ISSN: 1139-613X

4 INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES AND THE

DEVELOPMENT OF INTERCULTURAL SENSITIVITY
AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

(EXPERIENCIAS INTERNACIONALES Y DESARROLLO DE

LA SENSIBILIDAD INTERCULTURAL DE LOS ESTUDIANTES
UNIVERSITARIOS)

Rosa M. Rodríguez-Izquierdo
Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla
DOI: 10.5944/educXX1.30143

How to reference this article/Cómo referenciar este artículo:

Rodríguez-Izquierdo, R.M. (2022). International experiences and the development of
intercultural sensitivity among university students. Educación XX1, 25(1), 93-117. https://doi.
org/10.5944/educXX1.30143
Rodríguez-Izquierdo, R.M. (2022). Experiencias internacionales y desarrollo de la sensibilidad
intercultural de los estudiantes universitarios. Educación XX1, 25(1), 93-117. https://doi.
org/10.5944/educXX1.30143

ABSTRACT

International cultural immersion experiences are deemed one of

the most effective ways to prepare multicultural and global citizens. The
purpose of the study was to determine: (1) first-year and final-year university
students’ levels of Intercultural Sensitivity (henceforth IS); (2) if there was a
relationship between IS and experiences of intercultural contact; and (3) the
variables that might predict the development of IS. A longitudinal method
and a correlational-predictive design was used. The sample comprised 1645
(52.5% women and 47.5% men) undergraduate students from 8 public
universities and one private university in Andalusia (Spain) with a mean
age of 23.29 (SD = 4.99). The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI)
was used to measure IS, and the Intercultural Experiences Inventory (IEI)

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was administered to explore students’ intercultural experiences. Findings

highlighted that there is little change in the IDI scores among first-year and
final-year students, and most students were found to be in the intermediate
stages of intercultural development (the minimization stage according to
Bennett’s model, characterized by the widespread belief that everyone is
quite similar). The lack of development found in the students’ IS could have
something to do with the lack of opportunity to reflect and think about
cultural differences. Positive correlations were found between IS and
mobility experiences and intercultural friendships, and negative correlations
were found with the number of intercultural interactions and language
knowledge. Having mobility experiences, being female, and having friends
from other cultures were predictive variables of IS. Finally, the educational
implications are discussed.

KEY WORDS

Intercultural Sensitivity, International Experiences, Contact Theory,

Intercultural Friendships, gender, Higher Education

RESUMEN

Las experiencias internacionales de inmersión cultural se consideran

una de las formas más efectivas de preparar ciudadanos multiculturales
y globales. El propósito de este estudio fue examinar: (1) el desarrollo de
la Sensibilidad Intercultural (en adelante SI) en estudiantes universitarios
de primer y último año; (2) las relaciones entre la SI y las experiencias de
contacto intercultural, y (3) las variables que podrían predecir el desarrollo de
la SI. Se utilizó un diseño un diseño longitudinal y correlacional-predictivo.
La muestra estuvo compuesta por 1645 estudiantes universitarios (52.5%
mujeres y 47.5% hombres) de ocho universidades públicas y una privada de
Andalucía (España) con una edad media de 23.29 (DT = 4.99). El Inventario
de Desarrollo Intercultural (IDI) fue utilizado para medir la Sensibilidad
Intercultural y el Inventario de Experiencias Interculturales (IEI) se
administró para explorar las experiencias interculturales de los estudiantes.
Los resultados mostraron que hay pocos cambios en las puntuaciones del IDI
entre los estudiantes de primer y último año, y la mayoría resultaron estar
en etapas intermedias de desarrollo intercultural (la etapa de minimización,
caracterizado por la creencia generalizada de que todos somos bastante
similares). La falta de desarrollo encontrada en la SI de los estudiantes podría
tener algo que ver con la falta de oportunidades para reflexionar y pensar
sobre las diferencias culturales). Se encontraron correlaciones positivas entre
la SI y las experiencias de movilidad y amistades interculturales, así como

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correlaciones negativas con el número de interacciones interculturales y el

conocimiento del idioma. Tener experiencias de movilidad, ser mujer y tener
amigos de otras culturas fueron variables predictivas de la SI. Finalmente, se
discuten las implicaciones educativas.

PALABRAS CLAVE

Sensibilidad Intercultural, Experiencias Internacionales, Teoría del

Contacto, Amistades Interculturales, género, Educación Superior

INTRODUCTION

Numerous studies have highlighted the importance of Intercultural

Sensitivity (henceforth IS), as a key competence in complex and multicultural
societies, where learning to live together, communication with people
from different cultural backgrounds, mutual respect and the elimination
of prejudices have proven to be essential issues affecting professional
success (Sá & Serpa, 2018). IS can be defined as the development of “a set
of cognitive, affective and behavioral skills and characteristics that support
effective and appropriate interaction in a variety of cultural contexts”
(Bennett, 2004, p. 97).

Indeed, cultural diversity is a critical consequence of globalization.

Throughout the world, the Higher Education (HE) environment is changing
rapidly in light of certain phenomena such as multiculturalism, global
communication or migration. The development of intercultural competence
is increasingly taken into consideration as an outcome for university
graduates, often under the heading of internationalization (Deardorff, 2006)
or the way in which universities instill “international, intercultural, or global
dimensions” into their institutions (Knight & De Wit, 2018, p. 3).

The results of this process are also visible in Spain. The Spanish
government has made great efforts to promote the internationalization of
HE, partly by supplying grants for study abroad programs and partly by
offering opportunities for foreign students in its institutions. As a result of its
adherence to the Bologna Process, Spanish universities also adopted several
instruments to offer students various intercultural experiences such as
internships and international dimension courses, in the belief that students
must be educated in a global context to develop intercultural skills (Rodríguez-
Izquierdo, 2015). Since then, it is essential to position cultural differences
centrally within university training since Spain is one of the European
countries with the highest mobility among university students. However,

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it remains unclear whether Spanish universities are really graduating

interculturally competent students. Potentially, international experiences
could foster the development of IS among university students. Despite the
growing interest in internationalization, in the Spanish Higher Education
context, little is known about the extent to which international experiences
may or may not help foster the development of IS among university students.
Furthermore, to date, studies on the variables which predict IS development
are practically non-existent (Rodríguez-Izquierdo, 2018). Through this work
we expect to contribute to debates on intercultural training in HE, which are
sparse in Spain, and to add new depth to the knowledge of which kinds of
international experiences develop students’ IS. Such knowledge might have
wide implications for policymakers and educators interested in promoting
effective experiences for increasing university students’ IS.

Additionally, in Spain intercultural competence has not been

significantly integrated into the curriculum and, as a result, deficiencies in its
development are detected among university students (Rodríguez-Izquierdo,
2018). Moreover, most studies related to this topic focus almost exclusively
on study abroad programs rather than university students in general
(Pedersen, 2010; Rodríguez-Izquierdo, 2015). Hence, Pendry, Driscoll and
Field (2007) strongly recommend further research to inform the effectiveness
of intercultural training efforts implemented by HE institutions.

However, social psychologists have always understood that mere

contact is insufficient to build rewarding relationships between groups
of different cultures. The contact hypothesis (Allport, 1954; Pettigrew &
Tropp, 2005, 2006) predicts the need for: (1) equal status; (2) a culture
of egalitarianism; (3) interdependence; and (4) opportunities for positive
inter-group interaction. Whilst the first two factors can be assumed within
HE, there are serious doubts about the presence of the last two. Students
will not develop IS simply by coming into contact with real life situations;
rather, development is grounded in providing students with opportunities
for meaningful intercultural contact. This paper argues that the Allport’s
contact hypothesis may not be enough to promote the development of IS
for most students.

Vande Berg, Paige and Lou (2012) refer to the “immersion assumption”,
which presumes that students automatically mix on university campuses
and, thus, develop intercultural competence. Nonetheless, a raft of scientific
production questions whether mere interaction works. In this vein, Brewer
(2003) posits that often when culturally diverse individuals or groups meet,
interactions are difficult as they encounter different behaviors, norms,
values and beliefs, leading to feelings of anxiety or avoidance behavior.
As an outcome, feelings of suspicion, distrust and threat can result in

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stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination. Thus, the presence of cultural

diversity on campuses does not automatically lead to intercultural contact.
For the understanding and the relationship between international students
and home students to occur, interaction is necessary. However, left to their
own devices, interaction is unlikely to happen, as the literature has shown
(He, Lundgren & Pynes, 2017).

Likewise, Mostafaei and Nosrati (2018) report that interactions of

international students in study abroad programs with students from the
host culture are not an automatic process, and that many international
students have difficulty establishing relationships with national students;
therefore, they tend to group with students of their same nationality.
Harrison and Peacock (2010) refer to this phenomenon as the “illusion
of internationalization” and Jackon (2018) to the “immersion myth”.
Additionally, a qualitative study exploring home student perspectives
found that they believed they lacked enough courage, motivation and skill
to successfully engage in intercultural interactions (Harrison & Peacock,
2010).

In short, the question of whether undergraduate students (national

and international) develop IS through contact is not sufficiently addressed
in the literature, and we have conflicting information about the variables
that influence its development. Several articles point to the need for more
definitive empirical data (Deardorff, Wit & Heyl, 2012). Furthermore, in
the case of Spain, the model advanced by Chen and Starosta (2000) has
received the most attention when examining this topic, and studies have
tended to focus on primary and secondary stages of education. Studies
under Bennett’s model and among university students are virtually non-
existent which can be regarded as a relevant contribution in furthering this
field of study in Spain. Bearing all this in mind, this article sought to fill
this gap in the literature by presenting the results from a study examining
the ID scores among undergraduate students, to explore the relationships
between IS and experiences of intercultural contact and finally to predict
the variables that impact its development.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Allport (1954) undertook years of research to explore how prejudices

could be reduced and how to foster better relationships. Some theories
of intercultural development are anchored in the notion that prejudiced
attitudes must be overcome for individuals to develop IS. In recent decades,
IS has received growing attention from researchers and practitioners
(Deardorff et al., 2012). To develop the theoretical underpinnings of this

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study, we drew on the complex and polysemous notion of IS, which has
given rise to different approaches (Arasaratam-Smith, 2017).

The concept of IS originated in studies focused on the field of

intercultural communication (Bennett, 1986, 1993) and had been regarded
as interchangeable with related concepts such as cultural competence and
cultural awareness (Deardorff and Arasaratam-Smith, 2017). For Bennett
and his colleagues (Hammer, Bennett & Wiseman, 2003), IS refers to the
ability to effectively identify and appreciate cultural differences, while
intercultural competence is the ability to act appropriately in situations
characterized by cultural diversity (Arasaratam-Smith, 2017). In this vein,
the term IS is understood as one of the crucial skills to prevent stereotypes
and false assumptions about how a person from a given cultural group
thinks and behaves. I have selected Bennett’s model as the most appropriate
one for our study because it highlights a continuous cognitive process
of development that involves learning to recognize and manage relevant
cultural differences.

For this study, Bennett’s Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

(DMIS) was selected to comprehend the different orientations toward
cultural differences (Bennett, 1993; Hammer et al., 2003; Vande Berg, Paige,
& Lou, 2012). Bennett and his colleagues theorized how people respond
to cultural dissimilarities through various processes of cultural adaptation.
This approach is fundamentally cognitive in nature: the model is one of
changes in the structure of thought and worldview. Additionally, expanding
IS entails learning to recognize and handle relevant cultural differences and
the different viewpoints of culturally different people in a way that prevents
misunderstandings and generates “the capacity to interpret, and therefore
to experience cultural difference in a more complex way” (Hammer et al,
2003, p. 423).

IS could be seen in terms of stages of personal growth. The DMIS

suggests that individuals move through six stages based on how people
perceive and respond to cultural difference (Table 1). The first three stages:
denial, defense, and minimization are considered ethnocentric. Individuals
view their own culture as central to all reality and act by avoiding cultural
differences through denying their existence, raising the defense against
their differences and minimizing their importance. The following three
stages: acceptance, adaptation and integration are considered ethnorelative
(a tendency to prefer members of the endo-group). In the ethnorelative view,
difference is not perceived as a threat but as a challenge, and people become
more sensitive to cultural differences through accepting their importance,
adapting a perspective to take them into account or by integrating the whole
concept into a definition of identity. In short, people become more sensitive

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to cultural differences, which means that their own culture is experienced

within the context of other cultures until they recognize other cultures as
equally valid.

Table 1
Bennett’s model (Bennett and Bennett 2004)

Ethnocentric Denial Individuals deny the existence of cultural diffe-

Orientation rences due to lack of contact, disinterest and/
or fear.
Defense Cultural differences are perceived as a threat.
Minimization only cultural commonalities, not differences,
are recognized.
Ethnorelative Acceptance An orientation that recognizes and appreciates
Orientation patterns of cultural difference and commonality
in one’s own and other cultures.
Adaptation An orientation that can act appropriately accor-
ding to the environment, without renouncing
one’s own values.
Integration Cultures are adopted and integrated into one’s
own identity.

The DMIS is based on three assumptions: 1) The development of IS is

a continuum of increasing sophistication in dealing with cultural difference
which changes over time; 2) The progression from one to another stage is
not sequential (Hammer & Bennett, 2003). That is, individuals do not need
to have one phase completely resolved to progress to later developmental
stages. 3) As one’s understanding of cultural differences becomes more
sophisticated and complex, the propensity for intercultural competence
increases (Hammer et al., 2003).

While there are many models to measure IC (Deardorff, 2009), this

study is grounded in Bennett’s evolutive model (1986, 1993), which has
received little attention in the context of Spanish university education,
as opposed to Chen and Starosta’s (2000) model, which understands IS
as the emotional dimension of intercultural communicative competence
and has been widely used. However, measuring the degree of empathy or
tolerance, for example, can be a difficult task because of the abstract nature
of these terms. Bennett’s model is also theoretically consistent with decades
of research which describes the challenges associated with intercultural
contact and how individuals move through different states, claiming that IS
development is not a linear process as most models describe (Allport 1954;
Pettigrew & Tropp, 2005, 2006).

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LITERATURE REVIEW

Numerous empirical studies revealed that the development of IS is

associated with various socio-cultural, social-psychological, personality and
individual determinants. However, findings on which factors contribute to
its development are contradictory. A large body of research in North America
focuses its attention on how international mobility experiences favor the
advancement of IS. In such experiences, students face a continuum of stimuli
that forces them into a process of decoding the other culture. This exercise
involves comparisons between the different and the analogous, forcing
learners to move from an external evaluation of the “other” to an assessment
of their own identity (Jackson, 2018). While previous studies suggested that
interaction with a diverse “other” is one of the strongest factors in fostering
IS, there is no conclusive evidence that mobility experiences per se lead to
the growth of IS (Lantz-Deaton, 2017; He, Lundgren, & Pynes, 2017).

Researchers have long recognized the need to address difficulties

associated with cross-cultural contact. For example, Vande Berg, Paige
and Lou (2012), in a study with more than 1300 North American students
studying abroad, concluded that simply being exposed to a different cultural
environment did not prove to be a sufficient condition for greater intercultural
learning, with some students even showing a decrease in the development of IS
over time. Similarly, Pedersen (2010) supports the findings that simply sending
students abroad is not enough for the improvement of IS and suggests the need
for planned interventions and programs during study abroad experiences.

Previous research has primarily examined the practices that foster

increased IS. In a recent study, Rodríguez-Izquierdo (2018) found that after
participating in international mobility programs, most students were at the
minimization level according to Bennett’s model, characterized by a greater
appreciation of cultural similarities than differences. others postulate that
development requires students to acquire critical insight on their own and
other cultures which involves more than just being in contact with cultural
difference but engaging with it (Deardorff, 2009). Consequently, it is not
just a matter of accumulating experiences but experiences that provide
opportunities for direct engagement with differences and for sustained
reflection. Additionally, positive intergroup contact increased IS by
prompting students to hear others’ voices and to consider viewpoints that
were not aligned with their own (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006).

Studies such as those by Engle and Engle (2004) revealed differences

in the development of IS according to the length of the program, in favor of
long-term programs. In Spain, Cots at al. (2016), in a mixed-methods study,
analyzing the results of a quantitative pre-stay post-stay survey administered

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to 110 students from two universities in Catalonia, as well as one student’s

discursive construction of this impact during her study abroad, showed that
study abroad of between 5 and 10 months had a stronger impact on the
knowledge component of IC than on the behavior and attitude components.
While Paige, Cohen and Shively (2004) and Bunch et al. (2018) found that
short-term overseas programs have the potential to develop IS.

Furthermore, McMurrary (2007) analyzed the impact on IS of several

variables, namely: gender, type of students (national vs. international),
international travel and stays abroad. The results of her study revealed no
significant differences in the development of IS between men and women,
although she discovered that women scored higher than men. She also found
no difference between national and international students, even if international
students obtained higher scores than national students. Likewise, there were
no differences in the IS of students who had participated in international
mobility programs and students who had not. The data only suggested some
statistically significant effect of international travel among national students.

Regarding gender and language, Anderson et  al. (2006) described

higher IS in women compared to men and people who had lived in
different countries. Vande Berg (2007) suggests that there are other
predictive variables for the development of IS along with gender, in favor
of women, such as experiences abroad and literacy in a second language,
highlighting that students who did not study abroad but received cultural
training attained greater development of IS. More recent work has shown
that intercultural training plus the experience of living abroad can create
optimal conditions for students to develop their IS (Liu, 2019). The findings
imply that IS is closely related to learners’ linguistic, psychological and
demographic variables.

In summary, despite extensive research on the variables that

might affect the advancement of IS, there is considerable debate about
whether and to what extent various demographic factors and experiences
of intercultural contact lead to its development. Consequently, these
discordant results indicate the need to further examine the effects of these
variables. Furthermore, findings connecting international experiences with
the development of intercultural competence are judged indispensable in
increasing multicultural societies (Knight & De Wit, 2018).

METHOD

This study used a two-phase method design. The first gathered data
was based on a short-term longitudinal method approach to investigate

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the levels of IS overtime, and to gather data which would allow for the
exploration of the relationship between students’ IS development and
international experiences during university. The second was a correlational-
predictive design with the intention to identify the variables that might
predict the development of IS.

Participants

A total of 1645 undergraduate students from 8 public universities and

one private university in Andalusia (Spain) participated in this study, 52.5%
of which were women and 47.5% men. Pearson’s chi-square test indicated
that there were no differences according to sex (χ² = 2.78, p >.05). The age
range was between 18 and 32 years of age. The mean age was 22.29 (SD
= 3.99 years). Pearson›s chi-square test also showed that there was no
difference in the distribution of the number of participants of each sex in
the different age ranges (χ² = 3.92, p >.05). 23.8% were first-year students,
23.1% second-year, 28% third-year, and 25.1% fourth-year. 28.4% spoke a
second language and 71.6% could not communicate in another language.
Regarding the field of study, 16.6% were Science students (Mathematics
and Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Biomedical and Natural Sciences), 13.9%
Engineering and Architecture, 14.1% Social Sciences (Behavioral and
Educational Sciences) and Politics, 15.1% Law, 12% Humanities (History,
geography and Art), 16% Economic and Business Sciences and 12.3%
Language Studies. A stratified sampling technique was used to select the
random sample, dividing the population into strata according to their most
notable characteristics. In this study, these parameters were: sex, age, year
of study, field of study and type of university.

Measures

The dependent variable was the IDI score. The IS predictor variables
were: sex, year of study, mobility experiences, program duration,
international travel, knowledge of other languages, friends from other
cultures and field of study.

Instruments

Two instruments were administered in this study:

• International Experiences Inventory (IEI), built ad hoc for this

research, to gather the students’ demographic information (age,

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sex, year of study, etc.) and the students’ intercultural contact

experiences (mobility experiences, international travel, friends from
other cultures, the number of international interactions per week,
etc.)

• The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) was composed of

36 items rated on a ive-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree;
5=strongly agree), grouped into ive factors: (1) denial/defense;
consisting of 8 items, explains 30.26% of the variance and examines
the view that simpliies and/or polarizes cultural differences (α = .91);
(2) minimization; consisting of 7 items, explains 15.51% of variance
and examines the view that emphasizes cultural similarities and
universal values in a tendency to assume that people from other
cultures are basically “like us” (α =.85); (3) reversal; consisting
of 6 items, explains 10.82% of variance and refers to a view that
inverts the “us” and “them”, in which “them” is superior (α =.82);
(4) acceptance/adaptation, consisting of 8 items, explains 8.49% of
variance and examines the view that understands and accommodates
cultural differences (α =. 83); and (5) cultural marginality, consisting
of 7 items, explains 4.93% of variance and examines multicultural
identity, where one’s identity is separated from any speciic cultural
context (α =.84).

The values for Cronbach’s Alpha, Composite Reliability (CR) and

Maximum Reliability (MR) all exceeded the minimum limit (.70), whilst the
percentages of Average Extracted Variance (AVE) were adequate, all being
above.50. After comparing different explanatory models, a factorial structure
of 5 factors was found, explaining 70.01% of the total variance. Cronbach’s
Alpha was .85 for the whole instrument, and the Confirmatory Factor
Analysis (CFA) fit was highly satisfactory (χ²/df = 1.64, GFI =.86, RMR =.07
and RMSEA =.03). Rodriguez-Izquierdo (2018) details the construction and
validation of this instrument and describes further details on the procedure
employed, as well as the reliability and validity tests of both convergent and
discriminatory content.

Procedure

Data collection was carried out online. The students received an email
informing them of the objectives of the study, assuring confidentiality, asking
for informed consent and providing the link to access the instruments. The
estimated average response time was 30 minutes.

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The data collection was carried out in two phases. The first gathered
quantitative data using the IDI which was administered to first-year and
final-year students in two waves of data collection: in october 2019 and
in May 2020 using the IDI and IEI to learn about students’ development
alongside their contact experiences. Data collection followed the same
model as outlined above. The design thus not only considered the changes
that occur between these two temporal periods but also traced the possible
changes experienced by students who carry out an international mobility
experience with those who do not.

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of University Pablo

de olavide (Seville, Spain). It also complies with the ethical values required
in research with human beings and respects the fundamental principles
included in the Declaration of Helsinki.

Data analysis

Data analysis began with frequencies of the data to understand the

participant profile(s) at the two time points. Additionally, normality of
the variables was assessed to determine the use of parametric or non-
parametric tests in the comparison of related and independent means. To
this end, the Shapiro-Wilk Test was performed. After verification of the
above assumptions, non-parametric tests were applied.

To decide whether there was a significant change in the IDI scores of

students, t-tests were used as distribution scores were found to be normal.
Pearson’s correlation coefficients were run to analyze whether any of the
intercultural contact experiences (language knowledge, mobility experiences,
friends from other cultures and number of intercultural interactions, etc.)
were related to changes in the IDI scores.

Finally, as this study focused in part upon identifying factors which

might predict IS development, stepwise linear regression analysis was
applied. When running the regression, variance inflation factors and tolerance
were studied to prevent multicollinearity problems. As multicollinearity was
deemed not to be a problem, all variables remained in the regression model.
Assumptions of linearity and homoscedasticity were also measured and met.
The data were analyzed using statistical package SPSS V.23.0.

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RESULTS

Analysis of intercultural contact experiences

As noted in Table 2, half of the students reported having 7 or more

cross-cultural interactions per week and almost two-thirds reported having
friends from other cultures. Approximately one quarter of the students
indicated that they had taken part in mobility experiences. Specifically, the
descriptive analysis of students’ intercultural contact experiences showed
the following characteristics.

Table 2
Students’ intercultural contact experience
Category Percentage of students (%)
Mobility experiences
Yes 21%
No 79%
Duration of the program
one semester 49%
Less than one semester 15%
More than one semester 36%
International travel
Never traveled abroad 21.4%
Traveled only once 43.2%
Have traveled more than once 35.4%
Friends from other cultures
Agree 67.8%
Disagree 22.1%
Neither agree nor disagree 12.1%
Number of intercultural interactions per
week 11.8%
1 to 3 14.9%
4 to 6 19.8%
7 to 10 25.7%
11 to 14 16.0%
15 or more

Developmental stages of intercultural sensitivity among first-year and

final-year students

The first part of the study was to examine whether first-year and fourth-
year students developed IS. For this question, their mean IDI scores from
waves I and II were compared. The mean decreased slightly from 93.41 in
wave I to 89.98 in wave II. The mean change in score was -1.43 (SD = 11.29).

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Although these means were somewhat different, both were in the same
developmental stage, minimization, characterized by being able to recognize
cultural differences in a superficial way, indicating that overall, there was
little change between the first-year and final-year students. This was verified
by means of a t-test comparing the mean scores t (112) = 1.41, p =.19.

As shown in Figure 1, just over half (59.6%) of the students remained at

the same developmental stage, over one quarter (29.6%) shifted down one or
more stages, whilst only 15.2% moved up one or more stages. This propounds
that a slight number of students developed their IS during their studies, whilst
the majority remained at the same stage and a substantial proportion returned
to a previous stage. It is worth noting that in this study sample: 1) most students
began and stayed in ethnocentric stages with very few students beginning in or
entering ethnorelative stages; 2) few students were in the cultural marginality
stage of difference, which is characterized by experiencing one’s own culture
as one of the many possible cultural perspectives.

Figure 1
IDI developmental stages of irst-year and inal-year students at wave I and
wave II

Relationship between intercultural development, demographic

variables and intercultural contact experiences

Table 3 shows Pearson’s correlation coefficients between IS and

language knowledge, having friends from other cultures, mobility
experiences and the number of intercultural interactions, calculated both
for the sample as a whole and controlling for year and gender effect.

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Table 3
Pearson’s correlations between intercultural development, language knowledge,
mobility experiences, friends from other cultures, international travel and program
duration; and partial correlations controlling for year and sex
Total sample
Total sample controlling for Females Males
n = 1645 year and sex n = 864 n = 781

SI
Language knowledge .07* .07* 11* .05
Mobility experiences .43*** .42*** .40*** .46***
Friends from other .36*** .36*** .31*** .40***
cultures
Number of intercul- .29*** .27*** .27*** .29***
tural interactions
per week
Program duration -.25*** -.23*** -.33*** -.26***
International travel -.29*** -.27*** -.39*** -.29***
Note. * p <.05 ** p <.01 *** p <.001

First, the results showed that having knowledge of other languages

does not bear a significant relationship with IS (Table 3). only positive, low-
magnitude correlations between language knowledge and IS were found
among the female participants, suggesting that females with high IDI scores
had knowledge of other languages. In the sample of male participants,
no correlation was found between the two variables. Partial correlations
controlling for year and sex effect showed similar results.

Second, Pearson’s coefficients confirmed that having friends from

other cultures and mobility experiences correlated significantly (p <.001)
with IS, both for the sample as a whole and analyzing the samples of male
and female participants independently. The correlations in the women’s
sample between IS and mobility experiences and friends from other cultures
were of greater magnitude. Partial correlations controlling for year and sex
effect showed similar results. The results suggested a strong relationship
between IS and intercultural experiences, as people with high IDI scores had
more friends from other cultures and more mobility experiences within the
total number of intercultural experiences.

Third, Pearson’s coefficients corroborated moderate significant

correlations (p <.001) between the number of cross-cultural interactions
and IS, both for the sample as a whole and in the samples of male and
female participants analyzed independently. Partial correlations controlling
for year and sex effect displayed similar results.

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Finally, Pearson’s coefficients confirmed moderate negative significant

correlations (p <.001) between IS and cultural trips and the duration of the
mobility program, both for the sample as a whole and for the samples of
male and female participants analyzed independently. Partial correlations
controlling for the effect of sex and year indicated similar outcomes. The
findings suggested a strong inverse relationship between IS and international
travel.

IDI predicting variables

To examine the predictive power of the different variables on the

IDI, the following variables were inserted in the multiple linear regression
analysis: age, sex, year, knowledge of other languages, friends from other
cultures, mobility experiences, program duration, number of intercultural
interactions and intercultural experience.

As shown in Table 4, of the set of predictor variables for IS, only

three were statistically significant predictors: experiences of mobility,
sex and having friends from other cultures. Beta standardized regression
coefficients indicated that these variables have some weight in the IS
criterion variable. The percentages of explained variance (adjusted
coefficients of determination) for each of these predictor variables were
of medium magnitude. The three predictor variables explain 33.4% of the
variance. Among the female students, three variables were significant:
mobility experiences, friends from other cultures and language knowledge,
explaining 33.3% of the variance. Beta standardized regression coefficients
suggested that both mobility experiences and having friends from other
cultures had some weight in IS and, although to a lesser extent, also in
language knowledge. The percentages of variance explained by each of these
predictor variables were of medium magnitude. In the male sample, two
variables were significant: mobility experiences and having friends from
other cultures. Beta standardized regression coefficients indicated that both
types of variables were predictors of IS, but their explanatory power was
low, explaining 21.1% of the variance.

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Table 4
Multiple regression results: predicting IDI change
Standard β
R R² ΔR² B Error Constant t

SI
Total sample .
Mobility experiences .488 238 .237 .339 .058 3.366 .286 .583***
Sex .563 .317 .315 -6.704 .697 14.095 -.280 -9.61***
Friends from other .580 .336 .334 .282 .059 14.092 .235 4.78***
cultures
Females
Mobility experiences .549 .301 .299 .409 .086 4.678 .341 4.730***
Friends from other .574 .330 .326 .314 .085 4.916 .266 3.960***
cultural
Knowledge language .583 .339 .333 .050 .022 -2.845 .096 2.230*
Males
Mobility experiences .449 .202 .200 .310 .078 2.943 .292 3.962***
Friends from other .464 .215 .211 .215 .081 2.897 .185 2.649**
cultures
Note. * p<.05. ** p<.01. *** p<.001

DISCUSSION

This study explored the first-year and final-year university students’

levels of IS, the possible relationships between IS and intercultural contact
experiences (experiences of mobility, friends from other cultures, number of
intercultural interactions, etc.) and identified the predictive variables for IS.
Bennett’s model was used, which adopts a cognitive-evolutive perspective,
something that, in the Spanish context, can be considered a relevant
contribution in furthering this field of study.

Regarding the first objective, the results suggested that the development
of IS was very limited, with few differences in IDI scores between first and
fourth-year students. The fact that most students were in the minimization
stage, characterized by the widespread belief that everyone is quite similar,
is not surprising since recognizing the value of cultural differences can be
very difficult (Bennett, 1993; Deardorff, 2006; Hammer & Bennett, 2002).
Minimization is within the ethnocentric phase and still presupposes that
values are universal. This stage is indicated by statements such as: “In other
cultures you just have to be yourself”, “what you have to apply is common
sense” or “there are things that work everywhere”. The lack of significant
changes in the development of IS within the ethnocentric stages is very
similar to the results found by Paige et al. (2004).

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These findings seem to indicate that participants show a great lack

of knowledge about cultural differences and a significant educational gap
considering the limited development in their IS (Deardorff et al., 2012). The
lack of development found in the students’ IS could have something to do
with the lack of opportunity to reflect and think about cultural differences.
These findings support the concerns highlighted in the literature that
university strategies may rely too heavily on immersion as an assumption
for the development of IS, even though research suggests this might involve
more than just coming into contact with cultural difference, thus posing
significant challenges to educational institutions (He, Lundgren, & Pynes,
2017; Vande Berg, Paige & Lou, 2012).

A recent study conducted by Rodríguez-Izquierdo (2015) reveals that

students require reflective training to develop their appreciation for cultural
differences. Nevertheless, findings obtained in this study indicate that,
according to Bennett’s model, although the IS scores of final-year students
generally showed greater development, the impact was not sufficient to move
students from an ethnocentric phase, which considered its own culture as
“central to all reality”, to an ethnorelative phase which involves recognizing
cultural difference by accepting that other world views are legitimate
(acceptance), adapting to differences (adaptation) and in some cases
integrating cultural differences into one’s own identity (cultural marginality).

Additionally, positive correlations were found between IS and mobility

experiences and having friends from other cultures, as well as negative
correlations with the number of intercultural interactions and language
knowledge. Regarding mobility experiences, the conclusions reiterate
previous research findings (Bunch et al., 2018), which suggest that mobility
experiences improve IS, encouraging flexibility and interest in other cultures,
thus reducing ethnocentrism (Rodríguez-Izquierdo, 2018). The findings are
also congruent with those of the meta-analysis test of intergroup contact
theory, following the literature on Allport’s contact hypothesis (1954),
which indicates that intergroup friendships are important factors affecting
contact positively (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2005). Classical theories also indicate
that intergroup contact may reduce prejudice under conditions of group
equality, common goals, institutional support and intergroup cooperation.

For example, the meta-analysis results of Pettigrew and Tropp (2006,

p. 269) showed that “intergroup friendship” and “structured programs for
optimal contact” are significantly effective in creating a favorable impact on
intergroup contact. This study demonstrates little evidence that the contact
hypothesis requirements for the number of interpersonal relationships and
for international travel were met in practice. This outcome suggests that
quantity of interaction and travel does not guarantee quality of interaction

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and that more work is needed to provide a context in which the number
of intercultural encounters is positive and meaningful. Thus, the number
of interactions might not be enough to promote the development of IS for
most students who remain in the ethnocentric phases. The results aligned
with the fact that the presence of many international students on campus
does not mean that contact will occur (He, Lundgren & Pynes, 2017). These
findings support the concern found in the literature that universities need
to be more pro-active in introducing intercultural training in their programs
(Cost et al., 2016).

Finally, this study identified that only three of the predictive variables
studied present statistically significant differences in relation to IS: having
mobility experiences, being a woman and having friends from other cultures.
With respect to sex, women showed a higher level of IS towards differences.
These results concur with the findings of Anderson et al. (2006) and Vande
Berg (2007). one possible explanation offered to account for the higher IS
of women could be related to the different models of socialization, which
could partially explain the difference in developmental levels between men
and women. However, this is an issue that should be examined in future
research. Furthermore, the data for variables that were found to be poor IS
predictors require further consideration, one of which is having knowledge
of other languages. one of the possible reasons to explain this might be: on
the one hand, in the sample, the number of students who were able to speak
a second language was very small (28.4%); and on the other hand, knowledge
of languages might not necessarily imply maintaining contact with people
from different cultures. Whilst these findings are exploratory, they are
consistent with those found by Liu (2019). It is likely that with other kinds
of samples (with more knowledge of second languages), these correlations
might have been different. Concerning the number of intercultural
interactions, although participants reported having frequent interactions,
it is hard to examine how in-depth students’ intercultural interactions were
and if they were the kind of exchanges that lead to intercultural learning.

one last possible explanation to explain the paucity of development in

participants may correlate to the IDI measure itself. The literature reveals
that intercultural competence is a complex notion including a range of
factors such as flexibility, adaptability, self-awareness, empathy, curiosity,
openness, tolerance of ambiguity and an ethnorelative perspective (Deardorff
2006). While the IDI puts students on a developmental continuum ranging
from ethnocentric to ethnorelative worldviews, it might not explain the variety
of factors argued in research. Therefore, it is more of a broad guide, which
does not give a complete enough picture through which slight changes in
development may be identified.

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Educational implications

The findings from this study provide theoretical information to

rethink curricula from the perspective of intercultural education with a
view to proposing improvements in the acknowledgement of the other. In
line with such evidence, Pendry et al. (2007, p. 29) claim that it is necessary
to work on a “set of programmes, which aims to influence participants
to increase their positive […] intergroup behaviours, such that less
prejudice is displayed towards others perceived as different in their group
affiliation(s)”.

Finally, as IS did not appear to develop for most students, universities

might need to do more to enhance it. Thus, HE institutions might need
to pay attention to the competence of teachers to generate intercultural
learning from international experiences (Knight, & De Wit, 2018), while
training students to acknowledge cultural differences should be viewed as
part of the social responsibility of universities in our globalized and complex
societies.

Limitations and future work

The present study has limitations and elicits suggestions for future
studies. Firstly, it should be noted that, since the data are correlational in
nature, they provide little information on the causal relationship that might
exist between the variables studied. lopment (Deardorff & Arasaratam-
Smith, 2017). The next limitation is a clear lack of prior research studies
on this topic in Spain, so it is tough to compare our findings with other
scholars to offer a more complete view on the issue.

Future research could complement this study with multiple methods

of collecting data and with long-longitudinal designs that would further
contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of what sort of contact
experiences foster the IS development.

CONCLUSIONS

While globalization might create more complex cultural scenarios, the

study of IS and programs that favor it might identify how cultural diversity
could be harnessed to promote more open and innovative societies rather
than more intolerant ones that are closed to diversity. Until the development
of IS is accepted as a learning process in Spanish HE policies, the widely
held assumption of “immersion and contact” will probably continue,

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and thus the development of students’ IS to ethnorelative stages will be

disappointing. Hence, acknowledging the significance of developing IS with
a view to tackling all forms of diversity and discrimination play a vital role
in progressing towards more inclusive and just societies.

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PERFIL ACADÉMICO Y PROFESIONAL DE LA AUTORA

Rosa María Rodríguez-Izquierdo. oRCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-

9432-1280

Doctora en Ciencias de la Educación por la Universidad de Sevilla.

Profesora Titular de Universidad (acreditada a Cátedra) del
Departamento de Educación y Psicología Social de la Universidad
Pablo de olavide (Sevilla). Becaria Fullbright en la Universidad de
Harvard. Líneas de investigación: Educación intercultural (y bilingüe),
migración y escuela y desigualdades educativas, educación superior.
E-mail: rmrodizq@upo.es

Fecha Recepción del Artículo: 26. Febrero. 2021

Fecha Modificación del Artículo: 02. Junio. 2021
Fecha Aceptación del Artículo: 23. Junio. 2021
Fecha Revisión para Publicación: 10. Septiembre. 2021

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