Module 2: Algebraic Structures
Semigroups and Monoids - Groups - Subgroups - Lagrange’s
Theorem - Homomorphism - Properties - Group Codes.
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Binary Operation
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Groups
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Semigroup and Monoid
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Order of a Group
Infinite Group
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Problems
1.
2. If ∗ is the binary operation on the set 𝑅 of real numbers defined by
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏 then check whether (𝑅, ∗) is an abelian group.
3. If ∗ is the binary operation on 𝑆 = 𝑄 × 𝑄, the set of ordered pairs of
rational numbers and given by 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥, 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏) then
check whether (𝑅, ∗) is an abelian group.
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1.
2. If ∗ is the binary operation on the set 𝑅 of real numbers defined by
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏 then check whether (𝑅, ∗) is an abelian group.
3. If ∗ is the binary operation on 𝑆 = 𝑄 × 𝑄, the set of ordered pairs of
rational numbers and given by 𝑎, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥, 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏) then
check whether (𝑆, ∗) is an abelian group.
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Properties of Group
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Modular Addition
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Modular Multiplication
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Permutation Group
Let 𝑆 = 1,2,3 . Then the permutation set is 𝑆3 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , 𝑝4 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 }
1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑝1 = 𝑝4 =
1 2 3 2 1 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑝2 = 𝑝5 =
1 3 2 3 1 2
1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑝3 = 𝑝6 =
2 3 1 3 2 1
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∗ 𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝒑𝟑 𝒑𝟒 𝒑𝟓 𝒑𝟔 1 2 3
𝑝1 =
𝒑𝟏 1 2 3
𝒑𝟐 1 2 3
𝑝2 =
1 3 2
𝒑𝟑
1 2 3
𝑝3 =
𝒑𝟒 2 3 1
𝒑𝟓 1 2 3
𝑝4 =
2 1 3
𝒑𝟔
1 2 3
𝑝5 =
3 1 2
1 2 3
𝑝6 =
3 2 1
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∗ 𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝒑𝟑 𝒑𝟒 𝒑𝟓 𝒑𝟔 1 2 3
𝑝1 =
𝒑𝟏 1 2 3
𝒑𝟐 1 2 3
𝑝2 =
1 3 2
𝒑𝟑
1 2 3
𝑝3 =
𝒑𝟒 2 3 1
𝒑𝟓 1 2 3
𝑝4 =
2 1 3
𝒑𝟔
1 2 3
𝑝5 =
3 1 2
1 2 3
𝑝6 =
3 2 1
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∗ 𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝒑𝟑 𝒑𝟒 𝒑𝟓 𝒑𝟔
𝒑𝟏 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝5 𝑝6
𝒑𝟐 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑝4 𝑝3 𝑝6 𝑝5
𝒑𝟑 𝑝3 𝑝6 𝑝5 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑝4
𝒑𝟒 𝑝4 𝑝5 𝑝6 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3
𝒑𝟓 𝑝5 𝑝4 𝑝1 𝑝6 𝑝3 𝑝2
𝒑𝟔 𝑝6 𝑝3 𝑝2 𝑝5 𝑝4 𝑝1
Note: Here 𝒑𝟏 is the identity element 𝒆.
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∗ 𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝒑𝟑 𝒑𝟒 𝒑𝟓 𝒑𝟔
𝒑𝟏 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝5 𝑝6
𝒑𝟐 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑝4 𝑝3 𝑝6 𝑝5
𝒑𝟑 𝑝3 𝑝6 𝑝5 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑝4
𝒑𝟒 𝑝4 𝑝5 𝑝6 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3
𝒑𝟓 𝑝5 𝑝4 𝑝1 𝑝6 𝑝3 𝑝2
𝒑𝟔 𝑝6 𝑝3 𝑝2 𝑝5 𝑝4 𝑝1
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Problem: If the permutations of the elements of 1,2,3,4,5 are given
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
by 𝛼 = and 𝛽 = , then find
2 3 1 4 5 1 3 2 5 4
𝛼𝛽, 𝛼 2 and solve the equation 𝛼𝑋 = 𝛽.
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Homomorphism
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Subgroup
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Lagrange's Theorem
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Cosets
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Lagrange's Theorem
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Properties of Cosets
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Kernal of Homomorphism:
If 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is a group homomorphism from (𝐺,∗) to
𝐺 ′ , ∆ , then the set of elements of 𝐺, which are mapped
into 𝑒′, the identity element of 𝐺′, is called the kernel of the
homomorphism 𝑓and denoted by ker 𝑓 .
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Problem 1:
If 𝐺 is the multiplicative group of all (𝑛 × 𝑛) non-singular
matrices whose elements are real numbers and 𝐺 ′ is the multiplicative
group of all non-zero real numbers, show that the mapping 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺′,
where 𝑓 𝐴 = 𝐴 , for all 𝐴 ∈ 𝐺 is a homomorphism. Find also the kernel
of 𝑓.
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Question 2:
Let 𝑅 and 𝐶 are additive groups of real and complex numbers
respectively and if the mapping 𝑓: 𝐶 → 𝑅 is defined by 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑥,
show that 𝑓 is a homomorphism. Find also the kernel of 𝑓.
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Encoders and Decoders
Fig.1
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Group Code
Hamming Codes
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Generator Matrix (𝑮)
Definition
When 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 + and 𝑚 < 𝑛, the encoding function 𝑒: 𝐵𝑚 → 𝐵𝑛 ,
where 𝐵 ≡ (0,1) is given by a 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐺 over 𝐵. This matrix 𝐺
is called the generator matrix for the code and is of the form [𝐼𝑚 |A],
where 𝐼𝑚 is the 𝑚 × 𝑚 unit matrix and 𝐴 is an 𝑚 × (𝑛 − 𝑚) matrix
to be chosen suitably. If 𝑤 is a message belongs to 𝐵𝑚 , then 𝑒(𝑤) =
𝑤𝐺 and the code (the set of code words) C = 𝑒(𝐵𝑚 ) ⊆ 𝐵𝑛 , where 𝑤
is a (1 × 𝑚) vector.
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Parity Check Matrix (𝑯)
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Problem 1:
Find the code words generated by the encoding function 𝑒: 𝐵2 → 𝐵5
with respect to the parity check matrix
0 0 1 0 0
𝐻= 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
Here, 𝑚 = 2 and 𝑛 = 5
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Problem 2:
Find the code words generated by the parity check matrix
1 1 1 1 0 0
𝐻= 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1
When the encoding function is 𝑒: 𝐵3 → 𝐵6 .
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Problem 3:
1 0 0 1 1 0
Given the generator matrix 𝐺 ≡ 0 1 0 0 1 1 , corresponding to the
0 0 1 1 0 1
3 6
encoding function 𝑒: 𝐵 → 𝐵 , find the corresponding parity check matrix and use
it to decode the following received words and hence, to find the original message.
Are all the words decoded uniquely?
𝑖 110101, 𝑖𝑖 001111, 𝑖𝑖𝑖 110001, 𝑖𝑣 111111
Problem 4:
Decode each of the following received words corresponding to the encoding
function 𝑒: 𝐵3 → 𝐵6 given by 𝑒 000 = 000 000, 𝑒(001) = 001 011,
𝑒(010) = 010 101, 𝑒(100) = 100 111, 𝑒(011) = 011 110, 𝑒(101) =
101 100, 𝑒(110) = 110 010 and 𝑒(111) = 111 001, assuming that no error or
single error has occurred:
011110, 110111, 110000, 111000, 011111
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Problem 3:
1 0 0 1 1 0
Given the generator matrix 𝐺 ≡ 0 1 0 0 1 1 , corresponding to the
0 0 1 1 0 1
3 6
encoding function 𝑒: 𝐵 → 𝐵 , find the corresponding parity check matrix and use
it to decode the following received words and hence, to find the original message.
Are all the words decoded uniquely?
𝑖 110101, 𝑖𝑖 001111, 𝑖𝑖𝑖 110001, 𝑖𝑣 111111
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Problem 4:
Given the encoding function 𝑒: 𝐵3 → 𝐵6 given by 𝑒 000 = 000 000, 𝑒(001) =
001 011, 𝑒(010) = 010 101, 𝑒(100) = 100 111, 𝑒(011) = 011 110,
𝑒(101) = 101 100, 𝑒(110) = 110 010 and 𝑒(111) = 111 001. Find the parity
check matrix and use it to decode the following received words
011110, 110111, 110000, 111000, 011111 and hence, to find the original
message. Are all the words decoded uniquely?
Steps:
1. Find the matrix A using the encoding function.
2. Then form the parity check matrix H.
3. Now decode the received words using the parity check matrix H
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Problem 4:
Given the encoding function 𝑒: 𝐵3 → 𝐵6 given by 𝑒 000 = 000 000, 𝑒(001) =
001 011, 𝑒(010) = 010 101, 𝑒(100) = 100 111, 𝑒(011) = 011 110,
𝑒(101) = 101 100, 𝑒(110) = 110 010 and 𝑒(111) = 111 001. Find the parity
check matrix and use it to decode the following received words
011110, 110111, 110000, 111000, 011111 and hence, to find the original
message. Are all the words decoded uniquely?
Here we need to find the matrix A using the encoding function.
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We choose 𝑤 = 010 to get the
constants b1, b2 and b3.
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We choose 𝑤 = 100 to get the
constants a1, a2 and a3.
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We choose 𝑤 = 001 to get the constants c1, c2 and c3.
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Decoding the following codes using H:
011110, 110111, 110000, 111000, 011111
Do it by your self. . .!
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Decoding using Decoding Table
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Theorem on Detection
Theorem on Detection:
A code [an (𝑚, 𝑛) encoding function] can detect at most 𝑘 errors if
and only if the minimum distance between any two code words is at
least (𝑘 + 1).
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Theorem on Correction
Theorem on Correction:
A code can correct a set of at most 𝑘 errors if and only if the
minimum distance between any two code words is at least (2𝑘 + 1).
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Decoding using Decoding Table
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000000 001011 010101 100111 011110 101100 110010 111001
100000 101011 110101 000111 111110 001100 010010 011001
010000 011011 000101 110111 001110 111100 100010 101001
001000 000011 011101 101111 010110 100100 111010 110001
000100 001111 010001 100011 011010 101000 110110 111101
000010 001001 010111 100101 011100 101110 110000 111011
000001 001010 010100 100110 011111 101101 110011 111000
011000 010011 001101 111111 000110 110100 101010 100001
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000000 001011 010101 100111 011110 101100 110010 111001
100000 101011 110101 000111 111110 001100 010010 011001
010000 011011 000101 110111 001110 111100 100010 101001
001000 000011 011101 101111 010110 100100 111010 110001
000100 001111 010001 100011 011010 101000 110110 111101
000010 001001 010111 100101 011100 101110 110000 111011
000001 001010 010100 100110 011111 101101 110011 111000
011000 010011 001101 111111 000110 110100 101010 100001
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000000 001011 010101 100111 011110 101100 110010 111001
100000 101011 110101 000111 111110 001100 010010 011001
010000 011011 000101 110111 001110 111100 100010 101001
001000 000011 011101 101111 010110 100100 111010 110001
000100 001111 010001 100011 011010 101000 110110 111101
000010 001001 010111 100101 011100 101110 110000 111011
000001 001010 010100 100110 011111 101101 110011 111000
011000 010011 001101 111111 000110 110100 101010 100001
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000000 001011 010101 100111 011110 101100 110010 111001
100000 101011 110101 000111 111110 001100 010010 011001
010000 011011 000101 110111 001110 111100 100010 101001
001000 000011 011101 101111 010110 100100 111010 110001
000100 001111 010001 100011 011010 101000 110110 111101
000010 001001 010111 100101 011100 101110 110000 111011
000001 001010 010100 100110 011111 101101 110011 111000
011000 010011 001101 111111 000110 110100 101010 100001
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000000 001011 010101 100111 011110 101100 110010 111001
100000 101011 110101 000111 111110 001100 010010 011001
010000 011011 000101 110111 001110 111100 100010 101001
001000 000011 011101 101111 010110 100100 111010 110001
000100 001111 010001 100011 011010 101000 110110 111101
000010 001001 010111 100101 011100 101110 110000 111011
000001 001010 010100 100110 011111 101101 110011 111000
011000 010011 001101 111111 000110 110100 101010 100001
Two errors. Hence not
possible
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Thank You
