CSEC Chemistry - A5. Structure and Bonding

CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY
5. Structure and Bonding

Typical Exam Question / 2009 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 Typical Exam Question / 2010 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
Which of the following is the type of crystal structure of V and Q are different forms of the element carbon. R is
iodine at room temperature and pressure? an ionic solid. Table 3 presents some properties of V, Q
and R. Use this to answer the questions that follow.
(A) ionic
(B) metallic
(C) giant molecular
(D) simple molecular
Typical Exam Question / 2016 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01
The electron configuration in atoms of X and Y are 2, 8, 5

and 2, 8, 6 respectively. Which represents X and Y?
(i) Complete the table. (2 mks)
X Y
(ii) State the term used to describe different forms of
(A) Metal Nonmetal
an element such as the two forms of carbon, V
(B) Nonmetal Nonmetal
and Q. (1 mk)
(C) Nonmetal Metal
(iii) Identify the forms of carbon, V and Q. (2 mks)
(D) Metal Metal
See answers in the ‘Exam-style questions’ section

Candidates should be able to:
• explain the formation of ionic and covalent bonds;

• predict the likelihood of an atom forming an ionic or a covalent bond based on atomic structure;
• write formulae to represent ions, molecules, and formula units;
• explain metallic bonding; (i) Which of the two allotropes of carbon, diamond or
o arrangement of cations and mobile electrons graphite, conducts electricity? Explain your answer
• describe ionic crystals, simple molecular crystals, and giant molecular
in terms ofcrystals;
the structure and bonding of the two
o make diagrammatic representations of sodium chloride, graphite, and diamond
allotropes.
• distinguish between ionic and molecular solids; Conducts electricity:
o use melting point, solubility in water and organic solvents, and conductivity;
Explanation:
• relate structure of sodium chloride, diamond, and graphite to their properties and uses;
o use solubility in water, conductivity, hardness, and lubricating power
• explain the term allotropy. (i) Name the THREE states of matter. (1)
o reference to the allotropes of carbon – diamond
(ii) and graphite
Which of the two temperatures, (A) and (B) in Figure
3 represents the (2)
melting point?
boiling point?
(iii) What would be observed at (C) in Figure 3? (1)

INTRODUCTION
introduction
Bonding is the process by which atoms combine with each other, occurring with valence electrons only. They bond
to attain a more stable electronic configuration, resembling the closest noble gas. These noble gases include:
The noble gases (in group 0/8) are very unreactive. They do not form bonds with other atoms. Except for
helium (with two), noble gases have eight valence electrons. The outer shell of eight electrons is called an
octet structure, and it makes the atom very stable. To achieve this noble gas configuration, elements can
gain, lose, or share electrons by forming bonds with other atoms.
There are three main types of intramolecular bonding (which holds atoms together, not molecules):
• ionic bonding, which involves the transfer of electrons

• covalent bonding, which involves the sharing of electrons
• metallic bonding, which involves an array of positive ions in a sea of electrons
The type of bonding an atom participates in depends on whether it is a metal or nonmetal.
Metals (groups 1-3) Nonmetals (groups 4-8)
Metals will readily lose electrons to attain the Nonmetals will readily gain or share electrons to
electronic configuration of the closest noble gas. achieve the stability of a full outer shell.
When metals lose electrons, they form positive ions When non-metals gain electrons, they form negative
called cations because they now have more protons ions called anions because they now have less
than electrons. protons than electrons.
Therefore, a metal (with 1-3 valence electrons) and a nonmetal (with 5-8 electrons, as ones in group 4 do
not form simple ions) are likely to form ionic bonds. On the other hand, two nonmetals (4-8 electrons, as
covalent bonding does not involve ions), are likely to form covalent bonds. Metallic bonds are formed from
only one type of element, so it CANNOT be said that two metals form a metallic bond.

The charge on the ion depends on the number of electrons lost or gained.
For most metal ions, the number of positive charges is the same as the group number. For example,
aluminium is in Group III, so its ion is Al3+. For most nonmetal ions, the negative charge is eight minus the
group number. For example, phosphorus is in Group V, so the phosphide ion is P3-.
Generally:
• Group 1 elements form ions with a 1+ charge. • Group 5 elements form ions with a 3− charge.
• Group 2 elements form 2+ ions. • Group 6 elements form ions with a 2− charge.
• Group 3 elements form 3+ ions. • Group 7 elements form ions with a 1− charge.
• Group 4 elements do not generally form • Group 0 elements do not form ions because
simple ions. they have full outer shells.
When covering structure and bonding, it is important to know, understand, and be able to represent
chemical formulae. Just as elements can be represented by atomic symbols, compounds formed by ionic or
covalent bonding can be represented by chemical formulae. These formulae tell which elements are found
in a compound, as well as the ratio between the elements in the compound. The three main types of
chemical formulae are:

• The molecular formula, which uses subscripts to give the actual number of atoms of each element
present in one molecule of a compound. For example, the molecular formula of water is H 2O, which
means one molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Other molecular
formulae include CO2 for carbon dioxide, and C6H12O6 for glucose.
• The structural formula, which is a diagrammatic representation of one molecule of the compound
using lines to represent bonds. For example, the structural formula for carbon dioxide is O = C = O,
which shows that there are two bonds between each oxygen atom and the carbon atom.
• The empirical formula, which gives the simplest whole number ratio between the elements in the
compound using subscripts. The compound consists of multiples of these smallest units. For
example, the empirical formula for magnesium chloride is MgCl2, which shows that magnesium and
chlorine are present in a ratio of 1 to 2.
For example, the three types of chemical formula for ethane are:
C2H6 CH3
Molecular formula Structural formula Empirical formula
Diagrams of ionic and covalent bonds also make use of dot-and-cross diagrams. These diagrams make it
possible to keep track of where electrons have come from when an ionic or covalent bond is formed. They
show the outer electron shells with electrons represented as dots or crosses, and, in ionic bonding, the
charge of the ion at the top right outside square brackets (not at the centre, as it is not the nuclear charge).
In ionic compounds, these diagrams look like: In covalent compounds, these diagrams look like:

IONIC BONDING
ionic bonding
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged ions. The positive and negative ions are strongly attracted to each other. The electrostatic attraction
is called an ionic bond.
Ionic bonds are formed between metals and nonmetals only. Both metals and nonmetals, before forming
the ionic bond, have incomplete valence shells, and so are unstable. One or more electrons are transferred
from each metal atom to each nonmetal atom. The metal and nonmetal atoms end up with completely full
outer shells and become stable. This is always the case: a metal will lose electrons and the nonmetal will
gain. No metals in existence accept electrons.
Example 1
Sodium Na (2, 8, 1) has only one electron in its outer shell. It is easier (more energetically favourable) for
sodium to donate that one electron, and as such, sodium tends to lose one electron, forming Na +. This means
that the sodium atom has lost one electron, and as such, there are more protons than electrons, making it a
positive sodium ion (a cation). Chlorine Cl (2, 8, 7) has seven electrons in its valence shell. Chlorine tends to
take on an electron and become Cl-. This means that the chlorine atom has gained one electron, and as such,
there are more electrons than protons, making it a negative chlorine ion (an anion). When sodium reacts with
chlorine, the sodium atom will lose its electron and the chlorine atom will gain it. The sodium cation and the
chloride anion (not chlorine anion – this is explained later) then attract each other to form sodium chloride.
The sodium cation has an electron configuration of (2, 8), and the chloride anion has an electron configuration
of (2, 8, 8). Both ions now satisfy the octet rule and have complete valence shells.
Generally, the loss of an electron by one atom and gain of an electron by another atom happen at the same
time: in order for a sodium atom to lose an electron, it needs to have a suitable recipient like a chlorine atom.

Example 2
In magnesium oxide, two electrons in the outer shell of the magnesium atom are transferred to the outer
shell of the oxygen atom. Since magnesium loses two electrons, an Mg2+ ion is formed. Since oxygen has
gained two, it forms O2-.
Example 3
In calcium chloride, the calcium atom loses two valence electrons. However, a single chlorine atom has only
space in its outer shell for one electron. Therefore, two chlorine atoms are needed to react with one calcium
atom.

Sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium oxide (MgO), and calcium chloride (CaCl2) are called ionic compounds.
Ionic compounds have the following properties:
• They have high melting and boiling points, and are dense
o There are strong attractive forces between the large numbers of positive and negative ions
acting in all directions. It needs a lot of energy to overcome these forces to melt the solid.
This means they also have low volatility (= how easily a substance will turn into a gas).
• They are crystalline solids at room temperature
• They dissolve in polar solvents such as water, but do not dissolve in nonpolar solvents
o The partial negative ends of polar molecules attract the cations, and the partial positive ends
attract the anions. This pulls the ions out of the lattice, causing the crystal to dissolve.
Polarity is covered in the section on covalent bonding.
• They are insoluble in organic solvents (= substances that contain carbon)
• They conduct electricity and heat when molten or dissolved in water but not when solid
o The ionic bonds have broken in water and the ions are free to move. In solids, the ionic bonds
hold them together.
• They are hard and brittle
o Strong ionic bonds exist between the ions throughout the structure. If pressure is applied,
the layers of ions are displaced slightly and ions with the same charges then repel each
other and break the lattice apart.
Sodium chloride (NaCl), like many ionic compounds, does not consist of simply one sodium and one chloride
ion. Instead, millions and millions of ions are arranged in a repeating, predictable, 3-D pattern (a crystal). This
forms a giant 3-D structure called an ionic lattice. Thus, a lattice is a regularly repeating 3-D arrangement of
ions, atoms, or molecules.
In an ionic lattice:
• the electrostatic attractive forces between the positive and negative ions act in all directions
• the forces are very strong, and it takes a lot of energy to overcome them
In the crystal lattice of NaCl, each Na+ ion is bonded to six Cl- ions, and each Cl- ion is bonded to six Na+ ions.

An ionic compound is named first by its cation and then by its anion. The cation has the same name as its
element, while the ending of the elemental name of the anion is removed, adding “-ide”. KF is potassium
fluoride, from potassium K and fluorine F. The “-ine” ending of the latter is replaced with “ide.”
Ionic compounds are also represented by chemical formulae.
• When writing the formula for an ionic compound from the name:
o Write the symbol for each element/species in the compound.
o Write the charge for the elements/species to the top right of it (superscript).
o Reverse the charges of each, placing the new charges to the bottom right (subscript). These
subscripts represent the number of formula units of an element/species in a compound. This
is further covered in A6. Mole Concept.
o Write the formula without the charge.
E.g. Lithium oxide
Lithium = Li, oxygen = O
Lithium has a +1 charge and oxygen has a -2 charge / Li+, O2-
The charges are reversed and the ion charges dropped / Li2O
The diagram below shows examples of the formula of ionic compounds being derived from their names.
• When writing the name for an ionic compound from the formula:
o Identify the cation and anion from the elements/species in the compound. Remember that the
charges were swapped in order to obtain the formula, so the charge to the top right of the
element/species in the formula may not be that of the actual ion.
o Identify the elements/species themselves. For stock ionic compounds, which use specify
transition metal charges, use Roman numerals to indicate the amount of charge on the cation.
o Write the final compound based on the elements/species.
E.g. Pb3N4
Pb4+ = lead(IV), N3- = nitride (from nitrogen)
The names are combined / Lead(IV) nitride


Ionic bonds are formed between metals and nonmetals, but it is not only between elements from the periodic
table. Ionic bonds are also formed between polyatomic ions.
Polyatomic ions are ionic compounds that contain ions consisting of groups of covalently bonded atoms
instead of single atoms (monoatomic ions). These ions act as one unit and have charges.
When polyatomic ions are involved in bonding, the name of the metal and the polyatomic ion are combined as
is. For example, Ca(NO3)2 is called calcium nitrate, not calcium nitride, a different compound.
When oxygen is present in a polyatomic ion, the name of the ion is derived from the element combined with the
oxygen, with the ending ‘-ite’ or ‘-ate’. For example, NO2- is the nitrite ion and NO3- is the nitrate ion.
When writing formulae of ionic compounds, the sum of positive charges and the sum of negative charges must
be equal. This is because the total number of electrons lost by one type of atom or group of atoms must be the
same as the total number gained by the other type of atom or group of atoms. Formulae of ionic compounds are
therefore empirical formulae since they represent the ratio of ions present. The ratio of the subscripts should
also be cancelled to its simplest form. Calcium sulphate is therefore CaSO4, because Ca2(SO4)2 is cancelled to its
simplest ratio.

Hydrated ionic compounds (hydrates) have a specific number of water molecules in their chemical formula. In
the solid state, these water molecules (also called ‘waters of hydration’) are part of the structure of the
compound.
Hydrates are named by the ionic compound followed by a numerical prefix and the suffix “-hydrate”. The
“• nH2O” notation indicates that “n” number of loosely bonded water molecules are associated per formula
unit.
• The ionic compound (without the waters of hydration) is named first by using the rules for naming
ionic compounds (e.g., Ba(OH)2 = barium hydroxide).
• Greek numerical prefixes are added to the word hydrate to indicate the number of water molecules
per formula unit for the compound. (BA(OH)2 • 8H2O is barium hydroxide octahydrate.
E.g. Lithium hydroxide monohydrate
Name the ionic compound without the waters of hydration / Lithium hydroxide = LiOH
Use the prefix to determine the number of water molecules present / monohydrate = H2O
Therefore, lithium hydroxide monohydrate is LiOH • H2O
E.g. Na2CO3 • 10H2O
Name the ionic compound without the waters of hydration / Na2CO3 = sodium carbonate
Use the number of water molecules present to determine the prefix / 10H2O = decahydrate
Therefore, Na2CO3 • 8H2O is sodium carbonate decahydrate
If one atom has too many electrons and another has too few, ionic bonding works. However, if two nonmetals
need additional electrons, covalent bonds must be formed.

COVALENT BONDING
covalent bonding
OF A
Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between nonmetals.
Some elements have very high ionization energies and are incapable of transferring electrons, while other have
very low electron affinity and cannot take up electrons. The atoms of such elements tend to share their
electrons with the atoms of other elements (such as carbon dioxide CO2) or with other atoms of the same
element (such as fluorine F2) in a way that both atoms obtain octet configuration in their respective valence
shell and thus achieve stability.
Example 1
Hydrogen (1) needs one more electron to have a complete outer shell. It shares an electron with another
hydrogen atom.
This creates a single bond, and the two hydrogen atoms form a hydrogen molecule, H2. This is a diatomic
molecule since there are two atoms in it.
This hydrogen molecule is a product of covalent bonding. Covalent bonding can be indicated by using:
• solid lines H – H (the line represents two electrons shared)

• dot-and-cross diagrams (most common and best representation)
Example 2
Oxygen (2, 6) has six valence electrons, and needs two more to fill its valence shell. When two oxygen atoms
bond and share two pairs of electrons, each can have a full valence shell. Since one bond represents two
electrons (one pair) shared, oxygen forms a double bound. The result is an oxygen molecule, O2.

Atoms of different elements will form either one, two, three, or four covalent bonds with other atoms. The
number of covalent bonds usually shared by each nonmetal is equal to eight minus the group number.
Element Number of bonds
Group 4 Carbon 8-4=4
Group 5 Nitrogen 8-5=3
Group 6 Oxygen 8-6=2
Group 7 Chlorine 8-7=1
Covalent bonding can also take place between atoms of different elements to create molecules of covalent
compounds.
Example 3
Both hydrogen (1) and chlorine (2, 7) need one more electron to fill their outer shells. By sharing a pair of
electrons, one from each, they can fill their outer shell and become stable. The result is a hydrogen chloride
molecule.
Example 4
Oxygen (2, 6) needs two more electrons, but hydrogen (1) only needs one. The oxygen atom shares one
electron with one hydrogen atom and a second electron with another hydrogen atom. The result is a water
molecule.

These molecules are covalent compounds. Covalent compounds generally display similar properties:
• They have low melting and boiling points

o Covalent bonds are very stable and the intramolecular forces are quite strong,
but the intermolecular forces between covalent compounds are weak. Since
the forces are weak, it needs only a little amount of energy to break. Since
they have low melting and boiling points, they also have high volatility.
• They do not conduct electricity in any state due to the lack of free electrons
• They are usually insoluble in polar solvents such as water (excp. sugar, glucose, urea, etc)
• They are soluble in organic solvents
Covalent substances are composed of individual molecules, which can either be polar or nonpolar due to the
electronegativity (= how strongly atoms attract electrons) of the atoms present.
• In a polar molecule, one type of atom has a partial positive charge (δ+) and another type has
a partial negative charge (δ+) because the atoms at either side of the covalent bond differ in
electronegativity and attract the shared electrons with different strengths. Examples include
water H2O, ammonia NH3, hydrogen chloride HCl, and ethanol C2H5OH.
• In a nonpolar molecule, the electronegativity of the atoms is similar or the same, and they
attract the shared electrons with equal strengths. The molecule does not have any partially
charged regions. Examples include hydrogen H2, oxygen O2, and methane CH4.
When naming covalent compounds, the first nonmetal keeps its name. For the second nonmetal, the ending is
usually removed and replaced with ‘ide’. If there is more than one atom (whether first or second), Greek
prefixes are used to show how many of an atom there is. The formula given for these covalent compounds are
usually molecular formulae, not empirical.
E.g. Iodine heptachloride shows that the compound is composed of two elements: iodine and chlorine. There is
one iodine atom and seven chlorine atoms. The formula is therefore ICl7.
E.g. C3O2 shows that the compound is composed of two elements: carbon (C) and oxygen (O). There are three
carbon atoms and two oxygen atoms. The name is therefore tricarbon dioxide.

METALLIC BONDING
metallic bonding
OF A
Metallic bonding occurs in metals and is the result of the electrostatic attraction between metal cations and
delocalized electrons. Unlike in ionic and covalent bonding, metallic bonds are formed in one type of element
only, i.e., two metals cannot bond.
Metal atoms are packed tightly together in rows to form a metal lattice, and their valence electrons become
delocalized. This means that the valence electrons are no longer associated with any specific atom and are free
to move. This forms positive cations and a sea of mobile electrons. The metal lattice is held together by the
electrostatic forces of attraction between the delocalized electrons and the cations, known as the metallic
bond, which is strong.
Metals share specific properties:
• They have high melting and boiling points

o The strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the cations and delocalised electrons
require large amounts of heat energy to break. This also means that they are solid at room
temperature, which is not high enough to break the attractive forces.
• They have high density
o The atoms are packed very closely together.
• They conduct electricity and heat
o The delocalized electrons are free to move around and carry electricity and heat.
• They are malleable (can be beaten into thin sheets) and ductile (can be drawn into thin wires)
o The atoms of each metal are all the same type and size. If force is applied, the atoms can slide
past each other into new positions without the metallic bonds breaking.

Ionic structures
An ionic crystal is made of an ionic lattice in which strong electrostatic forces of attraction called ionic bonds
hold the cations and anions together in a regular, repeating, three-dimensional arrangement. Ionic crystals are
represented by empirical formulae or formula units.
• They have high melting and boiling points. There are strong attractive forces between the large
numbers of positive and negative ions acting in all directions, which require a lot of energy to overcome.
• They are crystalline solids at room temperature
• They conduct electricity and heat when only molten or dissolved. The ionic bonds have broken in water
and the ions are free to move. In solids, the ionic bonds hold them together.
• They do not dissolve in nonpolar organic solvents
• They are soluble in water. The partial negative ends of polar water
molecules attract the cations, and the partial positive ends attract the
anions. This pulls the ions out of the lattice, causing the crystal to dissolve.
• They are hard and brittle. Strong ionic bonds exist between the ions
throughout the structure. If pressure is applied, the layers of ions are displaced slightly and ions with
the same charges then repel each other and break the lattice apart.
Sodium chloride is an example of an ionic structure. Its solubility makes it useful in manufacturing chlorine and
sodium hydroxide by electrolysis of its aqueous solution and in de-icing roads.
Simple molecular/covalent structures
Iodine and sulphur have a simple molecular structure. They can form crystals because the molecules are
regularly arranged in a lattice. The properties of iodine and sulphur can be related to their structure:
• They have low melting points because the forces between the molecules (intermolecular forces) are
weak. It does not need much energy to overcome these forces and separate the molecules.
• They are soft. When scratched, it does not take much energy to overcome the weak forces between the
molecules.
• They do not dissolve easily in water because the water molecules cannot form strong enough bonds
with the molecules to separate them from each other.
• They dissolve in nonpolar organic solvents because the forces between the solvent molecules and the
molecules are stronger than those between the molecules themselves. Note, though, that some
molecular crystals, such as sucrose, are soluble in water.
• They do not conduct electricity when solid or molten. This is because they have neither ions nor
electrons that can move.

Giant molecular/covalent structures
Giant molecular structures have a three-dimensional network of covalent bonds. The formulae of these
structures are empirical. Diamond and graphite are both giant molecular structures made of carbon atoms.
They are allotropes of carbon. Allotropy is the property of a chemical element to exist in two or more different
crystalline or molecular forms, known as allotropes of the element.
In diamond, each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with other carbon atoms. Each
carbon atom can be imagined to be at the centre of a tetrahedron. This creates a three-
dimensional arrangement of carbon atoms throughout the crystal. The network of
tetrahedrons extends almost unbroken throughout the whole
structure.
In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded covalently to three others to form hexagonal
rings of atoms, which are bonded together to form layers. The layers have weak forces
of attraction between them which hold them together. The fourth electron from each atom
becomes delocalised and can move within the lattice.
Similar properties between these and other giant covalent structures include:
• They have high melting points. It needs a lot of energy to break down the network of strong covalent bonds.
• They are insoluble in water and in organic solvents. The network of covalent bonds is too strong to
allow solvent molecules to form strong enough bonds with the individual atoms.
Differences in properties of diamond and graphite
Hardness:
• Diamond is hard: the strong covalent bonding throughout makes it difficult to scratch the surface of the
crystal. Diamond is one of the hardest substances known and is ideal to use for the edges of cutting tools.
• Graphite is soft: the forces between the layers of graphite are weak, so the layers can slide over each
other when a force is applied. The layers of graphite flake away easily and so graphite is used as a
lubricant and in the ‘leads’ of pencils.
Electrical conduction:
• Diamond does not conduct electricity. There are no electrons free to move because each carbon atom
forms covalent bonds with four others, leaving no free electrons.
• Graphite conducts electricity. Carbon has four electrons in its outer shell to use in bonding. In graphite,
three of the carbon electrons in each atom are used to form covalent bonds. The fourth carbon electron
in each atom is free to move around and along the layers. These electrons are called delocalised
electrons. When a potential difference is applied, these electrons move along the layers.

Metallic structures
• Many, but not all, metals have high melting points. In metals with high melting points there are strong
attractive forces between the positive ions and the delocalised electrons acting in all directions. It needs
a lot of energy to overcome these forces to melt the solid.
• They are malleable (can be shaped by hitting) and ductile (can be drawn into wires). This is because,
when a force is applied, the layers slide over each other. Metals are not brittle like ionic compounds
because in metals, new attractive forces are formed between the delocalised electrons and the atoms
in the layers.
• Metals are insoluble in both water and organic solvents, but many metals react with water rather than
dissolving. In metals that do not react, the metallic bonds are too strong to allow solvent molecules to
form strong enough bonds with the individual atoms to separate them from each other.
• Metals conduct electricity when solid or molten. This is because the delocalised electrons can easily
move through them when a potential difference is applied.

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
exam-style questions
OF A
Typical Exam Question / 2009 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 Typical Exam Question / 2010 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
Which of the following is the type of crystal structure of V and Q are different forms of the element carbon. R is an
iodine at room temperature and pressure? ionic solid. Table 3 presents some properties of V, Q and
R. Use this to answer the questions that follow.
(A) ionic
(B) metallic
(C) giant molecular
(D) simple molecular
The answer is (D) simple molecular. Iodine is a simple

molecular crystal held together by weak forces. It is solid
at room temperature and pressure. (MP 114 C; BP 184 C)
(i) Complete the table. (2 mks)
Typical Exam Question / 2016 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01
(ii) State the term used to describe different forms of an
The electron configuration in atoms of X and Y are 2, 8, 5 element such as the two forms of carbon, V and Q. (1
and 2, 8, 6 respectively. Which represents X and Y? mk)
(iii) Identify the forms of carbon, V and Q. (2 mks)
X Y
(A) Metal Nonmetal (iv) State one use of V and one use of Q and indicate the
(B) Nonmetal Nonmetal property upon which each use is based. (4 mks)
(C) Nonmetal Metal (v) Explain why R will conduct electricity when molten
(D) Metal Metal
but not in the solid state. (2 mks)
The answer is (B) Nonmetal, Nonmetal. Since the number
of valence electrons is its group number, X and Y are in i/The structure of V is ‘giant covalent structure’. The
groups 5 and 6 respectively. These groups consist mostly electrical conductivity of Q is ‘electrical conductor’.
of non-metallic elements that form anions when bonding
ii/Allotropy
ionically.
iii/V is diamond and Q is graphite.
2011 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01
iv/Diamond (V) is used as a cutting tool because of strong
Which of the following will NOT conduct electricity? covalent bonds existing in its tetrahedron structure.
Graphite is used as a lubricant because weak Van der
(A) solid calcium
Waals forces exist between the hexagonal layers of
(B) solid calcium chloride
atoms and so they slide over each other.
(C) molten calcium chloride
(D) a solution of calcium chloride in water v/When R is in the solid state, the ionic bonds are held
together. When it is molten, the bonds break and the ions
The answer is (B) solid calcium chloride. Aqueous and
are free to move and carry a current.
molten ionic compounds conduct electricity, as do metals.

2011 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 2012 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
A metallic bond is formed when The electronic configurations of four elements, P, Q, R,

and S are:
(A) cations are held together by a sea of mobile
electrons P: 2, 7
(B) positive metal ions held together by a sea of anions
Q: 2, 8, 2
(C) anions are held together by negative electrons
(D) metal atoms are held together by molecular forces R, 2 8, 6
The answer is (A) cations are held together by a sea of S: 2, 8, 8, 2

mobile electrons. A metallic bond is formed when metal
Elements P and Q react together to form a compound.
cations and delocalized electrons attract each other.
Deduce whether this compound is ionic or covalent. Use
These bonds involve neither anions nor molecular forces.
‘dot cross’ diagrams to show the bonding in the
2020 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 compound formed and write its formula. (4 mks)
One property of ionic compounds is that they This compound will be ionic. Q is a metal and P is a
nonmetal. Q will donate its two valence electrons to two
(A) contain molecules atoms of P.
(B) are solids and vaporize easily
(C) usually dissolve in organic solvents
(D) conduct electricity when molten or dissolved
The answer is (D) conduct electricity when molten or

dissolved. When ionic compounds dissolve/melt, they can
conduct electricity due to the ability of the ions to move
freely. Ionic compounds consist of ions, not molecules.
They are crystalline solids at room temperature, but do
not vaporize easily due to their high melting and boiling
points because of the strong forces of attraction.
How many covalent bonds are there in a nitrogen

molecule? QP2
(A) 1 Q is metal with two electrons in its outer shell. It will give
(B) 2 each of its outer electrons to each nonmetal P atom. To
(C) 3 form a neutral ionic compound with Q which needs to lose
(D) 4 two electrons, two anions are needed. Each P atom gains
one electron to become P-, while the Q atom will lose two
The answer is (C) 3. Nitrogen is in group 5 and will form electrons forming Q2+.
three covalent bonds when bonding with itself (8 - 5 = 3).

Which of the following atoms would NOT form a cation? Depending on their structures and properties, solids may
be classified as having metallic, giant covalent, simple
(A) Magnesium
molecular, or ionic lattice structures. The structure and
(B) Aluminium
conductivity of selected solids are to be summarized in
(C) Sodium
Table 3.
(D) Chlorine
Complete the table to show the structure and conductivity
The answer is (D) chlorine. Chlorine, a nonmetal, will
of EACH solid substance listed. The first one is done as an
generally not lose electrons to form a cation. Magnesium,
example.
aluminium, and sodium are metals, so they will.

Simple molecular
This diagram represents the structure of Atom X.
No
Metallic
Giant covalent
Sodium chloride and calcium oxide both have similar giant
The charge on the ion formed by X would MOST likely be ionic crystalline structures with high melting points.
However, the melting point of calcium oxide is higher than
(A) 5+ that of sodium chloride. Sketch the lattice structure for
(B) 5- sodium chloride and suggest why its melting point would
(C) 3+ be lower than that of calcium oxide. (5 mks)
(D) 3-
The answer is (D) 3-. Atom X has five valence electrons,

placing it in group 5. Group 5 elements generally gain 3
electrons, making them have a 3- charge.
Which of the following statements is FALSE? Ionic compounds are formed when electrostatic
attractions form between oppositely charged ions. These
(A) Hydrogen chloride is covalent attractions are strong and so require a large amount of
(B) Water is ionic energy to break. This energy is provided in the high
(C) Aqueous hydrogen chloride is ionic melting temperature. NaCl has a lower melting point than
(D) Ammonia gas is covalent CaO due to the Na+ ion. This ion has a lesser charge than
The answer is (B) Water is ionic. Water H2O is a covalent Ca2+ and so forms weaker attractions. The weaker the
compound formed between hydrogen and oxygen. attraction, the less energy required to overcome it.

The following illustrations refer to the electronic structure Like sodium chloride, calcium carbonate has a giant ionic
of four atoms. crystalline structure.
(i) Is it LIKELY that calcium carbonate will conduct

electricity in its solid state? (1 mk)
(ii) Give a reason for your answer. (2 mks)
i/No. It is unlikely that calcium carbonate will conduct

Which atoms form covalent bonds when they react?
electricity as a solid.
(A) P and Q
ii/In the solid state, ions are held together by the ionic
(B) P and S
bonds and are not free to move. When molten or aqueous,
(C) Q and S
the ionic bonds have broken and are only then free to
(D) Q and R
move.
The answer is (B) P and S. P is a nonmetal with 1 valence
electron. Q is a nonmetal with 6 valence electrons. When 2013 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
they react, they will form covalent bonds.
Crystals of sodium chloride are BEST described as
(A) ionic
(B) metallic Element Y will bond with phosphorus to form a
(C) molecular compound.
(D) macromolecular
(i) State the type of bonding that occurs between
The answer is (A) ionic. Sodium chloride is a crystalline phosphorus and Element Y.
ionic compound. (ii) Referring only to the electrons in the outer shells of
the elements, sketch a diagram to show this bond.
i/Covalent bonding
Graphite can be used as a lubricant because of
ii/
(A) strong attraction between the hexagonal layers
(B) weak attraction between the hexagonal layers
(C) the loose electrons, which can move throughout
the lattice
(D) strong attraction within the hexagonal layers
The answer is (B) weak attraction between the

hexagonal layers. The attraction is weak, so can slide
over each other when a force is applied.

The bond between the two carbon atoms in the diagram Elements W and X react to form a compound. The
below is electronic configurations of the elements are:
W: 2, 7
X: 2, 8, 2
(i) State the appropriate group and period to which

each belongs. Hence, indicate the type of bonding
(A) single that occurs between W and X and write the formula
(B) double of the compound formed. (6 mks)
(C) triple (ii) Suggest whether the resulting compound will
(D) dative dissolve in water. Explain your answer. (3 mks)
The answer is (B) double. The carbon atoms share four i/The number of valence electrons is the group an element
electrons. Since two electrons are represented by one is in, while the number of energy shells is the period an
bond, four are represented by two. element is in. Thus, element W is in Group 7, Period 2, and
element is in Group 2, Period 3. This means that element X
is a metal and element W is a nonmetal. The bond will be
ionic. A single W atom only needs one electron, but the X
atom has two to donate. Therefore, two W atoms are
required. This means the formula is XW2.
ii/XW2 is an ionic compound, which will dissolve in water.

The partial negative ends of the polar water molecules
attract the cations, and the partial positive ends attract the
anions. This pulls the ions out of the lattice, causing the
crystal to dissolve.
“Potassium iodide is soluble in water but not very soluble

in ethanol.”
Explain why the statement above is true. (4 mks)

Which of the diagrams illustrates bonding in chlorine?
Water is a highly polar solvent. The polar water molecules
The answer is (D). Chlorine Cl2 has one covalent bond. have a strong attraction from charged ions and pull the
ions out of the lattice. Ethanol, however, is an organic
Which of the diagrams illustrates bonding in oxygen?
compound that is only slightly polar. It only interacts
The answer is (B). Oxygen O2 has two covalent bonds. slightly with ionic compounds such as potassium iodide.

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CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

5. Structure and Bonding

Typical Exam Question / 2016 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01

The electron configuration in atoms of X and Y are 2, 8, 5

See answers in the ‘Exam-style questions’ section

• explain the formation of ionic and covalent bonds;

5. Structure and Bonding

• ionic bonding, which involves the transfer of electrons

The type of bonding an atom participates in depends on whether it is a metal or nonmetal.

Metals (groups 1-3) Nonmetals (groups 4-8)

5. Structure and Bonding

5. Structure and Bonding

Molecular formula Structural formula Empirical formula

5. Structure and Bonding

5. Structure and Bonding

5. Structure and Bonding

5. Structure and Bonding

Ionic compounds are also represented by chemical formulae.

E.g. Lithium oxide

Lithium = Li, oxygen = O

Lithium has a +1 charge and oxygen has a -2 charge / Li+, O2-

Pb4+ = lead(IV), N3- = nitride (from nitrogen)

The names are combined / Lead(IV) nitride

5. Structure and Bonding

5. Structure and Bonding

E.g. Lithium hydroxide monohydrate

Therefore, lithium hydroxide monohydrate is LiOH • H2O

E.g. Na2CO3 • 10H2O

Therefore, Na2CO3 • 8H2O is sodium carbonate decahydrate

5. Structure and Bonding

• solid lines H – H (the line represents two electrons shared)

5. Structure and Bonding

Element Number of bonds

Group 4 Carbon 8-4=4

Group 5 Nitrogen 8-5=3

Group 6 Oxygen 8-6=2

Group 7 Chlorine 8-7=1

5. Structure and Bonding

• They have low melting and boiling points

5. Structure and Bonding

Metals share specific properties:

• They have high melting and boiling points

5. Structure and Bonding

Simple molecular/covalent structures

5. Structure and Bonding

Differences in properties of diamond and graphite

5. Structure and Bonding

5. Structure and Bonding

The answer is (D) simple molecular. Iodine is a simple

5. Structure and Bonding

A metallic bond is formed when The electronic configurations of four elements, P, Q, R,

The answer is (A) cations are held together by a sea of S: 2, 8, 8, 2

The answer is (D) conduct electricity when molten or

2008 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01

How many covalent bonds are there in a nitrogen

5. Structure and Bonding

2008 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01

2016 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02

Sodium chloride and calcium oxide both have similar giant

The answer is (D) 3-. Atom X has five valence electrons,