Obligations and Contracts Reviewer

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS
REVIEWER
TITLE I – OBLIGATIONS
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
1156. An obligation is a juridical necessity to give, to do, or not to do.
JURIDICAL NECESSITY – juridical tie; connotes that in case of noncompliance, there will be legal
sanctions.
 An obligation is nothing more than the duty of a person (obligor) to satisfy a specific demandable
claim of another person (obligee) which, if breached, is enforceable in court.
 A contract necessarily gives rise to an obligation but an obligation does not always need to have a
contract.
KINDS OF OBLIGATION
A. From the viewpoint of “sanction” -
(a) CIVIL OBLIGATION – that defined in Article 1156; an obligation, if not fulfilled when it
becomes due and demandable, may be enforced in court through action; based on law; the
sanction is judicial due process
(b) NATURAL OBLIGATION – defined in Article 1423; a special kind of obligation which cannot
be enforced in court but which authorizes the retention of the voluntary payment or
performance made by the debtor; based on equity and natural law. (i.e. when there is
prescription of duty to pay, still, the obligor paid his dues to the obligee – the obligor cannot
recover his payment even there is prescription) the sanction is the law, but only conscience had
originally motivated the payment.
(c) MORAL OBLIGATION – the sanction is conscience or morality, or the law of the church.
(Note: If a Catholic promises to hear mass for 10 consecutive Sundays in order to receive
P1,000, this obligation becomes a civil one.)
B. From the viewpoint of subject matter -
(a) REAL OBLIGATION – the obligation to give
(b) PERSONAL OBLIGATION – the obligation to do or not to do (e.g. the duty to paint a house,
or to refrain from committing a nuisance)
C. From the affirmativeness and negativeness of the obligation -
(a) POSITIVE OR AFFIRMATIVE OBLIGATION – the obligation to give or to do
(b) NEGATIVE OBLIGATION – the obligation not to do (which naturally inludes not to give)
D. From the viewpoint of persons obliged - “sanction” -
(a) UNILATERAL – where only one of the parties is bound (e.g. Plato owes Socrates P1,000. Plato
must pay Socrates.)
(b) BILATERAL – where both parties are bound (e.g. In a contract of sale, the buyer is obliged to
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deliver)
- may be:
(b.1) reciprocal
(b.2) non-reciprocal – where performance by one is non-dependent upon performance by the
other
ELEMENTS OF OBLIGATION
a) ACTIVE SUBJECT – (Creditor / Obligee) the person who is demanding the performance of the
obligation;
b) PASSIVE SUBJECT – (Debtor / Obligor) the one bound to perform the prestation or to fulfill the
obligation or duty;
c) PRESTATION – (to give, to do, or not to do) object; subject matter of the obligation; conduct required to
be observed by the debtor;
d) EFFICIENT CAUSE – the JURIDICAL TIE which binds the parties to the obligation; source of the
obligation.
PRESTATION (Object)
1. TO GIVE – delivery of a thing to the creditor (in sale, deposit, pledge, donation);
2. TO DO – covers all kinds of works or services (contract for professional services);
3. NOT TO DO – consists of refraining from doing some acts (in following rules and regulations).
Requisites of Prestation / Object:

1) licit (if illicit, it is void)
2) possible (if impossible, it is void)
3) determinate or determinable (or else, void)
4) pecuniary value
 INJURY – wrongful act or omission which causes loss or harm to another

 DAMAGE – result of injury (loss, hurt, harm)
1157. Obligation arises from – (1) law; (2) contracts; (3) quasi-contracts; (4) acts or omissions punished
by law; (5) quasi-delicts.
(1) LAW (Obligation ex lege) – imposed by law itself; must be expressly or impliedly set forth and cannot
be presumed
- [See Article 1158]
(2) CONTRACTS (Obligation ex contractu) – arise from stipulations of the parties: meeting of the minds /
formal agreement
- must be complied with in good faith because it is the “law” between parties; neither party may unilaterally
evade his obligation in the contract, unless:
a) contract authorizes it
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b) other party assents
Note:
Parties may freely enter into any stipulations, provided they are not contrary to law, morals, good customs,
public order or public policy
(3) QUASI-CONTRACTS (Obligation ex quasi-contractu) – arise from lawful, voluntary and unilateral acts
and which are enforceable to the end that no one shall be unjustly enriched or benefited at the expense of
another
- 2 kinds:
a. Negotiorum gestio - unauthorized management; This takes place when a person voluntarily takes
charge of another’s abandoned business or property without the owner’s authority
b. Solutio indebiti - undue payment; This takes place when something is received when there is no
right to demand it, and it was unduly delivered thru mistake
(4) DELICTS (Obligation ex maleficio or ex delicto) – arise from civil liability which is the consequence of
a criminal offense
- Governing rules:
1. Pertinent provisions of the RPC and other penal laws subject to Art 2177 Civil Code
[Art 100, RPC – Every person criminally liable for a felony is also civilly liable]
2. Chapter 2, Preliminary title, on Human Relations ( Civil Code )
3. Title 18 of Book IV of the Civil Code – on damages
(5) QUASI-DELICTS / TORTS (Obligation ex quasi-delicto or ex quasi-maleficio) – arise from damage

caused to another through an act or omission, there being no fault or negligence, but no contractual relation
exists between the parties
1158. Obligations from law are not presumed. Only those (1) expressly determined in this code or (2) in
special laws are demandable, and shall be regulated by the precepts of the law which establishes them;
and as to what has not been foreseen, by the provisions of this code.
 Unless such obligations are EXPRESSLY provided by law, they are not demandable and enforceable,
and cannot be presumed to exist.
 The Civil Code can be applicable suppletorily to obligations arising from laws other than the Civil
Code itself.
 Special laws – refer to all other laws not contained in the Civil Code.

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1159. Obligations arising from contracts have the force of law between the contracting parties and
should be complied with in good faith.
CONTRACT – meeting of minds between two persons whereby one binds himself, with respect to the other,
to give, to do something or to render some service; governed primarily by the agreement of the contracting
parties.
VALID CONTRACT – it should not be against the law, contrary to morals, good customs, public order, and
public policy.
 In the eyes of law, a void contract does not exist and no obligation will arise from it.
OBLIGATIONS ARISING FROM CONTRACTS – primarily governed by the stipulations, clauses, terms
and conditions of their agreements.
 If a contract’s prestation is unconscionable (unfair) or unreasonable, even if it does not violate morals,
law, etc., it may not be enforced totally.
 Interpretation of contract involves a question of law.
COMPLIANCE IN GOOD FAITH – compliance or performance in accordance with the stipulations or terms
of the contract or agreement.
FALSIFICATION OF A VALID CONTRACT – only the unauthorized insertions will be disregarded; the
original terms and stipulations should be considered valid and subsisting for the partied to fulfill.
1160. Obligations derived from quasi-contracts shall be subject to the provisions of chapter 1, title 17
of this book.
QUASI-CONTRACT – juridical relation resulting from lawful, voluntary and unilateral acts by virtue of
which, both parties become bound to each other, to the end that no one will be unjustly enriched or benefited
at the expense of the other. (See Article 2142)
(1) NEGOTIORUM GESTIO – juridical relation which takes place when somebody voluntarily
manages the property affairs of another without the knowledge or consent of the latter; owner
shall reimburse the gestor for necessary and useful expenses incurred by the latter for the
performance of his function as gestor.
(2) SOLUTIO INDEBITI – something is received when there is no right to demand it and it was
unduly delivered through mistake; obligation to return the thing arises on the part of the
recipient. (e.g. If I let a storekeeper change my P500 bill and by error he gives me P560, I have
the duty to return the extra P60)
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1161. Civil obligations arising from criminal offenses shall be governed by the penal laws, subject to
the provisions of Article 2177, and of the pertinent provisions of Chapter 2, Preliminary in Human
Relations, and of Title 18 of this book, regulating damages.
Governing rules:
1. Pertinent provisions of the RPC and other penal laws subject to Art 2177 Civil Code
[Art 100, RPC – Every person criminally liable for a felony is also civilly liable]
2. Chapter 2, Preliminary title, on Human Relations ( Civil Code )
3. Title 18 of Book IV of the Civil Code – on damages
 Every person criminally liable for a felony is also criminally liable (art. 100, RPC)
CRIMINAL LIABILITY INCLUDES:

(a) RESTITUTION – restoration of property previously taken away; the thing itself shall be
restored, even though it be found in the possession of a third person who has acquired it by
lawful means, saving to the latter his action against the proper person who may be liable to
him.
(b) REPARATION OF THE DAMAGE CAUSED – court determines the amount of damage:
price of a thing, sentimental value, etc.
(c) INDEMNIFICATION FOR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES – includes damages suffered by
the family of the injured party or by a third person by reason of the crime.
Effect of acquittal in criminal case:

a. when acquittal is due to reasonable doubt – no civil liability
b. when acquittal is due to exempting circumstances – there is civil liability
c. when there is preponderance of evidence – there is civil liability
1162. Obligations derived from quasi-delicts shall be governed by the provisions of chapter 2, title 17 of
this book, and by special laws.
QUASI-DELICT (culpa aquiliana) – an act or omission by a person which causes damage to another giving
rise to an obligation to pay for the damage done, there being fault or negligence but there is no pre-existing
contractual relation between parties. (See Article 2176)
REQUISITES:
a. omission
b. negligence
c. damage caused to the plaintiff
d. direct relation of omission, being the cause, and the damage, being the effect
e. no pre-existing contractual relations between parties
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Fault or Negligence – consists in the omission of that diligence which is required by the nature of the
obligation and corresponds with the circumstances of the person, time, and of the place.
BASIS DELICTS QUASI-DELICTS

1. INTENT Criminal / malicious Negligence
2. INTEREST Affects PUBLIC interest Affects PRIVATE interest
3. LIABILITY Criminal and civil liabilities Civil liability
4. PURPOSE Purpose – punishment Indemnification
5.COMPROMIS Cannot be compromised Can be compromised
E
6. GUILT Proved beyond reasonable doubt Preponderance of
evidence
CHAPTER 2
NATURE AND EFFECT OF OBLIGATIONS
1163. Every person obliged to give something is also obliged to take care of it with the proper diligence
of a good father of a family, unless the law or the stipulation of the parties requires another standard of
care.
 Speaks of an obligation to care of a DETERMINATE thing (that is one which is specific; a thing
identified by its individuality) which an obligor is supposed to deliver to another.
 Reason: the obligor cannot take care of the whole class/genus
DUTIES OF DEBTOR:
 Preserve or take care of the things due.

 DILIGENCE OF A GOOD FATHER – a good father does not abandon his family, he is always
ready to provide and protect his family; ordinary care which an average and reasonably prudent
man would do.
- Defined in the negative in Article 1173
 ANOTHER STANDARD OF CARE – extraordinary diligence provided in the stipulation of
parties.
 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED – diligence depends on the nature of obligation and
corresponds with the circumstances of the person, time, and place.
** Debtor is not liable if his failure to deliver the thing is due to fortuitous events or force majeure… without
negligence or fault in his part.
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 Deliver the fruits of a thing

 Deliver the accessions/accessories
 Deliver the thing itself
 Answer for damages in case of non-fulfillment or breach
1164. The creditor has a right to the fruits of the thing from the time the obligation to deliver it arises.
However, he shall acquire no real right over it until the same has been delivered to him.
REAL RIGHT (jus in re) – right pertaining to person over a specific thing, without a passive subject
individually determined against whom such right may be personally enforced.
 a right enforceable against the whole world
PERSONAL RIGHT (jus ad rem) – a right pertaining to a person to demand from another, as a definite
passive subject, the fulfillment of a prestation to give, to do or not to do.
 a right enforceable only against a definite person or group of persons.
 Before the delivery, the creditor, in obligations to give, has merely a personal right against the debtor
– a right to ask for delivery of the thing and the fruits thereof.
 Once the thing and the fruits are delivered, then he acquires a real right over them.
 Ownership is transferred by delivery which could be either actual or constructive. (Art. 1477)
 The remedy of the buyer when there is no delivery despite demand is to file a complaint for
“SPECIFIC PERFORMANCE AND DELIVERY” because he is not yet the owner of the property
before the delivery.
� ACTUAL DELIVERY – actual delivery of a thing from the hand of the grantor to the hand of the grantee
(presonally), or manifested by certain possessory acts executed by the grantee with the consent of the grantor
(realty).
FRUITS:
1. NATURAL – spontaneous products of the soil, the young and other products of animals;
2. INDUSTRIAL – produced by lands of any cultivation or labor;
3. CIVIL – those derived by virtue of juridical relation.
** SEE Article 1164 (retroactivity of the effects of conditional obligation to give once the condition has been
fulfilled)
1165. When what is to be delivered is a determinate thing, the creditor … may compel the debtor to
make delivery. If the thing is indeterminate or generic, he may ask that the obligation be complied with
at the expense of the debtor. If the obligor delays or has promised to deliver the same ting to two or
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more persons who do not have the same interest, he shall be responsible for any fortuitous event until
he has effected the delivery.
*This provision applies to an obligation to give.
DETERMINATE THING
 something which is susceptible of particular designation or specification;
 obligation is extinguished if the thing is lost due to fortuitous events.
 Article 1460: a thing is determinate when it is particularly designated and physically segregated from
all others of the same class.
INDETERMINATE THING
 something that has reference only to a class or genus;
 obligation to deliver is not so extinguished by fortuitous events.
REMEDIES FOR FAILURE OF DELIVERY (determinate thing)

1. Complaint for specific performance – an action to compel the fulfillment of the obligation.
2. Complaint for rescission of the obligation – action to rescind
3. Complaint for damages – action to claim for compensation of damages suffered
 As a general rule, “no person shall be responsible for those events which could not be foreseen, or
which, though foreseen, are inevitable, except:
1. in cases expressly specified by the law
2. when it is stipulated by the parties
3. when the nature of the obligation requires assumption of risk
 An indeterminate thing cannot be object of destruction by a fortuitous event because genus never
perishes.
1166. The obligation to give a determinate thing includes that of delivering all its accessions and
accessories, even though they may not have been mentioned.
ACCESSIONS – fruits of the thing or additions to or improvements upon the principal

 those which are naturally or artificially attached to the thing
ACCESSORIES – things included with the principal for the latter’s embellishment, better use, or completion
When does right to fruits arise? – from the time the obligation to deliver arises
 Conditional – from the moment the condition happens
 With a term/period – upon the expiration of the term/period
 Simple – from the perfection of the contract
1167. If a person obliged to do something fails to do it, the same shall be executed at his cost. This same
rule shall be observed if he does it in contravention of the tenor of the obligation … it may be decreed
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that what has been poorly done be undone.
* This provision applies to an obligation to do.
THREE SITUATIONS:
a) Debtor’s failure to perform an obligation
 creditor may do the obligation, or by another, at the expense of the debtor;
 recover damages
b) Performance was contrary to the terms agreed upon
 order of the court to undo the same at the expense of the debtor
c) Performance in a poor manner
 order of the court to undo the same at the expense of the debtor
1168. When the obligation consists in NOT DOING and the obligor does what has been forbidden him,
it shall also be undone at his expense.
* This provision applies to an obligation not to do.
1169. Those obliged to deliver or to do something incur in delay from the time the obligee judicially or
extrajudicially demands from them the fulfillment of their obligation.
However, the demand by the creditor shall not be necessary in order that delay may exists:
 When the law or obligation so expressly declares;

 When from the nature of the contract, time us the essence and motivating factor for its
establishment;
 When demand would be useless (prestation is impossible);
 In reciprocal obligations, from the moment one of the parties fulfills his obligation;
 When the debtor admits he is in default
ORDINARY DELAY – mere failure to perform an obligation at the appointed time.

LEGAL DELAY (DEFAULT) – tantamount to non-fulfillment of the obligation and arises after an
extrajudicial or judicial demand was made upon the debtor.
KINDS OF DEFAULT:
a) MORA SOLVENDI – delay on the part of the debtor to fulfill his obligation;
REQUISITES:
1. failure of the obligor to perform obligation on the DATE agreed upon;
2. demand (judicial/extrajudicial) by the creditor;
3. failure to comply with such demand
EFFECTS:
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1) debtor – liable for damages and interests

2) debtor – liable for the loss of a thing due to a fortuitous event
KINDS:
1) mora solvendi ex re – default in real obligations (to give)
2) mora solvendi ex persona – default in personal obligations (to do)
b) MORA ACCIPIENDI – delay on the part of the creditor to accept the performance of the
obligation;
Effects:
1. creditor – liable for damages
2. creditor – bears the risk of loss of the thing
3. debtor – not liable for interest from the time of creditor’s delay
4. debtor – release himself from the obligation
c) COMPENSATIO MORAE – delay of the obligors in reciprocal obligation.

Effect: the default of one compensates the default of the other; their respective liabilities shall be
offset equitable.
 Default / Delay in negative obligation is not possible. (In negative obligation, only fulfillment and
violation are possible)
1170. Those who in the performance of their obligations are guilty of fraud, negligence, or delay, and
those who in any manner contravene the tenor thereof, are liable for damages.
FRAUD (dolo) – deliberate intentional evasion of the faithful fulfillment of an obligation;

NEGLIGENCE (culpa or fault) – voluntary act or omission of diligence, there being no malice, which
prevents the normal fulfillment of an obligation;
DELAY (mora) – default or tardiness in the performance of an obligation after it has been due and
demandable;
CONTRAVENTION OF TERMS OF OBLIGATION (violation)– violation of terms and conditions
stipulated in the obligation; this must not be due to a fortuitous event.
1171. Responsibility arising from fraud is demandable in all obligations. Any waiver of an action for
future fraud is void.
 To allow such waiver will necessarily render the obligatory force of contracts illusory.
 The law does not prohibit waiver of an action for damages based on fraud already committed.
 Any deliberate deviation from the normal way of fulfilling the obligation may be a proper basis for
claim for damages against the guilty party.
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INCIDENTAL FRAUD (applicable provisions are Arts. 1170 & 1344) – committed in the performance of an
obligation already existing because of a contract; incidental fraud obliges the person employing it to pay
damages.
CAUSAL FRAUD – (Art. 1338) employed in the execution of contract in order to secure consent; remedy is
annulment because of vitiation of consent.
1172. Responsibility arising from negligence in the performance of every kind of obligation is also
demandable, but such liability may be regulated by the courts, according to circumstances.
Court’s discretion because:

(a) negligence depends upon the circumstances of a case – good or bad faith of the obligor
may be considered as well as the conduct or misconduct of the obligee;
(b) it is not as serious as fraud.
Negligence – lack of foresight or knowledge

Imprudence – lack of skill or precaution
TEST OF NEGLIGENCE
Did the defendant, in doing the alleged negligent act, use the reasonable care and caution which an ordinary
prudent man would have used in the same situation?
TWO TYPES OF NEGLIGENCE:
Basis 1. Culpa Aquiliana 2. Culpa Contractual

(Quasi-delict) (Breach of contract)
DEFINITION Negligence between parties not Negligence in the performance of
so related by pre-existing contractual obligation
contract
NATURE OF Direct, substantive and Incidental to the performance of the
NEGLIGENCE independent obligation.
GOOD FATHER OF Complete and proper defense Not complete and proper defense in the
THE FAMILY (parents, guardian, employers) selection of employees.
DEFENSE
PRESUMPTION OF No presumption – injured party There is presumption – defendant must
NEGLIGENCE must prove negligence of the prove that there was no negligence in the
defendant. carrying out of the terms of the contract.
1173. The fault or negligence of the obligor consists in the omission of that diligence which is required
by the nature of the obligation and corresponds with the circumstances of the persons, of he time and
of the place… If the law or contract does not state the diligence which is to be observed in the
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performance, that which is expected if a good father of a family shall be required.

- This provision provides for a negative definition of “proper diligence of a good father of a family”
FRAUD distinguished from NEGLIGENCE

FRAUD NEGLIGENCE
There is deliberate intention to cause There is no deliberate intention to cause damage.
damage.
Liability cannot be mitigated. Liability may be mitigated.
Waiver for future fraud is void. Waiver for future negligence may be allowed in
certain cases:
DILIGENCE – the attention and care required of a person in a given situation and is opposite of negligence.
NEGLIGENCE – consists in the omission of that diligence which is required by the nature of the particular
obligation and corresponds with the circumstances of the persons, of the time, and of the place.
KINDS of DILIGENCE:
1. DILIGENCE OF A GOOD FATHER – a good father does not abandon his family, he is always
ready to provide and protect his family; ordinary care which an average and reasonably prudent
man would do.
2. Diligence required by the law governing the particular obligation
3. Diligence stipulated by the parties
1174. Except in cases expressly specified by the law, or when it is otherwise declared by stipulation, or
when the nature of the obligation requires the assumption of risk, no person shall be responsible for
those events which could not be foreseen, or which, though foreseen, were inevitable.
FORTUITOUS EVENT – an occurrence or happening which could not be foreseen or even if foreseen, is
inevitable; absolutely independent of human intervention; act of God.
FORCE MAJEURE - an event caused by the legitimate or illegitimate acts of persons other than the obligor;
there is human intervention.
REQUISITES OF FORTUITOUS EVENT: [IU-IF]

1. Independent of the human will (or at least of the obligor’s)
2. Unforeseen or unavoidable
3. Of such character as to render it impossible for the obligor to comply with his obligation in a
normal manner
4. Obligor – free from any participation/aggravation of the injury to the obligee (no negligence or
imprudence)
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EXEPTIONS:
1. When it is expressly stipulated that he shall be liable even if non-performance of the obligation is due
to fortuitous events;
2. When the nature of the obligation requires the assumption of risk;
3. When the obligor is in delay;
4. When the obligor has promised the same thing to two or more persons who do not have the same
interest;
5. When the possessor is in bad faith and the thing lost or deteriorated due to fortuitous event;
6. When the obligor contributed to the loss of the thing.
1175. Usurious transactions shall be governed by special laws.

* see Article 1413
USURY – contracting for or receiving interest in excess of the amount allowed by law for the loan or use of
money, goods, etc.
USURY LAW – makes the usurers criminally liable if the interest charged on loans are more that the limit
prescribed by law.
 This law is repealed – Circular No. 905 of the Central Bank has expressly removed the interest
ceilings prescribed by the USURY LAW.
1176. The receipt of the principal by the creditor without reservation with respect to the interest, shall
give rise to the presumption that said interest has been paid.
The receipt of a later installment of a debt without reservation as to prior installments, shall likewise
raise the presumption that such installments have been paid.
 These are mere presumptions.

 To be sure – write the interest and the dates covered by such payment in the receipt.
1177. The creditors, after having pursued the property in possession of the debtor to satisfy their
claims, may exercise all the rights and bring all the actions of the latter for the same purpose, save
those which are inherent in his person; they may also impugn the acts which the debtor may have done
to defraud them.
REMEDIES AVAILABLE TO CREDITORS FOR THE SATISFACTION OF THEIR CLAIMS:

1. Exact fulfillment with right to damages
2. Exhaustion of the debtor’s properties still in his possession – writ of attachment (before judgment) or
writ of execution (for final judgment not yet executed)
3. ACCION SUBROGATORIA – an action where the creditor whose claims had not been fully
satisfied, may go after the debtors (3rd person) of the defendant debtor.
4. ACCION PAULIANA – an action where the creditor files an action in court for the RESCISSION of
acts or contracts entered into by the debtor designed to defraud the former.
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1178. Subject to the laws, all rights acquired in virtue of an obligation are transmissible, if there has
been no stipulation to the contrary.
EXCEPTIONS:
a) Those not transmissible by their nature like purely personal rights;
b) Those not transmissible by provision of law;
c) Those not transmissible by stipulation of parties.
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENT KINDS OF OBLIGATIONS
Section 1 – Pure and Conditional Obligations
1179. Every obligation whose performance does not depend upon a future or uncertain event, or upon
a past event unknown to the parties, is demandable at once.
Every obligation which contains a resolutory condition shall also be demandable, without prejudice to
the effects of the happening of the event.
PURE OBLIGATION – an obligation which does not contain any condition or term upon which the
fulfillment is made to depend; immediately demandable by the creditors and the debtor cannot be excused
from not complying with his prestation.
CONDITIONAL OBLIGATION – an obligation which depends upon a future or uncertain event, or upon a
past event unknown to the contracting parties.
– an obligation subject to a condition.
a) Suspensive Obligation – its fulfillment gives rise to an obligation; the demandability of the
obligation or the effectivity of the contract can take place only after the condition has been
fulfilled.
b) Resolutory Obligation – its happening extinguishes the obligation which is already existing;
1180. When the debtor binds himself to pay when his means permit him to do so, the obligation shall be
deemed to be one with a period, subject to the provisions of Article 1197.
PERIOD – a future and certain event upon the arrival of which, the obligation subject to it either arises or is
extinguished.
INDICATIONS OF A TERM OR PERIOD:

When the debtor binds himself to pay –
 when his means permit him to do so
 little by little
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 as soon as possible
 from time to time
 as soon as I have the money
 in partial payment
 when in the position to pay
1181. In conditional obligations, the acquisition of rights, as well as the extinguishment or loss of those
already acquired, shall depend upon the happening of the event which constitutes the condition.
Suspensive Condition – the acquisition of rights by the creditor depends upon the happening of the event
which constitutes the condition; if such condition does not take place, it would be as of the conditional
obligation had never existed.
(e.g. promise to give a car after graduating from law school as cum laude)
Resolutory Condition – the rights and obligations already existing are under threat of extinction upon the
happening or fulfillment of such condition.
(e.g. donation by reason of marriage – the celebration of marriage is a resolutory condition; if the marriage
did not push through, the donation may be revoked)
1182. When the fulfillment of the condition depends upon the sole will of the debtor, the conditional
obligation shall be void. If it depends upon chance or upon the will of a third person, the obligation
shall take effect in conformity with the provisions of this Code.
 Applies only to suspensive conditions.
3 KINDS OF CONDITIONS UNDER THIS ARTICLE:

1. POTESTATIVE – a suspensive condition which depends upon the will of one of the
contracting parties = if at the sole will of the debtor, it is void; if at the creditor’s, still valid.
this is to prevent the establishment of illusory obligations.
2. CASUAL – the condition depends upon chance or the will of a third person;(e.g. cellphone
warranty)
3. MIXED – the condition depends partly upon the will of the parties and partly upon chance or
the will of a third person; (example ni Atty. De Chavez: passing the bar)
1183. Impossible conditions, those contrary to good customs or public policy and those prohibited by
law shall annul the obligation which depends upon them. If the obligation is divisible, that part thereof
which is not affected by the impossible or unlawful condition shall be valid.
The condition not to do an impossible thing shall be considered as not having been agreed upon.
POSSIBLE CONDITION – if it is capable of realization or actualization according to nature, law, public

policy or good customs.
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2 KINDS OF IMPOSSIBLE CONDITIONS:

1. Physically Impossible – cannot exist or cannot be done in its nature;
2. Legally Impossible – contrary to law, good customs, or public policy.
Only the affected obligation is void, if the obligation is divisible, and the part thereof not affected by the
impossible condition is valid.
Only the condition is void if there is already a pre-existing obligation and it does not depend upon the
fulfillment of the condition which is impossible.
1184. The condition that some event happen at a determinate time shall extinguish the obligation as
soon as the time expires or if it has become indubitable that the event will not take place.
Positive condition – refers to the fulfillment of an event or performance of an act
Negative condition – refers to the non-fulfillment or non-performance of an act.
POSITIVE SUSPENSIVE CONDITION

The obligation is extinguished:
1. As soon as the TIME EXPIRES without the event taking place;
2. As soon as it has become certain that the EVENT WILL NOT TAKE PLACE although the time
specified has not yet expired.
1185. The condition that some event will not happen at a determinate time shall render the obligation
effective from the moment the time indicated has elapsed, or if it has become evident that the event
cannot occur.
If no time has been fixed, the condition shall be deemed fulfilled at such time as may have probably
been contemplated, bearing in mind the nature of the obligation.
** This is a condition of non-happening of a future event.
The obligation shall become effective and binding:

a) From the moment the time indicated has elapsed without the event taking place;
b) From the moment it has become evident that the event cannot occur, although the time indicated has
not yet elapsed.
1184 -vs- 1185
1184 1185
(POSITIVE SUSPENSIVE) (NEGATIVE SUSPENSIVE)
Jose obliges himself to give the pregnant woman Jose obliges himself to give the pregnant woman
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Maria P5000 if she would give birth on or before Maria P5000 if she would NOT give birth on
December 30. December 30.
a. Jose is LIABLE if Maria gives birth on or before a. Jose is NOT LIABLE if Maria gives birth on
December 30. December 30.
b. Jose is NOT LIABLE if Maria gives birth after b. Jose is LIABLE if Maria DID NOT give birth
December 30. on December 30 – if Maria gives birth BEFORE
or AFTER December 30.
c. If Maria would have a miscarriage before c. If Maria would have a miscarriage before
December 30, the obligation is EXTINGUISHED. December 30, the obligation is deemed
FULFILLED.
1186. The condition shall be deemed fulfilled when the obligor voluntarily prevents its fulfillment.
 This provision speaks of the DOCTRINE OF CONSTRUCTIVE FULFILLMENT
 Compare with Art. 1203
- REQUISITES:
1. The condition is SUSPENSIVE;
2. The obligor ACTUALLY PREVENTS the fulfillment of the condition;
3. He acts VOLUNTARILY.
 Malice or fraud is not required, as long as his purpose is to prevent the fulfillment of the condition.
 No person shall profit by his own wrong.
1187. The effects of a conditional obligation to give, once the condition has been fulfilled, shall retroact
to the day of the constitution of the obligation. Nevertheless, when the obligation imposes reciprocal
prestations upon the parties, the fruits and interests during the pendency of the condition shall be
deemed to have been mutually compensated. If the obligation is unilateral, the debtor shall appropriate
the fruits and interests received, unless from the nature and circumstances of the obligation it should
be inferred that the intention of the person constituting the same was different.
In obligations to do and not to do, the courts shall determine, in each case, the retroactive effect of the
condition that has been complied with.
 Applies only to fulfilled suspensive conditions.

 Retroactive statute
 The effects of the obligation is deemed to commence not from the fulfillment of the obligation but
from the day of its constitution (similar to the legitimation of a natural child)
 When the obligation is unilateral, the debtor shall appropriate the fruits and interests received because
he does not receive any equivalent or valuable consideration from the obligee.
 The article does not require the delivery of fruits or payment of interests accruing (accumulating)
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before the fulfillment of the suspensive condition.
 Obligations to do or not to do – the retroactive effect shall be determined by the court using its sound
discretion without disregarding the intentions of the parties.
1188. The creditor may, before the fulfillment of the condition, bring the appropriate actions for the
preservation of his right.
The debtor may recover what during the same time he has paid by mistake in case of a suspensive
condition.
Actions available to the creditor:

 Action for prohibition restraining the alienation of the thing pending the happening of the suspensive
condition;
 Action to demand security if the debtor has become insolvent;
 Action to set aside alienations made by the debtor in fraud of creditors;
 Actions against adverse possessors to interrupt the running prescriptive period.
 To have his rights annotated in the registry.
Rights of the DEBTOR – entitled to recover what has been paid by mistake prior to the happening of the
suspensive condition.
1189. When the conditions have been imposed with the intention of suspending the efficacy of an
obligation to give, the following rules shall be observed in case of the improvement, loss or
deterioration of the thing during the pendency of the condition:
LOSS
(1) debtor without fault – obligation is extinguished
(2) debtor with fault – obligation to pay damages
DETERIORATION
(1) debtor without fault – impairment is to be borne by the creditor
(2) debtor with fault – creditor chooses: rescission of obligation, fulfillment, indemnity
IMPROVEMENT
(1) by nature or time – improvement: inure to the benefit of the creditor
(2) at the expense of the debtor – granted to the usufructuary
1190. When the conditions have for their purpose the extinguishment of an obligation to give, the
parties, upon the fulfillment of said conditions, shall return to each other what they have received.
In case of the loss, deterioration or improvement of the thing, the provisions which, with respect to the
debtor, are laid down in the preceding article shall be applied to the party who is bound to return.
As for the obligations to do and not to do, the provisions of the second paragraph of Article 1187 shall
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be observed as regards the effect of the extinguishment of the obligation.
 Refers to the fulfillment of a resolutory condition.

 When the resolutory condition happened, the obligation is considered as if it did not exist.
 The parties are bound to return or restore whatever they have received from each other – “reciprocal
restitution”
 Donation by reason of marriage – if the marriage does not happen, such donation should be returned
to the donor.
 Loss, deterioration and improvement – governed by 1189.
 In obligations to do and not to do, the courts shall determine, in each case, the retroactive effect of the
condition that has been complied with.
1191. The power to rescind obligations is implied in reciprocal ones, in case one of the obligors should
not comply with what is incumbent upon him.
The injured party may choose between the fulfillment and the rescission of the obligation, with the
payment of damages in either case. He may also seek rescission, even after he has chosen fulfillment, if
the latter should become impossible.
The court shall decree the rescission claimed, unless there be just cause authorizing the fixing of a
period.
This is understood to be without prejudice to the rights of third persons who have acquired the thing,
in accordance with Articles 1385 and 1388 and the Mortgage Law.
* This remedy should be termed as “resolution,” not rescission (Paras).

* This provision is not applicable to contracts of partnership (governed by Arts. 1786 & 1788), and sales of
real and personal properties by installments (governed by Maceda and Recto laws)
RECIPROCAL – each is a debtor and creditor of the other
RESCISSION – resolution or cancellation of the contract

 Applies only to reciprocal obligations where two parties are mutually debtor and creditor of each
other in the same transaction. The cause must be identical ad the obligations must arise
simultaneously.
 The party who can demand rescission should be the party who is ready, willing, and able to comply
with his own obligations while the other is not capable to perform his own.
REMEDIES:
1. Specific performance or fulfillment of obligation with damages;
2. Rescission of contract with damages.
Effect of rescission: the parties must surrender whatever they have received from the other, and the obligation
to pay is extinguished.
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If there is an express stipulation of automatic rescission between parties – such resolution shall take place
only after the creditor has notified the debtor of his choice of rescission subject to judicial scrutiny.
1192. In case both parties have committed a breach of the obligation, the liability of the first infractor
shall be equitably tempered by the courts. If it cannot be determined which of the parties first violated
the contract, the same shall be deemed extinguished, and each shall bear his own damages.
FIRST INFRACTOR KNOWN

The liability of the first infractor should be equitably reduced. – equitably offset each other’s damages.
FIRST INFRACTOR CANNOT BE DETERMINED

The court shall declare the extinguishment of the obligation and each shall bear his own damages.
Section 2 – Obligations with a Period
1193. Obligations for whose fulfillment a day certain has been fixed, shall be demandable only when
that day comes.
Obligations with a resolutory period take effect at once, but terminate upon arrival of the day certain.
A day certain is understood to be that which must necessarily come, although it may not be known
when.
If the uncertainty consists in whether the day will come or not, the obligation is conditional, and it shall
be regulated by the rules of the preceding Section.
PERIOD / TERM – consists in a space or length of time upon the arrival of which, the demandability or the
extinguishment of an obligation is determined; it may be definite (exact date or time is known) or indefinite
(arrival of date is unknown but sure to come).
- Future + Certain event
GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS:
a) EX DIE / SUSPENSIVE PERIOD – from a day certain give rise to the obligation; suspensive
effect.
b) IN DIEM / RESOLUTORY PERIOD – arrival of a term certain terminated the obligation;
resolutory effect.
Term – length of time sure to come

Condition – fact or event uncertain to come
Basis Period/Term Condition

1. TIME Always refers to FUTURE Can refer to past events unknown
to the parties
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2. FULFILLMENT Sure to happen at an exact date May or may not happen.

or indefinite time but sure to
come.
3. INFLUENCE Merely fixes the time for the May cause the arising or
demandability or performance cessation of the obligation.
of obligation.
1194. In case of loss, deterioration or improvement of the thing before the arrival of the day certain,
the rules in Article 1189 shall be observed.
1195. Anything paid or delivered before the arrival of the period, the obligor being unaware of the
period or believing that the obligation has become due and demandable, may be recovered, with the
fruits and interests.
 If he was not aware of the period or he believes that the obligation has become due and
demandable – he can recover what he paid or delivered including fruits and interests;
 If he was aware and he paid voluntarily – he cannot recover the delivery made; it is deemed a
waiver of the benefit of the term and the obligation is considered already matured.
 The presumption is that the debtor knew that the debt was not yet due. He has the burden of proving
that he was unaware of the period.
1196. Whenever in an obligation a period is designated, it is presumed to have been established for the
benefit of both the creditor and the debtor, unless from the tenor of the same or other circumstances it
should appear that the period has been established in favor of one or of the other.
 PRESUMPTION: Obligation with a period is for the benefit of both the creditor and debtor.
 EXCEPTION: when it appears that the period is for the benefit of one or the other
 The benefit of the term may be the subject of stipulation of the parties.
1. Term is for the benefit of the debtor alone – he cannot be compelled to pay prematurely, but he
can if he desires to do so.
- Example: A obliges himself to pay B within 5 years. A cannot be compelled to pay prematurely, but he can
pay anytime within 5 years (A will benefit because he can pay anytime he wants as long as it is within 5
years; B will not benefit from the interests if A decides to pay early).
2. Term is for the benefit of the creditor – He may demand fulfillment even before the arrival of
the term but the debtor cannot require him to accept payment before the expiration of the
stipulated period.
- Example: A borrows money from B and is obliged to make the payment on December 5. B may compel A
to make the payment before December 5, but A may not compel B to receive the payment before December 5
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(B will benefit from the interests that will accrue before December 5).
 The creditor may have reasons other than the maturity of interest, that’s why, unless the creditor
consents, the debtor has no right to accelerate the time of payment even if the premature tender
includes an offer to pay the principal and interest in full.
1197. If the obligation does not fix a period, but from its nature and the circumstances it can be
inferred that a period was intended, the courts may fix the duration thereof.
The courts shall also fix the duration of the period when it depends upon the will of the debtor.
In every case, the courts shall determine such period as may under the circumstances have been
probably contemplated by the parties. Once fixed by the courts, the period cannot be changed by them.
JUDICIAL PERIOD – period designated by the court.

CONTRACTUAL PERIOD – period fixed by the parties in their contract.
Court will fix a period:

1. When no period is mentioned, but it is inferable from the nature and circumstances of the obligation
that a period was intended by the parties.
2. When the period is dependent upon the will of the debtor.
 If the obligation does not state and intend a period, the court is not authorized to fix a period.
 The court must fix the duration of the period to prevent the possibility that the obligation may never
be fulfilled or to cure a defect in a contract whereby it is made to depend solely upon the will of one
of the parties.
Court cannot fix the period:

1. If there is a period agreed upon by the parties and it has already lapsed or expired.
2. From the very moment the parties give their acceptance and consent to the period fixed by the
court, it becomes a law governing their contract.
1198. The debtor shall lose every right to make use of the period:
(1) When after the obligation has been contracted, he becomes insolvent, unless he gives a guaranty or
security for the debt;
(2) When he does not furnish to the creditor the guaranties or securities which he has promised;
(3) When by his own acts he has impaired said guaranties or securities after their establishment, and
when through a fortuitous event they disappear, unless he immediately gives new ones equally
satisfactory;
(4) When the debtor violates any undertaking, in consideration of which the creditor agreed to the
period;
(5) When the debtor attempts to abscond.
The period is disregarded and the obligation becomes pure and immediately demandable: [IGIVA]
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 [I] When debtor becomes insolvent;

 The insolvency need not be judicially declared. It is sufficient that debtor could not pay his
debts due to lack of money or funds.
 [G] When the debtor does not furnish guaranties or securities;
 [I] When guaranties or securities given have been impaired or have disappeared;
 If security was lost through debtor’s fault - impairment
 If security was lost through fortuitous event - disappearance
 [V] When debtor violates an undertaking;
If such undertaking is the reason for the creditor to agree with such period.
 [A] When debtor attempts to abscond (escape).
Mere attempt to abscond is sufficient. It is an indication of bad faith.
Section 3 – Alternative Obligations
1199. A person alternatively bound by different prestations shall completely perform one of them.
The creditor cannot be compelled to receive part of one and part of the other undertaking.
OBLIGATIONS WITH PLURAL PRESTATIONS:

1. CONJUNCTIVE/COMPOUND OBLIGATION - an obligation where the debtor has to perform ALL
the several prestations in the contract to extinguish the obligation.
2. ALTERNATIVE OBLIGATION – an obligation where the debtor is required to fulfill ONLY ONE of
the several prestations to extinguish the obligation.
3. FACULTATIVE OBLIGATION – an obligation where the debtor is bound to perform ONLY ONE
prestation, with a reserved right to choose another prestation as SUBSTITUTE for the principal.
1200. The right of choice belongs to the debtor, unless it has been expressly granted to the creditor.
The debtor shall have no right to choose those prestations which are impossible, unlawful or which
could not have been the object of the obligation.
Implied grant to the creditor is not allowed. If it does not appear on the agreement as to whom among them
has the right to choose, it is the debtor who can choose.
1201. The choice shall produce no effect except from the time it has been communicated.
 The choice shall not produce any legal effect until it has been duly communicated to the other
party.
 It can be done in writing, verbally, impliedly, or any unequivocal means.
 Once the choice has been communicated to the other party:
1. The obligation is now LIMITED only to the PRESTATION CHOSEN, with all the natural
consequences flowing therefrom;
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2. The choice is IRREVOCABLE.
 The performance of prestation without announcing the choice to the creditor is NOT BINDING.
 The consent of the other party is NOT REQUIRED in making the choice – that will in effect frustrate
the clear intention of the law and the nature of the alternative obligation.
 If there is delay in the making of choice – punish the one who is supposed to exercise the right of
choice for the delay he caused – court may order the debtor to make a choice, or creditor to make the
choice within certain period, or court makes the choice.
1202. The debtor shall lose the right of choice when among the prestations whereby he is alternatively
bound, only one is practicable.
 There being but one prestation available, this prestation becomes a simple obligation.
1203. If through the creditor's acts the debtor cannot make a choice according to the terms of the
obligation, the latter may rescind the contract with damages.
(1) If the debtor could not make a choice due to the creditor’s act of making the prestations
impossible, debtor may RESCIND the contract with damages - rescission takes place at the
initiative of the debtor.
(2) If the debtor is being prevented to choose only a particular prestation, and there are others
available, he is free to choose from them, after notifying the creditor of his decision.
1204. The creditor shall have a right to indemnity for damages when, through the fault of the debtor,
all the things which are alternatively the object of the obligation have been lost, or the compliance of
the obligation has become impossible.
The indemnity shall be fixed taking as a basis the value of the last thing which disappeared, or that of
the service which last became impossible.
Damages other than the value of the last thing or service may also be awarded.
 If the impossibility of all the objects of the alternative obligation is caused by the debtor, the creditor
is entitled to damages.
 If such impossibility is caused by a fortuitous event, the obligation is extinguished and the debtor is
released from responsibility, unless the contrary is stipulated by the parties.
 The creditor cannot claim for damages if the debtor can still perform the remaining prestations.
 The damages that may be recovered is based on the last thing which disappeared or the service which
became impossible. This last one is converted into a simple obligation.
1205. When the choice has been expressly given to the creditor, the obligation shall cease to be
alternative from the day when the selection has been communicated to the debtor.
Until then the responsibility of the debtor shall be governed by the following rules:
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A. only one thing lost – fortuitous event – creditor chooses from the remainder – debtor delivers the
choice to creditor;
B. only one remains – debtor delivers the same to the creditor;
C. only one thing lost – fault of the debtor
1. creditor may choose any one of the remainders;
2. creditor may choose the price or value of the one which was lost;
3. may choose 1 or 2 plus damages
D. all things lost – fault of the debtor – creditor may choose the price of ANYONE of the things, with
damages if warranted.
The same rules shall be applied to obligations to do or not to do in case one, some or all of the
prestations should become impossible.
 This article applies only when the right of choice has been expressly granted to the creditor.
1206. When only one prestation has been agreed upon, but the obligor may render another in
substitution, the obligation is called facultative.
The loss or deterioration of the thing intended as a substitute, through the negligence of the obligor,
does not render him liable. But once the substitution has been made, the obligor is liable for the loss of
the substitute on account of his delay, negligence or fraud.
 If loss or deterioration happened before substitution is made, obligor is not liable; after substitution is
communicated, he is liable for loss (through delay, negligence or fraud)
Section 4 – Joint and Solidary Obligations
1207. The concurrence of two or more creditors or of two or more debtors in one and the same
obligation does not imply that each one of the former has a right to demand, or that each one of the
latter is bound to render, entire compliance with the prestation. There is a solidary liability only when
the obligation expressly so states, or when the law or the nature of the obligation requires solidarity.
* In case of concurrence of two or more creditors or two or more debtors in one obligation, the presumption
is that the obligation is joint, and not solidary.
INDIVIDUAL OBLIGATION – one debtor and one creditor
COLLECTIVE OBLIGATION – two or more debtors and two or more creditors
1. JOINT – entire obligation is to be paid or performed proportionately by the debtors;

2. SOLIDARY – each one of the debtors are obliged to pay the entire obligation, each one of the
creditors has the right to demand from any of the debtors, the fulfillment of the entire
obligation;
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A. Passive Solidarity – solidarity on the part of the DEBTORS

B. Active Solidarity – solidarity on the part of the CREDITORS.
 SOLIDARITY SHOULD BE EXPRESSED – law, stipulation, nature of obligation.
 When the obligation is ambiguous, it must be considered as joint obligation.
CONSEQUENCES OF SOLIDARITY:
1. Passive Solidarity – full payment made by anyone of the solidary debtors extinguishes the obligation.
The one who paid can claim reimbursement from his co-debtors as regards their corresponding shares
in the obligation.
A, B, & C are solidary debtors of D in the sum of P900.
D can demand payment of the entire obligation when it becomes due, from any one of the debtors or from all
of them at the same time.
If C paid the whole P900 to D, he may claim reimbursement from A and B.
2. Active Solidarity – full payment to any of the creditors extinguishes the obligation. The creditor who
received the entire amount will be liable to pay the corresponding shares of his co-creditors in
accordance with their internal agreement.
Garfield owes the sum of P40,000 to Mickey, Minnie, Donald, and Pluto, who are solidary creditors. Garfield
can pay anyone of them. If Mickey received the P40,000, he is liable to pay the corresponding shares of his
co-creditors.
MIXED SOLIDARITY
a. Solidary Debtors, Joint Creditors

 P9,000.00 – total debt
Debtors (Solidary) Creditors (Joint)
Aida pays John = P 4,500.00
P4,500.00
Lorna pays Marsha P 4,500.00
P4,500.00
Fe
b. Joint Debtors, Solidary Creditors

 P 9,000.00 – total debt
Debtors (Joint) Creditors (Solidary)
Aida (P 3,000.00) John (can claim from
debtors)
Lorna (P 3,000.00) Marsha (-same-)
Fe (P 3,000.00)
1208. If from the law, or the nature or the wording of the obligations to which the preceding article
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refers the contrary does not appear, the credit or debt shall be presumed to be divided into as many
shares as there are creditors or debtors, the credits or debts being considered distinct from one
another, subject to the Rules of Court governing the multiplicity of suits.
 This provision speaks of JOINT DIVISIBLE OBLIGATION.
 When there is a concurrence of several creditors or of several debtors in one and in the same
obligation, there is a presumption that the obligation is joint.
 Each of the creditors shall be entitled to demand only the payment of his proportionate share of the
credit.
 Each of the debtors may be compelled to pay only his proportionate share of the debt.
 The credits or debts shall be considered distinct from one another.
CONSEQUENCES OF JOINT OBLIGATION:

1. Each debtor – liable for a proportionate part of the entire debt;
Thales, Socrates, Plato, & Aristotle owe P100 to Bruce Lee
= 4 debtors and 1 creditor
Each of them owes Bruce Lee P25
Bruce Lee cannot collect the entire P100 from any one of them.
2. Each creditor – entitled to a proportionate part of the credit;
Piggy owes P100 to Froggy and Fishy
= 1 debtor and 2 creditors
Froggy can only collect 50 from Piggy,
Same with Fishy
3. Demand made by one creditor upon one debtor produces the effects of default only as between them,
but not with respect to the others;
Bubbles demanded payment from Buttercup; Buttercup was in default. This does not mean that the others are
in default too because Bubbles did not demand from them.
4. The interruption of prescription caused by the demand made by one creditor upon one debtor will not
benefit the co-creditors;
Wittgenstein extended the period in which Tarski should have paid his debt to him. This does not mean that
the same extension applies to Tarski's debt to Davidson.
5. The insolvency of one debtor will not increase the liability of his co-debtors, nor will it allow a
creditor to demand anything from the co-creditors.
If Husserl and Merleau-Ponty are debtors of Sartre for P1,000,000.00 and Husserl becomes insolvent, the
liability of Merleau-Ponty will only be P500,000.00 representing his proportional share of ½ in the whole
obligation.
1209. If the division is impossible, the right of the creditors may be prejudiced only by their collective
acts, and the debt can be enforced only by proceeding against all the debtors. If one of the latter should
be insolvent, the others shall not be liable for his share.
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JOINT INDIVISIBLE OBLIGATION – an obligation where solidarity is not provided and the prestation or
object is not susceptible of division; its fulfillment requires the concurrence of all debtors, while doing each
one’s parts.
Batman and Robin jointly obliged themselves to deliver a brand new Toyota Fortuner worth P1,500,000.00 to
Superman. The object, a vehicle, is indivisible. They must deliver the thing jointly. In case of breach, the
obligation is converted into monetary obligation for indemnity for damages. Batman and Robin will be liable
only for P 750,000.00 each.
 The act of one is not binding (others must concur)
1210. The indivisibility of an obligation does not necessarily give rise to solidarity. Nor does solidarity
of itself imply indivisibility.
 Solidarity is expressed in the stipulations of the party, law governing the obligation, or the nature of
the obligation.
INDIVISIBLE OBLIGATION – an obligation where the prestation or object to be delivered cannot be

performed by parts without altering its essence or substance.
Basis Indivisibility Solidarity

1. Nature Refers to the prestation of the Refers to the tie existing between
contract parties of the obligation (who is
liable)
2. Number of Does not require plurality of parties Requires plurality of parties
subjects /
parties
3. Effect of Obligation is converted into The liability, even if converted into
breach of monetary obligation for indemnity indemnity for damages, remains
obligation for damages – each debtor is liable solidary.
only for his part in the indemnity.
1211. Solidarity may exist although the creditors and the debtors may not be bound in the same
manner and by the same periods and conditions.
 The solidarity of the debtors is not affected even if different terms and conditions are made applicable
to them.
 Enforcement of the terms and conditions may be made at different times. The obligations which have
matured can be enforced while those still undue will have to be awaited. Enforcement can be made
against any one of the solidary debtors although it can happen that a particular obligation chargeable
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to a particular debtor is not yet due. He will be answerable for all the prestations which fall due
although chargeable to the other co-debtors.
Sad Face, Happy, and Fanny got a loan of P150 from Smiley. They signed a promissory note solidarily
binding themselves to pay Smiley under the following terms:
Sad Face will pay P50 with 3% on December 30, 2006
Happy will pay P50 with 4% on December 30, 2007
Fanny will pay P50 with 5% on December 30, 2008
On December 31, 2006, Smiley can collect his P50 with 3% from any one of the debtors, but not the whole
P150 because it is not yet entirely due. The maturity of the other amounts should still be awaited. If maturity
comes, Smiley can collect from any of the debtors, because they are expressly solidary in liabilities, and not
affected by the secondary stipulations.
1212. Each one of the solidary creditors may do whatever may be useful to the others, but not anything
which may be prejudicial to the latter.
 Every solidary creditor is benefited by the useful acts of any one of them.
 If a solidary creditor performs an act which is not fair to his co-creditors, the act may have valid legal
effects or the obligation of the debtor due to them may be extinguished, but the performing creditor
shall be liable to his co-creditors.
 Question: May solidary creditors perform an act that is beneficial to others?
1213. A solidary creditor cannot assign his rights without the consent of the others.
Assign – transfer of right
 The assignee does not become a solidary creditor, and any payment made upon him by the debtor
does not extinguish the obligation. He is considered a STRANGER, and his acts are not binding to the
solidarity.
 DOCTRINE OF MUTUAL AGENCY - In solidary obligations, the act of one is act of the others.
 Exceptions to the doctrine:
1. Art. 1212 – a creditor may not perform an act prejudicial to other creditors
2. Art. 1213 – a creditor cannot transfer his right without consent
1214. The debtor may pay any one of the solidary creditors; but if any demand, judicial or
extrajudicial, has been made by one of them, payment should be made to him.
 The debtor can pay any one of the solidary creditors. Such payment when accepted by any of the
solidary creditors will extinguish the obligation.
 To avoid confusion on the payment of the obligation, the debtor is required to ay only to the
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demanding creditor and that payment is sufficient to effect the extinguishment of the obligation.
 In case two or more demands made by the other creditors, the first demand must be given priority.
1215. Novation, compensation, confusion or remission of the debt, made by any of the solidary
creditors or with any of the solidary debtors, shall extinguish the obligation, without prejudice to the
provisions of Article 1219.
The creditor who may have executed any of these acts, as well as he who collects the debt, shall be
liable to the others for the share in the obligation corresponding to them.
NOVATION – obligations are modified by:

1. Changing their object or principal conditions;
2. Substituting the person of the debtor; and
3. Subrogating (placing) a third person in the rights of the creditor. [Art. 1291]
COMPENSATION – takes place when two persons, in their own right, become creditors and debtors of each
other
 the amount of one is covered by the amount of the other
Erap borrowed P100 from Fernando.
Fernando borrowed P75 from Erap.
Erap’s obligation to Fernando is now P25 only, because the original obligation was offset by Fernando’s
supposed-to-be obligation to Erap.
CONFUSION – takes place when the characters of creditor and debtor are merged in the same person.
Tito pays his debt to Vic with a check payable to “cash”.
Vic paid his debt to Joey with the same check.
Joey paid his debt to Tito, with the same check Tito issued to Vic.
Tito becomes paid by his own check. He becomes the debtor and the creditor of himself at the same time.
REMISSION – the gratuitous abandonment by the creditor of his right; acceptance of the obligor is
necessary.
 These 4 modes of extinguishing obligations are acts prejudicial to the other solidary co-creditors
because these have the effect of extinguishing the debt or obligation which is due to all of them.
 The only recourse of the co-creditors is to let the one who executed any of those acts be liable for the
shares corresponding to all his co-creditors (in their internal agreement).
1216. The creditor may proceed against any one of the solidary debtors or some or all of them
simultaneously. The demand made against one of them shall not be an obstacle to those which may
subsequently be directed against the others, so long as the debt has not been fully collected.
 When there is passive solidarity, the creditor can proceed against:
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 Any of the solidary debtors;

 Some of the solidary debtors;
 All of the solidary debtors, simultaneously.
Extrajudicial demands - first demand shall not prevent subsequent demands on the other co-debtors, if co-
debtor first to have been required to fulfill obligation did not act on it.
1217. Payment made by one of the solidary debtors extinguishes the obligation. If two or more solidary
debtors offer to pay, the creditor may choose which offer to accept.
He who made the payment may claim from his co-debtors only the share which corresponds to each,
with the interest for the payment already made. If the payment is made before the debt is due, no
interest for the intervening period may be demanded.
When one of the solidary debtors cannot, because of his insolvency, reimburse his share to the debtor
paying the obligation, such share shall be borne by all his co-debtors, in proportion to the debt of each.
Payment – consists in the delivery of the thing or the rendition (rendering) of the service whish is the object
of the obligation.
Interest – compensation for the use of borrowed money
Partial payment – the solidary debtor who made the partial payment is entitles to be reimbursed only for such
amount of money which he had paid and which exceeds his own share in the obligation.
If one of the debtors is insolvent and could not pay his share in the obligation, all solidary debtors including
the paying debtor shall share proportionately in the settlement of the corresponding share of the insolvent
debtor. [In short, his co-debtors will save his ass.]
1218. Payment by a solidary debtor shall not entitle him to reimbursement from his co-debtors if such
payment is made after the obligation has prescribed or become illegal.
No reimbursement if:
1. Obligation PRESCRIBES
 The creditor did not make any demand for more than 10 years.
2. Obligation becomes ILLEGAL
 Law has been passed, making such prestation illegal.
1219. The remission made by the creditor of the share which affects one of the solidary debtors does
not release the latter from his responsibility towards the co-debtors, in case the debt had been totally
paid by anyone of them before the remission was effected.
 Atty De Chavez: Ito ay provision sa tanga... (siyempre, 'pag nagbayad na, wala nang obligation, wala
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na ding ire-remit...)
 Any belated (delayed) remission by the creditor of the share of any of the debtor has no effect on the
internal relationship of the co-debtors.
Payment before remission: A, B, and C solidarily owe D P1,500.00. B paid the entire obligation. After which,
D remitted the share of C. B can collect P500.00 each from A and C even if the share of C in the obligation
had been remitted.
Remission before payment: A, B, and C solidarily owe D P1,500.00. D remitted the share of C. Thereafter, B
paid the entire obligation. B can collect P500.00 from A but not from C. However, B may ask D to give back
P500, which is the supposed-to-be share of C.
 After the prior payment of the entire obligation, there is nothing to remit because the obligation had
been extinguished.
1220. The remission of the whole obligation, obtained by one of the solidary debtors, does not entitle
him to reimbursement from his co-debtors.
 There is nothing to be reimbursed because he did not spend any money, the remission being a
gratuitous act.
1221. If the thing has been lost or if the prestation has become impossible without the fault of the
solidary debtors, the obligation shall be extinguished.
If there was fault on the part of any one of them, all shall be responsible to the creditor, for the price
and the payment of damages and interest, without prejudice to their action against the guilty or
negligent debtor.
If through a fortuitous event, the thing is lost or the performance has become impossible after one of
the solidary debtors has incurred in delay through the judicial or extrajudicial demand upon him by
the creditor, the provisions of the preceding paragraph shall apply.
Loss of the thing or impossibility of prestation –

1. NO FAULT – solidary debtors – obligation is extinguished
2. FAULT of any one of them – all are liable because of their mutual agency
3. FORTUITOUS EVENT – delay on the part of the debtors – all will be liable
 If the thing due was not lost, but there is merely a delay, fraud or negligence on the part of one of the
solidary debtors, all (including the innocent) debtors will share in the payment of the PRINCIPAL
prestation. The damages and interest imposed will be borne by the guilty debtor.
 Obligation to deliver is converted into an obligation to pay indemnity when there us loss or
impossibility of performance.
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1222. A solidary debtor may, in actions filed by the creditor, avail himself of all defenses which are
derived from the nature of the obligation and of those which are personal to him, or pertain to his own
share. With respect to those which personally belong to the others, he may avail himself thereof only as
regards that part of the debt for which the latter are responsible.
DEFENSES OF A SOLIDARY DEBTOR:
1. Defense arising from the nature of the obligation – such as payment, prescription, remission, statute of
frauds, presence of vices of consent, etc.
2. Defenses which are personal to him or which pertains to his own share alone – such as minority,
insanity and others purely personal to him.
3. Defenses personal to the other solidary creditors but only as regards that part of the debt for which the
other creditors are liable.
Section 5 – Divisible and Indivisible Obligations
1223. The divisibility or indivisibility of the things that are the object of obligations in which there is
only one debtor and only one creditor does not alter or modify the provisions of Chapter 2 of this Title.
DIVISIBILITY – refers to the susceptibility of an obligation to be performed partially.

 Obligation to deliver 100 sacks of rice or a particular type
INDIVISIBILITY – refers to the non-susceptibility of an obligation to partial performance.
 Obligation to deliver a particular computer set
If a thing could be divided into parts and as divided, its value is impaired disproportionately, that thing is
INDIVISIBLE.
1224. A joint indivisible obligation gives rise to indemnity for damages from the time anyone of the
debtors does not comply with his undertaking. The debtors who may have been ready to fulfill their
promises shall not contribute to the indemnity beyond the corresponding portion of the price of the
thing or of the value of the service in which the obligation consists.
* Relate this provision to Articles 1165, 1208 and 1209.
JOINT INDIVISIBLE OBLIGATION – the object is indivisible but the liability of the parties is joint.
 The unfulfilled undertaking (duty) is converted into a monetary obligation which is not divisible.
 The guilty debtor is liable for damages.
1225. For the purposes of the preceding articles, obligations to give definite things and those which are
not susceptible of partial performance shall be deemed to be indivisible.
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When the obligation has for its object the execution of a certain number of days of work, the
accomplishment of work by metrical units, or analogous things which by their nature are susceptible of
partial performance, it shall be divisible.
However, even though the object or service may be physically divisible, an obligation is indivisible if so
provided by law or intended by the parties.
In obligations not to do, divisibility or indivisibility shall be determined by the character of the
prestation in each particular case.
The following are considered INDIVISIBLE obligations:

1. Obligation to give definite things
2. Obligations which are not susceptible of partial performance
3. Even though the object or service may be physically divisible, it is indivisible if:
a. the law so provides
b. when the parties intended it to be indivisible
The following obligations are deemed DIVISIBLE:

1. When the object of the obligation is the execution of a certain number of days of work
2. When the object of the obligation is the accomplishment of work measured in units
3. When the object of the obligation is susceptible of partial compliance
4. When the object of the obligation is such that the debtor is required to pay in installments
 If the contract is divisible, and a part of it is illegal, the illegal part is void, and the rest shall be valid
and enforceable.
 If the contract is indivisible, and a part of it is illegal, the entire contract is void.
 Partial performance of an indivisible obligation is tantamount to non-performance.
Section 6 – Obligations with a Penal Clause
1226. In obligations with a penal clause, the penalty shall substitute the indemnity for damages and the
payment of interests in case of noncompliance, if there is no stipulation to the contrary. Nevertheless,
damages shall be paid if the obligor refuses to pay the penalty or is guilty of fraud in the fulfillment of
the obligation.
The penalty may be enforced only when it is demandable in accordance with the provisions of this
Code.
* An obligation with a penal clause may be defined as one to which an accessory undertaking is attached for
the purpose of insuring its performance by virtue of which the obligor is bound to pay a stipulated indemnity
or perform a stipulated prestation in case of breach.
 Purposes:
1. Funcion coercitiva o de garantia – to insure the performance of the obligation
2. Funcion liquidatoria – to liquidate the amount of damages to be awarded to the injured party
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in case of breach of the principal obligation; and

3. Funcion estrictamente penal – in certain exceptional cases, to punish the obligor in case of
breach of the principal obligation.
 This is an accessory obligation attached to the principal obligation, which imposes an additional
liability in case of breach of the principal obligation.
 It pushes the debtor to perform his obligation faithfully and without delay – within the period agreed
upon, or else, he suffers a fixed civil penalty without need of proving the damages of the other party.
The penalty imposable is a substitute for the indemnity for:

a. damages
b. payment of interest in case of breach of obligation
-unless the contrary is stipulated!
EXCEPTIONS – additional damages may be recovered from the following acts:

 If the debtor refuses to pay the penalty
 If the debtor is guilty of fraud in the fulfillment of the obligation
 If there is express stipulation that the other damages or interests are demandable to the penalty
in the penal clause
1227. The debtor cannot exempt himself from the performance of the obligation by paying the penalty,
save in the case where this right has been expressly reserved for him. Neither can the creditor demand
the fulfillment of the obligation and the satisfaction of the penalty at the same time, unless this right
has been clearly granted him. However, if after the creditor has decided to require the fulfillment of
the obligation, the performance thereof should become impossible without his fault, the penalty may be
enforced.
 A debtor cannot evade from payment of his principal obligation by choosing to pay the penalty
stipulated, except when the debtor is EXPRESSLY granted with the right to substitute the penalty for
the principal obligation. – an obligation with penalty clause cannot be turned to facultative obligation
unless expressly stipulated in the contract.
 The creditor cannot demand the stipulated fulfillment of the principal obligation and the penalty at the
same time, except
a. when the creditor was clearly given the right to enforce both the principal obligation and penalty;
b. when the creditor has demanded fulfillment of the obligation but cannot be fulfilled due to the
1. debtor’s fault – creditor may demand for penalty
2. creditor’s fault – he cannot claim the penalty
3. fortuitous event – principal obligation and penalty are extinguished
1228. Proof of actual damages suffered by the creditor is not necessary in order that the penalty may
be demanded.
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 As long as the agreement or contract is breached.

 The mere non-fulfillment of the principal obligation entitles the creditor to the penalty stipulated.
 The purpose of the penalty clause is precisely to avoid proving damages.
1229. The judge shall equitably reduce the penalty when the principal obligation has been partly or
irregularly complied with by the debtor. Even if there has been no performance, the penalty may also
be reduced by the courts if it is iniquitous or unconscionable.
JUDICIAL REDUCTION OF PENALTY

 Principal obligation – partly complied with by the debtor (but not in indivisible obligation, because it
is tantamount to non-compliance)
 Principal obligation – complied not in accordance with the tenor of the agreement (refers to irregular
performance)
 Penalty – iniquitous or unconscionable
 Judge’s power to reduce penalties are limited to private contracts.
INIQUITOUS OR UNCONSCIONABLE – when it is revolting to the conscience or common sense; grossly

disproportionate to the damages suffered.
PENALTY NOT ENFORCEABLE:

1. Impossible performance of principal obligation due to fortuitous events
2. Creditor prevented the debtor from fulfilling the obligation
3. Penalty is contrary to good morals or good customs
4. Both parties are guilty of breach of contract
5. Breach of contract by the creditor
6. None of the parties committed any willful or culpable violation of the agreement
1230. The nullity of the penal clause does not carry with it that of the principal obligation.
The nullity of the principal obligation carries with it that of the penal clause.
Because the penal clause is only an accessory to the principal obligation, it cannot exist alone.
If the penal clause is void, the principal obligation remains enforceable.
The nullity of penal clause does not mean the nullity of the principal.
For example:
In case of non-payment of P10,000, P1,000 per day as penalty shall be imposed. It is a void contract but it is
not an excuse that you don't have to pay the principal which is P10,000.
CHAPTER 4
EXTINHGUISHMENT OF OBLIGATIONS
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GENERAL PROVISIONS
1231. Obligations are extinguished:

5. by payment or performance
6. by loss of the thing due
7. by condonation or remission
8. by confusion or merger of the rights of creditor and debtor
9. by compensation
10. by novation
Other causes of extinguishment of obligations, such as annulment, rescission, fulfillment of a resolutory
condition, and prescription, are governed elsewhere in this Code.
1232. Payment means not only the delivery of money but also the performance, in any other manner of
an obligation.
Payment means not only delivery of money but also the performance.
 It is the fulfillment of the prestation due that extinguishes the obligation by the realization of the
purposes for which it was constituted
 It is a juridical act which is voluntary, licit and made with the intent to extinguish an obligation
 Requisites:
1. person who pays
2. the person to whom payment is made
3. the thing to be paid
4. the manner, time and place of payment etc
 The paying as well as the one receiving should have the requisite capacity
 Kinds:
1. normal –when the debtor voluntarily performs the prestation stipulated
2. abnormal – when he is forced by means of a judicial proceeding either to comply with prestation or to
pay indemnity
1233. A debt shall not be understood to have been paid unless the thing or service in which the
oligatoin consists has been completely delivered or rendered, as the case may be.
 States 2 requisites of payment:
a.) identity of prestation - the very thing or service due must be delivered or released
b.) integrity – prestation must be fulfilled completely
 Time of payment – the payment or performance must be on the date stipulated (may be made even
on Sundays or on any holiday, although some, like the Negotiable Instruments Law, states that
payment in such case may be made on the next succeeding business day)
 The burden of proving that the obligation has been extinguished by payment devolves upon the debtor
who offers such a defense to the claim of the plaintiff creditor
 The issuance of a receipt is a consequence of usage and good faith which must be observed (although
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our Code has no provision on this) and the refusal of the creditor to issue a receipt without just cause
is a ground for consignation under Art 1256 ( if a receipt has been issued by payee, the testimony
alone of payer would be insufficient to prove alleged payments)
1234. If the obligation has been substantially performed in good faith, the obligor may recover as
though there had been a strict and complete fulfillment, less damages suffered by the obligee.
 In order that there may be substantial performance of an obligation, there must have been an attempt
in good faith to perform, without any willful or intentional departure therefrom
 The non-performance of a material part of a contract will prevent the performance from amounting to
a substantial compliance
 A party who knowingly and willfully fails to perform his contract in any respect, or omits to perform
a material part of it cannot be permitted under the protection of this rule to compel the other party to
perform; and the trend of the more recent decisions is to hold that the percentage of omitted or
irregular performance may in and of itself be sufficient to show that there has not been a substantial
performance
 The party who has substantially performed may enforce specific performance of the obligation of the
other party or may recover damages for their breach upon an allegation of performance, without proof
of complete fulfillment.
 The other party, on the other hand, may by an independent action before he is sued, or by a
counterclaim after commencement of a suit against him, recover from the first party the damages
which he has sustained by the latter’s failure to completely fulfill his obligation
1235 – When the oblige accepts the performance, knowing its incompleteness or irregularity, and
without expressing any protest or objection, the obligation is deemed fully complied with
 A person entering into a contract has a right to insist on its performance in all particulars, according to
its meaning and spirit. But if he chooses to waive any of the terms introduced for his own benefit, he
may do so.
 But he is not obliged to accept anything else in place of that which he has contracted for and if he
does not waive this right, the other party cannot recover against him without performing all the
stipulations on is part
 To constitute a waiver, there must be an intentional relinquishment of a known right. A waiver will
not result from a mere failure to assert a claim for defective performance/payment. There must have
been acceptance of the defective performance with actual knowledge if the incompleteness or defect,
under circumstances that would indicate an intention to consider the performance as complete and
renounce any claim arising from the defect
 A creditor cannot object because of defects in performance resulting from his own acts or directions
1236. The creditor is not bound to accept payment or performance by a third person who has no
interest in the fulfillment of the obligation, unless there is a stipulation to the contrary. Whoever pays
for another may demand from the debtor what he has paid, except that if he paid without the
knowledge or against the will of the debtor, he can recover only insofar as the payment has been
beneficial to the debtor
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 Reason for this article: whenever a third person pays there is a modification of the prestation that is
due.
 Generally, the 3rd person who paid another’s debt is entitled to recover the full amount he paid. The
law, however limits his recovery to the amount by which the debtor has been benefited, if the debtor
has no knowledge of, or has expressed his opposition to such payment
 If the debt has been remitted, paid compensated or prescribed, a payment by a third person would
constitute a payment of what is not due; his remedy would be against the person who received the
payment under such conditions and not against the debtor who did not benefit from the payment
 payment against debtor’s will – even if payment of the third party is against the will of the
debtor, upon payment by the third party, the obligation between the debtor and creditor is already
extinguished
1237. Whoever pays on behalf of the debtor without the knowledge or against the will of the latter,
cannot compel the creditor to subrogate him in his rights, such as those arising from a mortgage,
guaranty or penalty
 This article gives to the third person who paid only a simple personal action for reimbursement,
without the securities, guaranties and other rights recognized in the creditor, which are extinguished
by the payment
1238. Payment made by a third person who does not intend to be reimbursed by the debtor is deemed
to be a donation, which requires the debtor’s consent/ but the payment is in any case valid as to the
creditor who has accepted it
ART 1239. In obligations to give, payment made by one who does not have the free disposal of the thing
due and capacity to alienate it shall not be valied, without prejudice to the provisions of article 1427
under the Title on “Natural Obligations”
 consignation will not be proper here. In case the creditor accepts the payment, the payment will not be
valid except in the case provided in article 1427
1240. Payment shall be made to the person in whose favor the obligation has been constituted, or his
successor in interest, or any person authorized to receive it
 the authority of a person to receive payment for the creditor may be
a.) legal – conferred by law (e.g.,guardian of the incapacitated, administrator of the estate of the deceased)
b.) conventional – when the authority has been given by the creditor himself (e.g., agent who is appointed
to collect from the debtor
 payment made by the debtor to a wrong party does not extinguish the obligation as to the creditor
(void), if there is no fault or negligence which can be imputed to the latter (even when the debtor
acted in utmost good faith, or through error induced by the fraud of the 3rd person). It does not
prejudice the creditor and the accrual of interest is not suspended by it
1241. Payment to a person who is incapacitated to administer his property shall be valid if he has kept
the thing delivered, or insofar as the payment has been beneficial to him. Payment made to a third
person shall also be valid insofar as it has redounded to the benefit of the creditor. Such benefit to the
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creditor need not be proved in the following cases:

(1) If after the payment, the third person acquires the creditor's rights;
(2) If the creditor ratifies the payment to the third person;
(3) If by the creditor's conduct, the debtor has been led to believe that the third person had authority to
receive the payment. (1163a)
 payment shall be considered as having benefited the incapacitated person if he made an intelligent and
reasonable use thereof, for purposes necessary or useful to him, such as that which his legal
representative would have or could have done under similar circumstances, even if at the time of the
complaint the effect of such use no longer exists (e.g., taxes on creditor’s property, money to
extinguish a mortgage on creditor’s property)
 the debtor is not released from liability by a payment to one who is not the creditor nor one authorized
to receive the payment, even if the debtor believed in good faith that he is the creditor, except to the
extent that the payment inured to the benefit of the creditor
 in addition to those mentioned above, payment to a third person releases the debtor:
a.) when, without notice of the assignment of credit, he pays to the original creditor
b.) when in good faith he pays to one in possession of the credit
 even when the creditor receives no benefit from the payment to a third person, he cannot demand
payment anew, if the mistake of the debtor was due to the fault of the creditor
1242. Payment made in good faith to any person in possession of the credit shall release the debtor.
(1164)
 the person in possession of the credit is neither the creditor nor one authorized by him to receive
payment, but appears under the circumstances of the case, to be the creditor. He appears to be the
owner of the credit, although in reality, he may not be the owner (e.g., an heir who enters upon the
hereditary estate and collects the credits thereof, but who is later deprived of the inheritance because
of incapacity to succeed)
 it is necessary not only that the possession of the credit be legal, but also that the payment be in good
faith
1243. Payment made to the creditor by the debtor after the latter has been judicially ordered to retain
the debt shall not be valid. (1165)
 the payment to the creditor after the credit has been attached or garnished is void as to the party who
obtained the attachment or garnishment, to the extent of the amount of the judgment in his favor.
 The debtor upon whom garnishment order is served can always deposit the money in court by way of
consignation and thus relieve himself from further liability
1244. The debtor of a thing cannot compel the creditor to receive a different one, although the latter
may be of the same value as, or more valuable than that which is due. In obligations to do or not to do,
an act or forbearance cannot be substituted by another act or forbearance against the obligee's will.
(1166a)
 Upon agreement of consent of the creditor, the debtor may deliver a different thing or perform a
different prestation in lieu of that stipulated. In this case there may be dation in payment or novation
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 The defects of the thing delivered may be waived by the creditor, if he expressly so declares or if,
with knowledge thereof, he accepts the thing without protest or disposes of it or consumes it
1245. Dation in payment, whereby property is alienated to the creditor in satisfaction of a debt in
money, shall be governed by the law of sales. (n)
 This is the delivery and transmission of ownership of a thing by the debtor to the creditor as an
accepted equivalent of the performance of the obligation.
 The property given may consist not only of a thing but also of a real right (such as a usufruct)
 Considered as a novation by change of the object
 Where the debt is money, the law on sale shall govern; in this case, the act is deemed to be a sale with
the amount of the obligation to the extent that it is extinguished being considered as price
 Difference between Dation and Cession (see Art. 1255)
1246. When the obligation consists in the delivery of an indeterminate or generic thing, whose quality
and circumstances have not been stated, the creditor cannot demand a thing of superior quality.
Neither can the debtor deliver a thing of inferior quality. The purpose of the obligation and other
circumstances shall be taken into consideration. (1167a)
 If there is disagreement between the debtor and the creditor as to the quality of the thing delivered, the
court should decide whether it complies with the obligation, taking into consideration the purpose and
other circumstances of the obligation
 Both the creditor and the debtor may waive the benefit of this article
 see Art. 1244
1247. Unless it is otherwise stipulated, the extrajudicial expenses required by the payment shall be for
the account of the debtor. With regard to judicial costs, the Rules of Court shall govern. (1168a)
 This is because the payment is the debtor’s duty and it inures to his benefit in that he is discharged
from the burden of the obligation
1248. Unless there is an express stipulation to that effect, the creditor cannot be compelled partially to
receive the prestations in which the obligation consists. Neither may the debtor be required to make
partial payments.
However, when the debt is in part liquidated and in part unliquidated, the creditor may demand and
the debtor may effect the payment of the former without waiting for the liquidation of the latter.
(1169a)
 The creditor who refuses to accept partial prestations does not incur delay except when there is abuse
of right or if good faith requires acceptance
 This article does not apply to obligations where there are several subjects or where the various parties
are bound under different terms and conditions
1249. The payment of debts in money shall be made in the currency stipulated, and if it is not possible
to deliver such currency, then in the currency which is legal tender in the Philippines.
The delivery of promissory notes payable to order, or bills of exchange or other mercantile documents
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shall produce the effect of payment only when they have been cashed, or when through the fault of the
creditor they have been impaired.
In the meantime, the action derived from the original obligation shall be held in the abeyance. (1170)
 LEGAL TENDER - means such currency which in a given jurisdiction can be used for the payment of
debts, public and private, and which cannot be refused by the creditor
- That which a debtor may compel a creditor to accept in payment of debt.
 so long as the notes were legal tender at the time they were paid or delivered, the person accepting
them must suffer the loss if thereafter they became valueless
 the provisions of the present article have been modified by RA No. 529 which states that payments of
all monetary obligations should now be made in currency which is legal tender in the Phils. A
stipulation providing payment in a foreign currency is null and void but it does not invalidate the
entire contract, and R.A. 4100.
 A check, whether a manager’s check or an ordinary check is not legal tender and an offer of the check
in payment of debt is not a valid tender of payment
1250. In case an extraordinary inflation or deflation of the currency stipulated should supervene, the
value of the currency at the time of the establishment of the obligation shall be the basis of payment,
unless there is an agreement to the contrary. (n)
 Applies only where a contract or agreement is involved. It does not apply where the obligation to pay
arises from law, independent of contracts
 Extraordinary inflation of deflation may be said to be that which is unusual or beyond the common
fluctuations in the value of the currency, which parties could not have reasonably foreseen or which
was manifestly beyond their contemplation at the time when the obligation was constituted
1251. Payment shall be made in the place designated in the obligation. There being no express
stipulation and if the undertaking is to deliver a determinate thing, the payment shall be made
wherever the thing might be at the moment the obligation was constituted. In any other case the place
of payment shall be the domicile of the debtor.
 If the debtor changes his domicile in bad faith or after he has incurred in delay, the additional
expenses shall be borne by him. These provisions are without prejudice to venue under the Rules of
Court.(1171a)
 Since the law fixes the place of payment at the domicile of the debtor, it is the duty of the creditor to
go there and receive payment; he should bear the expenses in this case because the debtor cannot be
made to shoulder the expenses which the creditor incurs in performing a duty imposed by law and
which is for his benefit.
 But if the debtor changes his domicile in bad faith or after he has incurred in delay, then the additional
expenses shall be borne by him
 When the debtor has been required to remit money to the creditor, the latter bears the risks and the
expenses of the transmission. In cases however where the debtor chooses this means of payment, he
bears the risk of loss.
SUBSECTION 1
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APPLICATION OF PAYMENTS
1252. He who has various debts of the same kind in favor of one and the same creditor, may declare at
the time of making the payment, to which of them the same must be applied. Unless the parties so
stipulate, or when the application of payment is made by the party for whose benefit the term has been
constituted, application shall not be made as to debts which are not yet due.
If the debtor accepts from the creditor a receipt in which an application of the payment is made, the
former cannot complain of the same, unless there is a cause for invalidating the contract. (1172a)
 Requisites:
1. 1 debtor and 1 creditor only
2. 2 or more debts of the same kind
3. all debts must be due
4. amount paid by the debtor must not be sufficient to cover the total amount of all the debts
 It is necessary that the obligations must all be due. Exceptions: (1) whe there is a stipulation to the
contrary; and (2) the application of payment is made by the party for whose benefit the term or period
has been constituted (relate to Art. 1196).
 It is also necessary that all the debts be for the same kind, generally of a monetary character. This
includes obligations which were not originally of a monetary character, but at the time of application
of payment, had been converted into an obligation to pay damages by reason of breach or
nonperformance.
 If the debtor makes a proper application of payment but the creditor refuses to accept it because he
wants to apply it to another debt, such creditor will incur in delay
 RIGHT OF DEBTOR TO MAKE APPLICATION. If at the time of payment, the debtor does not
exercise his right to apply it to any of his debts, the application shall be understood as provided by
law, unless the creditor makes the application and his decision is accepted by the debtor. This
application of payment can be made by the creditor only in the receipt issued at the time of payment
(although the application made by creditor may be contested by the debtor if the latter’s assent to such
application was vitiated by such causes as mistake, violence, intimidation, fraud, etc)
 The debtor and the creditor by agreement, can validly change the application of payment already
made without prejudice to the rights of third persons acquired before such agreement
1253. If the debt produces interest, payment of the principal shall not be deemed to have been made
until the interests have been covered. (1173)
 Interest paid first before principal
 Applies both to compensatory interest (that stipulated as earnings of the amount due under the
obligation) and to interest due because of delay or mora on the part of the debtor
 SC held that this provision applies only in the absence of a verbal or written agreement to the contrary
(merely directory, not mandatory)
1254. When the payment cannot be applied in accordance with the preceding rules, or if application
can not be inferred from other circumstances, the debt which is most onerous to the debtor, among
those due, shall be deemed to have been satisfied. If the debts due are of the same nature and burden,
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the payment shall be applied to all of them proportionately. (1174a)

 As to which of 2 debts is more onerous is fundamentally a question of fact, which courts must
determine on the basis of the circumstances of each case
 Debts are not of the same burden (1 par.)– Rules:
st
1. Oldest are more onerous than new ones

2. One bearing interest more onerous than one that does not
3. secured debt more onerous than unsecured one
4. principal debt more onerous than guaranty
5. solidary debtor more onerous than sole debtor
6. share in a solidary obligation more onerous to a solidary debtor
7. liquidated debt more onerous than unliquidated
 Debts are of the same burden (2 par.)– the payment shall be applied to all of them pro rata or
nd
proportionately.
 Example: debtor owes his creditor several debts, all of them due, to wit: (1) unsecured debt, (2) a debt
secured with mortgage of the debtor's property, (3) a debt with interest, (4) a debt in which the debtor
is solidarily liable with another. Partial payment was made by the debtor, without specification as to
which the payment should be applied.
The most onerous is (4), followed by (2), then (3), then (1). Consequently, payment shall be made
in that order.
SUBSECTION 2
PAYMENT BY CESSION
1255. The debtor may cede or assign his property to his creditors in payment of his debts. This cession,
unless there is stipulation to the contrary, shall only release the debtor from responsibility for the net
proceeds of the thing assigned. The agreements which, on the effect of the cession, are made between
the debtor and his creditors shall be governed by special laws. (1175a)
 Cession is a special form of payment whereby the debtor abandons or assigns all of his property for
the benefit of his creditors so that the latter may obtain payment of their credits from the proceeds of
the property.
 Requisites:
1. plurality of debts
2. partial or relative insolvency of the debtor
3. acceptance of cession by the creditors
 Kinds of Cession:
1. Contractual (Art. 1255)
2. Judicial (Insolvency Law)
 Must be initiated by debtors
 Requires two or more creditors, debtors insolvent, cession accepted by creditors
 Such assignment does not have the effect of making the creditors the owners of the property of the
debtor unless there is an agreement to that effect
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 Difference between Dation and Cession

DATION CESSION
may be 1 creditor many creditors
does not require insolvency requires partial or relative insolvency
delivery of a thing delivery of all the property
transfer of ownership of the property no transfer of ownership (only of possession and
administration)
a novation
payment extinguishes obligation (to the the effect is merely to release debtor from the net
extent of the value of the thing delivered) proceeds of the property; hence, partial
extinguishment of obligation.
SUBSECTION 3
TENDER OF PAYMENT AND CONSIGNATION
1256. If the creditor to whom tender of payment has been made refuses without just cause to accept it,
the debtor shall be released from responsibility by the consignation of the thing or sum due.
Consignation alone shall produce the same effect in the following cases:
(1) When the creditor is absent or unknown, or does not appear at the place of payment;
(2) When he is incapacitated to receive the payment at the time it is due;
(3) When, without just cause, he refuses to give a receipt;
(4) When two or more persons claim the same right to collect;
(5) When the title of the obligation has been lost. (1176a)
 Tender of payment : manifestation made by the debtor to the creditor of his desire to comply with his
obligation; The act of the debtor of offering to the creditor the thing or amount due
 Consignation : Deposit of the object or the amount due with the proper court after refusal or inability
of the creditor to accept the tender of payment
 Tender of payment by certified check is valid; a mere check would also be valid for tender of payment
if the creditor makes no prompt objection, but this does not estop the latter from later demanding
payment in cash
 When a tender of payment is made in such a form that the creditor could have immediately realized
payment if he had accepted the tender, followed by a prompt attempt of the debtor to deposit the
means of payment in court by way of consignation, the accrual of interest on the obligation will be
suspended from the date of such tender. But when the tender of payment is not accompanied by the
means of payment, and the debtor did not take any immediate step to make a consignation, then the
interest is not suspended from the time of such tender.

 GENERAL REQUISITES OF VALID CONSIGNATION vs SPECIAL REQUISITES
General Req : relative to payment (Arts. 1232 - 1251)
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Special Req : very nature of consignation (Arts. 1256 – 1258)
 Special Requisites of consignation: [DLN-DN]

1. [D] There was a debt due
2. [L] The consignation of the obligation was made because of some legal cause provided in the present
article
3. [N] That previous notice of the consignation has been given to persons interested in the performance
of the obligation
4. [D] The amount or thing due was placed at the disposal of the court
5. [N] After the consignation had been made the persons interested had been notified thereof
 If the reason for consignation is the unjust refusal of the creditor to accept payment, it must be shown:
1. That there was previous tender of payment, without which the consignation is ineffective
2. That the tender of payment was of the very thing due, or in case of money obligations that legal tender
currency was offered
3. That the tender of payment was unconditional and
4. That the creditor refused to accept payment without just cause
 Exception to requirement for tender of payment: [AIR-TT]

1. [A] When creditor is absent or unknown or does not appear at place of payment
2. [I] When he is incapacitated to receive payment
3. [R] When he refuses to give receipt, without just cause
4. [T] When two or more persons claim same right to collect
5. [T] When title of the obligation has been lost
 The 1st and 2nd Special Requisites of Consignation are embodied in Article 1256.
 As to the 2 requisite ([L] – legal cause) the following musst be present:
nd
(a) the tender of payment must have been made prior to the consignation
(b) that it must have been unconditional [e.g. where the debtor tendered a check for P3,250 to the creditor
as payment of a debt conditioned upon the signing by the latter of a motion to dismiss a complaint for
legal separation, such tender of payment is invalid.]
(c) that the creditor must have refused to accept the payment without just cause [it is not necessary for the
court where the thing or the amount is deposited to determine whether the refusal of the creditor to
accept the same was with or without just cause. The question will be resolved anyway in a subsequent
proceeding. Hence, the mere refusal of the creditor to accept the tender of payment will be sufficient
(Manresa)]
1257. In order that the consignation of the thing due may release the obligor, it must first be
announced to the persons interested in the fulfillment of the obligation.
The consignation shall be ineffectual if it is not made strictly in consonance with the provisions which
regulate payment. (1177)
 The lack of notice does not invalidate the consignation but simply makes the debtor liable for the
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expenses
 The tender of payment and the notice of consignation sent to the creditor may be made in the same
act. In case of absent or unknown creditors, the notice may be made by publication
 1st paragraph of this article – pertains to the 3rd Special Requisite of Consignation ([N] Previous
Notice)
- Tender of Payment vs Previous Notice : the former is a friendly and private act manifested only to
the creditor; the latter is manifested also to other persons interested in the fulfillment of the obligation.
 2nd paragraph of this article – pertains to the General Requisites of Consignation (Arts. 1232-1251),
which must be complied with
1258. Consignation shall be made by depositing the things due at the disposal of judicial authority,
before whom the tender of payment shall be proved, in a proper case, and the announcement of the
consignation in other cases.
The consignation having been made, the interested parties shall also be notified thereof. (1178)
 1 paragraph hereof - 4 Special Requisite of Consignation ([D] Disposal of the Court)
st th
- this is complied with if the debtor depostis the thing or amount with the Clerk of Court
 2nd paragraph hereof - 5 Special Requisite of Consignation ([N] Subsequent Notice)
th
- this is to enable the creditor to withdraw the goods or money deposited.
1259. The expenses of consignation, when properly made, shall be charged against the creditor. (1179)
 The consignation is properly made when:
1.) after the thing has been deposited in court, the creditor accepts the consignation without objection and
without any reservation of his right to contest it because of failure to comply with any of the requisites for
consignation; and
2.) when the creditor objects to the consignation but the court, after proper hearing, declares that the
consignation has been validly made
*in these cases, the creditor bears the expenses of the consignation
1260. Once the consignation has been duly made, the debtor may ask the judge to order the
cancellation of the obligation. Before the creditor has accepted the consignation, or before a judicial
declaration that the consignation has been properly made, the debtor may withdraw the thing or the
sum deposited, allowing the obligation to remain in force. (1180)
 Consignation has a retroactive effect and the payment is deemed to have been made at the time of the
deposit of the thing in court or when it was placed at the disposal of the judicial authority
 The effects of consignation are: 1.) the debtor is released in the same manner as if he had performed
the obligation at the time of the consignation because this produces the same effect as a valid
payment, 2.) the accrual of interest on the obligation is suspended from the moment of consignation,
3.) the deteriorations or loss of the thing or amount consigned occurring without fault of the debtor
must be borne by the creditor, because the risks of the thing are transferred to the creditor from the
moment of deposit 4.) any increment or increase in value of the thing after the consignation inures to
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the benefit of the creditor.

 When the amount consigned does not cover the entire obligation, the creditor may accept it, reserving
his right to the balance. If no reservations are made, the acceptance by the creditor of the amount
consigned may be regarded as a waiver of further claims under the contract
1261. If, the consignation having been made, the creditor should authorize the debtor to withdraw the
same, he shall lose every preference which he may have over the thing. The co-debtors, guarantors and
sureties shall be released. (1181a)
 When the consignation has already been made and the creditor has accepted it or it has been judicially
declared as proper, the debtor cannot withdraw the thing or amount deposited unless the creditor
consents thereto. If the creditor authorizes the debtor to withdraw the same, there is a revival of the
obligation, which has already been extinguished by the consignation, and the relationship of debtor
and creditor is restored to the condition in which it was before the consignation. But third persons,
solidary co-debtors, guarantors and sureties who are benefited by the consignation are not prejudiced
by the revival of the obligation between the debtor and the creditor
SECTION 2
LOSS OF THE THING DUE
1262. An obligation which consists in the delivery of a determinate thing shall be extinguished if it
should be lost or destroyed without the fault of the debtor, and before he has incurred in delay.
When by law or stipulation, the obligor is liable even for fortuitous events, the loss of the thing does not
extinguish the obligation and he shall be responsible for damages. The same rule applies when the
nature of the obligation requires the assumption of risk.
1263: In an obligation to deliver a generic thing, the loss or destruction of anything of the same kind
does not extinguish the obligation. (n)
1264. The courts shall determine whether, under the circumstances, the partial loss of the object of the
obligation is so important as to extinguish the obligation. (n)
1265. Whenever the thing is lost in the possession of the debtor, it shall be presumed that the loss was
due to his fault, unless there is proof to the contrary, and without prejudice to the provisions of article
1165. This presumption does not apply in case of earthquake, flood, storm, or other natural calamity.
(1183a)
 3rd paragraph of Art. 1165: whe the obligor delays, or has promised to deliver the same thing to two or
more persons who do not have the same interest, he shall be liable for any fortuitious event until he
has effected the delivery
 Hence, in cases where Art. 1165, par. 3 is applicable, even if the debtor can prove that the loss of the
thing in his possession was not through his fault or that it was through a fortuitous event, he shall still
be liable to the creditor for damages.
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1266. The debtor in obligations to do shall also be released when the prestation becomes legally or
physically impossible without the fault of the obligor. (1184a)
LEGAL IMPOSSIBILITY : may either be -

1. direct (when the law prohibits the performance or execution of the work agreed upon, i.e. when it is
immoral or dangerous)
2. indirect (the law imposes duties of a superior character upon the obligor which are incompatible with
the work agreed upon, although the latter may be perfectly licit, as where the obligor is drafted for
military service or for a civil function)
PHYSICAL IMPOSSIBILTY : examples – death of the debtor; when there is an accident...
1267. When the service has become so difficult as to be manifestly beyond the contemplation of the
parties, the obligor may also be released therefrom, in whole or in part. (n)
DOCTRINE OF UNFORESEEN EVENT / DOCTRINE OF RELATIVE IMPOSSIBILITY

(rebus sic stantibus)
It refers to obligation "to do" (personal obligation)
Parties are presumed to have the risk
It does not apply to aleatory contracts (insurance contract)
Excludes highly speculative business (stock exchange)
Monatory obligations are also excluded (governed by 1357)

Requisites:
1. event or change in the circumstances could have been foreseen of the time of the execution contract
2. it makes the performance of the contract extremely difficult but not impossible
3. the event must not be due to the act of any of the parties
4. the contract is for a future prestation. If the contract is of immediate fulfillment, the gross inequality
of the reciprocal prestations may be involve desion or want of cause.
1268. When the debt of a thing certain and determinate proceeds from a criminal offense, the debtor
shall not be exempted from the payment of its price, whatever may be the cause for the loss, unless the
thing having been offered by him to the person who should receive it, the latter refused without
justification to accept it. (1185)
1269. The obligation having been extinguished by the loss of the thing, the creditor shall have all the
rights of action which the debtor may have against third persons by reason of the loss. (1186)
1270. Condonation or remission is essentially gratuitous, and requires the acceptance by the obligor. It
may be made expressly or impliedly.
One and the other kind shall be subject to the rules which govern inofficious donations. Express
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condonation shall, furthermore, comply with the forms of donation. (1187)
1271. The delivery of a private document evidencing a credit, made voluntarily by the creditor to the
debtor, implies the renunciation of the action which the former had against the latter.
If in order to nullify this waiver it should be claimed to be inofficious, the debtor and his heirs may
uphold it by proving that the delivery of the document was made in virtue of payment of the debt.
(1188)
1272. Whenever the private document in which the debt appears is found in the possession of the
debtor, it shall be presumed that the creditor delivered it voluntarily, unless the contrary is proved.
(1189)
1273. The renunciation of the principal debt shall extinguish the accessory obligations; but the waiver
of the latter shall leave the former in force. (1190)
1274. It is presumed that the accessory obligation of pledge has been remitted when the thing pledged,
after its delivery to the creditor, is found in the possession of the debtor, or of a third person who owns
the thing. (1191a)
* Aticles 1271 – 1274: examples of implied remission
SECTION 4
CONFUSION OR MERGER OF RIGHTS
1275. The obligation is extinguished from the time the characters of creditor and debtor are merged in
the same person. (1192a)
 Merger or confusion is the meeting in one person of the qualities of creator and debtor with respect to
the same obligation. It erases the plurality of subjects of the obligation. Further, the purposes for
which the obligation may have been created are considered as fully realized by the merger of the
qualities of debtor and creditor in the same person.
 Requisites of merger or confusion are:
(1) It must take place between the creditor and the principal debtor,
(2) the very same obligation must be involved, for if the debtor acquires rights from the creditor, but
not the particular obligation in question in question there will be no merger,
(3) the confusion must be total or as regards the entire obligation.
 The effect of merger is to extinguish the obligation.
1276. Merger which takes place in the person of the principal debtor or creditor benefits the
guarantors. Confusion which takes place in the person of any of the latter does not extinguish the
obligation. (1193)
 The extinguishment of the principal obligation through confusion releases the guarantor’s because the
obligation of the latter is merely accessory. When the merger takes place in the person of a guarantor,
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the obligation is not extinguished.
1277. Confusion does not extinguish a joint obligation except as regards the share corresponding to the
creditor or debtor in whom the two characters concur. (1194)
SECTION 5
COMPENSATION
1278. Compensation shall take place when two persons, in their own right, are creditors and debtors of
each other. (1195)
 Compensation is a mode of extinguishing to the concurrent amount, the obligations of those persons
who in their own right are reciprocally debtors and creditors of each other. It is the offsetting of two
obligations which are reciprocally extinguished if they are of equal value. Or extinguished to the
concurrent amount if of different values.
 Kinds of Compensation:
 As to their effects
 compensation may be total (when the two obligations are of the same amount); or
 partial (when the amounts are not equal).
 As to origin
1. it may be legal;
2. facultative;
3. conventional;
4. or judicial.
■ It is legal when it takes place by operation of law because all requisites are present.
■ It is facultative when it can be claimed by one of the parties, who, however, has the right to
object to it, such as when one of the obligations has a period for the benefit of one party alone
and who renounces that period so as to make the obligation due.
■ It is conventional when the parties agree to compensate their mutual obligations even if some
requisite is lacking.
■ It is judicial when decreed by the court in a case where there is a counterclaim.
Compensation vs. Payment: In compensation, there can be partial extinguishment of the obligation; in
payment, the performance must be completer, unless waived by the creditor. Payment involves delivery of
action, while compensation (legal compensation) takes place by operation of law without simultaneous
delivery.
Compensation vs. Merger: In compensation, there are at least two persons who stand as principal creditors
and debtor of each other, in merger, there is only one person involved in whom the characters of creditor and
debtor are merged. In merger, there is only one obligation, while in compensation, there are two obligations
involved.
1279. In order that compensation may be proper, it is necessary:

(1) That each one of the obligors be bound principally, and that he be at the same time a principal
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creditor of the other;

(2) That both debts consist in a sum of money, or if the things due are consumable, they be of the same
kind, and also of the same quality if the latter has been stated;
(3) That the two debts be due;
(4) That they be liquidated and demandable;
(5) That over neither of them there be any retention or controversy, commenced by third persons and
communicated in due time to the debtor. (1196)
 For compensation to take place, the parties must be mutually debtors and creditors (1) in their own
right, and (2) as principals. Where there is no relationship of mutual creditors and debtors, there can
be no compensation. Because the 1st requirement that the parties be mutually debtors and creditors in
their own right, there can be no compensation when one party is occupying a representative capacity,
such as a guardian or an administrator. The 2nd requirement is that the parties should be mutually
debtors and creditors as principals. This means that there can be no compensation when one party is a
principal creditor in one obligation but is only a surety or guarantor in the other.
 The things due in both obligations must be fungible, or things which can be substituted for each
other.
 Both debts must be due to permit compensation.
 Demandable means that the debts are enforceable in court, there being no apparent defenses inherent
in them. The obligations must be civil obligations, including those that are purely natural. An
obligation is not demandable, therefore, and not subject to compensation, in the following cases: (1)
when there is a period which has not yet arrived, including the cases when one party is in a state of
suspension of payments; (2) when there is a suspensive condition that has not yet happened; (3) when
the obligation cannot be sued upon, as in natural obligation.
 A debt is liquidated when its existence and amount is determined. Compensation can only take place
between certain and liquidated debts.
* The five requisites of a legal compensation are enumerated in the Article. All requisites must be present
before compensation can be effectual.
1. That each of the obligators be bound principally and that he be at the same time a principal
creditor of the other. The parties must be mutual creditor and debtor of each other and their
relationship is a principal one, that is, they are principal debtor and creditor of each other.
2. That both debts consist in such a sum of money, or if the things due are consumable, they be of the
same kind, and also of the same quality if the latter has been stated. >>When the debts consist of
money, there is not much of a problem when it comes to compensation to the concurrent amount.
It is a matter of mathematical computation. When the debt consist of things, it is necessary that the
things are consumable which must be understood as ‘fungible’ and therefore susceptible of
substitution. More than that they must be of the same kind. If the quality has been states, the
things must be of the same quality.
3. That the two debts are due. >> A debt is ‘due’ when its period of performance has arrived. If it is a
subject to a condition, the condition must have already been fulfilled. However, in voluntary
compensation, the parties may agree upon the compensation of debts which are not yet due.
4. That they be liquidated and demandable. >> A debt is considered ‘liquidated’ when its amount is
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clearly fixed. Of if it is not yet specially fixed, a simple mathematical computation will determine
its amount or value. It is ‘unliquidated’ when the amount is not fixed because it is still subject to a
dispute or to certain condition. It is not enough that the debts be liquidated. It is also essential that
the same be demandable. A debt is demandable if it is not yet barred by prescription and it is not
illegal or invalid.
5. That over neither of them there be any retention or controversy, commenced by third persons and
communicated in due time to the debtor. >> A debt of a thing cannot be a subject of compensation
if the same had been subject of a garnishment of which the debtor was timely notified. When a
credit or property had been properly garnished of attached, it cannot be disposed of without the
approval of the court.
1280. Notwithstanding the provisions of the preceding article, the guarantor may set up compensation
as regards what the creditor may owe the principal debtor. (1197)
 The liability of the guarantor is only subsidiary; it is accessory to the principal obligation of the
debtor. If the principal debtor has a credit against the creditor, which can be compensated, it would
mean the extinguishment of the guaranteed debt, either totally or partially. This extinguishment
benefits the guarantor, for he can be held liable only to the same extent as the debtor.
Exception to the Rule On Compensation: Right of Guarantor to Invoke Compensation Against Creditor.
The general rule is that for compensation to operate, the parties must be related reciprocally as principal
creditors and debtors of each other. Under the present Article, the guarantor is allowed to set up
compensation against the creditor.
1281. Compensation may be total or partial. When the two debts are of the same amount, there is a
total compensation. (n)
 Total Compensation—debts are of the same amount.
 Partial Compensation—Debts are not of the same amount; operative only up to the concurrent
amount.
1282. The parties may agree upon the compensation of debts which are not yet due. (n)
 Voluntary compensation is not limited to obligations which are not yet due. The parties may
compensate by agreement any obligations, in which the objective requisites provided for legal
compensation are not present. It is necessary, however, that the parties should have the capacity to
dispose of the credits which they compensate, because the extinguishment of the obligations in this
case arises from their wills and not from law.
1283. If one of the parties to a suit over an obligation has a claim for damages against the other, the
former may set it off by proving his right to said damages and the amount thereof. (n)
Art. 1284. When one or both debts are rescissible or voidable, they may be compensated against each
other before they are judicially rescinded or avoided. (n)
 Although a rescissible or voidable debt can be compensated before it is rescinded or annulled, the
moment it is rescinded or annulled, the decree of rescission or annulment is retroactive, and the
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compensation must be considered as cancelled. Recission of annulment requires mutual restitution;

the party whose obligation is annulled or rescinded can thus recover to the extent that his credit was
extinguished by the compensation, because to that extent he is deemed to have made a payment.
1285. The debtor who has consented to the assignment of rights made by a creditor in favor of a third
person, cannot set up against the assignee the compensation which would pertain to him against the
assignor, unless the assignor was notified by the debtor at the time he gave his consent, that he reserved
his right to the compensation.
If the creditor communicated the cession to him but the debtor did not consent thereto, the latter may
set up the compensation of debts previous to the cession, but not of subsequent ones.
If the assignment is made without the knowledge of the debtor, he may set up the compensation of all
credits prior to the same and also later ones until he had knowledge of the assignment. (1198a)
 Assignment after Compensation:
When compensation has already taken place before the assignment, inasmuch as it takes place ipso
jure, there has already been an extinguishment of one of the other of the obligations. A subsequent
assignment of an extinguished obligation cannot produce any effect against the debtor. The only
exception to this rule is when the debtor consents to the assignment of the credit; his consent
constitutes a waiver of the compensation, unless at the time he gives consent, he informs the assignor
that he reserved his right to the compensation.
 Assignment before compensation.
The assignment may be made before compensation has taken place, either because at the time of
assignment one of the debts is not yet due or liquidated, or because of some other cause which
impedes the compensation. As far as the debtor is concerned, the assignment does not take effect
except from the time he is notified thereof. If the notice of assignment is simultaneous to the transfer,
he can set up compensation of debts prior to the assignment. If notice was given to him before the
assignment, this takes effect at the time of the assignment; therefore the same rule applies. If he
consents to the assignment, he waives compensation even of debts already due, unless he makes a
reservation.
 But if the debtor was notified of the assignment, but he did not consent, and the credit assigned to a
third person matures after that which pertains to the debtor, the latter may set up compensation when
the assignee attempts to enforce the assigned credit, provided that the credit of the debtor became due
before the assignment. But it f the assigned credit matures earlier than that of the debtor, the assignee
may immediately enforce it, and the debtor cannot set up compensation, because the credit is not yet
due.
 If the debtor did not have knowledge of the assignment, he may set up by way of compensation all
credits maturing before he is notified thereof. Hence, if the assignment is concealed, and the assignor
still contracts new obligation in favor of the debtor, such obligation maturing before the latter learns
of the assignment will still be allowable by way of compensation. The assignee in such case would
have a personal action against the assignor.
1286. Compensation takes place by operation of law, even though the debts may be payable at different
places, but there shall be an indemnity for expenses of exchange or transportation to the place of
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payment. (1199a)
 This article applies to legal compensation and not to voluntary compensation.
1287. Compensation shall not be proper when one of the debts arises from a depositum or from the
obligations of a depositary or of a bailee in commodatum.
Neither can compensation be set up against a creditor who has a claim for support due by gratuitous
title, without prejudice to the provisions of paragraph 2 of Article 301. (1200a)
E. The prohibition of compensation when one of the debts arises from a depositum (a contract by virtue
of which a person [depositary] receives personal property belonging to another [depositor], with the
obligation of safely keeping it and returning the same) or commodatum (a gratuitous contract by
virtue of which one of the parties delivers to the other a non-consumable personal property so that the
latter may use it for a certain time and return it) is based on justice. A deposit of commodatum is
given on the basis of confidence in the depositary of the borrower. It is therefore, a matter of morality,
the depositary or borrower performs his obligation.
 With respect to future support, to allow its extinguishment by compensation would defeat its
exemption from attachment and execution. , and may expose the recipient to misery and starvation.
Common humanity and public policy forbid this consequence. Support under this provision should be
understood, not only referring to legal support, to include all rights which have for their purpose the
subsistence of the debtor, such as pensions and gratuities.
1288. Neither shall there be compensation if one of the debts consists in civil liability arising from a
penal offense. (n)
 If one of the debts consists in civil liability arising from a penal offense, compensation would be
improper and inadvisable because the satisfaction of such obligation is imperative.
 The person who has the civil liability arising from crime is the only party who cannot set up the
compensation; but the offended party entitled to the indemnity can set up his claim in compensation of
his debt.
Art. 1289. If a person should have against him several debts which are susceptible of compensation, the
rules on the application of payments shall apply to the order of the compensation. (1201)
 It can happen that a debtor may have several debts to a creditor. And vice versa. Under these
circumstances, Articles 1252 to 1254 shall apply.
1290. When all the requisites mentioned in Article 1279 are present, compensation takes effect by
operation of law, and extinguishes both debts to the concurrent amount, even though the creditors and
debtors are not aware of the compensation.
 Legal compensation takes place from the moment that the requisites of the articles 1278 and 1270 co-
exist; its effects arise on the very day which all its requisites concur.
 Voluntary of conventional compensation takes effect upon the agreement of the parties.
 Facultative compensation takes place when the creditor declares his option to set it up.
 Judicial compensation takes place upon final judgment.
 Effects of Compensation:
(1) Both debts are extinguished to the concurrent amount;
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(2) interests stop accruing on the extinguished obligation of the part extinguished;
(3) the period of prescription stops with respect to the obligation or part extinguished;
(4) all accessory obligations of the principal obligation which has been extinguished are also extinguished.
 Renunciation of Compensation. Compensation can be renounces, either at the time an obligation is
contracted or afterwards. Compensation rests upon a potestative right, and a unilateral decision of the
debtor would be sufficient renunciation. Compensation can be renounced expressly of impliedly.
 No Compensation. Even when all the requisites for compensation occur, the compensation may not
take place in the following cases: (1) When there is renunciation of the effects of compensation by a
party; and (2) when the law prohibits compensation.
(Unless otherwise indicated, commentaries are sourced from the Civil Code book IV by Tolentino).
SECTION 6
NOVATION
HOW OBLIGATIONS ARE MODIFIED
1291. Obligations may be modified by:

(1) Changing their object or principal condition
(2) Substituting the person of the debtor
(3) Subrogating a third person in the rights of a creditor
 Novation is the extinguishment of an obligation by a substitution or change of the obligation by a
subsequent one which extinguishes or modifies the first either by:
1. changing the object or principal conditions
2. by substituting the person of the debtor
3. subrogating a third person in the rights of the creditor
 Novation is a juridical act of dual function. At the time it extinguishes an obligation it creates a new
one in lieu of the old
 Classification of Novation
 as to nature
1. Subjective or personal – either passive or active. Passive if there is substitution of the
debtor. Active if a third person is subrogated in the rights of the creditor.
2. Objective or real – substitution of the object with another or changing the principal
conditions
3. Mixed – Combination of subjective and objective
 as to form
 Express – parties declare that the old obligation is substituted by the new
 Implied – an incompatibility exists between the old and the new obligation that cannot stand together
 as to effect
1. Partial – when there is only a modification or change in some principal conditions of the
obligation
2. Total – when the old obligation is completely extinguished
 Requisites of Novation:
1. A previous valid obligation
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2. Agreement of all parties

3. Extinguishment of the old contract – may be express of implied
4. Validity of the new one
TITLE II.
CONTRACTS
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 1305. A contract is a meeting of the minds between two persons whereby one binds himself, with
respect to the other to give something or to render some service.
* relate to Art. 1159 of CC
CONTRACT - a juridical convention manifested in legal form, by virtue of which one or more persons bind
themselves in favor of another or others, or reciprocally, to the fulfillment of a prestation to give, to do or not
to do.
* Other Terms:
Perfect promise – distinguished from a contract, in that the latter establishes and determines the obligations
arising therefrom; while the former tends only to assure and pave the way for the celebration of a contract in
the future.
Imperfect Promise – mere unaccepted offer
Pact – a special part of the contract, sometimes incidental and separable for the principal agreement
Stipulation – similar to a pact; when the contract is an instrument, it refers to the essential and dispositive
part, as distinguished from the exposition of the facts and antecedents upon which it is based.
* Number of Parties:
The Code states “two persons”; what is meant actually is “two parties”. For a contract to exist, there must be
two parties. A party can be one or more persons.
* Husband & Wife: Husbands and wives cannot sell to each other as a protection of the conjugal partnership.
They can however enter into a contract of agency.
* Auto-contracts:
It means one person contracts himself. As a general rule, it is accepted in our law. The existence of a contract
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does not depend on the number of persons but on the number of parties. There is no general prohibition
against auto-contracts; hence, it should be held valid.
* Contracts of Adhesion:
Contracts prepared by another, containing provisions that he desires, and asks the other party to agree to them
if he wants to enter into a contract.
- Example: transportation tickets. It is valid contract according to Tolentino because the other
party can reject it entirely.
* Characteristics of Contracts:
3 elements:
1. Essential elements – without which there is no contract; they are:
a) consent
b) subject matter; and
c) cause
2. Natural elements – exist as part of the contract even if the parties do not provide for them, because the law,
as suppletory to the contract, creates them
3. Accidental elements – those which are agreed by the parties and which cannot exist without stipulated
* Stages of a Contract:
3 stages:
1. Preparation, Generation or Policitacion – period of negotiation and bargaining, ending at the moment of
agreement of the parties
2. Perfection or Birth of the contract – the moment when the parties come to agree on the terms of the
contract
3. Consummation or Death – the fulfillment or performance of the terms agreed upon in any contract
1306. The contracting parties may establish such stipulations, clauses, terms & conditions as they may
deem convenient, provided they are not contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order, or public
policy.
* This article embodies the Principle of Autonomy of Contracts

* Freedom to contract:
Any person has the liberty to enter into a contract so long as they are not contrary to law, morals, good
customs, public order or public policy. The legislature, under the constitution, is prohibited from enacting
laws to prescribe the terms of a legal contract.
* Validity of Stipulations:
Any and all stipulations not contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order or public policy is valid
* Contrary to law:
Freedom of contract is restricted by law for the good of the public. It is fundamental postulate that however
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broad the freedom of the contracting parties may be, it does not go so far as to countenance disrespect for or
failure to observe a legal prescription. The Statute takes precedence.
- Examples:
A promissory note which represents a gambling debt is unenforceable in the hands of the assignee.
Stipulations to pay usurious interests are void.
A contract between to public service companies to divide the territory is void because it impairs the
control of the Public Service Commission.
Agreement to declare valid a law or ordinance is void.
* Contrary to Morals:
Morals mean those generally accepted principles of morality which have received some kind of social and
practical confirmation.
- Examples:
a promise to marry or nor to marry, to secure legal separation, or to adopt a child
a promise to change citizenship, profession, religion or domicile
a promise not to hold public office or which limits the performance of official duties
a promise to enter a particular political party or separate from it
contracts which limit in an excessive manner the personal or economic freedom of a person
to make an act dependent on money or some pecuniary value, when it is of such a nature that it should
not depend thereon; payment to kill another.
* Contrary to Public Order:

Public order means the public weal or public policy. It represents the public, social, and legal interest in
private law that which is permanent and essential in institutions, which, even if favoring some individual to
whom the right pertains, cannot be left to his own will. A contract is said to be against public order if the
court finds that the contract as to the consideration or the thing to be done, contravenes some established
interest of society, or is inconsistent with sound policy and good morals, or tends clearly to undermine the
security of individual rights.
- Examples:
Common carrier cannot stipulate for exemption for liability unless such exemption is justifiable and
reasonable and the contract is freely and fairly made.
Payment to intermediaries in securing import licenses or quota allocations.
Contract of scholarship stipulating that the student must remain in the same school and that he waives
his right to transfer to another school without refunding the school
Art. 1307. Innominate contracts shall be regulated by the stipulations of the parties, by the provisions
of Titles I & II of this Book, by the rules governing the most analogous nominate contracts, and by the
customs of the place.
INNOMINATE CONTRACTS – those which lack individuality and are not regulated by special provisions
of law.
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* Innominate Contracts:
do ut des (I give that you may give) – An agreement in which A will give one thing to B, so that B will give
another thing to A.
do ut facias (I give that you may do) – An agreement under which A will give something to B, so that B may
do something for A.
facio ut facias (I do that you may do) – An agreement under which A does something for B, so that B may
render some other service for A.
facio ut des (I do that you may give) – An agreement under which A does something for B, so that B may
give something to A.
* Analogous contracts:
Innominate contracts, in the absence of stipulations and specific provisions of law on the matter, are to be
governed by rules applicable to the most analogous contracts.
Art. 1308. The contract must bind both contracting parties; its validity or compliance cannot be left to
the will of one of them.
* Principle of Mutuality of Contract:

The binding effect of contract on both parties is based on the principles:
- that obligations arising from contracts have the force of law between the contracting parties
- that there must be mutuality between the parties based on their essential equality, to which is
repugnant to have one party bound by the contract leaving the other free therefrom.
A contract containing a condition which makes its fulfillment dependent exclusively upon the uncontrolled
will of one of the contracting parties is void.
* Unilateral Cancellation:
Just as nobody can be forced to enter into a contract, in the same manner once a contract is entered into, no
party can renounce it unilaterally or without the consent of the other.
Nobody is allowed to enter into a contract, and while the contract is in effect, leaves, denounces or disavows
the contract to the prejudice of the other.
* When Stipulated:
However, when the contract so stipulates that one may terminate the contract upon a reasonable period is
valid.
Judicial action for the rescission of the contract is no longer necessary when the contract so stipulates that it
may be revoked and cancelled for the violation of any of its terms and conditions. This right of rescission
may be waived.
Art. 1309. The determination of the performance may be left to a third person, whose decision shall not
be binding until it has been made known to both contracting parties.
* Exception to Art. 1308 (Mutuality of Contract)
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 A third person may be called upon to decide whether or not performance has been done for the
fulfillment of the contract. Such decision becomes binding when the contracting parties have been
informed of it.
Art. 1310. The determination shall be obligatory if it is evidently inequitable. In such case, the courts
shall decide what is equitable under the circumstances.
* Exception to Art. 1308 (Mutuality of Contract)

However, when the decision cannot be arrived due to inequity, the courts shall decide what is equitable for
the parties involved.
Art 1311. Contracts take effect only between the parties, their assigns and heirs, except in case where
the rights and obligations arising from the contracts are not transmissible by their nature, or by
stipulation or by provision of law. The heir is not liable beyond the value of the property he received
from the decedent.
If a contract should contain some stipulation in favor of a third person, he may demand its
fulfillment provided he communicated his acceptance to the obligor before its revocation. A mere
incidental benefit or interest of a person is not sufficient. The contracting parties must have clearly and
deliberately conferred a favor upon a third person.
 1st paragraph of this article embodies the Principle of Relativity of Contract
 Four exceptional instances where a contract may produce effect on third persons (stipulation pour
autrui): Art. 1311, par.2 – 1314
* Parties bound by contract:

Generally, only the parties that agreed on the contracts are bound by the contract. Transmission is possible to
the heirs or assignees if so stipulated and in certain contracts.
* Third persons not bound:

It is a general rule that third parties are not bound by the acts of another.
A contract cannot be binding upon and cannot be enforced against one who is not a party to it, even if he has
knowledge of such contract and has acted with knowledge thereof.
* Enforcement of contract:
Only a party to the contract can maintain an action to enforce the obligations arising under said contract.
* Contracts bind heirs:

Rights and obligations under a contract are transmissible to heirs. Heirs are not third persons because there is
privity of interest between them and their predecessor.
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Art 1312. In contracts creating real rights, third persons who come into possession of the object of the
contract are bound thereby, subject to the provisions of the Mortgage Law and the Land Registration
laws.
* Real Rights in Property

A real right directly affects property subject to it; hence, whoever is in possession of such property must
respect that real right.
Art 1313. Creditors are protected in cases of contracts intended to defraud them.
* Contracts in Fraud of Creditors

When a debtor enters into a contract in fraud of his creditors, such as when he alienated property gratuitously
without leaving enough for his creditors (article 1387), the creditor may ask for its rescission.
* see Arts. 1177 and 1380
Art 1314. Any third person who induces another to violate his contract shall be liable for damages to
the other contracting party.
* Interference of Third Persons:

If a third person induced a party to violate his side of the contract, the other party may sue the third person for
damages.
 Requisites:
1. the existence of a valid contract
2. knowledge by the third person of the existence of a contract
3. interference by the third person in the contractual relation without legal justification
Jurisprudential doctrine:
*Manila Railroad Co. vs. Compañia Transatlantica

The process must be accomplished by distinguishing clearly between the right of action arising from the
improper interference with the contract by a stranger thereto, considered as an independent act generative of
civil liability, and the right of action ex contractu against a party to the contract resulting form the breach
thereof.
Art 1315. Contracts are perfected by mere consent, and from that moment the parties are bound not
only to the fulfillment of what has been expressly stipulated but also to all the consequences which,
according to their nature, may be in keeping with good faith, usage and law.
* embodies the Principle of Consensuality:
Art 1316. Real contracts, such as deposit, pledge or commodatum, are not perfected until the delivery
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of the object of the obligation.
* Exception to Art. 1315 or Principle of Consensuality
* Perfection of real contracts:

Real contract is not perfect by mere consent. The delivery of the thing is required.
Delivery is demanded, neither arbitrary nor formalistic.
Art 1317. No one may contract in the name of another without being authorized by the latter, or unless
he has by law a right to represent him.
A contract entered into in the name of another by one who has no authority or legal representation,
or who has acted beyond his powers, shall be unenforceable, unless it is ratified, expressly or impliedly,
by the person on whose behalf it has been executed, before it is revoked by the other contracting party.
* Ratification necessary:
A contract entered into in behalf of another who has not authorized it is not valid or binding on him unless he
ratifies the transaction. When ratified, he is estopped to question the legality of the transaction.
Kinds of ratification:
1. express
2. implied
CHAPTER 2
ESSENTIAL REQUISITES OF CONTRACTS
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 1318. There is no contract unless the following requisites concur:

(1) Consent of the contracting parties;
(2) Object certain which is the subject matter of the contract;
(3) Cause of the obligation which is established. (1261)
[COC]
SECTION 1
CONSENT
Art. 1319. Consent is manifested by the meeting of the offer and the acceptance upon the thing and the
cause which are to constitute the contract. The offer must be certain and the acceptance absolute. A
qualified acceptance constitutes a counter-offer.
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Acceptance made by letter or telegram does not bind the offerer except from the time it came to his
knowledge. The contract, in such a case, is presumed to have been entered into in the place where the
offer was made. (1262a)
 CONSENT (as applied to contracts) : concurrence of the wills of the contracting parties with respect
to the object and the cause which shall constitute the contract
 Requisites:
1. consent must be manifested by the concurrence of the offer and the acceptance (Arts. 1319-
1326);
2. contracting parties must possess the necessary legal capacity (Arts. 1327-1329); and
3. consent must be intelligent, free, spontaneous and real (Arts. 1330-1346)
*Forms: Consent may either be express or implied. There is also a presumptive consent, which is the basis of
quasi-contracts.
*Manifestation: Consent is manifested by the concurrence of offer and acceptance with respect to the object
and the cause of the contract. Once there is such a manifestation, the period or stage of negotiation is
terminated. If consensual, the contract is perfected.
*A unilateral proposition must be definite (distinguished from mere communications), complete (stating the
essential and non-essential conditions desired by the offeror), and intentional (serious) when accepted by
another party for such proposition to form a valid contract. However, a unilateral promise is not recognized
by our Code as having obligatory force. To be so, there must be an acceptance that shall convert it into a
contract.
*Mental reservation—when a party makes a declaration but secretly does not desire the effects of such
declaration. The mental reservation of the offeror, unknown to the other, cannot affect the validity of the
offer.
Art. 1320. An acceptance may be express or implied. (n)

Implied acceptance may arise from acts or facts which reveal the intent to accept, such as the consumption of
the things sent to the offeree, or the fact of immediately carrying out of the contract offered.
Art. 1321. The person making the offer may fix the time, place, and manner of acceptance, all of which
must be complied with. (n)
The offer with a period lapses upon the termination of the period. Thus the acceptance, to become effective,
must be known to the offeror before the period lapses.
Art. 1322. An offer made through an agent is accepted from the time acceptance is communicated to
him. (n)
An intermediary who has no power to bind either the offeror or the offeree is not an agent; his situation is
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similar to that of a letter carrier.
Art. 1323. An offer becomes ineffective upon the death, civil interdiction, insanity, or insolvency of
either party before acceptance is conveyed. (n)
Art. 1324. When the offerer has allowed the offeree a certain period to accept, the offer may be
withdrawn at any time before acceptance by communicating such withdrawal, except when the option
is founded upon a consideration, as something paid or promised. (n)
It is not the moment of sending but the time of receipt of the revocation or acceptance which is controlling.
The delay in transmission is at the risk of the sender, because he is the one who selects the time and the
manner of making the transmission.
Contract of Option: This is a preparatory contract in which one party grants to the other, for a fixed period
and under specified conditions, the power to decide whether or not to enter into a principal contract. It must
be supported by an independent consideration, and the grant must be exclusive.
Art. 1325. Unless it appears otherwise, business advertisements of things for sale are not definite offers,
but mere invitations to make an offer. (n)
Art. 1326. Advertisements for bidders are simply invitations to make proposals, and the advertiser is
not bound to accept the highest or lowest bidder, unless the contrary appears. (n)
Art. 1327. The following cannot give consent to a contract:

(1) Unemancipated minors;
(2) Insane or demented persons, and deaf-mutes who do not know how to write. (1263a)
* see Art. 38
* Unemancipated minors cannot enter into valid contracts, and contracts entered into by them are not binding
upon them, unless upon reaching majority they ratify the same.
* Insane persons: It is not necessary that there be a previous of declaration of mental incapacity in order that a
contract entered into by a mentally defective person may be annulled; it is enough that the insanity existed at
the time the contract was made.
* Being deaf-mute is not by itself alone a disqualification for giving consent. The law refers to the deaf-mute
who does not know how to write.
Art. 1328. Contracts entered into during a lucid interval are valid. Contracts agreed to in a state of
drunkenness or during a hypnotic spell are voidable. (n)
*The use of intoxicants does not necessarily mean a complete loss of understanding. The same may be said of
drugs. But a person, under the influence of superabundance of alcoholic drinks or excessive use of drugs, may
have no capacity to contract.
*In hypnotism and somnambulism, the utter want of understanding is a common element.
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Art. 1329. The incapacity declared in Article 1327 is subject to the modifications determined by law,
and is understood to be without prejudice to special disqualifications established in the laws. (1264)
* The Rules of Court provide a list of incompetents who need guardianship: persons suffering from the
penalty of civil interdiction, hospitalized lepers, prodigals, deaf and dumb who are unable to write and read,
those of unsound mind (even though they have lucid intervals), and persons not being of unsound mind but
by reason of age, disease, weak mind, and other similar causes cannot, without outside aid, take care of
themselves and manage their property—becoming an easy prey for deceit and exploitation.
* The incapacity to give consent (Arts. 1327 & 1328) to contracts renders the contract merely voidable, while
special disqualification (Art. 1329) makes it void.
Art. 1330. A contract where consent is given through mistake, violence, intimidation, undue influence,
or fraud is voidable. (1265a)
Art. 1331. In order that mistake may invalidate consent, it should refer to the substance of the thing
which is the object of the contract, or to those conditions which have principally moved one or both
parties to enter into the contract.
Mistake as to the identity or qualifications of one of the parties will vitiate consent only when such
identity or qualifications have been the principal cause of the contract.
A simple mistake of account shall give rise to its correction. (1266a)
* Ignorance and error are 2 different states of mind. Ignorance means the complete absence of any notion
about a particular matter, while error or mistake means a wrong or false notion about such matter.
* Annulment of contract on the ground of error is limited to cases in which it may reasonably be said that
without such error the consent would not have been given.
* An error as to the person will invalidate consent when the consideration of the person has been the principal
cause of the same.
* Mistake as to qualifications, even when there is no error as to person, is a cause vitiating consent, if such
qualifications have been the principal cause of the contract.
* A mistake as to the motive of a party does not affect the contract; to give it such effect would destroy the
stability of contractual relations. When the motive has, however, been expressed and was a condition of the
consent given, annulment is proper—because an accidental element is, by the will of the parties, converted
into a substantial element.
Art. 1332. When one of the parties is unable to read, or if the contract is in a language not understood
by him, and mistake or fraud is alleged, the person enforcing the contract must show that the terms
thereof have been fully explained to the former. (n)
Art. 1333. There is no mistake if the party alleging it knew the doubt, contingency or risk affecting the
object of the contract. (n)
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To invalidate consent, the error must be excusable. It must be a real error and not one that could have been
avoided by the party alleging it. The error must arise from facts unknown to him. A mistake that is caused by
manifest negligence cannot invalidate a juridical act.
Art. 1334. Mutual error as to the legal effect of an agreement when the real purpose of the parties is
frustrated, may vitiate consent. (n)
*Three requisites under this article: 1) the error must be as to the legal effect of an agreement; 2) it must be
mutual; and 3) the real purpose of the parties is frustrated.
* The legal effects include the rights and obligations of the parties, not as stipulated in the contract, but as
provided by the law. The mistake as to these effects, therefore, means an error as to what the law provides
should spring as consequences from the contract in question.
* An error as to the nature or character is always essential, and makes the act juridically inexistent.
Art. 1335. There is violence when in order to wrest consent, serious or irresistible force is employed.
There is intimidation when one of the contracting parties is compelled by a reasonable and well-
grounded fear of an imminent and grave evil upon his person or property, or upon the person or
property of his spouse, descendants or ascendants, to give his consent.
To determine the degree of intimidation, the age, sex and condition of the person shall be borne in
mind.
A threat to enforce one's claim through competent authority, if the claim is just or legal, does not
vitiate consent. (1267a)
*Duress is that degree of constraint or danger either actually inflicted (violent) or threatened and impending
(intimidation), sufficient to overcome the mind and will of a person of ordinary firmness.
* Violence refers to physical force or compulsion, while intimidation refers to moral force or compulsion.
*Requisites of violence:
1) That the physical force employed must be irresistible or of such degree that the victim has no other course,
under the circumstances, but to submit; and
2) that such force is the determining cause in giving the consent to the contract.
* Requisites of intimidation:
1) that the intimidation must be the determining cause of the contract, or must have caused the consent to be
given;
2) that the threatened act be unjust or unlawful;
3) that the threat be real and serious, there being an evident disproportion between the evil and the resistance
which all men can offer; and
4) that it produces a reasonable and well-grounded fear from the fact that the person from whom it comes has
the necessary means or ability to inflict the threatened injury.
Art. 1336. Violence or intimidation shall annul the obligation, although it may have been employed by
a third person who did not take part in the contract. (1268)
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Art. 1337. There is undue influence when a person takes improper advantage of his power over the will
of another, depriving the latter of a reasonable freedom of choice. The following circumstances shall be
considered: the confidential, family, spiritual and other relations between the parties, or the fact that
the person alleged to have been unduly influenced was suffering from mental weakness, or was
ignorant or in financial distress. (n)
* In intimidation, there must be an unlawful or unjust act which is threatened and which causes consent to be
given, while in undue influence there need not be an unjust or unlawful act. In both cases, there is moral
coercion.
*Moral coercion may be effected through threats, expressed or implied, or through harassing tactics.
*Undue influence is any means employed upon a party which, under the circumstances, he could not well
resist, and which controlled his volition and induced him to give his consent to the contract—which otherwise
he would not have entered into.
Art. 1338. There is fraud when, through insidious words or machinations of one of the contracting
parties, the other is induced to enter into a contract which, without them, he would not have agreed to.
(1269)
*Fraud is every kind of deception, whether in the form of insidious machinations, manipulations,
concealments, or misrepresentations, for the purpose of leading another party into error and thus executing a
particular act.
* Fraud produces qualified error; it induces in the other party an inexact notion of facts. The will of another is
maliciously misled by means of false appearance of reality.
*“Insidious words or machinations” include false promises; exaggeration of hopes or benefits; abuse of
confidence; and fictitious names, qualifications, or authority.
* Kinds of fraud:
1) dolo causante (Art. 1338) — which determines or is the essential cause of the consent; fraud in the
perfection of contract
2) dolo incidente— (Arts. 1344 & 1170) which does not have such a decisive influence and by itself cannot
cause the giving of consent, but refers only to some particular or accident of the obligation.
*Dolo causante can be a ground for annulment; dolo incident cannot be a ground for annulment.
*The result of fraud is error on the part of the victim.
*Requisites of fraud:
1) it must have been employed by one contracting party upon the other;
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2) it must have induced the other party to enter into the contract;
3) it must have been serious;
4) and it must have resulted in damage or injury to the party seeking annulment.
Art. 1339. Failure to disclose facts, when there is a duty to reveal them, as when the parties are bound
by confidential relations, constitutes fraud. (n)
*Silence or concealment, by itself, does not constitute fraud, unless there is a special duty to disclose certain
facts, or unless according to good faith and the usages of commerce, the communication should be made.
*Thus, the innocent non-disclosure of a fact does not affect the formation of the contract or operate to
discharge the parties from their agreement.
Art. 1340. The usual exaggerations in trade, when the other party had an opportunity to know the
facts, are not in themselves fraudulent. (n)
*Tolerated fraud includes minimizing the defects of the thing, exaggeration of its good qualities, and giving it
qualities that it does not have. This is lawful misrepresentation known as dolus bonus. This is also called
lawful astuteness.
*These misrepresentations are usually encountered in fairs, markets, and almost all commercial transactions.
They do not give rise to an action for damages, either because of their insignificance or because the stupidity
of the victim is the real cause of his loss.
*The thinking is that where the means of knowledge are at hand and equally available to both parties, one
will not be heard to say that he has been deceived.
Art. 1341. A mere expression of an opinion does not signify fraud, unless made by an expert and the
other party has relied on the former's special knowledge. (n)
An opinion of an expert is like a statement of fact, and if false, may be considered a fraud giving rise to
annulment.
Art. 1342. Misrepresentation by a third person does not vitiate consent, unless such misrepresentation
has created substantial mistake and the same is mutual. (n)
*The general rule is that the fraud employed by a third person upon one of the parties does not vitiate consent
and cause the nullity of a contract.
*Exception: If one of the parties is in collusion with the third person, or knows of the fraud by the third
person, and he is benefited thereby, he may be considered as an accomplice to the fraud, and the contract
becomes voidable.
Art. 1343. Misrepresentation made in good faith is not fraudulent but may constitute error. (n)
Art. 1344. In order that fraud may make a contract voidable, it should be serious and should not have
been employed by both contracting parties.
Incidental fraud only obliges the person employing it to pay damages. (1270)
*Fraud is serious when it is sufficient to impress, or to lead an ordinarily prudent person into error; that which
cannot deceive a prudent person cannot be a ground for nullity.
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*Besides being serious, the fraud must be the determining cause of the contract. It must be dolo causante.
*When both parties use fraud reciprocally, neither one has an action against the other; the fraud of one
compensates that of the other. Neither party can ask for the annulment of the contract.
Art. 1345. Simulation of a contract may be absolute or relative. The former takes place when the
parties do not intend to be bound at all; the latter, when the parties conceal their true agreement. (n)
* Simulation is the declaration of a fictitious will, deliberately made by agreement of the parties, in order to
produce, for the purposes of deception, the appearance of a juridical act which does not exist or is different
from that which was really executed.
Art. 1346. An absolutely simulated or fictitious contract is void. A relative simulation, when it does not
prejudice a third person and is not intended for any purpose contrary to law, morals, good customs,
public order or public policy binds the parties to their real agreement. (n)
*In absolute simulation, there is color of a contract, without any substance thereof, the parties not having any
intention to be bound.
*In relative simulation, the parties have an agreement which they conceal under the guise of another contract.
Example: a deed of sale executed to conceal donation.
SECTION 2. - Object of Contracts
 The object of a contract is its subject matter. It is the thing, right, or service which is the subject-
matter of the obligation arising from the contract.
 Requisites: [CILID]
1) [C] within the commerce of man;
2) [I] not intransmissible
3) [L] must be licit, or not contrary to law, morals, good customs, public policy, or public order;
3) [I]not an impossible thing or service; and
4) [D] it must be determinate as to its kind.
Art. 1347. All things which are not outside the commerce of men, including future things, may be the
object of a contract. All rights which are not intransmissible may also be the object of contracts.
No contract may be entered into upon future inheritance except in cases expressly authorized by law.
All services which are not contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order or public policy may
likewise be the object of a contract. (1271a)
* Things which are outside the commerce of man:
 Services which imply an absolute submission by those who render them, sacrificing their liberty, their
independence or beliefs, or disregarding in any manner the equality and dignity of persons, such as
perpetual servitude or slavery;
 Personal rights, such as marital authority, the status and capacity of a person, and honorary titles and
distinctions;
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 Public offices, inherent attributes of the public authority, and political rights of individuals, such as
the right of suffrage;
 Property, while they pertain to the public dominion, such as the roads, plazas, squares, and rivers;
 Sacred things, common things, like the air and the sea, and res nullius, as long as they have not been
appropriated.
 Even future things can be the object of contracts, as long as they have the possibility or potentiality of
coming into existence.
 The law, however, generally does not allow contracts on future inheritance. A contract entered into by
a fideicommissary heir with respect to his eventual rights would be valid provided that the testator has
already died. The right of a fideicommissary heir comes from the testator and not from the fiduciary.
Art. 1348. Impossible things or services cannot be the object of contracts. (1272)
*Things are impossible when they are not susceptible of existing, or they are outside the commerce of man.
Personal acts or services impossible when they beyond the ordinary strength or power of man.
*The impossibility must be actual and contemporaneous with the making of the contract, and not subsequent
thereto.
*The impossibility is absolute or objective when nobody can perform it; it is relative or subjective when due
to the special conditions or qualifications of the debtor it cannot be performed.
*The absolute or objective impossibility nullifies the contract; the relative or subjective does not.
Art. 1349. The object of every contract must be determinate as to its kind. The fact that the quantity is
not determinate shall not be an obstacle to the existence of the contract, provided it is possible to
determine the same, without the need of a new contract between the parties. (1273)
*The thing must have definite limits, not uncertain or arbitrary.
*The quantity of the of the object may be indeterminate, so long as the right of the creditor is not rendered
illusory.
SECTION 3. - Cause of Contracts
*The cause of the contract is the “why of the contract,” the immediate and most proximate purpose of the
contract, the essential reason which impels the contracting parties to enter into it and which explains and
justifies the creation of the obligation through such contract.
*The cause as to each party is the undertaking or prestation to be performed by the other. The object of the
contract is the subject matter thereof (e.g., the land which is sold in a sales contract). Consideration,
meanwhile, is the reason, motive, or inducement by which a man is moved to bind himself by an agreement.
*Requisites:
1) it must exist;
2) it must be true; and
3) it must be licit.
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Art. 1350. In onerous contracts the cause is understood to be, for each contracting party, the prestation
or promise of a thing or service by the other; in remuneratory ones, the service or benefit which is
remunerated; and in contracts of pure beneficence, the mere liberality of the benefactor. (1274)
* In onerous contracts, the cause need not be adequate or an exact equivalent in point of actual value,
especially in dealing with objects which have a rapidly fluctuating price. There are equal considerations.
* A remuneratory contract is one where a party gives something to another because of some service or benefit
given or rendered by the latter to the former, where such service or benefit was not due as a legal obligation.
The consideration of one is greater than the other’s.
*A gratuitous contract is essentially an agreement to give donations. The generosity or liberality of the
benefactor is the cause of the contract. There is nothing to equate.
Art. 1351. The particular motives of the parties in entering into a contract are different from the cause
thereof. (n)
* Cause is the objective, intrinsic, and juridical reason for the existence of the contract itself, while motive is
the psychological, individual, or personal purpose of a party to the contract.
* As a general principle, the motives of a party do not affect the validity or existence of a contract.
Exceptions: When motive predetermines the purpose of the contract, such as:
*When the motive of a debtor in alienating property is to defraud his creditors, the alienation is
rescissible;
* When the motive of a person in giving his consent is to avoid a threatened injury, as in the case of
intimidation, the contract is voidable; and
*When the motive of a person induced him to act on the basis of fraud or misrepresentation by the
other party, the contract is voidable.
Art. 1352. Contracts without cause, or with unlawful cause, produce no effect whatever. The cause is
unlawful if it is contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order or public policy. (1275a)
Art. 1353. The statement of a false cause in contracts shall render them void, if it should not be proved
that they were founded upon another cause which is true and lawful. (1276)
Where the cause stated in the contract is false, the latter may nevertheless be sustained by proof of another
licit cause.
Art. 1354. Although the cause is not stated in the contract, it is presumed that it exists and is lawful,
unless the debtor proves the contrary. (1277)
Unless the contrary is proved, a contract is presumed to have a good and sufficient consideration. This
presumption applies when no cause is stated in the contract.
Art. 1355. Except in cases specified by law, lesion or inadequacy of cause shall not invalidate a
contract, unless there has been fraud, mistake or undue influence. (n)
* In case of lesion or inadequacy of cause, the general rule is that the contract is not subject to annulment.
* In cases provided by law, however, such as those mentioned in Art 1381, the lesion is a ground for
rescission of the contract.
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* Gross inadequacy naturally suggests fraud and is evidence thereof, so that it may be sufficient to show it
when taken in connection with other circumstances.
DEFECTIVE CONTRACTS:
RESCISSIBLE VOIDABLE UNENFORCEABLE VOID & INEXISTENT

Valid and enforceable Valid and enforceable Validable transaction; Does not and cannot
until rescinded; until annulled; Cannot be enforce unless produce legal effect
there is a sort of extrinsic The defect is more or less ratified
defect consisting of intrinsic
economic damage or
lesion
Causes: Causes: (Art. 1390) Causes: (Art. 1403) Causes:
injury or damage to one - legal incapacity of one - contract is entered into (void) illicit, prohibited
of the parties or to third party; or in excess or without or declared by law as
persons - vitiation of consent authority void
[GAFLAI – Arts. 1381 – - non-compliance with (inexistent) lacks one or
1382] Stature of Frauds all of the requisites of a
Legal incapacity of both contract
[CS-DOICE – Art. 1409]
Cured by prescription Cured by prescription Not cured by prescription Not cured by prescription
Need not be ratified Can be ratified Can be ratified Cannot be ratified
Can be assailed by the Can be assailed by a Can be assailed by a Can be assailed by a
injured or damaged party contracting party (Art. contracting party (Art. contracting party or a
or injured or damaged 1397) 1408) third person whose
third person interest is affected (Art.
1421)
Assailed directly only Assailed directly or Assailed directly or Assailed directly or
collaterally collaterally collaterally
Outline of provisions: Outline of provisions: Outline of provisions: 1409: types of void or
1380: Nature of 1390: voidable contracts 1403: types of inexistent contracts
rescissible contract may be annullable even if unenforceable contracts 1410: imprescriptibility
1381-1382: types of there is no damage to 1405: ratification of 1411: contracts that are
rescissible contract parties; contracts infringing both illegal and criminal
1383: subsidiary types of voidable statute of frauds – both parties have no
character contracts; 1407: express or implied action against each other
1384: extent of rescission binding character unless ratification by the parent and shall be prosecuted
1385: mutual restitution; annulled; or guardian of one (when 1412: contracts that are
no rescission when the susceptibility to both are incapacitated) – illegal but do not
thing is legally possessed ratification same effect as if only one constitute criminal
by a third person 1391: prescriptive period is incapacitated; offense
1386: no rescission in 1392-1397: ratification Ratification by parent or 1413-1419: exceptions to
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case of 1381 (1) and (2) 1398-1402: Mutual guardian of both – in pari delicto rule
when the contract is restitution contract is validated from
approved by court 1398: mutual restitution inception
1387: preseumption 1399: exception to 1408: cannot be assailed
(existence of fraud); mutual restitution – by third persons.
alienation by gratuitous defect is the incapacity
title; alienation by of one
onerous title 1400: loss of the thing
1388: acquisition in bad through fault/fraud of
faith (of things alienated party obliged to return
in fraud of creditors) the thing but has no
1389: prescriptive period right to institute
proceeding, he shall
return the fruits and the
value of the thing
1401: loss of the thing
through fault/fraud of
the person who may
institute the proceeding
(action for annulment is
extinguished)
1402: one does not
restore – the other
cannot be compelled to
comply
RESCISSIBLE CONTRACTS
Art. 1380. Contracts validly agreed upon may be rescinded in the cases established by law. (1290)
Art. 1381. The following contracts are rescissible:

(1) Those which are entered into by guardians whenever the wards whom they represent suffer lesion
by more than one-fourth of the value of the things which are the object thereof;
(2) Those agreed upon in representation of absentees, if the latter suffer the lesion stated in the
preceding number;
(3) Those undertaken in fraud of creditors when the latter cannot in any other manner collect the
claims due them;
(4) Those which refer to things under litigation if they have been entered into by the defendant without
the knowledge and approval of the litigants or of competent judicial authority;
(5) All other contracts specially declared by law to be subject to rescission. (1291a)
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Art. 1382. Payments made in a state of insolvency for obligations to whose fulfillment the debtor could
not be compelled at the time they were effected, are also rescissible. (1292)
Art. 1383. The action for rescission is subsidiary; it cannot be instituted except when the party
suffering damage has no other legal means to obtain reparation for the same. (1294)
Art. 1384. Rescission shall be only to the extent necessary to cover the damages caused. (n)
Art. 1385. Rescission creates the obligation to return the things which were the object of the contract,
together with their fruits, and the price with its interest; consequently, it can be carried out only when
he who demands rescission can return whatever he may be obliged to restore.
Neither shall rescission take place when the things which are the object of the contract are legally in the
possession of third persons who did not act in bad faith.
In this case, indemnity for damages may be demanded from the person causing the loss. (1295)
Art. 1386. Rescission referred to in Nos. 1 and 2 of Article 1381 shall not take place with respect to
contracts approved by the courts. (1296a)
Art. 1387. All contracts by virtue of which the debtor alienates property by gratuitous title are
presumed to have been entered into in fraud of creditors, when the donor did not reserve sufficient
property to pay all debts contracted before the donation.
Alienations by onerous title are also presumed fraudulent when made by persons against whom some
judgment has been issued. The decision or attachment need not refer to the property alienated, and
need not have been obtained by the party seeking the rescission.
In addition to these presumptions, the design to defraud creditors may be proved in any other manner
recognized by the law of evidence. (1297a)
Art. 1388. Whoever acquires in bad faith the things alienated in fraud of creditors, shall indemnify the
latter for damages suffered by them on account of the alienation, whenever, due to any cause, it should
be impossible for him to return them.
If there are two or more alienations, the first acquirer shall be liable first, and so on successively.
(1298a)
Art. 1389. The action to claim rescission must be commenced within four years.
For persons under guardianship and for absentees, the period of four years shall not begin until the
termination of the former's incapacity, or until the domicile of the latter is known. (1299)
Voidable Contracts
Voidable Contracts
* Contracts that are voidable or annullable:
1. When either party is incapable of giving consent to a contract
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2. When consent is vitiated by mistake, violence, intimidation, undue influence, fraud
*Binding, unless annulled by a proper court action
*Ratifiable (Art. 1390)
*Prescription for action of annulment: 4 years to begin:

when vice is due to intimidation, violence or undue influence – from the time defect of consent ceases
mistake or fraud – from the time of discovery
entered into by minors or those incapable of giving consent – the moment guardianship ceases (Art. 1391)
*Ratification
extinguishes action for annulment (Art. 1392)
may be express or tacit (Art. 1393)
tacit ratification – the execution of an act which necessarily implies an intention to waive his right by the
party, who, knowing of the reason which renders the contract voidable, has a right to invoke annulment.
-may be effected by the guardian of the incapacitated person (Art. 1394)
- does not require the conformity of the person who does not have a right to bring an action for
annulment (Art. 1395)
-cleanses the contract from all its defects from the moment it was constituted (Art. 1396)
*Annulment
- Who may institute (Art. 1397)
- By all who are obliged principally or subsidiarily
Exceptions:
*Persons capable cannot allege the incapacity of those with whom they contracted
*Persons who exerted violence, undue influence, who employed fraud or caused mistake – action for
annulment cannot be based on these flaws
*Gives rise to the responsibility of restoring to each other things subject matter of the contract, with fruits,
price with its interest, except in cases provided by law (Art. 1398)
Service – value thereof will serve as the basis for damages
*Incapacitated persons not obliged to make restitutions except insofar as he has been benefited by the thing or
price received by him (Art. 1399)
*If objects cannot be returned because these were lost through his fault, he shall return the fruits received and
the value of the thing at the time of the loss, with interests from the same date (Art. 1400)
*As long as one of the contracting parties does not restore what in virtue of the annulment decree he is bound
to return, the other cannot be compelled to comply with what is incumbent upon him. (Art. 1402)
*Extinguishment of action (Art. 1401)
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 if object is lost through the fault or fraud of person who has the right to institute the
proceedings
 if action based on incapacity of any one of contracting parties, loss of thing shall not be an
obstacle to the success of action, unless loss or fraud took place through the plaintiff’s fault
UNENFORCEABLE CONTRACTS
Art. 1403. The following contracts are unenforceable, unless they are ratified:
(1) Those entered into in the name of another person by one who has been given no authority or legal
representation, or who has acted beyond his powers;
(2) Those that do not comply with the Statute of Frauds as set forth in this number. In the following
cases an agreement hereafter made shall be unenforceable by action, unless the same, or some note or
memorandum, thereof, be in writing, and subscribed by the party charged, or by his agent; evidence,
therefore, of the agreement cannot be received without the writing, or a secondary evidence of its
contents:
(a) An agreement that by its terms is not to be performed within a year from the making thereof;
(b) A special promise to answer for the debt, default, or miscarriage of another;
(c) An agreement made in consideration of marriage, other than a mutual promise to marry;
(d) An agreement for the sale of goods, chattels or things in action, at a price not less than five hundred
pesos, unless the buyer accept and receive part of such goods and chattels, or the evidences, or some of
them, of such things in action or pay at the time some part of the purchase money; but when a sale is
made by auction and entry is made by the auctioneer in his sales book, at the time of the sale, of the
amount and kind of property sold, terms of sale, price, names of the purchasers and person on whose
account the sale is made, it is a sufficient memorandum;
(e) An agreement of the leasing for a longer period than one year, or for the sale of real property or of
an interest therein;
(f) A representation as to the credit of a third person.
(3) Those where both parties are incapable of giving consent to a contract.
*Unenforceable contracts cannot be enforced unless it is first ratified in the manner provided by law. An
unenforceable contract does not produce any effect unless it is ratified. Unenforceable contracts cannot be
sued upon unless ratified (Paras, 2003).
*There are 3 kinds of unenforceable contracts:

a) unauthorized contracts;
b) those that fail to comply with the Statute of Frauds;
c) those where both parties are incapable of giving consent to a contract.
UNAUTHORIZED CONTRACTS
When a person enters into a contract for and in the name of the another, without authority to do so, the
contract does not bind the latter, unless he ratifies the same. The agent, who has entered into the contract in
the name of the purported principal, but without authority from him, is liable to third persons upon the
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contract; it must have been the intention of the parties to bind someone, and, as the principal was not bound,
the agent should be. Ex: Without my authority, my brother sold my car, in my name to X. The contract is
unauthorized and cannot affect me unless I ratify the same expressly or implicitly, as by accepting the
proceeds of the sale. (Paras)
Mere lapse of time, no matter how long, is not the ratification required by law of an unenforceable contract
(Tipton v. Velasco, 6 Phil 67, as cited in Paras).
STATUTE OF FRAUDS
Meaning: descriptive of statutes which require certain classes of contracts to be in writing.
Purpose: to prevent fraud and perjury in the enforcement of obligations depending for their evidence upon the
unassisted memory of witnesses by requiring certain enumerated contracts and transactions to be evidenced
by a writing signed by the party to be charged.
Application: This statute does not deprive the parties the right to contract with respect to matters therein
involved, but merely regulates the formalities of the contract necessary to render it unenforceable. The statute
of frauds, however, simply provides for the manner in which contracts under it shall be proved. It does not
attempt to make such contracts invalid if not executed in writing but only makes ineffective the action for
specific performance. The statute of frauds is not applicable to contracts which are either totally or partially
performed, on the theory that there is a wide field for the commission of frauds in executory contracts which
can only be prevented by requiring them to be in writing, a fact which is reduced to a minimum in executed
contracts because the intention of the parties becomes apparent by their execution, and execution concludes,
in most cases, the rights of the parties.
A note or memorandum is evidence of the agreement, and is used to show the intention of the parties. No
particular form of language or instrument is necessary to constitute a memorandum or note as a writing under
the Statute of Frauds.
*General Rules of Application (mainly Paras):
Applies only to executory contracts. But it is not enough for a party to allege partial performance in order to
render the Statute inapplicable; such partial performance must be duly proved, by either documentary or oral
evidence; Cannot apply if the action is neither for damages because of the violation of an agreement nor for
the specific performance of said agreeement;
*Exclusive, i.e. it applies only to the agreements or contracts enumerated herein;
*Defense of the Statute may be waived;
*Personal defense, i.e. a contract infringing it cannot be assailed by third persons;
*contracts infringing the Statute are not void; they are merely unenforceable;
*The Statute of Frauds is a rule of exclusion, i.e. oral evidence might be relevant to the agreements
enumerated therein and might therefore be admissible were it not for the fact that the law or the statute
excludes oral evidence;
*The Statute does not determine the credibility or weight of evidence. It merely concerns itself with the
admissibility thereof;
*The Statute does not apply if it is claimed that the contract does not express the true agreement of the
parties. As long as true or real agreement is not covered by the Statute, it is provable by oral evidence.
INCAPACITATED PARTIES
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Ratification by one party converts the contract into a voidable contract- voidable at the option of the party
who has not ratified.
Art. 1404. Unauthorized contracts are governed by Article 1317 and the principles of agency in Title X
of this Book.
*Art. 1317. No one may contract in the name of another without being authorized by the latter, or unless he
has by law a right to represent him.
*A contract entered into in the name of another by one who has no authority or legal representation, or who
has acted beyond his powers, shall be unenforceable, unless it is ratified, expressly or impliedly, by the
person on whose behalf it has been executed, before it is revoked by the other contracting party. (1259a)
*Requisites for a Person to contract in the name of another: a) he must be duly authorized (expressly or
impliedly) or b) he must have by law a right to represent him (like the guardian, or the administrator) or c) the
contract must be subsequently ratified (expressly or impliedly, by word or by deed). (Paras).
Art. 1405. Contracts infringing the Statute of Frauds, referred to in No. 2 of Article 1403, are ratified
by the failure to object to the presentation of oral evidence to prove the same, or by the acceptance of
benefit under them.
*Two ways of ratification of contracts infringing the Statute are:
a) failure to object to the presentation of oral evidence;
b) acceptance of benefits under them, since the Statute does not apply to contracts which are partially
executed. Cross examination of the witnesses testifying orally on the contract amounts to a waiver or to a
failure to object.
Art. 1406. When a contract is enforceable under the Statute of Frauds, and a public document is
necessary for its registration in the Registry of Deeds, the parties may avail themselves of the right
under Article 1357.
*Art. 1357. If the law requires a document or other special form, as in the acts and contracts enumerated in
the following article, the contracting parties may compel each other to observe that form, once the contract
has been perfected. This right may be exercised simultaneously with the action upon the contract. (1279a)
*The right of one party to have the other execute the public document needed for convenience in registration,
is given only when the contract is both valid and enforceable. (Paras)
Art. 1407. In a contract where both parties are incapable of giving consent, express or implied
ratification by the parent, or guardian, as the case may be, of one of the contracting parties shall give
the contract the same effect as if only one of them were incapacitated.
If ratification is made by the parents or guardians, as the case may be, of both contracting parties, the
contract shall be validated from the inception.
Art. 1408. Unenforceable contracts cannot be assailed by third persons.

*The defense of the Statute is personal to the party to the agreement. Thus, it cannot be set up by strangers to
the agreement.
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*Just as strangers cannot attack the validity of voidable contracts, so also can they not attack a contract
because of its unenforceability. Indeed the Statute of Frauds cannot be set up as a defense by strangers to the
transaction. (Ayson v. CA, 97 Phil. 965).
VOID OR INEXISTENT CONTRACTS
What contracts are void or inexistent?

The following contracts are void or inexistent from the beginning:
1. Those whose cause, object or purpose is contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order or public
policy;
2. Those which are absolutely simulated or fictitious;
3. Those whose cause or object did not exist at the time of the transaction;
4. Those whose object is outside the commerce of men;
5. Those which contemplate an impossible service;
6. Those where the intention of the parties relative to the principal object cannot be ascertained;
7. Those expressly prohibited or declared void by law. (a-g, Art 1409, NCC).
8. Those which are the direct results of previous illegal contracts (Art 1422, NCC).
III. NATURAL OBLIGATIONS
Definition
Natural obligations are those based on equity and natural law, which are not enforceable by means of court
action, but which, after voluntary fulfillment by the obligor, authorize the retention by the oblige of what has
been delivered or rendered by reason thereof. In other words, they refer to those obligations without sanction,
susceptible of voluntary performance, but not through compulsion by legal means.
Natural Obligation vs Civil Obligation

Natural Obligations Civil Obligations
Basis Equity and natural law Positive law
Enforceability Not enforceable by court action Enforceable by court action
3. vs Moral Obligations
Natural Obligations Moral Obligations
Existence of juridical tie There exists a juridical tie between No juridical tie whatsoever.
the parties not enforceable by court
action.
Effect of fulfillment Voluntary fulfillment produces legal Voluntary fulfillment does not
effects which the courts recognize produce legal effects which the
and protect. courts recognize and protect.
Articles 1424 – 1430: Examples of Natural Obligations

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

1156. An obligation is a juridical necessity to give, to do, or not to do.

Requisites of Prestation / Object:

 INJURY – wrongful act or omission which causes loss or harm to another

b) other party assents

(5) QUASI-DELICTS / TORTS (Obligation ex quasi-delicto or ex quasi-maleficio) – arise from damage

 Interpretation of contract involves a question of law.

CRIMINAL LIABILITY INCLUDES:

Effect of acquittal in criminal case:

BASIS DELICTS QUASI-DELICTS

 Preserve or take care of the things due.

 Deliver the fruits of a thing

*This provision applies to an obligation to give.

REMEDIES FOR FAILURE OF DELIVERY (determinate thing)

ACCESSIONS – fruits of the thing or additions to or improvements upon the principal

that what has been poorly done be undone.

* This provision applies to an obligation to do.

* This provision applies to an obligation not to do.

 When the law or obligation so expressly declares;

ORDINARY DELAY – mere failure to perform an obligation at the appointed time.

1) debtor – liable for damages and interests

c) COMPENSATIO MORAE – delay of the obligors in reciprocal obligation.

FRAUD (dolo) – deliberate intentional evasion of the faithful fulfillment of an obligation;

Court’s discretion because:

Negligence – lack of foresight or knowledge

TWO TYPES OF NEGLIGENCE:

Basis 1. Culpa Aquiliana 2. Culpa Contractual

performance, that which is expected if a good father of a family shall be required.

FRAUD distinguished from NEGLIGENCE

REQUISITES OF FORTUITOUS EVENT: [IU-IF]

1175. Usurious transactions shall be governed by special laws.

 These are mere presumptions.

REMEDIES AVAILABLE TO CREDITORS FOR THE SATISFACTION OF THEIR CLAIMS:

Section 1 – Pure and Conditional Obligations

INDICATIONS OF A TERM OR PERIOD:

 Applies only to suspensive conditions.

3 KINDS OF CONDITIONS UNDER THIS ARTICLE:

POSSIBLE CONDITION – if it is capable of realization or actualization according to nature, law, public

2 KINDS OF IMPOSSIBLE CONDITIONS:

Positive condition – refers to the fulfillment of an event or performance of an act

Negative condition – refers to the non-fulfillment or non-performance of an act.

POSITIVE SUSPENSIVE CONDITION

** This is a condition of non-happening of a future event.

The obligation shall become effective and binding:

1184 -vs- 1185

 Applies only to fulfilled suspensive conditions.

before the fulfillment of the suspensive condition.

Actions available to the creditor:

be observed as regards the effect of the extinguishment of the obligation.

 Refers to the fulfillment of a resolutory condition.

* This remedy should be termed as “resolution,” not rescission (Paras).

RECIPROCAL – each is a debtor and creditor of the other

RESCISSION – resolution or cancellation of the contract

FIRST INFRACTOR KNOWN

FIRST INFRACTOR CANNOT BE DETERMINED

Section 2 – Obligations with a Period

Term – length of time sure to come

Basis Period/Term Condition

2. FULFILLMENT Sure to happen at an exact date May or may not happen.