Nutritional Biochemistry

(BIC 341)
Principles of Nutrition
Dr. Onyekwelu, Kenechukwu (PhD)
Department of Medical Biochemistry
College of Medicine
University of Nigeria
Enugu Campus.
Email: kenechukwu.onyekwelu@unn.edu.ng
 Learning Objectives
• By the end of the lecture, you will be able
to know the following:
 Essential and non-essential nutrients
 Components of macro and micro nutrients
 Nutritional roles of carbohydrates,
proteins and fat (fatty acids).
 Some nutritional diseases/disorders
caused by Macro-nutrients
 Some diseases caused by micro-nutrient
deficiencies
 General consideration of the vegetarian
diet
 Nutrition
• Nutrition is best defined as the utilization
of foods by living organisms.
• Study of human nutrition can be divided in
to three areas:
 Under nutrition
 Over nutrition, and
 Ideal nutrition/ optimal nutrition.
• What is food?
 Food is any nutritious substance that
humans eat or drink in order to maintain
life and growth.
 Nutrient
• What are Nutrients?
Nutrients are chemical substances
found in food that are needed for a
person to grow and function
properly.
 Essential Nutrients
• Essential nutrients refers to classes of nutrients
found in foods that are essential/vital for the
normal growth, maintenance and development of the
body.
• Essential nutrients must be consumed by humans
because either the body is entirely unable to
synthesise the nutrient, or it is unable to do so
in substantial enough quantities.
• There are 6 essential nutrients:
 1. Proteins
 2. Fats
 3. Carbohydrates
 4. Vitamins
 5. Minerals
 6. Water
 Non-essential nutrients
• Non-essential nutrients are needed every day but we
don't have to worry about them because they are
synthesized by the body. Here are some of those
nutrients:
• Some Vitamins
 Almost all vitamins are considered essential, but a couple
of vitamins are actually made in the body.
 Vitamin D is a one example since it is synthesized by skin
cells using sunlight. But if there is not enough access to
sunlight, you are at risk of not having an adequate amount
for your body.
 Biotin is also another vitamin that is not essential because
it is made in the intestines by gastrointestinal bacteria.
Unless you have digestive diseases, the lining of you
intestines will produce adequate amounts for your bodily
processes.
 Other vitamins, like vitamin K, are made in the body but
there are still some additional daily recommendations for
intake.
• Non-Essential Amino Acids
Non-essential amino acids are those
amino acids that can generally be
synthesized from the body when there
are enough of the essential amino acids
• Cholesterol
Cholesterol is required for certain body
processes, but can be produced in the
body and also consumed through diet, so
it is not considered essential.
 Classification of Nutrients
• Nutrients are classified into two
categories based on the amount
required by our bodies:
1. Macro-nutrients and
2. Micro-nutrients

• Both groups/classes of nutrients are

essential to promote growth and
development and to regulate our bodies’
processes.
 1. Macro-nutrients
• Macro-nutrients are needed in large
quantities in comparison to other nutrients
which is why they are called “macro”
nutrients.
• Macro-nutrients include:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins, and
3. Fats
• The three macro-nutrients all have their
own specific nutritional roles and functions
in the body.
Carbohydrates
Types of carbohydrates
• Complex Carbohydrates (also
called polysaccharides) are
found in three forms:
 starch
 glycogen and
 fibre.
• Each form of carbohydrate
serves different purposes
and is important in our diets.
• All three of these
polysaccharides are made up
of many glucose molecules
bonded together, but they
differ in their structure and
the type of bonds.
 Starch
• Starch is the storage
form of carbohydrate
in plants.
• Starch is made up of
long chains of glucose.
 If these chains are
straight, they're
called amylose;
 If they're branched,
they're called
amylopectin.
 Nutritional roles of Starch
• When we eat plant foods with starch,
we can break it down into glucose to
provide fuel for our body's cells.
• Starchy foods stay in the body’s system
longer than sugar, giving a sense of
feeling ‘’full’’ for a longer period of time.
 Glycogen
• Glycogen is the storage form of
carbohydrate in animals, humans included.
• Glycogen is structurally similar to
amylopectin
• It's made up of highly branched chains of
glucose, and it's stored in the liver and
skeletal muscle.
• The branched structure of glycogen makes
it easier to break down quickly to release
glucose to serve as fuel when needed on
short notice.
 Nutritional roles of Glycogen
• Liver glycogen is broken down to glucose, which
is released into the bloodstream to provide
energy for the cells.
• Muscle glycogen provides energy only for
muscle, to fuel activity especially in emergency
situation.
• Even though glycogen is stored in the liver and
muscles of animals, we don't find it in meat,
because it's broken down soon after slaughter.
• Thus, glycogen is not found in our food.
Instead, we have to make it in our liver and
muscle from glucose.
 Fibre
• Fibre is a carbohydrate portion of a plant that
the body cannot totally digest and absorb.
• It is incorrect, however, to assume that fibre
is indigestible since some fibres are.
• Different types of fibre exist in foods; some
are more ‘’woody’’ and do not dissolve in water,
as can be seen in the hard stems of some
vegetables.
• Some are more ‘’gummy’’ dissolve in water and
exist in the skins and peelings of fruits and
vegetables.
• Each type of fibre has different properties,
but all are important for good health.
Major Types of Fibre and Their Properties
 Nutritional roles of fibre
• By diluting out potential carcinogens and
speeding
their transit through the colon, fibre may play
a role in reducing the risk of colon cancer.
• Lignins in addition to their bulk­enhancing
properties adsorb organic substances such as
cholesterol and
appear to have a cholesterol­lowering effect.
• The most important clinical role of these fibres
is to slow the rate at which carbohydrates are
digested and absorbed. Thus both the rise in
blood sugar and the subsequent rise in
insulin levels are significantly decreased.
 Sources of carbohydrates
• In general, carbohydrates come from
plants.
• Foods rich in carbohydrate are rice, maize,
wheat, millet, sorghum and other cereals,
foods made from cereals, all types of root
crops such as potatoes, yams and cassava,
legumes such as peas and beans,
vegetables, fruits and sugars.
• Many of these foods also provide essential
vitamins and minerals.
 Nutritional roles of Carbohydrates
• The major nutritional role of carbohydrates is to provide
energy to every cell in the body.
• In addition to providing easily available energy for
oxidative metabolism, carbohydrate-containing foods are
vehicles for important micronutrients and
phytochemicals.
• Dietary carbohydrate is important to maintain glycemic
homeostasis and for gastrointestinal integrity and
function.
• Carbohydrates (fibre) help prevent certain diseases such
as heart disease, cancer and diabetes.
• Fibre prevent constipation and other intestinal problems.
• Fibre is very important in ‘’cleaning out’’ the digestive
track.
• Fibre can absorb water and help get rid of the body’s
waste products.
• Starchy foods stay in the body system longer, giving a
sense of feeling ‘’full’’
Nutritional roles of Carbohydrates

• Protein sparing action of

carbohydrates: Carbohydrates reduce
the need for gluconeogenesis from
amino acids, and thus spare proteins
from being used for this purpose.
 Glycaemic Index (GI)
• The glycaemic index (GI) is a measure of effects
of carbohydrates on blood sugar levels.
• Carbohydrates that break down quickly during
digestion releasing glucose rapidly into the
circulation have a high GI (GI more than 70).
• These high GI carbohydrates, release their glucose
into the blood quickly.
• Carbohydrates that break down more slowly,
releasing glucose more gradually into the
bloodstream have a low GI (GI less than 55).
• Food with Low GI has Significant Health
Benefits since Low GI foods prolong digestion due
to their slow break down and may help with satiety
(feeling full) and lowers insulin demand and may
improve long-term blood glucose control
 Proteins
• Protein is needed by the body for growth and repair and is able
to provide energy when the diet is low in carbohydrate.
• Protein is found in foods from both animal and plant sources,
which provide different combinations of amino acids needed by
the body e.g. meat, fish, eggs, dairy, cereals, nuts and others.
• Proteins are made up of amino acids. There are approximately 20
different amino acids found in foods.
• Amino acids are divided into 2 groups: essential and non-
essential amino acids.
• Essential amino acids are those that must be supplied by the
diet: Leucine, Isoleucine, Valine, Threonine, Methionine,
Phenylalanine, Tryptophan, and Lysine. Histidine is an essential
amino acid for children (not adults) because
children are unable to produce enough to meet their needs.
• Non-essential amino acids are those that the human body is
able to make itself from essential amino acids.
• Different foods contain different amounts and combinations of
amino acids.
• Vegans and vegetarians can get all the protein they need by
combining different plant sources of protein.
 Nutritional Role of protein
• Protein is needed by the body for growth
and repair
• Genetic information in the cell is stored as
Protein in the form of DNA.
• Most enzymes that catalyze metabolic
reactions in the human body are protein in
nature.
• Protein is necessary for clotting of blood
and for keeping the immune system strong
by developing antibodies to fight disease.
• If energy intake is low for a long period of
time, protein can be used for energy.
 FATS
• Fat is found in meat/meat products, dairy products, fish, eggs, fruit,
vegetables, nuts, cereals and cereal products.
• Fatty acids are described as either saturated or unsaturated.
• Saturated fatty acids are fatty acid in which there is no double bond
in the fatty acid chain.
• An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is one or more
double bond in the fatty acid chain.
• Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature, while saturated fats
are solid at room temperature.
• The close packing of saturated fat molecules makes them solidify at
room temperature.
• The kinks of unsaturated fat molecules keep them liquid at room
temperature
• Therefore, animal fat (mostly saturated) is solid at room temperature.
• Plant oils (mostly unsaturated) is liquid at room temperature.
• Saturated fats are usually found in animal products and unsaturated
fats in vegetable/plant sources.
• Two of the unsaturated fatty acids are called ‘’essential fatty acids’’
Saturated fat Unsaturated fat
 Essential fatty acids
• Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are those
that must be supplied in the diet
because the body is unable to make
them.
• There are two essential fatty acids:
 Linolenic acid
Linoleic acid
• The body is able to synthesise other
fatty acids (non-essential fatty acids)
from these two essential fatty acids.
 Nutritional role of Fats
• Fats are needed for the absorption of
vitamins A, D, E and K (called ‘’fat soluble’’
vitamins).
• Fats have the highest caloric content and
provide the largest amount of energy than
proteins and carbohydrates
• Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy
skin and hair, insulating body organs
against shock, maintaining body
temperature, and promoting healthy cell
function.
 Cholesterol
• Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in
all animals including humans and is essential to
every cell in the body.
• The main dietary sources of cholesterol are
cheese, eggs, beef, pork, poultry and (shell) fish.
• Dietary cholesterol helps to maintain a stable pool
of cholesterol, but cholesterol is also synthesised
by the liver.
• The human body regulates its cholesterol status.
• When the cholesterol intake is very low (as in
vegans who consume no animal products),
cholesterol synthesis increase.
• When cholesterol intake is high, the body's
synthesis is suppressed and excretion via bile salts
is increased.
• Cholesterol is transported/carried in
the blood in two forms.
• The two forms are:
 Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol and
 High Density Lipoprotein (HDL)
cholesterol.
• The relative amounts of cholesterol
transported/carried by each carrier
can affect one’s risk for heart
disease.
Characteristics of HDL and LDL
blood cholesterol carriers.
LDL HDL

Full Name: Low Density Lipoprotein. High Density Lipoprotein.

What it does: Takes cholesterol from the Primarily takes cholesterol

liver to the rest of the body from body tissue back to
and deposit some as “plaque” liver and remove “plaque”
on artery walls. deposited on the artery
walls by LDL
Effect on the risk High amounts increase risk High amounts reduce risk
for heart disease: of atherosclerosis of atherosclerosis
(hardening of the arteries) (hardening of the
and heart disease. arteries) and heart
disease.

Nickname: “Bad” cholesterol. “Good” cholesterol.

 Nutritional role of Cholesterol
• It is used to synthesize:
 Bile salts that emulsify and enhance absorption
of fats in the intestine
 Vitamin D (A special form of cholesterol found
in the skin has the ability to change into vitamin
D when exposed to sunlight), and
 Steroid hormones, such as testosterone and
estrogen.
• It is a component of myelin, the waxy substance
that protects the nervous system.
• Cholesterol is a structural component of all cell
membranes, modulating their fluidity
(viscosity).
 2. Micro-nutrients
• Called “micro” nutrients because they are
needed only in very small amounts.
• These nutrients enable our bodies to produce
enzymes, hormones, and other substances vital
to development, disease prevention, and well-
being.
• Micro-nutrients include:
 Vitamins
 Minerals
• Micronutrients work in tandem with
macronutrients to keep the body functioning
and are crucial in order to maintain energy
levels, metabolism, cellular function, and
physical and mental wellbeing.
 Vitamins
• Vitamins are essential for normal metabolism, growth and
development, and regulation of cell function.
• Vitamins are often precursors to many organic coenzymes
• Vitamins are either fat-soluble or water-soluble.
• Fat soluble Vitamins can be stored in the fatty tissues in the
body when in excess.
• Water soluble vitamins are excreted in urine when in excess and
so need to be taken daily.
• Water soluble vitamins include Vitamin B and C.
• Green leafy vegetables are rich in Vitamin B, whereas Vitamin C
is found abundantly in citrus fruits.
• Fat soluble vitamins are Vitamin A, D, E and K. Green leafy
vegetables, milk and dairy products and plant oils provide these
vitamins.
• Vitamin C and E are antioxidants, while Vitamin K is required for
blood clotting.
• Most vitamins cannot be synthesized in the body, so must be
taken in the diet.
 Minerals
• They are further classified into macro-
minerals and micro-minerals (or trace
minerals).
• Macro-minerals present in the body include
Calcium, Potassium, Iron, Sodium and
Magnesium to name a few.
• Iron is a constituent of Hemoglobin which
is present in blood.
• Macro-minerals are needed in more
amounts, as compared to micro minerals.
Micro-minerals include Copper, Iodine,
Zinc, Cobalt, Chromium and Fluoride.
 Water
Is Water a Macro or Micro nutrient?
• Water is essential for health and life.
Water makes up a large part of our
body weight and is the main
component of our body fluids. The
body needs more water every day
than any other nutrient.
• We lose water every day and our
bodies do not store extra water, so
we need to replenish water through
the foods and liquids we drink.
 NUTRITIONAL ROLE OF WATER

• Transport of nutrients to cells

• Removes toxins from our body.
• Water regulates the body temperature
by our sweat.
• It acts as a lubricant for joints and
eyes, helps in swallowing, provides a
medium in which most reactions in the
body occur, helps eliminate waste.
 Nutritional Disorders
• Nutritional disorders are diseases that
occur when a person's dietary intake
does not contain the right amount of
nutrients for healthy functioning, or
when a person cannot correctly absorb
nutrients from food.
• Nutrition disorders can be caused by
under-nutrition, over-nutrition or an
incorrect balance of nutrients.
 Some Nutritional diseases/disorders
caused by Macro-nutrients
• Diabetes Mellitus
• Obesity
• Protein-energy malnutrition
 Diabetes Mellitus
• Diabetes mellitus, disorder of carbohydrate
metabolism characterized by:
 Either by lack of insulin production or
 Lack of insulin receptors/the pancreas not
producing enough insulin for the body's needs.
• Insulin is a hormone found in the blood stream
that helps in the control of blood glucose levels
by signaling the liver and muscle and fat cells to
take in glucose from the blood.
• Insulin therefore helps cells to take in glucose
to be used for energy.
• If the body has sufficient energy, insulin
signals the liver and the muscle to take up
glucose and store it as glycogen.
 Actions of insulin through the insulin receptor.
Insulin through its receptor affects multiple physiological processes
in the organism (left) by increasing (green arrows) or decreasing (red
arrows) various intracellular metabolic pathways (right).
 Diabetes Mellitus
• In diabetes mellitus, the cells can't take in
glucose and it builds up in the blood.
• High levels of blood glucose can damage the
tiny blood vessels in the kidneys, heart, eyes,
and nervous system.
• That's why diabetes -- especially if left
untreated -- can eventually cause heart disease,
stroke, kidney disease, blindness, and nerve
damage to nerves in the feet and legs (Diabetic
neuropathy).
• Diabetic neuropathy is a serious diabetes
complication that may affect as many as 50%
of people with diabetes.
• Pain and numbness in the legs and feet are some
of the symptoms of diabetic neuropathy.
Diabetic neuropathy
Diabetes Diagnosis
 Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c)
for the diagnosis of diabetes
• Glycated haemoglobin
reflects average plasma
glucose in the blood over
the previous 8 to 12 weeks.
• Diabetes is characterized
by high level of glucose in
the blood.
• When glucose builds up in
the blood, it binds to the
hemoglobin in the red blood
cells.
• Red blood cells live for
about 3 months, so the test
shows the average level of
glucose in the blood for the
past 3 months.
 Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c)
for the diagnosis of diabetes
• It can be
performed at
any time of the
day and does
not require any
special
preparation
such as fasting.
 Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c)
in the management of diabetes
• People who have diabetes need this test
regularly to see if their levels are staying
within range.
• The target Glycated haemoglobin level for
people with diabetes is usually less than
7%.
• The higher the Glycated haemoglobin, the
higher your risk of having complications
related to diabetes.
• If you have diabetes and your level is
above your target, your doctor may change
your treatment plan to get your level down.
 Type 1 Diabetes
• Type 1 diabetes is also called insulin-dependent
diabetes.
• Used to be called juvenile-onset diabetes, because
it often begins in childhood.
• Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune condition. It's
caused by the body attacking its own pancreas.
• In people with type 1 diabetes, the damaged
pancreas produces little or no insulin.
• This type of diabetes may be caused by a genetic
predisposition. It could also be as a result of faulty
beta cells in the pancreas that normally produce
insulin.
• Management of type 1 diabetes involves injecting
insulin.
 Type 2 Diabetes
• The most common form of diabetes is type 2 diabetes,
accounting for 95% of diabetes cases in adults.
• Type 2 diabetes used to be called adult-onset diabetes,
but with the epidemic of obese and overweight kids, more
teenagers are now developing type 2 diabetes.
• Type 2 diabetes is called non-insulin-dependent diabetes.
• In Type 2 diabetes, the pancreas usually produces some
insulin. But either the amount produced is not enough for
the body's needs, or the body's cells are resistant to it.
• Type 2 diabetes can cause major health complications,
particularly in the smallest blood vessels in the body that
nourish the kidneys, nerves, and eyes causing eye disease,
kidney disease and nerve damage.
• Type 2 diabetes also increases the risk of heart disease
and stroke.
• People who are obese are at high risk
of developing type 2 diabetes and its
related medical problems.
• There is no cure for diabetes. Type 2
diabetes can, however, be controlled
with weight management, nutrition, and
exercise.
 Obesity
• Obesity is a complex disorder involving
an excessive amount of body fat.
• Obesity occur when the body mass
index (BMI) is 30 or higher.
• Body mass index is calculated by
dividing your weight in kilograms (kg) by
your height in meters (m) squared.
• What is the BMI of a Man with height
of 180 cm and weight of 75 kg?
• First, convert the height into meters.
• As there are 100cm in a meter, we
divide our height by 100. This gives us
1.8m.
• The formula is BMI =
Weight (kg)/height (m)2.
• Let's plug those figures into our
formula:
BMI = 75 ÷ (1.8 × 1.8)
BMI = 75 ÷ 3.24
This gives us a BMI of 23.15.
• What is the BMI of a Man with height
of 170 cm and weight of 95 kg?
• As there are 100cm in a meter, we
divide our figure by 100. This gives us
1.7m.
• The formula is BMI = Weight
(kg)/height (m)2.
• Let's plug those figures into our
formula:
BMI = 95 ÷ (1.7 × 1.7)
BMI = 95 ÷ 2.89
This gives us a BMI of 32.87.
 Types of obesity
Obesity is often divided into 2 types:
• a. Exogenous obesity. Exogenous obesity is a condition in
which a person is overweight as a result of an excessive
intake of food and physical inactivity
• b. Endogenous obesity. which is caused by an endocrine
system (collection of glands that produce hormones that
regulate metabolism) disruption.
• A number of endocrine abnormalities result in endogenous
obesity
• Leptin resistance is a common cause of endogenous
obesity.
• Leptin is a hormone that regulates fat metabolism.
• When there is a disruption in the endocrine gland, the
body continuously stores fat, thinking it does not have
enough for energy needs.
 Causes of Obesity
• 1. Consuming too many calories: When a
person consumes more calories (particularly
those of fatty and sugary foods) than the body
use as energy, the body will store the extra
calories as fat.
• 2. Living a sedentary lifestyle/lack of
exercise: going to places by car instead of
walking or cycling.
• 3. Medication: Some medications can also lead
to weight gain. Example: glucocorticoids used to
treat rheumatoid arthritis, some anti-
depressants.
• 4. Obesity gene: A faulty gene called the fat-
mass and obesity-associated gene (FTO) is
responsible for some cases of obesity.
 Causes of Obesity
• 5. Pregnancy
• 6. Postmenopausal women.
• 7. Use of oral contraceptives for
prolonged periods.
• 8. Genetic factor: Obesity occurs much
more frequently among the members of
certain families than among others
 Risks Associated with Obesity
• Individuals who have obesity are at risk
of developing one or more of these
serious medical conditions:
Diabetes
High blood pressure
Heart disease
Stroke
Some cancers
 Management of Obesity
• Avoiding fatty and sugary foods
• Eating more of fruits and vegetables
• Exercise
• Having enough sleep
• Surgery
• Medications
 Metabolic Consequences of Obesity
• One striking clinical feature of overweight(obese) individuals is a
marked elevation of:
 Serum free fatty acids,
 Cholesterol, and
 Triacylglycerols
• Why is this?
• Obesity is associated with an increased number and/or size of
adipose cells.
• These cells contain fewer Insulin receptors and thus respond
poorly to insulin, resulting in increased activity of the
hormone­sensitive lipase (which hydrolyzes TAG to release fatty
acids).
• The increased lipase activity
along with the increased mass of adipose tissue result to
the increase in circulating free fatty acids.
• These excess fatty acids are carried to the liver and metabolized
to acetyl CoA, a precursor for triacylglycerol and cholesterol
synthesis.
• Excess triacylglycerol and cholesterol are released as very low
density lipoprotein particles, leading to higher circulating levels of
both triacylglycerol and cholesterol
 Metabolic Consequences of Obesity
• A second striking finding in obese individuals is
higher fasting blood sugar levels and decreased
glucose tolerance.
• Again the culprit appears to be the decrease in
insulin receptors, since many adult­onset of
diabetics have higher than normal insulin levels.
• This hyperinsulinemia appears to stimulate the
sympathetic nervous system, leading to sodium and
water retention and vasoconstriction, which tend to
increase blood pressure.
• Because of these metabolic changes, obesity is a
primary risk factor in coronary heart disease,
hypertension, and diabetes.
 Question
• Obesity is a primary risk factor in
coronary heart disease, hypertension
, and diabetes. Explain.
 Protein-energy malnutrition
• Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) also
known as protein-calorie malnutrition is
a situation in which people (often
children) consume too little protein,
energy, or both.
• It could result in kwashiorkor which is
characterized by a severe protein
deficiency and marasmus, an absolute
food deprivation with grossly inadequate
amounts of both energy and protein.
 Clinical Symptoms
• Kwashiorkor is typically seen when a child is
weaned from high-protein breast milk onto a
carbohydrate food source with insufficient protein.
• Children with this disease, which is characterized
by a swollen belly due to edema (fluid retention),
are weak, grow poorly, and are more susceptible to
infectious diseases, which may result in fatal
diarrhoea. Other symptoms of kwashiorkor include
apathy, hair discoloration and dry, peeling skin.
• An infant with marasmus is extremely underweight
and has lost most or all subcutaneous fat. The body
has a “skin and bones” appearance, and the child is
profoundly weak and highly susceptible to
infections.
 Protein-energy malnutrition
• If PEM continues long enough the child will be
permanently stunted in both physical and mental
development
• The most devastating result of both marasmus and
kwashiorkor is reduced ability of the afflicted
individuals to fight off infection.
• They have a reduced number of T lymphocytes (and
thus diminished cell­mediated immune response)
as well as defects in the generation of phagocy
tic cells and production of immuno­globulins,
interferon, and other components of the immune sy
stem.
• Many of
these individuals die from secondary infections, rat
her than from the starvation itself.
 Diseases Caused by micro-
nutrient Deficiencies
• Rickets (seen in children): Deficiency of Vitamin D along with calcium
and potassium in the body causes rickets. Rickets is characterized by
weak and soft bones, bowed legs and bone deformities. Fish, fortified
dairy products, liver, oil and sunlight are some rich sources of Vitamin
D.
• Osteoporosis (seen mostly in the elderly): Deficiency of Vitamin D
and calcium in the body can negatively affect the health of the bones
and spine. It leads to unhealthy, soft and brittle bones that are prone
to fractures and defects in the spine structure. Bananas, spinach, milk,
okra, soy and sunlight are natural sources of Vitamin D and calcium that
act to eliminate this deficiency.
• Scurvy: reduced levels of Vitamin C or ascorbic acid in the body can
cause scurvy. Scurvy basically inhibits the production of collagen in the
body which is the structural protein that connects the tissues.
Decaying of the skin and gums, abnormal formation of teeth and bones,
delay or inability to heal wounds and bleeding are the effects of scurvy
on the body. One must ensure optimal consumption of Vitamin C by
having citrus fruits like oranges, lemon, strawberry etc i regularly.
• Beri Beri: Lack of Vitamin B1 or thiamine in the body leads to the
disease called beri beri. The most common symptoms of this illness are
altered muscle coordination, nerve degeneration and cardiovascular
problems. Meat, eggs, whole grains, dried beans etc are rich in thiamine
and thus, should be consumed in proper amounts
• Goitre: Iodine in the body is essential for
normal cell metabolism in the body and
deficiency of iodine may cause goitre. Goitre
leads to enlarged thyroid glands causing
hypothyroidism, poor growth and development
of infants, cretinism and even mental
retardation. This disease is commonly found to
occur in places having iodine deficit soil.
Iodised salt and saltwater fish are rich sources
of iodine and must be consumed regularly to
avoid goitre.
• Iron deficiency anaemia: Iron deficiency
anaemia is a disease caused by the deficiency
of iron in the body. It is characterized by a
decrease in the red blood cell count or
hemoglobin in the body, resulting in fatigue,
weakness and paleness of the body. It can be
easily treated by changing to a healthy diet and
consuming iron supplements on a regular basis
 Vitamin and mineral overdose
• An overdose of vitamins A, D, E, or K can cause
serious or life-threatening side effects. Certain
minerals contained in a multivitamin may also cause
serious overdose symptoms if you take too much.
• Overdosing on vitamin A leads to an adverse
condition known as hypervitaminosis A. It's rare,
but may have serious health effects. Vitamin D
toxicity is very rare. overdosing on vitamin E
appears to be relatively harmless
• Too much vitamin C or zinc could cause nausea,
diarrhea, and stomach cramps. Too much selenium
could lead to hair loss, gastrointestinal upset,
fatigue, and mild nerve damage.
 Vegetarian Diet
• A vegetarian diet is defined as a diet
consisting wholly of vegetables, fruits,
grains, nuts and sometimes eggs, fish,
meat or dairy products.
Types of vegetarian diets
• Vegetarian diets vary in what foods
they include and exclude.
 Types of vegetarian diets
Types Diet include Diet Exclude
Lacto-vegetarian vegetables, fruits, eggs, fish and meat
grains, nuts and dairy
products, such as
milk, cheese, yogurt
and butter
Ovo-vegetarian vegetables, fruits, Fish, meat and dairy
grains, nuts and eggs products

Lacto-ovo vegetarian vegetables, fruits, Fish and meat

grains, nuts, eggs and
diary products
Pescatarian vegetables, fruits, eggs, meat and dairy
grains, nuts and fish products

Vegan vegetables, fruits, eggs, fish, meat and

grains, nuts dairy products
 Benefits of a Vegetarian Diet
• The beneficial effects of vegetarian nutrition tend to be
as a result of less saturated fat and cholesterol content
and more dietary fiber, magnesium, potassium, vitamin C
and E, folic acid, natural antioxidants (carotenoids and
flavonoids), and other active plant ingredients
(phytochemicals).
• Vegetarian diets lowers the risk obesity by maintaining
normal BMI.
• The incidence of type 2 diabetes is lower in vegetarians
than non-vegetarians.
• In terms of cardiovascular disease, vegetarians face a
lower risk of developing heart disease than non-
vegetarians, regardless of obesity.
• Vegetarians have a significantly lower risk of developing
cancers compared to non-vegetarians. Fruits and
vegetables contain antioxidants that hamper cancer cells’
ability to thrive.
 Risk of a Vegetarian Diet
• Avoidance of meat has certain risks, especially for
vegans who consume no animal products at all. Meat
is an excellent source of protein, vitamins A, B1, B6,
and especially vitamin B12, as well as iron and zinc.
The iron found in meat is better absorbed than
that from a plant source.
• It is very important for vegetarians to ensure they
get an adequate intake of B12, as a supplement or
from enriched foods, as this vitamin is found only in
animals.
• Beyond ensuring B12 intake, people who opt for a
vegetarian lifestyle should make sure they consume
enough protein, omega-3 fatty acids, iron, and zinc
(which are better absorbed from animal foods),
iodine (from fish sources), calcium and vitamin D
(especially for vegans who do not consume milk and
its products).
Thank
you.