding the type field in order to specify the upper
layer protocol.
B. Cisco HDLC (High-level Data Link Control protocol):

• Default encapsulation on all cisco serial interfaces.

• The problem: Each vendor has its own HDLC which is not compatible with others.

Then a new protocol (point-to-point) was introduced as open standard protocol that can run on all routers
PPP (Point-to-point protocol):

Incompatible with cisco HDLC.

Configuration:
➢ Router(config)#interface serial 0 Or ➢ Router(config)#interface serial 0
➢ Router(config-if)# encapsulation hdlc ➢ Router(config-if)#encapsulation ppp
Note
In the below topology we have cisco router (witch cisco HDLC encapsulation) connected to non-
cisco router (with ISO HDLC encapsulation).

On cisco router#show ip interface brief

✓ Status will be (up down), due to encapsulation mismatch.

Let us see how the packet will take difference encapsulations through its journey from the source to
the destination.

PPP components:
PPP consists of three components:
A. LCP(Link Control Protocol):
✓ Establishes and terminates the session.
✓ Negotiates Point-to-Point options (will be seen later).
B. NCP (Network Control Protocol):
✓ Negotiates the supported upper layer protocols (IP, IPX & CDP) as PPP supports almost all L3
protocols.
C. Frame Format:
✓ The normal hop-to-hop delivery using encapsulation.
To see details of PPP protocol:
➢ Router #debug ppp negotiation
➢ Router #terminal monitor
PPP operation:
Phase1 in PPP operation is neighbor router discovery by Handshaking using LCP (as hello exchange),
optional in phase 1 is LCP Authentication between two routers)
Phase 2 in PPP operation is upper protocol (IP) discovery using NCP
Phase 3 is sending data from hop to hop using PPP frame
PPP Authentication:
This is the most important option, authentication has 2 types:
2. PAP (Password Authentication Protocol) 2. CHAP(CHallenge Authentication Protocol)
2 ways handshaking: 3 ways handshaking:
• 1st handshaking: sending username and password • 1st handshake: challenge o/p from server.
• 2nd handshaking: access granted/denied • 2nd handshake: challenge o/p from client.
• 3rd handshake: access granted / denied.
Disadvantage: sending password in clear text.

To see the above messages

➢ Router #debug ppp authentication
Configuration:
➢ Router(config)#interface interface_number
➢ Router(config-if)#encapsulation ppp
➢ Router(config-if)#ppp authentication {pap/chap}
Note: you can use a combination of both in some IOS versions:
➢ Router (config-if)#ppp authentication chap pap
This means that you will try CHAP, if it fails try PAP
To specify the username and password:
➢ Router(config)#hostname user_name
➢ Router(config)#username remote_name password password
Example on CHAP configuration:

Some special commands that can be used with:-

1. PAP to send username and password on client
➢ (config-if)#ppp pap sent-username name password password
2. Chap to send username and hashed password on client
➢ (config-if)#ppp chap hostname username
➢ (config-if)#ppp chap Password password
 Packet Switching
It is point to multi point switching technology based on PVCs (Permanent Virtual Circuits) as
• x.25
• FR (Frame-Relay)
• ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer mode): -
• Speed from up to 40 Gbps.
• Any packet is divided into small cells of fixed size, each cell = 53 bytes (48 bytes payload and 5
bytes header, So ATM is called cell switching technique.
• Advantage of small size:
✓ Fast buffering.
✓ Less propagation delay.
✓ Easier processing.
• Its most famous header is called AAL5 (ATM Adaption Layer 5).
• Its address is called VPI/VCI (Virtual Path Id (8bit)/ Virtual Circuit Id (8bit))
• For priority it uses a bit called CLP (Cell Loss Priority) as DE in FR.
Frame Relay: -
It's a point-to-multi point packet switching technology based on the concept of Virtual Circuit (VC).
Frame Relay Topologies:
b) Star topology (hub and spoke)
b) Point-to-Point ✓ The main problem is if the Hub site went down.
✓ Similar to leased line. ✓ No. of VC = No. of routers -1

d) Partial mesh:
c) Full mesh
✓ We will not connect VCs between all the sites.
✓ Pull redundancy but high Cost.
✓ For example in the below topology we used 7 VCs
✓ No. of VC = n (n-1) / 2 ( n --- No. of routers ).
only, if we made a full mesh we need 10 VCs.
✓ Finally we make redundancy with low cost.

FR was originally invented to work on ISDN interfaces but now mostly used on serial interfaces.
 Frame Relay:
• Initially, open standard LAPF (Link Access Procedure for FR) was introduced as it’s the layer 2
protocol working with the FR.

• As usual, Cisco takes this protocol and adds the type field.

• Then IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) implemented a similar open standard protocol.

Note: IETF FR and Cisco FR are not compatible.

✓ Solution: configure Cisco router to operate as IETF
Frame Relay terminology:

• PVC (Permanent Virtual Circuit): logical circuit that is created to ensure bidirectional
communication from one router to another, it's the most common type of virtual circuits. As there is
SVC (Switched Packet Switching) which is on demand packet switching, and is rarely used in the ISPs.
• DLCI (Date Link Connection Identifier): A 10-bit address that identifies the VC (Virtual Circuit).
It's locally significant between the router and FR switch.
• LMI (Local Management Interface): A signaling standard between the router and the local FR
switch. Its used to maintain the connection status.
• IARP (Inverse Address Resolution Protocol): Used to get the IP for the remote DLCI.
• DE (Discard Eligible): By setting this bit, the frame will be having less priority and will be more
subjected to be discarded in case of congestion.
Frame Relay operations: -
1. Enable frame relay on router serial interface and configure frame relay switching table on the frame
relay switch.
2. Router will negotiate with the frame relay switch the available PVCs (through LMI protocol).
3. Router will try to discover what is the next hop router for each PVC? and form the frame relay map.
1) Configuring the frame relay on the routers and building the frame relay address mapping on the
FR switch. FR table on the FR switch

2) Negotiation between the router and the FR switch about the available PVCs using LMI protocol.
LMI: (Local Management Interface):
LMI protocol is used between the router (DTE) and the local FR switch (Master DCE) to
negotiate the PVCs between them and their status on the local loop:

When the router receives LMI information, it updates its VC status to one of the following three
states:
➢ Active state: Indicates that the VC connection is active and that routers can exchange data
over frame relay network.
➢ Inactive state: indicates that the local connection to the frame relay switch is working but
the remote is not.
➢ Deleted state: means that the router (DTE) is configured for a DLCI the frame relay
switch does not recognize as valid for that interface.
➢ Router# show frame pvc | include status
DLCI = 57, DLC! usage = Local, PVC status = Deleted, Interface = Serial0/0.1
DLCI = 58, DLC! usage = Local, PVC status = Active, Interface = Serial0/0.2
DLCI = 59, DLC! usage = Local, PVC status = Inactive, Interface = Serial0/0.3

LMI types:
1. Cisco LMI (LMI messages are being sent on DLCI 1023).
2. ANSI (Annex D) (LMI messages are being sent on DLCI 0).
3. ITU-T (Q933-A) OR (Annex A) (LMI messages are being sent on DLCI 0).
• The router will work with the LMI type supported by the FR switch.
• For cisco routers there is also auto LMI discovery.
Note: If we have the below topology, cisco LMI is used from one side and ITU-T LMI is used
from the other side, there is no problem in this because LMI is local significant.

3) Discovering what is the next hop router for each PVC. Consider the below topology:
Consider the below topology:

• The FR switch deals only with DLCI. RIG Table of Rt

• R1 will check for the next hop IP (22.1.1.1) using its Network O/P int Next hop IP
routing table.
10.0.0.0/24 S0 22.1.1.1
• R1 will check for the DLCI mapped to the next hop IP
using its frame relay map, here it will be (300). 10.0.0.0/24 S0 22.1.1.2
• When the router encapsulates the packet, it adds L2 FR Map for R1
header with that DLCI (300). Next hop IP O/P int
• The frame relay switches have FR table, which mapping 22.1.1.1 300
DLCI 300 to DLCI 200. 22.1.1.2 100
Note:
R1 knows all DLCls using LMI, but it doesn’t know that mapping between those DLCls and the IPs.
So, we have two methods to identify this mapping:
• Dynamically using IARP
• Statically using commands
 I. Dynamically using IARP: (Inverse Address Resolution Protocol):

IARP is used to build FR map where each DLCI is associated

with the next hop IP. Each router sends IARP message to identify
all active DLCls.
Note: Every 10 seconds, routers exchange LMI messages with
FR switch.
Configurations:
➢ Router(config)#interface interface number
➢ Router(config-if}#encapsulation frame-relay {cisco/ietf}
➢ Router(config-if}#frame-relay Imi-type {cisco/ansi/q933a}

II. Statically using the below commands:

➢ Router(config-if}#frame-relay map ip next hop ip dlci broadcast

Broadcast: is used to identify this DLC! in broadcast, because if we configured RIP for example, the
updates should sent broadcast. But broadcast here is replica of unicast.

Frame Relay routing issues with split horizon:

In the topology (Hub & Spokes), there is a routing problem

between the spokes, because split horizon rule prevents the
updates received on Serial 0, to be advertised from S0 also.

Solutions:
1) Static routing on the router in the hub site, and default route
on the router in each spoke.
2) Full Mesh topology: All routers will receive all updates from
each other, but it's a high cost.
3) Disable split horizon, but this will make routing loops.
➢ Router(config-if}#no ip split-horizon.
4) Use point-to-point sub-interface:
• Each sub-interface is a subnet.
• Each sub-interface has DLCI.
• Using these configurations:
➢ Router(config}#interface interface_number
➢ Router(config-if)#no ip address
➢ Router(config-if)#int sub-interface point-to-point
➢ Router (config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci dlci_No
 Comparison between point to point FR and point to multi point FR:

Troubleshooting:
➢ Router#show frame-relay pvc
>> Displays the status of PVCs, BECNs, FECNS, ......
➢ Router#show frame-relay LMI

➢ Router#show frame-relay map

>> Display the map
➢ Router#debug frame-relay Imi
>> Displays the Imi requests & replies to the router
PPPoE (PPP over Ethernet):
• The Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE) is a network protocol for encapsulating PPP
frames inside Ethernet frames.
• PPPoE combines two widely accepted standards, Ethernet and PPP, to provide an authenticated
method of assigning IP addresses to client systems.
• It appeared shortly after the year 2000, in the context of the boom of DSL as the solution for tunneling
packets over the DSL connection to the ISP's IP network, and from there to the rest of the Internet.
• PPPoE has been described in some books as a "layer 2.5" protocol.
PPPoE is composed of two main phases:
Active Discovery Phase: -
• In this phase, the PPPoE client locates a PPPoE server, called an access concentrator.
• Hence before exchanging PPP control packets to establish the connection over Ethernet, the
MAC address of the two end points should be known to each other so that they can be encoded
in these control packets.
• The PPPoE Discovery stage does exactly this.
• In addition it also helps establish a Session ID that can be used for further exchange of packets.
• During this phase, a Session ID is assigned and the PPPoE layer is established.
PPP Session Phase: -
• Once the MAC address of the peer is known and a session has been established, the Session
stage will start.
• In this phase, PPP options are negotiated and authentication is performed.
• Once the link setup is completed, PPPoE functions as a Layer 2 encapsulation method,
allowing data to be transferred over the PPP link within PPPoE headers.
At system initialization, the PPPoE client establishes a session with the access concentrator by
exchanging a series of packets. Once the session is established, a PPP link is set up, which includes
authentication using Password Authentication protocol (PAP). Once the PPP session is established,
each packet is encapsulated in the PPPoE and PPP headers,
PPPoE Discovery (PPPoED)
Although traditional PPP is a peer-to-peer protocol, PPPoE is inherently a client-server relationship
since multiple hosts can connect to a service provider over a single physical connection.
The Discovery stage has 4 steps. The first step consists of the host broadcasting an Initiation
packet, one or more RAS sending Offer packets, the host sending a unicast Session Request packet
and RAS sending a Session Confirmation packet. Once the host receives the Session Confirmation
packet, it proceeds to PPP Session stage.
1) PPPoE Active Discovery Initiation (PADI) Packet
• The client router sends a PADI packet with Destination Address set to broadcast address.
• The Session ID is set to 0x0000.
• The PADI packet indicating the service the host is requesting.
2) PPPoE Active Discovery Offer (PADO) Packet
• When the RAS receives a PADI packet, it replies by sending a PADO packet.
• The Destination Address is set to the Ethernet (MAC) address of the host that sent the PADI
packet.
• The Session ID is set to 0x0000.
• The PADO packet contains the RAS's name.
 3) PPPoE Active Discovery Request (PADR) Packet
• Since the PADI is broadcast, the host may receive multiple PADO packets.
• The host chooses one from the received PADO packets.
• The host sends a unicast PADR packet to the RAS it has chosen.
• The Session ID is set to 0x0000.
4) PPPoE Active Discovery Session-confirmation (PADS) Packet
• When the RAS receives a PADR, it generates a unique Session ID for the PPPoE session and
replies to the host with PADS packet.
• The Destination address is set to the unicast Ethernet address of the host.
Summary: -
• A PPPoE session is initiated by the PPPoE client. If the session has a timeout or is disconnected, the
PPPoE client will immediately attempt to reestablish the session.
The following four steps describe the exchange of packets that occurs when a PPPoE client initiates a
PPPoE session:
1. The client broadcasts a PPPoE Active Discovery Initiation (PADI) packet.
2. When the access concentrator receives a PADI that it can serve, it replies by sending a PPPoE
Active Discovery Offer (PADO) packet to the client.
3. Because the PADI was broadcast, the host may receive more than one PADO packet. The host
looks through the PADO packets it receives and chooses one. The choice can be based on the
access concentrator name or on the services offered. The host then sends a single PPPoE Active
Discovery Request (PADR) packet to the access concentrator that it has chosen.
4. The access concentrator responds to the PADR by sending a PPPoE Active Discovery Session-
confirmation (PADS) packet. At this point a virtual access interface is created that will then
negotiate PPP, and the PPPoE session will run on this virtual access.
• If a client does not receive a PADO for a preceding PADI, the client sends out a PADI at
predetermined intervals. That interval is doubled for every successive PADI that does not evoke a
response, until the interval reaches a configured maximum.
• If PPP negotiation fails or the PPP line protocol is brought down for any reason, the PPPoE session
and the virtual access will be brought down. When the PPPoE session is brought down, the client
waits for a predetermined number of seconds before trying again to establish a PPPoE.
After session is established data with PPoE header can move from hop to hop, PPPoE header is 6-8 byte
long, so recommended MTU to be 1492 Byte.

Code field help in PPPoE operation (Discovery Phase)

PPPoE Client Configuration: -
➢ interface Dialer 1 On the PPPoE server side VPDN (Virtual Private Dial
➢ ip address negotiated up Network) feature should be enabled using :
➢ encapsulation ppp (config)#vpdn enable
➢ Ppp authentication chap But PPPoE server configuration is out of course scope.
➢ ppp chap password cisco
➢ dialer pool 5
➢ ip mtu 1492 The “vpdn enable” command is used to
enable virtual private dialup networking
Then assign the dialer interface to a physical interface. (VPDN) on the router and inform the router
➢ interface fastethernet 0/0 to look for tunnel definitions in a local
➢ pppoe enable database and on a remote authorization
➢ pppoe-client dial-pool-number 5 server (home gateway)

The “dialer persistent” command (under interface configuration mode) allows a connection to be
brought up without being triggered by interesting traffic. And allow connection stay up even no data is
sent over the link. When configured, the dialer persistent command starts a timer when the dialer
interface starts up and starts the connection when the timer expires. If interesting traffic arrives before the
timer expires, the connection is still brought up and set as persistent. An example of configuring is shown
below:
➢ interface Dialer1
➢ ip address negotiate
➢ dialer pool 1
➢ dialer persistent
Label Switching Overview
Service providers today are faced with many challenges in terms of customer demand, including an
ongoing need for value-added services.
Conventional IP packet forwarding has several limitations, and more and more service providers realize
that something else is needed.
Not only must service providers be concerned with protecting their existing infrastructure, but service
providers must also find ways to generate new services that are not currently supportable using existing
technologies.
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a high-performance method for forwarding packets through a
network. MPLS enables routers at the edge of a network to apply simple labels to packets.
This practice allows the edge devices—ATM switches or existing routers in the center of the service
provider core—to switch packets according to labels, with minimal lookup overhead.
MPLS integrates the performance and traffic management capabilities of data link Layer 2 with the
scalability and flexibility of network Layer 3 routing.
When used in conjunction with other standard technologies, MPLS allows service providers the ability to
support value-added features that are critical for their networks.
What Are the Drawbacks of Traditional IP Routing?
This topic describes the drawbacks of traditional IP routine.
• Routing protocols are used to distribute Layer 3 routing information.
• Forwarding is based on the destination address only.
• Routing lookups are performed on every hop.

Example: Traditional IP Forwarding

The figure shows how routers m a service provider network forward packets based on the
destination addresses. The figure also shows that all the routers need to run a routing protocol—
Border Gateway protocol (BGP)—to get the entire Internet routing information.
 MPLS
What Are the Basic MPLS Features?
This topic describes the Basic features of MPLS.
• MPLS is a new forwarding mechanism in which packets are forwarded based on labels.
• Labels usually correspond to IP destination networks (equal to traditional IP forwarding).
• Labels can also correspond to other parameters, such as Qo8 or source address.
• MPLS was designed to support forwarding of other protocols as well.
Example: MPLS Concepts
The figure illustrates a situation m which the
intermediary router does not have to perform a time-
consuming routing lookup. Instead, this router simply
swaps a label with another label (25 is replaced by
23) and forwards the packet based on the received
label (23).
• Only edge routers must perform a routing lookup.
• Core routers switch packets based on simple label
lookups and swap labels.
Label Switch Routers

• LSR primarily forwards labeled packets (label swapping).

• Edge LSR primarily labels IP packets and forwards them into the MPLS domain, or removes labels
and forwards IP packets out of the MPLS domain.

Architecture of LSRs: -
• LSRs, regardless of the type, perform these functions:
❖ Exchange routing information
❖ Exchange labels
❖ Forward packets (LSRs and edge LSRs) or cells (ATM LSRs and ATM edge LSRs)
• The first two functions are part of the control plane.
• The last function is part of the data plane.
MPLS Forwarding
• An LSR can perform the following functions:
❖ Insert (Impose) a label or a stack of labels on ingress
❖ Swap a label with a next-hop label or a stack of labels in the core
❖ Remove (pop) a label on egress
MPLS Forwarding: Frame Mode
• On ingress, a label is assigned and imposed
by the IP routing process.
• LSRs in the core swap labels based on the
contents of the label forwarding table.
• On egress, the label is removed and a routing
lookup is used to forward the packet.

LSP
• AN LSP is a sequence of LSRs that forwards labeled packets of a certain forwarding equivalence
class.
• MPLS unicast IP forwarding builds LSPs based on the output of IP routing protocols.
• LDP and TDP advertise labels only for individual segments in the LSP.
• LSPs are unidirectional.
• Return traffic uses a different LSP (usually the reverse path because most routing protocols provide
symmetrical routing).
• An LSP can take a different path from the one chosen by an IP routing protocol (MPLS Traffic
Engineering).

MPLS Labels
• MPLS technology is intended to be used anywhere regardless of Layer 1 media and Layer 2
protocol.
• MPLS uses a 32-bit label field that is inserted between Layer 2 and Layer 3 headers (frame-mode
MPLS).
MPLS Labels: Label Format

• MPLS uses a 32-bit label field that contains the following information:
❖ 20-bit label (a number)
❖ 3-bit experimental field (usually used to carry IP precedence value)
❖ 1-bit bottom-of-stack indicator (indicates whether this is the last label before the IP header)
❖ 8-bit TTL field (equal to the TTL in the IP header)
 MPLS Labels: Frame-Mode MPLS

Where Are MPLS Labels Inserted?

• Labels are inserted between the Layer 2 (frame) header and the Layer 3 (packet) header.
• There can be more than one label (label stack).
• The bottom-of-stack bit indicates if the label is the last label in the label stack.
• The TTL field is used to prevent the indefinite looping of packets.
• Experimental bits are usually used to carry the IP precedence value.
MPLS Label Stack

• The protocol identifier in a Layer 2 header specifies that the payload starts with a label (labels) and
is followed by an IP header.
• The bottom-of-stack bit indicates whether the next header is another label or a Layer 3 header.
• The receiving router uses the top label only.
MPLS Label Stack (Cont.)
• Usually only one label is assigned to a packet.
• The following scenarios may produce more than one label:
❖ MPLS VPNs (two labels): The top label points to the egress router, and the second label
identifies the VPN.
❖ MPLS TE (two or more labels): The top label points to the endpoint of the traffic engineering
tunnel and the second label points to the destination.
❖ MPLS VPNs combined with MPLS TE (three or more labels).
MPLS Unicast IP Routing Architecture
• MPLS introduces a new field that is used for forwarding decisions.
• Although labels are locally significant, they have to be advertised to directly reachable peers.
❖ One option would be to include this parameter in existing IP routing protocols.
❖ The other option is to create a new protocol to exchange labels.
• The second option has been used because there are too many existing IP routing protocols that
would have to be modified to carry labels.
Configuring IP CEF
➢ Router(config)# ip cef

Configuring MPLS on a Frame-Mode Interface

➢ Router(config-if)# mpls ip
• Enables label switching on a frame-mode interface.
• Starts LDP on the interface.
➢ Router(config-if)# mpls label protocol [ tdp | ldp | both]
• Starts selected label distribution protocol on the specified interface.

LDP Session Establishment

• LDP establishes a session by performing the following:
❖ Hello messages are periodically sent on all interfaces that are enabled for MPLS.
❖ MPLS enabled routers respond to received hello messages by attempting to establish a session
with the source of the hello messages.
• UDP its used for hello messages. It is targeted at “all routers on this subnet” multicast address
(224.0.0.2).
• TCP is used to establish the session.
• Both TCP and UDP use well-known LDP por number 646 (711 for TDP).
LDP Neighbor Discovery

• An LDP session is established from the router with the higher IP address.
LDP Session Negotiation

• Peers first exchange initialization messages.

• The session is ready to exchange label mappings after receiving the first keepalive.
Label Distribution and Advertisement

• The allocated label is advertised to all neighbor LSRs, regardless of whether the neighbors are
upstream or downstream LSKs for the destination.

Receiving Label Advertisement

Interim Packet Propagation

Further Label Allocation

• Every LSR will eventually assign a label for every destination.

Populating LFIB

• Router B has already assigned a label to network X and created an entry in the LFIB.
• The outgoing label is inserted in the LFIB after the label is received from the next-hop LSR.

Packet Propagation Across an MPLS Network

MPLS Monitoring Commands

This is a sample output from the show mpls forwarding table command.
MPLS Applications
• MPLS is already used in many different applications:
❖ Unicast IP routing
❖ Multicast IP routing
❖ MPLS TE
❖ Qos
❖ MPLS VPNs (course focus)
❖ AToM
Unicast IP Routing
• Two mechanisms are needed on the control plane:
❖ IP routing protocol (OSPF, |S-IS, EIGRP, and so on)
❖ Label distribution protocol (LDP or TDP)
• A routing protocol carries the information about the reachability of networks.
• The label distribution protocol binds labels to networks learned via a routing protocol.

Multicast IP Routing
• A dedicated protocol is not needed to support multicast traffic across an MPLS domain.
• Protocol Independent Multicast version 2 with extensions for MPLS is used to propagate routing
information and labels.

Quality of Service
• Differentiated QoS is an extension to unicast IP routing that provides differentiated services.
• Extensions to TDP or LDP are used to propagate different labels for different classes.

MPLS TE
• MPLS TE requires OSPF or IS-I5 with extensions for MPLS TE as the IGP.
• OSPF and IS-IS with extensions hold the entire topology in their databases.
• OSPF and IS-IS should also have some additional information about network resources and
constraints.
• RSVP or CR-LDP is used to establish TE tunnels and to propagate labels.