BRIDGE INSPECTION

AND
MAINTENANCE
 Preface to the Third Edition

The book ‘Bridge Inspection and Maintenance’ was first

published in 1988. As this book was very popular amongst field
engineers, the second revised edition was published in 1996
updating the chapter on repairs to concrete bridges.

The third revised and enlarged edition has now been

brought out to fulfil the continuous demand for the book. Since
underwater inspection of bridge is one of the key activities to be
undertaken for maintenance of bridge substructure and
foundation, a new chapter on underwater inspection of bridges
has been included. Two more chapters on non destructive
testing and nemerical rating system for bridges have also been
added to make it more comprehensive.

It is hoped that this booklet will act as a guide for the field
engineers who are entrusted with the task of inspection and
maintenance of bridges.

Shiv Kumar
Director
IRICEN, Pune.
 Acknowledgement

The first edition of this book was published in August, 1988 to

serve as a guide to the field engineers who are entrusted with the
job of inspection and maintenance of bridges. The second edition
was brought out in December, 1996, which has been very popular
amongst field engineers. The third edition is being brought out to
fulfil this continuous demand. While revising the book, new chapters
on underwater inspection of bridges and non-destructive testing
have been included to make it more comprehensive. Efforts have
been made to improve the readability of the book.

It would not be out of place to acknowledge the support and

assistance rendered by IRICEN faculty and staff in the above efforts.
I am grateful to Shri Ghansham Bansal, Professor/Bridges for proof-
checking of the entire book. I am particularly thankful to Shri Praveen
Kumar, Professor/Computers who has provided the necessary
logistic assistance for printing of this book.

Above all, the author is grateful to Shri Shiv Kumar, Director for
his encouragement and guidance for improving the publication.

A.K. Yadav
Senior Professor/Bridges
IRICEN, Pune
 Preface to the Second Edition

The book ‘Bridge Inspection and Maintenance’ has been

an useful guide to the Engineers of Indian Railways. The first
edition was published in August, 1988 and was very popular
among the field engineers. This second revised edition has
been brought out to fulfil the continuous demand for this book.
While revising, the chapter on repairs to concrete bridges has
been updated by including the latest techniques on grouting,
repairing of spalled concrete, use of polymer based materials
etc. This book also includes the current instructions on bridge
inspection and maintenance of concrete bridges.

I hope the contents of the revised edition will be

implemented by the field engineers during the inspection and
maintenance of Railway bridges, so that our tradition of caring
for bridges with high order of reliability can be kept up. Any
suggestion to improve the book is most welcome.

S. Gopalkrishnan
Director
Indian Railways Institute of
Civil Engineering, Pune.
 PREFACE

The subject of Inspection and Maintenance of

Bridges is of considerable importance to the field officials who
are engaged in this aspect of work of the Civil Engineering
Department. Requests for outstation courses conducted by
IRICEN on this subject are frequent and even repetitive, which
is indicative of the need for dissemination of information and
experience on this topic. It is hoped that this booklet will fulfil
this need and be of assistance to field officials in briefing them
about the aspects to be inspected and the corrective action to
be taken.

This book has been prepared by Professor

K. Ananthanarayanan of this Institute.

If there are suggestions kindly write to the undersigned.

N.K. Parthasarathy
Director
Indian Railways Institute of
Civil Engineering, Pune.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER - 1 BRIDGE INSPECTION - GENERAL

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Purpose of bridge inspection 2
1.3 Elements of a bridge 2
1.4 Planning the inspection 3
1.5 Schedule of inspection 3
1.6 Preliminary study 4
1.7 Inspection equipments 4
1.8 Safety precautions 7

CHAPTER - 2 DETAILED INSPECTION OF BRIDGES

2.1 Foundations 8
2.1.1 Disintegration of foundation material 8
2.1.2 Heavy localized scour in the vicinity of 10
piers/abutments
2.1.3 Uneven settlement 13
2.2 Abutments and piers 14
2.2.1 Crushing and cracking of masonry 14
2.2.2 Weathering 14
2.2.3 Failure of mortar 16
2.2.4 Bulging 16
2.2.5 Transverse cracks in piers 16
2.3 Protection works 17
2.3.1 Flooring 18
2.3.2 Pitching 20
2.3.3 Guide bunds 20
2.3.4 Aprons 22
2.4 Arch bridges 22
2.4.1 Cracks in abutments and piers 25
2.4.2 Cracks associated with spandrel wall 26
2.4.3 Cracks on the face of arch bridge 31

vii
 2.4.4 Cracking and crushing of masonry 32
2.4.5 Leaching out of lime/cement mortar 32
in the barrel
2.4.6 Loosening of key stones and voussoirs 32
of arch
2.4.7 Transverse cracks in the arch intrados 32
2.5 Bed blocks 34
2.6 Bearings 37
2.6.1 Elastomeric bearings 40
2.6.2 PTFE bearings 41
2.7 Inspection of steel bridges 41
2.7.1 Loss of camber 42
2.7.2 Distorsion 42
2.7.3 Loose rivets 43
2.7.4 Corrosion 44
2.7.5 Fatigue cracks 45
2.7.6 Early steel girders 45
2.8 Inspection of concrete girders 46
2.8.1 Cracking 47
2.8.2 Delamination 48
2.8.3 Scaling 49
2.8.4 Spalling 49
2.8.5 Reinforcement corrosion 49
2.8.6 Cracking in prestressed concrete structures 50
2.8.7 Loss of camber 52
2.8.8 Locations to be specially looked for defect 53
2.9 Track on girder bridges 55
2.9.1 Approaches 55
2.9.2 Track on bridge proper 55

CHAPTER - 3 UNDER WATER INSPECTION OF

BRIDGES

3.1 Introduction 58
3.2 Bridge selection criteria 58
viii
 3.3 Frequency of inspection 59
3.4 Methods of underwater inspection 59
3.4.1 Wading inspection 59
3.4.2 Scuba diving 60
3.4.3 Surface supplied air diving 62
3.5 Method selection criteria 64
3.6 Diving inspection intensity levels 64
3.6.1 Level I 65
3.6.2 Level II 65
3.6.3 Level III 66
3.7 Inspection Tools 67
3.8 Underwater photography and video equipments 67
3.9 Documentation 67
3.10Reporting 69

CHAPTER - 4 NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING FOR

BRIDGES

4.1 Introduction 70
4.2 NDT tests for concrete bridges 70
4.2.1 Rebound hammer 70
4.2.2 Ultrasonic pulse velocity tester 71
4.2.3 Pull-off test 73
4.2.4 Pull-out test 74
4.2.5 Windsor probe 75
4.2.6 Rebar locators 75
4.2.7 Covermeter 76
4.2.8 Half-cell potential measurement 76
4.2.9 Resistivity test 78
4.2.10Test for carbonation of concrete 78
4.2.11Test for chloride content of concrete 79
4.2.12Acoustic Emission technique 79
4.3 NDT tests for masonry bridges 80
4.3.1 Flat Jack testing 80

ix
 4.3.2 Impact Echo testing 80
4.3.3 Impulse Radar 81
4.3.4 Infrared Thermography 81
4.4 NDT tests for steel bridges 81
4.4.1 Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI) 81
4.4.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) 82
4.4.3 Eddy current testing 83
4.4.4 Radiographic testing 83
4.4.5 Ultrasonic test

CHAPTER - 5 NUMERICAL RATING SYSTEM

5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 Relevance of numerical rating system 86
5.3 Numerical rating system for Indian Railways 86
5.4 Condition rating number (CRN) 86
5.5 Overall rating number (ORN) 87
5.6 Major bridges 87
5.7 Minor bridges 89
5.8 Road over bridges 89
5.9 Recording in bridge inspection register 89

CHAPTER - 6 MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES

6.1 Introduction 90
6.2 Symptoms and remedial measures 91

CHAPTER - 7 REPAIRS TO CONCRETE AND

MASONRY BRIDGES

7.1 General 95
7.2 Cement pressure grouting of masonry structures 96
7.2.1 Equipments 96
7.2.2 Procedure 96
7.3 Epoxy resin grouting of masonry structures 100
7.3.1 General 100

x
 7.3.2 Procedure 101
7.4 Repairs of cracks in reinforced concrete 103
and prestressed concrete girders and slabs
7.4.1 General 103
7.4.2 Materials used for filling the cracks 103
7.4.3 Crack injection steps 105
7.4.4 Injection equipments and injection process 106
7.5 Spalled concrete- Hand applied repairs 108
7.5.1 Preparation 109
7.5.2 Choice of material 109
7.5.3 Curing 112
7.6 Guniting 113
7.6.1 Equipments and materials 113
7.6.2 Procedure 114
7.7 Jacketing 116
7.7.1 General 116
7.7.2 Procedure 117

CHAPTER - 8 MAINTENANCE OF STEEL BRIDGES

8.1 Painting of girder bridges 119

8.1.1 Surface preparation 119
8.1.2 Painting scheme as per IRS code 121
8.1.3 Important precautions 122
8.2 Replacing loose rivets 124
8.2.1 General 124
8.2.2 Procedure 125
8.3 Loss of camber 126
8.4 Oiling and greasing of bearings 127

Annexure-A Proforma for Bridge Inspection Registers 128

Annexure-B Elastomeric bearing 135
Annexure-C Teflon or PTFE bearing 137
Annexure-D Guidelines for alloting Condition 139
Rating Number (CRN)
xi
 CHAPTER 1

BRIDGE INSPECTION – GENERAL

1.1 Introduction

Bridges are key elements of the Railway network because of

their strategic location and the dangerous consequences when
they fail or when their capacity is impaired. The fundamental
justification for a bridge inspection programme lies in the
assurance of safety. Timely and economic planning and
programming of remedial and preventive maintenance and repair
work, or even bridge replacement with the minimum interruption
to traffic are dependent upon detailed bridge inspection. It is
particularly necessary in case of old bridges not designed to
modern loading standards and also whose materials of
construction have deteriorated as a result of weathering.

Inspection is aimed at identifying and quantifying

deterioration, which may be caused by applied loads and factors
such as deadload, liveload, wind load and physical/chemical
influences exerted by the environment. Apart from inspection of
bridge damage caused by unpredictable natural phenomena or
collision by vehicles or vessels, inspection is also needed to
identify or follow up the effect of any built-in imperfections.
Inspection can also help to increase life of older bridges. For
example, there are certain types of deterioration which appear
early in the life of a bridge and which, if not recorded and
repaired promptly, can lead to considerable reduction in the
length of service life of the bridge.

1
1.2 Purpose of bridge inspection

Specific purposes of bridge inspection can be identified as

detailed below:

1. To know whether the bridge is structurally safe, and to

decide the course of action to make it safe.

2. To identify actual and potential sources of trouble at

the earliest possible stage.

3. To record systematically and periodically the state of

the structure.

4. To impose speed restriction on the bridge if the

condition/situation warrants the same till the repair/
rehabilitation of the bridge is carried out.

5. To determine and report whether major rehabilitation of

the bridge is necessary to cope with the natural
environment and the traffic passing over the bridge.

6. To provide a feedback of information to designers and

construction engineers on those features which give
maintenance problems.

1.3 Elements of a bridge

Bridge structure is generally classified under two broad

categories:

1. Superstructure

2. Sub-structure

Superstructure consists of all the parts of the bridge that are

supported by the bearings on abutments or piers (e.g. bridge
girders, bridge deck, bridge flooring system etc.).

2
 Sub-structure consists of all those parts of the bridge, which
transmit loads from the bridge span to the ground (e.g.
abutments, piers, bed blocks, foundations, etc.).

1.4 Planning the inspection

Careful planning is essential for a well-organized, complete

and efficient inspection. The bridges over water are inspected at
times of low water, generally after the monsoon. Bridges
requiring high climbing should be inspected during seasons when
winds or extreme temperatures are not prevalent. Bridges
suspected of having trouble on account of thermal movement
should be inspected during temperature extremes. The bridges
are inspected starting from foundations and ending with
superstructures. Planning for inspection must include the
following essential steps:

1. Decide the number of bridges to be inspected on a

particular day.

2. Go through the previous inspection reports of those

bridges before starting the inspection.

3. Try to have plans and other details of important

bridges.

4. Plan any special inspection equipments, staging etc.

required in advance.

5. Don’t rush through the inspection just for completion

sake. Remember that you are inspecting the bridge
only once in a year.

1.5 Schedule of inspection

The schedule of inspection for various officials is prescribed

in Indian Railways Bridge Manual (IRBM). As per this, all the
bridges are to be inspected by PWIs/IOWs once a year before
monsoon and by AENs once a year after monsoon, and
important bridges by DENs once a year. All the steel structures

3
are inspected by BRIs once in 5 years and selected bridges by
Bridge Engineers/Dy.CE (Bridges) as and when found necessary.
Side by side, the track on the bridge should also be inspected
thoroughly. The bridges that have been referred by AEN/DEN/
Sr.DEN for inspection by a higher authority, should be inspected
by the higher authority in good time. Bridges which are of early
steel, and bridges which are overstressed should be inspected
more frequently as laid down vide page 509 of IRBM.

Proforma for Bridge Inspection Register is shown at

Annexure-A.

1.6 Preliminary study

While going for bridge inspection one should be familiar with

the historical data of the bridges i.e.

1. Completion plans, where available

2. Pile and well foundation details
3. Earlier inspection reports
4. Reports regarding the repairs/strengthening carried out
in the past.
For major girder bridges, stress sheets are useful.

1.7 Inspection equipments

The following equipments are required for thorough inspection

of the various elements of bridges:

1. Pocket tape (3 or 5 m long)

2. Chipping hammer
3. Plumb bob
4. Straight edge (at least 2 m long)
5. 30 metre steel tape
6. A set of feeler gauges (0.1 to 5 mm)

4
7. Log line with 20 kg lead ball (to be kept at bridge site)
8. Thermometer
9. Elcometer
10. Wire brush
11. Mirror ( 10x15 cm)
12. Magnifying glass (100 mm dia.)
13. Crackmeter
14. Chalk, Waterproof pencil, pen or paint for marking on
concrete or steel
15. Centre punch
16. Callipers (inside and outside)
17. Torch light (5 cell)
18. Screw drivers
19. Paint and paint brush for repainting areas damaged
during inspection
20. Gauge-cum-level
21. Piano wire
22. 15 cm steel scale
23. Inspection hammer (350-450 gm)
24. Rivet testing hammer (110 gm)
25. Schmidt hammer
26. Concrete cover meter

OPTIONAL (where required)

27. Binoculars
28. Camera

5
 Depending on the bridge site and the need envisaged during
inspection, some additional equipments that may become
necessary are listed below:

1. Ladders
2. Scaffolding
3. Boats or barges
4. Echo sounders (Fig. 1.1) to assess the depth of water/
scour depth

Fig. 1.1 Echo Sounder

5. Levelling equipment (to assess camber)

6. Dye penetration test equipment (to detect cracks

specially in welds)

6
1.8 Safety precautions

While inspecting bridges, one should adopt certain safety

measures which are listed below:

1. Wear suitable dress so that loose ends do not get

caught; too-tight-a-dress may hamper your free
movements.

2. If you normally wear glasses for improving your eye

sight, wear them when climbing up or down the sub-
structures or superstructures.

3. Keep clothing and shoes free of grease.

4. Scaffolding or platforms should be free from grease or

other slippery substances.

5. Scaffolding and working platforms should be of

adequate strength and must be secured against
slipping or over turning.

6. No short cuts, at any cost, should be adopted.

7
 CHAPTER 2

DETAILED INSPECTION OF BRIDGES

Detailed inspection of a bridge is required to be done

starting from foundation right up to superstructure, including the
track. Approaches of bridges should also be inspected for scour,
settlement etc.

2.1 Foundations

Visual inspection of foundations is difficult in majority

of cases and the behavior of foundations has to be judged
based on observation of exposed elements of bridge
structures. Foundation movements may often be detected
by first looking for deviations from the proper geometry of
the bridge.

1. Any abrupt change or kink in the alignment of bridge

may indicate a lateral movement of pier (Fig. 2.1).

2. Inadequate or abnormal clearance between the

ballast wall and end girders are indications of
probable movement such as leaning, bulging etc.
of abutments.

Types of defects in foundation which one should look for

during inspection are discussed below:

2.1.1 Disintegration of foundation material

In many bridges where open foundations are provided, some

8
 MISALIGNMENT AT PIER

RIVER FLOW

PLAN

ELEVATION

Fig. 2.1 Effect of scour on deep foundation

9
portion of foundations under piers might be visible during dry
season. Such portions can be easily probed to ascertain whether
the construction material is showing signs of deterioration or
distress. The deterioration can be on account of weathering of
the material, leaching of mortar etc. If the foundation so
examined indicates signs of deterioration, it becomes necessary
to probe other pier foundations by excavating around those
foundations. Excavation around the foundations, piers and
abutments should be done carefully, tackling small portion of
foundation at a time, especially in an arch bridge, as excavation
results in removal of over burden in the vicinity of foundation and
consequent loss of bearing capacity and longitudinal resistance.
Further such excavation should be avoided as far as possible if
the water table is high, the ideal time being when the water table
is at the lowest.

In case of deep foundation in rivers/creeks having perennial

presence of water, one can easily examine a portion
of foundation (piers/wells) exposed in dry-weather condition
and assess any deterioration that is visible. In such cases,
if deterioration is noticed, it is advisable to carry out inspection
of underwater portions by employing divers and using diving
equipment and underwater cameras. Specialist agencies may
be employed, if necessary, for this purpose.

2.1.2 Heavy localized scour in the vicinity of piers/

abutments

A serious problem, which is frequently encountered around

piers and abutments is scour. This is the erosive action of
running water in loosening and carrying away material from the
bed and banks of the river.

Three types of scour affect bridges as described below:

i. Local scour

Local scour is removal of sediment from around bridge piers

or abutments. Water flowing past a pier or abutment may scoop
out holes in the sediment; these scour holes formed during high
floods are likely to be filled up when flood recedes.

10
 Local scour is most likely around the following:
1. Nose of pier
2. Head of the guide-bund
3. Down-stream side of skew bridge
4. Down-stream side of drop walls
5. Where hard strata is surrounded by comparatively
softer erodable material
6. Outside of curve in a bend in the course of the river/
stream, etc,.
ii. Contraction scour
Contraction scour is removal of sediment from the bottom
and sides of the river. Contraction scour is caused by an
increase in speed of the water as it moves through a bridge
opening that is narrower than the natural river channel.
iii. Degradational scour
Degradational scour is general removal of sediment from the
river bottom by the flow of the river. The sediment removal and
resultant lowering of the river bottom is a natural process, but may
remove large amounts of sediment over a period of time.
During floods, the scour is maximum but as the
water level subsides, the scoured portion of river bed gets silted up
partly or fully. Inspection during dry season might therefore, at
best, only indicate possible locations where excessive scour
occurred in a river bed, but it would not be possible to assess the
magnitude of such scour. Once such locations are identified,
measurement of scour should be carried out in rainy season
during medium floods. Such measurements can be analyzed to
ascertain the grip length of deep foundations available during flood
conditions.
The most commonly used and least expensive method of
inspection of scour is taking of soundings with a log line. The
sophisticated method of measuring this scour as well as bed
levels in other parts of the bridge is by using an echo sounder
(Fig. 1.1).

11
 Open foundations are taken to a shallow depth and if not
protected appropriately from scour, it may lead to removal of
material from underneath the foundation. This may show itself as
cracks on the portion of the abutment or pier above water
(Fig. 2.2).

UNDERMINING OF FOUNDATIONS
GIRDER
PIER

CRACKS DIRECTION OF
RIVER FLOW

UNDERMINING
BED LEVEL

Fig. 2.2 Effect of scour on a shallow foundation

Undermining of deep foundations leads to tilting or sinking

of a pier. The best indication of such an occurrence is a
slight misalignment or change in the cross level of the track
over the bridge. If the longitudinal level of track gets disturbed, it
could be on account of sinking of a pier (Fig.2.3). It is necessary

SETTLEMENT SETTLED PIER

Fig. 2.3 Sinking of pier

12
to record such defects immediately in the bridge register. This
facilitates proper analysis and execution of suitable corrective
measures to prevent complete failure at a later date.

2.1.3 Uneven settlement

Settlement may occur on account of

1. Increased loads
2. Scour
3. Consolidation of the underlying material
4. Failure/yielding of the underlying soil layer.
Uneven settlement of foundations can occur on account
of difference in the loading pattern in different parts of the pier
or abutment, and also because of different soil strata below the
foundation. Varying patterns of scour in different parts of the
foundation may also cause uneven settlement.

This can be noticed from observation of crack patterns on

piers/abutments/wing walls. In many cases, the differential
settlement may lead to tilting of abutments or piers (Fig. 2.4).

CRACKS IN WING WALL

ABUTMENT ROTATION

SAND AND GRAVEL

SOFT CLAY SETTLEMENT IN CLAY

DENSE GRAVEL

Fig. 2.4 Differential settlement under an abutment

13
 It is difficult to measure the tilt, mainly because of the front
batter generally provided on these structures. Therefore, to keep
these structures under observation, it is necessary to drive a row
of tie bars horizontally at the top of the abutment and another
row horizontally near the bottom of the abutment. A plumb line
is dropped from the edge of a top tie bar and a mark is made on
the corresponding bottom tie bar. Observations are taken from
time to time and the new markings are compared with previous
ones to assess any tendency of tilting of the structure (Fig. 2.5).

As an alternative, a record of clear span may be kept in the

bridge inspection register which would give an indication of any
lean (in case of existing bridges).

2.2 Abutments and piers

Various aspects to be noted during the inspection of

abutments and piers are described below.

2.2.1 Crushing and cracking of masonry

This generally occurs in portions of bridge structure, which

carry excessive dynamic impact. Another reason for this defect
is reduction in the strength of materials of construction with
ageing. This type of defect is generally noticed around the bed
blocks.

2.2.2 Weathering

This type of damage occurs on account of exposure of the

materials of construction in the bridge to severe environmental
conditions, over long periods of time. Areas of the bridge
structure which undergo alternate drying and wetting are prone to
exhibit weathering damage. This defect can be easily identified
by tapping the masonry with a chipping hammer. Surface
deterioration will be indicated by layers of material spalling off.
Hollow sound indicates deterioration of masonry stones/bricks/
concrete as the case may be.

14
 GIRDER TOP ROW OF TIE BARS

PLUMB LINE
ABUTMENT
BOTTOM ROW
OF TIE BARS

Fig. 2.5 Measurement of tilt

15
2.2.3 Failure of mortar

Lime mortar and cement mortar with free lime content are
subject to leaching because of action of rain and running water.
As a result, their binding power gradually reduces. This defect is
many times covered up by pointing of masonry from time to
time. Such pointing will give the inspecting officials a false sense
of security and consequent complacency, whereas leaching may
progress unabated. This defect can be identified by removing the
mortar from a few places by raking out the joints with the help of
a small sharp knife. If the material which comes out is powdery
with complete separation of sand and lime particles, it is sure
sign of loss of mortar strength. The leaching of mortar also
leads to loose or missing stones/bricks.

2.2.4 Bulging

Bulging occurs in abutments, wing walls and parapet walls

essentially on account of excessive back pressure. The basic
reasons for such excessive back pressure are:

- Excessive surcharge with increased axle loads

- Raising of abutment and wingwalls over the years due
to regrading of track
- Choked up weep holes
- Improper backfill material
- Failure of backfill material because of clogging.
2.2.5 Transverse cracks in piers

Such cracks are rarely observed. These cracks can arise

because of increased longitudinal forces coming over the pier and
thereby creating tensile stresses in portions of the pier,
correspondingly redistributing a higher compressive force in
compression zone. The increase in longitudinal forces may also
be caused by freezing of bearings as a result of improper
maintenance. If such cracks are noticed on tall masonry (brick/
stone) piers in bridges in the vicinity of stopping places (such as

16
signals) or in heavily graded areas, the condition of bearings
must be examined. Detailed investigation must be carried out to
ascertain reasons for such cracks and remedial measures
undertaken on priority.

These types of cracks are many times observed on mass

concrete or RCC piers of recent origin. The reason for such
cracks can be traced to long gaps between two successive
concrete lifts usually on account of intervention of rainy season.
When the construction work is recommended in such situations,
precautions are required to be taken to clean the old concrete
surface of all loose matter, rub it with wire brush, clean it by
water jet, and then commence a new lift. A good practice would
be to provide dowel bars at the interface.

2.3 Protection works

Protection works are appurtenances provided to protect the

bridge and its approaches from damage during high flood
conditions. Meandering rivers, during high floods, may out flank
and damage bridge and approaches. To control the same,
following protective works are provided, singly or in combination.

1. Flooring
2. Curtain and drop walls
3. Pitching
4. Toe walls
5. Guide bunds
6. Marginal bunds
7. Spurs/ groynes
8. Aprons
9. Closure bunds
10. Assisted cut offs
11. Approach banks

17
 12. Sausage/rectangular crates (Fig. 2.6).

6 To 8 mm dia.
M.S. ROUNDS
1000 mm

@ 100 mm C/C

1000
mm mm
1000
Fig. 2.6 Wire crates

Maintaining these works in proper condition is as important

as maintenance of the bridge structure itself.

2.3.1 Flooring

Flooring is provided in bridges with shallow foundations so

as to prevent scour. At either end of the flooring on upstream
and downstream side, curtain walls and drop walls are provided
to prevent disturbance to the flooring itself. There have been
instances where neglect of flooring has led to failure of bridges.
Since such flooring is generally provided in smaller bridges, it is
more likely to be neglected. There are cases in which the
flooring has completely vanished through the ravages of flood/
time. In such cases, the inspecting official should take care not
to write the remark “NIL” under the column “flooring” provided in
the Bridge Register without cross checking the original drawings.

Generally heavy scour is observed on the downstream side

of drop wall (Fig. 2.7). It is necessary to repair this scour by
dumping wire crates filled with boulders. Dumping of loose
boulders is seen to be quite ineffective in majority of such cases
wherever water impinges at such locations at high velocity and
the loose boulders are carried away to downstream locations.

18
 OF TRACK
F.L

2:1 2:1

2:1
2:1 HFL 600 DROP
WALL
600 BED LEVEL FLOORING

CURTAIN SCOURED
WALL PORTION
900 900
LONGITUDINAL SECTION

2:1
OF TRACK

CURTAIN 300 THICK

WALL STONE
PLAN
2000

FLOORING
U/S
D/S
DROP
WALL

PLAN

Fig. 2.7 Curtain wall, drop wall and flooring

19
2.3.2 Pitching
Stone pitching is some times provided on approach banks
constructed in the khadir of alluvial rivers to prevent erosion of
the bank. Pitching is also provided on guide bunds and spurs for
the same purpose. Pitching acts like an armour on the earthen
bank. It is necessary to inspect this pitching and rectify the
defects as any neglect of this may lead to failure of approach
banks/guide bunds, etc. during high floods.
Toe wall is an important component of pitching and if the toe
wall gets damaged, pitching is likely to slip into the water.
Providing a proper foundation to the toe wall is important.
(Fig. 2.8).
STONE PITCHING
30 GRADED STONE CHIPS/SPALLS
0
30
0 SAND MIXED GRAVEL
30
0

2:1

600 TOE
WALL

300 1000
MIN
STONE MASONRY IN
CEMENT MORTAR 1:6
CEMENT CONCRETE 1:3:6

Fig. 2.8 Toe wall and pitching

In a number of small and major bridges (because of improper

excavation of borrow pits while constructing the line) a stream
starts flowing parallel to the bank on bridge approaches. To
protect the bank from scouring, a toe wall is provided at the
bottom of bank pitching. This toe wall needs to be inspected
properly and kept in good condition.
2.3.3 Guide bunds
These appurtenances are provided generally in alluvial rivers
to train the river stream through the bridge (Fig. 2.9). On many of

20
 RESERVE STONE STACK APPROACH BANK BRIDGE

STATION PITCHING

DIRECTION OF
PITCHING STONE APRON

MAIN LINE RAILWAY FLOW

SERVICE TRACK
E
E ROS
LINE OF KHADIR SIBL
POS ION

F
O
VE
CUR
Fig. 2.9 Guide bund and apron

21
the bigger and longer guide bunds, a siding is laid to work
ballast trains for transporting boulders. The track of the siding
must be maintained in proper condition.

Disturbance to the pitching stone in the slope of guide bund

indicates possibility of further damage during subsequent
monsoon and should be carefully noted.

It is necessary to take longitudinal levels and also levels for

plotting cross section to ascertain whether there had been any
sinking of these works. Sinking of guide bunds is dangerous
and may lead to overtopping of floods and consequent failure
during floods.

Guide bunds constructed on clayey soils need special

attention as regards scouring at the base. Scouring may cause
a vertical cut below the toe of guide bund which may ultimately
result in failure of guide bund by slipping. Therefore, whenever
water keeps on standing at the toe of the guide bund, it is
necessary to take soundings and plot the profile of the guide
bund. This is particularly possible at mole heads.

2.3.4 Aprons

Apron is provided beyond the toe of slope of guide bund so

that when the bed scour occurs, the scoured face will be
protected by launching of apron stone. As the river attacks the
edge of the guide bund and carries away the sand below it , the
apron stone drops down and forms a protective covering to the
under water slope. This is known as launching of apron
(Fig. 2.10).

2.4 Arch bridges

Most of the arch bridges are of old vintage but they usually
have such a reserve of strength that they have been able to carry
the present-day traffic with increased axle loads and longitudinal
forces, without much signs of distress. For effectiveness and
meaningful inspection of arch bridges, it is essential that the
inspecting official is conversent with the nomenclature of various

22
 F
PI
TC HFL
HI 1.5 D
NG
ST R
ON
E 2.76 T
LWL
T
LA
UN
F - FREE BOARD CH PROBABLE
R - RISE OF FLOOD ED
SE

D - DEEPEST KNOWN SCOUR AP

2:1 RO D
T - THICKNESS OF SLOPE PITCHING N
N
AT
1/2

CTIO TAC
OF
K
:1

W
OR
ST

DEEPEST KNOWN SCOUR

CROSS SECTION

Fig. 2.10 Guide bund and apron

23
 PARAPET

SPANDREL WALL

WATER PROOFING BUTTRESS

COPING

ARCH RING CUSHION SKEWBACK

SERIES OF WEEP HOLES

RETURN WALL
EXTRADOS WING WALL
INTRADOS

Fig. 2.11 Components of arch bridge

24
components of an arch bridge. The various parts of the arch
bridge are shown in Fig. 2.11.

For proper inspection of any structure, it is necessary that

the inspecting official understands the load transfer mechanism
in that structure. If one looks at the load transfer mechanism of
an arch structure, it can be observed that the loads coming on
the arch are transferred as a vertical reaction and horizontal
thrust on the substructure (pier/abutment). This is depicted in
Fig. 2.12. From this, one can easily conclude that soundness of
foundation is extremely important in arch bridges. This fact must
be borne in mind not only during inspection but also in executing
works such as jacketing of piers and abutments of arch bridges.

ABUTMENT

Fig. 2.12 Mechanism of load transfer in arch bridge

Following defects are generally associated with arch bridges.

2.4.1 Cracks in abutments and piers

These types of cracks indicate uneven settlement of

foundations. These are of serious nature. The reasons of unequal
settlement should be identified and necessary remedial
measures should be taken. As arch is resting on substructure, in

25
the worst conditions, such cracks may extend through the arch
barrel also and may appear as longitudinal cracks (cracks
parallel to the direction of traffic) in the arch barrel (Fig. 2.13).
These cracks should be grouted with cement/epoxy mortar and
tell tale provided to observe further propagation, if any.

2.4.2 Cracks associated with spandrel wall

In case of brick masonry bridges, where spandrel walls are

constructed monolithically with the arch barrel, longitudinal
cracks sometimes appear under the inside edge of spandrel wall
on the intrados. If such cracks are very fine and do not widen
with time then they are mostly attributable to the difference
in stiffness between the spandrel wall, which acts like a deep
beam, and the flexible arch barrel (which results in
incompatibility of deflections at their junction). Such cracks are
not considered serious, but they must be kept under observation.
Fig. 2.14 shows this type of crack.

However, if such cracks show tendency to widen with time,

then the problem can be traced to excessive back pressure on
the spandrel wall arising out of ineffective drainage or excessive
surcharge load from the track. Many times, track level on the
arch is raised bit by bit and new masonry courses are added on
the spandrel wall without giving thought to the adequacy of
spandrel wall cross section. This is also a cause for such
cracks.

Excessive back pressure on spandrel walls can also lead to

bulging and/or tilting of the spandrel walls. The remedial action
in case of excessive back pressure on spandrel walls lies in
improving the drainage by clearing the weep holes in the
spandrel wall and providing suitable back fill material over a strip
of about 450 mm immediately behind the spandrel wall. The
drainage of the arch should never be sought to be improved by
drilling holes through the arch barrel as it may lead to shaking of
the barrel masonry and weakening of the arch bridge. The
drainage of the fill may be improved by cleaning weep holes/
providing new weep holes or by provision of granular material in

26
 ARCH BARREL

CRACK IN PIER/ABUTMENT

PIER/ABUTMENT

BED LEVEL

FOUNDATION

SETTLEMENT

Fig. 2.13 Crack in pier/abutment extending to arch barrel

27
 A

SPANDREL WALL FILL

A
BARREL CRACKS

PIER

SECTION ON AA

Fig. 2.14 Longitudinal cracks under spandrel wall

28
 the back fill.

Blockage of drainage and excessive surcharge may also,

sometimes, lead to sliding forward of the spandrel wall,
particularly in case of bridges where spandrel wall and the arch
barrel are not monolithically connected. Fig. 2.15 shows this
condition.

EARTH PRESSURE AND

SURCHARGE
SPANDREL
WALL

AMOUNT OF
SLIDING ARCH BARREL

PIER

Fig. 2.15 Sliding forward of spandrel wall

Sometimes, longitudinal cracks are noticed in the arch, away

from spandrel wall. These cracks may occur due to differential
deflections of the part of arch barrel subjected to live load and
the remaining part. Such cracks may be seen between the
adjacent tracks or between the track and spandrel wall. They
may also be due to differential settlement of foundation. The
underlying cause should be identified and appropriate remedial
action taken.

29
 CRACKS ON ACCOUNT OF
EXCESSIVE RIB
SHORTENING AND
DISTORTION OF
SPANDREL WALL ARCH RING

Fig. 2.16 Cracks in spandrel wall due to weakness in arch ring

30
2.4.3 Cracks on the face of the arch bridge

Sometimes crack is noticed at the junction of the spandrel

wall and extrados of the arch in the vicinity of the crown of the
arch (Fig. 2.16). One reason is excessive back pressure on the
spandrel wall. It can also be on account of excessive rib
shortening or distortion of arch barrel under excessive loads.
The cause can be ascertained by observing such cracks under
traffic. If the cracks breathe under traffic, they are on account of
rib shortening and distortion of arch barrel. These cracks are
serious in nature and they indicate inherent weakness in the
arch.

Cracks in spandrel wall originating above the piers may be

caused by sinking of pier (Fig. 2.17). This is obviously a serious
crack and needs immediate strengthening of foundation.
CRACKS ORIGINATING HERE

SINKING

Fig. 2.17 Cracks in spandrel wall due to sinking of pier

31
2.4.4 Cracking and crushing of masonry

This type of distress is sometimes noticed in the vicinity of

crown of the arch and can be traced to:

1. Weathering of stones/bricks
2. Excessive loading
3. Inadequate cushion over the crown.
As per IRS Arch Bridge Code, a minimum cushion of
1000 mm is recommended over the crown of the arch. Cushion
is the vertical distance between the bottom of the sleeper and
the top of the arch. Lesser cushion results in transfer of heavier
impact on the crown which may result in cracking and crushing
of the masonry in the vicinity of the crown. Existing cushion
may be reduced while changing the metal or wooden sleepers
over the bridge with concrete sleepers.

2.4.5 Leaching out of lime/cement mortar in the barrel

This condition is many times noticed in the arch barrel and
can be traced to poor drainage. Water trapped in the fill above
the arch seeps through the joints. In such cases, the remedy
lies in grouting the joints and improving the drainage through the
weep holes in the spandrel wall.

2.4.6 Loosening of key stone and voussoirs of arch

This can happen on account of tilting of the abutment or pier
because of excessive horizontal thrust. This is also likely to
occur where higher dynamic forces are transmitted on account of
lesser cushion.

2.4.7 Transverse cracks in the arch intrados

These cracks are shown in Fig. 2.18. By their very nature,
these are serious. They indicate presence of tensile stresses
at the intrados of the arch and are generally noticed in the
vicinity of the crown of the arch in the initial stages. These
cracks have a tendency to progress in diagonal/zigzag directions
in stone masonry arches. This is because cracks always

32
 CRACKS

ELEVATION OF ARCH

PLAN OF ARCH SOFFIT

(as seen from below)

Fig. 2.18 Transverse and diagonal cracks at

the intrados of arch barrel

progress along the weakest planes in the structure, and in case

of stone masonry the weakest plane is along the mortar joint.
These cracks indicate serious weakness in the arch and need
proper investigation and adoption of appropriate strengthening
measures.

33
2.5 Bed Blocks

Cracks in bed block generally arise for two reasons:

1. Improper seating of bearings resulting in uneven contact

area below the bearing and gap between bed block and
base plate of bearing (Fig. 2.19 & 2.20).

2. Cracking and crushing of masonry under the bed block

(Fig. 2.21).

The bed blocks can start loosening if they are of isolated

type. In such cases normally a gap develops between the
surface of the bed block and the surrounding masonry. But many
times, the term ‘shaken bed block’ is used to indicate falling of
mortar from the pointing done at the joints between the bed
block and the adjoining masonry. This is shown in Fig. 2.22.
This is basically attributable to an inherent flaw in carrying out
pointing work. After a mason completes cement mortar pointing,
a train running on the bridge before adequate time has passed
will result in falling of this pointing as cement would not have had
time to set. Another drawback is that most of the times curing of
the pointing is neglected. Falling of pointing is not synonymous
to ‘shaken bed blocks’. In 90% of the cases of stone bed
blocks, this problem can be overcome by using epoxy mortar for
pointing in these locations.
If a bed block is suspected for shaken condition, it must be
inspected under traffic and during the inspection if visible
movements are noticed in the bed block then only it should be
declared as ‘shaken’ and not otherwise.
A number of very good stone bed blocks are prematurely
and even unnecessarily replaced by a weaker material such as
concrete because of improper diagnosis of the defect of falling
mortar pointing.

2.6 Bearings
One of the most important parts of a bridge is the bearing
which transfers the forces coming from the superstructure to the

34
 STEEL
GIRDER

BASE PLATE

BED BLOCK
GAPS

Fig. 2.19 Gaps between bed block and base plate of

bearing due to uneven contact area

PIER

Fig. 2.20 Cracks in bed block due to improper seating

of bearings

35
 AREA TO BE
INSPECTED FOR
CRACKING AND
CRUSHING
PIER

Fig. 2.21 Cracks in bed block due to cracking

and crushing of masonry under the bed block

FALLING
POINTING

PIER

Fig. 2.22 Shaken bed block

36
substructure and allows for necessary movements in the
superstructure.
1. Sliding bearings (Fig.2.23)
2. Roller and Rocker bearings (Fig. 2.24)
3. Elastomeric bearings (Fig.2.25)
4. P.T.F.E. Bearings. (Fig.2.26)

BEARING
BEARING PLATES
PLATES BEARING FLAT
RBG STANDARD 18.3 M SPAN RBG STANDARD 12.2 M SPAN

ELEVATION
X
ANCHOR BOLT

BEARING
PLATE SECTION X X
BED PLATE

LOCKING
STRIP BED PLATE

GUIDE
STRIP

X
PLAN

PLATE GIRDER

CLEAR SPAN
THEORETICAL SPAN
OVERALL LENGTH
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

Fig. 2.23 Centralised sliding bearings

37
 440
55 55
SADDLE
PLATE
SADDLE
KNUCKLE

KNUCKLE SLAB

406
LINK
ROLLER BAR

EXPANSION
BASE
520

EXPANSION BEARING

440

ROCKER
LIFTING HOLES
40 DIA
406

680

FIXED BEARING

FIG. 2.24 Roller and rocker bearing

38
 ELASTOMER

STEEL REINFORCING
PLATES

Fig. 2.25 Elastomeric laminated bearing

STAINLESS STEEL PTFE

PLATE

Fig. 2.26 PTFE bearing

39
 Bearings should be inspected for the following:

1. The rockers, pins and rollers should be free of corrosion

and debris. Excessive corrosion may cause the bearing
to “freeze” or lock and become incapable of movement.
When movement of expansion bearings is inhibited,
temperature forces can reach enormous values. The
superstructure will be subjected to higher longitudinal
forces.

2. Oiling and greasing of plain bearings is required to be

done once in 3 years to ensure their proper functioning.

3. In those cases where phosphur bronze sliding bearings

are used, only periodical cleaning of the area surrounding
the bearing is required.

4. Many times a uniform contact between the bottom face

of the bed plate and top surface of the bed block is not
ensured resulting in gap at certain locations. This leads
to transfer of excessive impact forces to the bed block
under live load. This may lead to cracking and crushing
of bed block and masonry underneath.

5. Excessive longitudinal movements of the superstructure

result in shearing of location strips as well as anchor
bolts connecting the base plates.

6. The tilt of segmental rollers should be measured with

respect to reference line and the temperature at the time
of measurement should also be noted.

7. In case of roller bearings with oil baths, dust covers

should invariably be provided to keep the oil free from dirt.

2.6.1 Elastomeric bearings

A note on elastomeric bearings giving details of materials

used and their properties is placed at Annexure B.

40
 Elastomeric bearings are made of natural or synthetic rubber
of specified hardness and other physical and chemical properties
and are generally reinforced with steel plates in alternate layers.
When placed beneath a steel or concrete girder it permits
moderate longitudinal movements and small rotations at the
ends. The steel plates introduced between the pads of elastomer
reduce bulging.

The greatest problem encountered with elastomeric bearings

pertains to the material which does not conform to the
specifications. They exhibit defects like cracking, splitting,
bulging or tearing. The first sign of distress in elastomeric
bearings is the onset of horizontal cracks near the junction of
rubber pad and steel laminate. The bearings should also be
examined for excessive rotation which is usually indicated by
excessive difference in thickness between the back and the front
of the bearing.

Elastomeric bearings may require replacement every fifteen

or twenty years. For this purpose, the girder (steel, R.C.C. or
P.S.C.) will have to be lifted up at predesigned and
predetermined locations.

2.6.2 P.T.F.E. (Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene) bearings

A note on P.T.F.E. bearing giving details of materials used,

their properties and specifications is placed as Annexure C.

To preserve a durable and uniform sliding surface between

the stainless steel plate and P.T.F.E. elements, dirt should be
kept away from the interface. Otherwise, the bearing will not
function and this may lead to excessive frictional forces
transferred to the substructure. Lubricating the mating surface by
silicone grease reduces the coefficient of friction.

Note : For more detail read IRICEN publication on

"Bearings".
2.7 Inspection of steel bridges
Steel bridges can be classified into the following groups:

41
 1. RSJ/Plate girder bridges
2. Open Web girder bridges
3. Composite bridges
The following aspects should be noted while inspecting steel
girder bridges.

2.7.1 Loss of camber

Plate girders of spans above 35 metres and open web

girders are provided with camber during fabrication or erection.
Camber is provided in the girder to compensate for deflection
under load. Camber should be retained during the service life of
the girder if there is no distress. It is checked by using dumpy
level or precision level on all intermediate panel points. Original
camber of a girder is indicated in the stress sheet. Camber
observations are required to be taken at the same ambient
temperature as adopted for the original camber mentioned in the
stress sheet. The camber as observed during annual inspection
is compared with the designed camber. If one observes a loss
of camber, then the bridge girder should be thoroughly inspected
to identify the cause. This may be on account of:

1. Heavy overstressing of girder members

2. Overstressing of joint rivets at a splice in a plate girder

or at the gusset in case of open web girder

3. Play between rivet holes and rivet shanks.

2.7.2 Distortion

The girder members which are likely to show signs of

distortion are:

1. Top chord members (on account of insufficient restraint

by bracings)
2. Tension members made up of flats (because of
mishandling during erection)

42
 3. Diagonal web members
4. Top flanges of plate girders
Distortion is also possible when longitudinal movement of
girders because of temperature variation is restrained by badly
maintained bearings. The distortion can be checked by piano
wire by taking reading at every panel point.

2.7.3 Loose rivets

Rivets which are driven at site and rivets which are subjected
to heavy vibrations are prone to get loose. Corrosion around
rivets also causes their loosening. To test whether a rivet is
loose, left hand index finger is placed on one side of the rivet
head as shown in Fig. 2.27 so that your finger touches both the
plate and the rivet head. Then hit the other side of the rivet head
firmly with a light hammer weighing 110 gm. If the rivet is loose,
movement of the rivet will be felt by the left hand index finger.
The loose rivets are marked with white paint and entered in loose
rivet diagram and programmed for replacement.

Fig. 2.27 Testing rivet for looseness

43
 Critical areas for loose rivets are:
1. Top flange of plate girders
2. Connection between rail bearer and cross girders in
open web girders
3. Connection between cross girders and bottom/top
boom in open web girders
4. Gussets at panel points of open web girders.
2.7.4 Corrosion
Steel structures are sensitive to the atmospheric conditions
and splashing of salt water. It is one of the major factors
causing considerable corrosion to steel work. Corrosion eats up
the steel section and reduces its structural capacity, which if not
rectified in time, will lead to necessity of replacing the girder. At
certain locations in a steel structure, moisture is likely to be
retained for a long time; these places are prone to severe
corrosion.
These locations can be
1. Where the steel is coming in contact with wood
2. Water pockets formed on account of constructional
features.
3. Places where dust accumulates.
It is the presence of moisture which aggravates corrosion.
Therefore, proper drainage on structures such as troughed decks
or boxes formed at panel points of through girders or concrete
decks must be ensured. On girders provided with steel trough/
concrete decks and ballasted track, deep screening of ballast is
rarely carried out. This results in blocking of drainage holes and
impounding of water. Further, such situation leads to seepage of
water through troughs and concrete decks, finally resulting in
corrosion of top flange and reinforcement.
Special attention should be paid to the following locations:
1. Sleeper seats
2. Top laterals of through girders

44
 3. Inside fabricated boxes of bottom booms
4. Area in the vicinity of bearings
5. Trough of ballasted decks
6. Underside of road over bridges
7. Seating of wooden floors on FOBs
8. Interface between steel and concrete in composite
girder
9. Parts of bridge girders exposed to sea breeze and salt
water spray.

It is important to assess the magnitude of corrosion and

consequent loss of effective structural section and also identify
the cause of corrosion. Members and connections subject to
high stress fluctuations and stress reversals in service are the
most common suspect in respect of corrosion.

2.7.5 Fatigue cracks

Fatigue is the tendency of the metal to fail at a lower stress

when subjected to cyclic loading than when subjected to static
loading. Fatigue is becoming important because of the growing
volume of traffic, greater speed and higher axle load.

Cracking because of repeated stresses is one of the major

causes of potential failures in steel structures. Cracking in an
angle diagonal of the truss usually starts from a rivet or bolt
nearest to the edge of the member. The crack then progresses
to the edge of the leg and continues through the other leg to
complete the failure. Fatigue cracking is found usually where the
local stress is high such as at connections or at changes in
geometry. One should look for such fatigue cracks where the
intensity of traffic is heavy and the steel is old.

2.7.6 Early steel girders

There are a number of steel girders on Indian Railways

fabricated before 1895. During those early times, the steel

45
manufacturing technology was not fully developed and steel
manufactured in those times contained excessive phosphorous.
Concepts of quality control were apparently vague and steel used
in the different parts of even the same bridge was found to have
varying content of phosphorous. Higher phosphorous content
makes the steel brittle and such girders can collapse suddenly
because of brittle fracture.

Therefore, it is necessary to conduct detailed examination of

such steel girders at an increased frequency with a careful and
critical eye. It is also necessary to ascertain the chemical
composition of steel.

Even steel which was manufactured between 1895 and 1905

should be treated as ‘suspect’ and inspected at an increased
frequency.

2.8 Inspection of concrete girders

The factors causing deterioration in concrete can be listed

as below:

1. Poor design details

2. Construction deficiencies like inadequate cover,
improper compaction and curing etc.
3. Temperature variation between one side and another
and between the inside and outside of a box girder.
4. Chemical attack
5. Reactive aggregate and high alkali cement
6. Moisture absorption
7. Damage caused by collision
8. Overstress
9. Corrosion of reinforcing bars
10. Movement in foundation.

46
 The following defects can be noticed in concrete girders.
2.8.1 Cracking
Location of cracks, their nature and width can be used to
diagnose the cause. Minor hair cracks showing map pattern
generally occur because of shrinkage of concrete and hence not
of much structural significance.
Transverse cracks at the bottom of RCC beams can
normally occur and if such cracks are very thin and spaced
some distance apart, they do not have much significance.
(Fig. 2.28). However, if the transverse cracks are wide and show
a tendency to open out during passage of live load they are
serious; and proper analysis and testing should be conducted to
assess the strength of the beams.
Diagonal cracks in the web near the support (Fig. 2.28)
indicate excessive shear stress and are of serious nature.
Cracks which occur near the bearings may be on account of
seizure of bearings or improper seating of bearings.

CRACKING
DIAGONAL
CHECK FOR
AT BEAM ENDS

VERTICAL
STIRRUP

TENSION
MAIN
STEEL

CHECK FOR
SPALLING CONCRETE

CHECK FOR FLEXURE

OF CONCRETE AROUND STEEL
CRACKS AND DISINTEGRATION

Fig. 2.28 Cracks in concrete girders

47
 Longitudinal cracks at soffit of slabs or beams running along
reinforcement bars indicate corrosion of reinforcement. These
are mainly because of honeycombing in concrete and inadequate
cover which lead to ingress of moisture and early corrosion of
reinforcement. The corroded metal has more volume as
compared to the original reinforcement. Bursting
forces exerted by expanding reinforcement ultimately leads
to cracking and spalling of concrete around the reinforcement,
specially towards the cover side of concrete (Fig. 2.29).

CORROSION OF
REINFORCEMENT

CRACKS WHICH FINALLY

LEAD TO SPALLING

CROSS SECTION

CRACKS RUNNING
ALONG REINFORCEMENT

PLAN OF SOFFIT

Fig. 2.29 Cracks due to corrosion of steel reinforcement

2.8.2 Delamination
Delamination is separation along a plane parallel to the
surface of the concrete. These can be caused by corrosion of
reinforcement, inadequate cover over reinforcing steel and fire.
Besides visual inspection, tests for measuring cover and

48
electrical potential should be carried out if delamination is
significant. Bridge decks and corners of girders are particularly
susceptible to delamination.

2.8.3 Scaling
It is the gradual and continuing loss of mortar and aggregate
over an area. Scaling may be light, medium, heavy or severe
depending upon the depth and exposure of aggregate. Scaling is
usually observed where repeated freeze and thaw action on
concrete takes place or when the concrete surface is subjected
to cycles of wetting and drying or due to concentrated solution of
chloride de-icers. Location, area and character of scaling should
be recorded.

2.8.4 Spalling
Once the cracks are noticed, proper remedial measures
should be taken, else it may lead to spalling. Spalling generally
occurs with the transfer of excessive dynamic forces (in the
vicinity of bearings) or with uninhibited corrosion of reinforcement.
Tendency to spall can be identified by tapping the area with a
small chipping hammer when hollow sound is heard. Spalling
causes reduction in cross sectional area of concrete and also
exposure of the reinforcing bars or prestressing tendons.

Spalling may also occur wherever there is honeycombing or

bad compaction or bad quality of concrete.

2.8.5 Reinforcement corrosion

This defect is traceable to improper concreting as also

improper storing of reinforcement before placing in the girder.
Improper drainage of deck slab could also lead to corrosion.
Prestressing wires also fail because of stress corrosion in
addition to the corrosion induced by environmental conditions.
The corrosion of reinforcement generally leads to cracking or
spalling of concrete. Corrosion is indicated by staining of
concrete (deep brown or red colour).

49
 The reinforcement corrosion problem basically arises from
seepage of water through concrete decks. Reason for this is
again improper drainage arrangements during construction and
mucked up ballast on concrete decks.

Fig. 2.30 shows cross-section of concrete deck. It shows a

wearing coat of adequate thickness with necessary slopes over
parent concrete. It is essential to provide wearing coat as at this
surface ballast is going to abrade with concrete. Non-placement
of wearing coat will lead to wear of concrete surface and
formation of depressions which will hold water and start seepage.
Once this situation develops, it is very difficult to correct.
Fig. 2.31 show formation of depressions due to absence of
wearing coat.

2.8.6 Cracking in prestressed concrete structures

Cracking occurs in the vicinity of anchorages on account of

bursting and spalling forces. At midspan, the cracking in the
tensile face may be on account of higher super imposed loads.
Cracks can appear in the compressive face because of higher
initial prestressing force but such cracks close up under the
passage of trains.

Cracking in PSC girders occurs in many cases because of

construction sequence e.g. the ‘I’ girders are precast and the
transverse RCC slab and diaphragms are cast in place after
erection of the girders. This sequence leads to cracks at the
interface of RCC slab and top of precast ‘I’ girder and interface of
diaphragms and webs of ‘I’ girder (Fig. 2.32). These cracks
basically occur on account of differential shrinkage between the
concrete of pre-cast element and cast-in-place element.
Obviously these cracks can not be avoided and should not be
viewed as serious cracks at the first instance. They must be
kept under observation along with the camber of the girder.

Any loss of camber may indicate serious problem at the

interface at the junction of ‘I’ girder and slab.

50
 WEARING COAT

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE SECTION

Fig. 2.30 Detailing of concrete deck

Fig. 2.31 Formation of depressions due to

absence of wearing coat

CRACKS CAST IN PLACE

RCC SLAB

CRACKS PRECAST GIRDERS

CAST IN PLACE DIAPHRAGM

Fig. 2.32 Cracks at interface of precast and cast in place

concrete elements

51
2.8.7 Loss of camber

Indian Railways Bridge Manual (IRBM), 1998 vide Para

1107.15 prescribes yearly recording of camber at centre of span.
However, recording of camber at every quarter point of the
effective span including bearing centres would be desirable. The
camber of prestressed concrete girders should be recorded and
compared with the previous values. Temperature has great
influence on the deflection. Therefore, temperature of girder
should be recorded and the deflection should be meassured
around the same temperature at which it was originally done. For
camber measurement, method as given in IRBM at Annexure 11/
4 or any other suitable method may be adopted. Permanent
marks on the surface of the girder must be fixed where camber
should be measured every time.

Loss of camber may be caused by:

1. Settlement
2. Overloading
3. Deterioration of concrete
4. Stress corrosion of reinforcement
5. Loss of prestress
Progressive loss of camber is an important indication of
deterioration in the condition of bridge and, therefore, should be
thoroughly investigated.

52
2.8.8 Locations to be specially looked for defects

Table 2.1 given below lists out the salient defects, which
should be specially looked for during gereral/routine inspection of
various elements of concrete bridge superstructure.

Table 2.1 Locations to be specially looked for defects

Locations Look for

All over General condition of the structure and
prestressed components in particular
Condition of concrete
Corrosion signs
Scaling of concrete
Spalling of concrete
Efflorescence
Condition of construction joints
Anchorage Zone Cracks
(at deck slab) Rusting
Condition of cable end sealing
Top and bottom Cracks
of deck slab Delamination
Blocking of drainage
Worn out wearing coat (once in 5 years)
Damage by abrasive action of ballast
(once in 5 years)
Seepage
Corrosion signs
Leaching
Scaling
Damage due to accident or any other
causes
Support point Whether the seating of girder over
of bearings bearing is uniform
Condition of anchor bolts, if any
Spalling/crushing/cracking around bearing
support

53
Top and bottom Spalling/scaling
flange of l-girder Rust streak along reinforcements/cable
Cracks

Bottom slab in Cracks

box girder Spalling/scaling
Corrosion signs
Drainage

Webs Cracks
Corrosion signs
Diaphragms Cracks at junction
Diagonal cracks at corners
Diagonal/vertical cracks around opening
Conditions of diaphragm opening

Junction of slab Separation

and girder in case
of girders

Drainage spouts Clogging

Physical condition
Adequacy of projection of spout on the
underside

Joints in Cracks
segmental Physical appearance
construction Corrosion signs
Expansion Check whether the expansion joint is
free to expand and contract
Condition of sealing material
i) Hardening/cracking in case of bitumen
filler
ii) Splitting, oxidation, creep, flattening
and bulging in case of elastomeric
sealing material

54
2.9 Track on girder bridges

2.9.1 Approaches

Generally track on approaches of girder bridges has a

tendency to settle down with respect to the level of track on the
bridge proper. It is preferable to continue the same level of the
bridge on the approaches for some distance. The track on the
approaches should be in correct alignment with the track on the
bridge. The gauge, cross level and packing under the sleepers
should be checked. Rail joints should be avoided within
3 metres of a bridge abutment. The condition of the ballast wall
should be checked and repairs carried out wherever necessary.
Full ballast section should be maintained for atleast upto 50
metres on the approaches. This portion of the track should be
well anchored.

2.9.2 Track on bridge proper

It should be ascertained whether the track is central on the

rail bearers and the main girders. It should also be checked
whether the track is in good line and level. Departure from line
is caused by
1. Incorrect seating of girders
2. Shifting of girders laterally or longitudinally
3. Incorrect seating of bridge timbers on girders
4. Varying gauge or creep

Departure from level is caused by errors in level of bed

blocks or careless timbering. The adequacy of clearances of
running rails over ballast walls or ballast girders at the abutments
should be checked.

The condition of timbers and fastenings should be checked.

The spacing and depth of timbers should be as per Table 2.2
given on the next page.

55
 Table 2.2 Spacing and depth of timbers

Gauge Max. clear Min. depth Length of sleepers

distance exclusive of
(mm) notching (mm)
BG 460 150 Outside to outside of
girder flanges plus
305 mm, but not less
than 2440 mm
MG 305 150 Outside to outside of
girder flanges plus
305 mm, but not less
than 1675 mm

At fishplated joints the clear spacing should not exceed

200 mm. Squareness of timbers must be ensured. Bridge timbers
requiring renewals should be marked with paint and renewals
carried out. To prevent splitting of the ends of the timbers, end
binding or end bolting must be done. End binding is done using
6 mm MS bars at 75 mm inside the end of the timber. End bolts
should be provided on timbers which have developed end splits. It
is necessary to use 75x75x6 mm plain washers if end bolts are
used.
There are two types of hook bolts. Sloping lip hook bolts
are used for rolled sections and straight lipped for built-up girders
with flange plates. Hook bolts should be checked for their firm
grip. Position of arrows on top of the hook bolts should be at
right angles to the rails pointing towards the rail. Hook bolts
should be oiled periodically to prevent rusting. To prevent
displacement and bunching of bridge timber during the dragging
of derailed wheels over the girder bridges, an angle tie bar using
ISA 75x50x8 mm may be provided on top of sleeper. The angle
tie bar shall be fixed using the existing hook bolts.
Creep should be checked and rails pulled back wherever
necessary. Rail-free fastenings should be used on all unballasted
deck bridges to avoid transfer of longitudinal forces to the bridge.
Rail fastenings should be tight. Preferable position of rail joints
on bridge is at one third span; where this is not possible, they
should be located as far away from ends and center of the girder

56
as possible so as to reduce the bending moment and shear
force. Defective rails should be replaced. Where switch
expansion joints are provided, it should be ensured that free
movement of the switch is not hindered.

Guard rails should be provided on all girder bridges which do

not have ballasted deck. On all flat top, arch and prestressed
concrete girder bridges with deck slab, where guard rails are not
provided, the whole width of the bridge between the parapet walls
shall be filled with ballast upto the sleeper level.

Top table of guard rails should not be lower than that of the
running rail by more than 25 mm. At the extremities of the guard
rail outside the bridge, the guard rails should converge and the
end should be bent vertically and buried; and a block of timber
fixed at the end to prevent entanglement of hanging loose
couplings.

To ensure that guard rails are effective, and that bridge

timbers do not get bunched up with dragging of derailed wheels
over the bridge, they should be spiked down systematically to
every sleeper with two spikes towards the center of the track and
one spike on the out side; notching of the rail foot to
accommodate the spikes (fixing the guard rails) should be done
on every alternate sleeper. (Fig. 2.33).

TWO SPIKES
IN NOTCH RAIL
GUARD
TOWARDS
CENTRE OF
TRACK AND
ONE ON
OUT SIDE
SLEEPER
CENTRE LINE
OF TRACK

Fig. 2.33 Fixing of guard rail

57
 CHAPTER 3

UNDER WATER INSPECTION OF BRIDGES

3.1 Introduction

Some bridges have foundation and substructure located in

water. It is essential that the entire bridge is inspected at a
specified interval to ensure safety of bridge. The underwater
inspection of bridges is becoming important activity for inspection
and maintenance of bridge substructures and foundations. The
Indian Railway Bridge Manual (IRBM) specifically provides for
under water inspection of all bridges where substructure and
foundations are perennially under water.

Underwater inspection is a specialized operation and very

expensive and therefore, it necessitates careful consideration of
bridges to be selected for inspection.

3.2 Bridge selection criteria

There are many factors, which influence bridge selection

criteria. As a minimum, structures must receive routine
underwater inspection at intervals not exceeding 5 years. This is
the maximum interval at which all under-water elements of a
bridge, even if they are in sound condition, must be inspected.
More frequent inspections may be necessary for critical
structures. Inspection frequency may have to be increased for
those bridges where deterioration has been noticed during
previous inspections.

58
 Inspection frequency and level of inspection depends on
following factors:
- Age
- Type of construction material
- Configuration of the substructure
- Adjacent water features such as dams, dikes or marines
- Susceptibility of stream bed materials to scour
- Maintenance history
- Saltwater environment
- Waterway pollution
- Damage due to water-borne traffic, debris etc.
3.3 Frequency of inspection
Underwater inspection must be carried out on every bridge
identified for such underwater inspection as per Indian Railways
Bridge Manual provisions. It must also be carried out after any
collision with the bridge substructure or after a major storm so
that physical evidence is inspected and recorded.
3.4 Methods of underwater inspection
There are three general methods for performing underwater
inspection of bridge elements.
1. Wading inspection
2. Scuba diving
3. Surface supplied air diving
3.4.1 Wading inspection

Wading inspection is the basic method of underwater

inspection, used on structures over wadable streams. A wading
inspection can often be performed by regular bridge inspection
teams. A probing rod, sounding rod or line, waders, and
possibly a boat can be used for evaluation of a substructure unit.

During wading inspection, one should preferably wear hip

boots and chest waders. Boots and waders provide protection
from cold and pollutants as well as from underwater objects. In

59
deeper water, wearing of a personal floating device (PFD) may be
desirable during wading activities. As a rule of thumb, one
should not attempt to wade a stream in which product of depth
multiplied by velocity exceeds 3 m 2/sec.

3.4.2 Scuba diving

The acronym “Scuba” stands for Self Contained Underwater

Breathing Apparatus. In scuba diving, the diver is provided with
portable air supply through an oxygen tank, which is strapped to
the diver’s back (Fig. 3.1). The diver is connected through an
umbilical cable with the surface and has sufficient freedom of
movement.

Fig 3.1 Oxygen tank strapped to Scuba diver’s back

Equipments

The minimum equipments required are open circuit scuba,

life preserver, weight belt, knife, face mask and swim fins.

60
Operational considerations
This method is specially suited for making inspection when
mobility is prime consideration or many dives of short duration
are required. Generally, the maximum sustained time and
working depth in scuba diving is one hour at 18 m depth.
However, an expert diver can go up to 36 m for short duration of
about 10 minutes. One tank holds about 2 m 3 air supplies. As
the water depth or the level of exertion increases, the “bottom
time” decreases.
Diving team should have at least 3 men because one partner
and one stand by diver are required. Moderate to good visibility
is necessary for inspection. The areas of coral or jagged rock
should be avoided.
Advantages
- Most suitable for short duration dives and shallow depths
- Low-effort dives
- Allows increased diver mobility
- Best in low velocity currents
- Not always necessary to have boat
- Lower operating cost.
Disadvantages
- Depth limitation
- Limited air supply
- Lack of voice communication with surface

Scuba diving with mixed gas

Scuba diving with mixed gas is used for the same situations
as normal Scuba diving, but it has the advantage of extending
the diving time for a great deal. The disadvantage is that it needs
more preparation and equipment than Scuba diving on air.

Scuba with full-face mask and communication

With Scuba diving with a full-face mask it is possible to use
communication. This can be wired or wireless communication.
This has many advantages. During all kinds of dive work such as
inspections, the diver can report directly to the surface and the

61
surface engineer can guide or give instructions to the diver.
Another advantage is the safety. The full-face mask gives
protection against cold or contaminated water. This equipment is,
for example, used for thickness measurements of a pipeline or a
ship’s hull. The diver reports his findings immediately to the
supervisor.

3.4.3 Surface supplied air diving

Surface supplied air diving uses a body suit, a hard helmet

covering the head and a surface supplied air system
(Fig. 3.2). Air is supplied to the diver through umbilical hoses
connected to the surface air compressor tank. It requires
more equipment than the Scuba diving. In addition to the
air hose, a communication cable, a lifeline and a pneumatic
fathometer are usually attached to the diver.

Fig. 3.2 Surface supplied air diving

62
Equipments

Minimum equipments required are diver’s mask or Jack

Brown mask, wet/dry suit, weight belts, knife, swim fins or shoes
and surface umbilical.

Operational consideration

Surface supplied air diving is well suited for waterway

inspection with adverse conditions, such as high stream flow
velocity up to a maximum of 4 m/s, polluted water and long
duration requirements. The general working limits with Jack
Brown mask are 60 minutes at about 18 m depth and up to 30
minutes at a depth of 27 m. The work limit for Kirby Morgan
mask MK1 without come home bottle is 60 minutes at 18 m;
the maximum for MK1 without open bell is 10 minutes at 40 m,
and with open bell 60 minutes at 58 m depth.

Advantages

- Long dives or deep water diving (more than 36 m)

- Unlimited air supply
- Back up system available
- Better for low water temperature and high-effort dives
- Safe line attachment to surface
- Better for high velocity currents
- Better in polluted and turbid water.
- Does not require partner diver
- Allows direct communication for audio and video
- Topside depth monitoring is simplified.

Disadvantages

- Large size of operation

- Large boat is necessary

63
 - Large number of equipments, e.g. air compressors, hoses
and lines, wet/dry suits etc.

Surface supplied air diving with mixed gas

The use of the surface supplied equipment is same as

above. There are advantages using mixed gas. Nitrox will extend
dive time in shallow water and Trimix or Heliox will make it
possible to dive deeper than 50 meters. However, this service
requires extra preparation and more equipment and personnel.

3.5 Method selection criteria

A number of factors influence the proper underwater

inspection method. Depth of water alone should not be the sole
criteria for determining whether a bridge can be inspected by
wading or it requires the use of diving equipment. Some of the
factors are:

- Water depth
- Current velocity
- Underwater visibility
- Substructure configuration
- Stream bed condition
- Debris

Where detailed inspections are required to be carried out,

surface supplied air diving is more suited as it provides longer
time for detailed investigations. Since, in this method,
communication is available with the diver, it is possible for an
on site engineer to give direction to the diver.

3.6 Diving inspection intensity levels

Three diving inspection intensity levels have evolved. The

resources and preparation needed to do the work distinguish the
level of inspection. Also the level of inspection determines the

64
type of damage/defect that is detectable. The three levels of
inspections are:
Level I : Visual, tactile inspection
Level II : Detailed inspection with partial cleaning
Level III : Highly detailed inspection with non-destructive
testing

3.6.1 Level I

Level I is a general visual inspection. The Level I effort can

confirm as-built structural plans and detect obvious major
damage or deterioration due to over stress, severe corrosion,
decay of material due to age, removal of bed sediments,
biological growth and attack and external damage etc. This type
of inspection does not involve cleaning of any structural element
and can, therefore, be conducted much more rapidly than other
types of inspections.

Although Level I inspection is referred as a “Swim-by”

inspection, it must be detailed enough to detect obvious major
damage or deterioration. A Level I inspection is normally
conducted over the total (100%) exterior surface of the
underwater structure, involving a visual and tactile inspection with
limited probing of the substructure and adjacent streambed. The
results of the Level I inspection can indicate the need for Level II
and Level III inspections and aid in determining the extent and
selecting the location of more detailed inspections.

3.6.2 Level II

Level II inspection is a detailed visual inspection where

detailed investigations of selected components or sub
components or critical areas of structure, directed towards
detecting and describing damaged or deteriorated areas that may
be hidden by surface fouling, are carried out. This type of
inspection will generally involve prior or concurrent cleaning of
part of the structural element. Since cleaning is time consuming,
it is generally restricted to areas that are critical or which may

65
be typical of the entire structure. The amount and thoroughness
of cleaning to be performed are governed by what is necessary
to determine the general condition of the overall structure.

A Level II inspection is typically performed on at least 20%

of all underwater elements, which should include areas near the
low water line, near the mud line, and midway between the low
water line and mud line.

On pile structure, 25 cm high bands should be cleaned at

designated locations:
- Rectangular Piles - cleaning should include at least
3 sides
- Octagonal Piles - at least 6 sides.
- Round Piles - at least three fourth of the perimeter

On large faced elements, such as piers and abutments,

30 cm by 30 cm area should be cleaned at 3 levels on each face
of the structure. Deficient areas should be measured using
simple instruments such as callipers and measuring scale and
extent and severity of the damage documented.

3.6.3 Level III

This level of inspection is primarily designed to provide data

that can be used to perform structural assessment. A Level III
inspection is a highly detailed inspection of a critical structure or
structural element or a member where extensive repair or
possible replacement is contemplated. This level of inspection
includes extensive cleaning, detailed measurements and selected
non-destructive and partially destructive testing techniques such
as ultrasonic, sample coring or boring and in-situ hardness
testing. Level III inspection will require considerably more
experience and training than Level I or Level II inspections and
should be accompanied by qualified engineering or testing
personnel.

66
3.7 Inspection tools

A number of inspection tools are available. The dive team

should have access to the appropriate tools and equipments as
warranted by the type of inspection being conducted. Inspection
tools and equipments include:

i) Hand held tools such as flash lights, rulers and tape

measures for documenting areas; small or large hammers or pick
axes for performing soundings of the structural members;
callipers and scales for determining thickness of steel flanges,
webs and plates or diameters of piling; and chipping tools for
prodding the surface of the concrete to determine the depth of
deterioration.

ii) Mechanical devices including a Schmidt Test Hammer

for measuring concrete surface hardness, and rotary coring
equipment for taking core samples from concrete structures.

iii) Electrical equipment such as Rebar Scanner for

scanning of rebars; underwater sonic and ultrasonic equipment
for detecting voids in concrete and thickness measurement of
steel; Underwater Magnetic Particle Testing to locate and define
surface discontinuities in magnetic materials.

3.8 Underwater photography and video equipments

Still photographs and video records facilitate in-depth

documentation of underwater inspection. Video systems can
provide pictorial representation of existing conditions, transmit
visual data to topside personnel for analysis and interpretation,
and provide a permanent record of the inspection process. The
photography system used in underwater inspection includes still-
photography equipment, video recording system, video imaging
system and other accessories

3.9 Documentation

Because of efforts in conducting underwater inspections,

combined with the time between inspections, it is particularly

67
important to carefully document the findings. On-site recording
of all conditions is essential.

Sketches

It is recommended that sketches be used as much as

possible; providing enough detail is critical since it is difficult to
go back to check items once diving is completed. Drawings
should be prepared for the following:
- Elevation showing dimensions and scour, cracks, unstable
conditions, etc.
- Sections showing degree of scour, spalling etc at different
locations.
- Plans showing inspection areas, inspected sections.
- Sketches showing details of various damages to the
structure.

Logs

In addition to sketches, a written log is often kept describing

the inspection.

Tape recordings

When significant damage is encountered, a tape recording of

the diver’s observations can also prove helpful.

Underwater Photographs and Videotapes

When appropriate, damaged areas should be documented

with still photography and closed circuit television. Still
photography provides the necessary high definition required for
detailed analysis, while video, though having a less sharp image,
provides a continuous view of events that can be monitored by
surface engineers and recorded for later study. All photographs
should be numbered, dated and labelled with a brief description
of the subject. A slate or other designation indicating the subject
should appear in the photograph. When colour photography is

68
used, a colour chart should be attached to the slate to indicate
colour distortions. Videotapes should be provided with a title and
lead-in, describing what is on the tape.

3.10 Reporting

For each inspection, a report is prepared. The report should

include an evaluation of the assessed conditions and
recommendations for further action. The report should also
provide sufficient technical detail to support the assessment and
recommendations.
The report should include the following:
- Identification and description of all major damages and
deterioration in the structure, element-wise.
- Estimate of the extent of minor damage and deterioration.
- Assessment of the general physical condition.
- Cause of damage/deterioration if known.
- Water depths at each structural element.
- Recommendations for types of maintenance and repairs
required.
- Recommendations for types and frequencies of future
underwater inspections.
- Water visibility, tidal range, water current and any other
pertinent environmental conditions.

Note:

1. Guidelines for underwater inspection of bridges was

issued by RDSO vide Report No. BS 40 ( 2001) “Guidelines for
Underwater Inspection of Bridges”.

2. IRICEN publication on “Underwater Inspection of

Bridges “, June 2005 may be refered for detailed procedure on
underwater inspection of bridges.

69
 CHAPTER 4

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING FOR BRIDGES

4.1 Introduction

The present method of bridge inspection is mostly visual

which enables subjective assessment of the condition of the
bridge. Moreover, visual inspection system is not capable of
assessing hidden defects, if any. For detailed and quantitative
assessment of the health of the bridge, non destructive tests
(NDT) should be used.

A variety of non destructive methods are available which can

be used for estimation of strength and other properties of bridge
structures. These methods can be used individually or in
combination to assess the various properties of structures.

4.2 NDT tests for concrete bridges

The various NDT methods for assessing the condition of

concrete bridges are given below. For detailed procedure of these
NDT tests, IRICEN publication on “ Non Destructive Testing of
Bridges” may be referred.

4.2.1 Rebound hammer (Schmidt Hammer)

This is a simple, handy tool, which can be used to provide a

convenient and rapid indication of the compressive strength of
concrete. It consists of a spring controlled mass that slides on

70
a plunger within a tubular housing. The schematic diagram
showing various parts of a rebound hammer is given as Fig.4.1.

1. Concrete surface; 2. Impact spring; 3. Rider on guide rod;

4. Window and scale; 5. Hammer guide; 6. Release catch;
7. Compressive spring; 8. Locking button; 9. Housing; 10. Hammer
mass; 11. Plunger

Fig. 4.1 Components of a Rebound Hammer

The test is based on the principle that the rebound of an

elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface against
which mass strikes. When the plunger of rebound hammer is
pressed against the surface of the concrete, the spring controlled
mass rebounds and the extent of such rebound depends upon
the surface hardness of concrete. The surface hardness and
therefore the rebound is related to the compressive strength of
the concrete. The rebound value is read off along a graduated
scale and is designated as the rebound number or rebound
index. The compressive strength can be read directly from the
graph provided on the body of the hammer.

4.2.2 Ultrasonic pulse velocity tester

Ultrasonic instrument is a handy, battery operated portable

instrument used for assessing elastic properties or concrete
quality. The apparatus for ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)

71
measurement consists of the following equipments (Fig. 4.2).
(a) Electrical pulse generator
(b) Transducer – one pair
(c) Amplifier
(d) Electronic timing device

Fig. 4.2 Ultrasonic pulse velocity equipment

The method is based on the principle that the velocity of an

ultrasonic pulse through any material depends upon the density,
modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of the material.
Comparatively higher velocity is obtained when concrete quality
is good in terms of density, uniformity, homogeneity etc. The
ultrasonic pulse is generated by an electro acoustical transducer.
When the pulse is induced into the concrete from a transducer,
it undergoes multiple reflections at the boundaries of the different
material phases within the concrete. A complex system of
stress waves is developed which includes longitudinal
(compression), shear (transverse) and surface (Reyleigh) waves.
The receiving transducer detects the onset of longitudinal waves,
which is the fastest.

For good quality concrete pulse velocity will be higher and

for poor quality it will be less. If there is a crack, void or flaw
inside the concrete, which comes in the way of transmission of
the pulses, the pulse strength is attenuated and it passed
around the discontinuity, thereby making the path length longer.

72
Consequently, lower velocities are obtained. The actual pulse
velocity obtained depends primarily upon the materials and mix
proportions of concrete. Density and modulus of elasticity of
aggregate also significantly affect the pulse velocity.
The quality of concrete in terms of uniformity, can be
assessed using the guidelines given in the Table 4.1 below.
Table 4.1 Criterion for concrete quality grading
(As per IS 13311(Part 1) : 1992)

Sr. Pulse velocity in Concrete quality

No. km/sec. grading
1 Above 4.5 Excellent
2 3.5 to 4.5 Good
3 3.0 to 3.5 Medium
4 Below 3.0 Doubtful

4.2.3 Pull-off test

Pull-off tester is microprocessor based, portable hand operated
mechanical unit used for measuring the tensile strength of in-situ
concrete. The tensile strength obtained can be correlated with the
compressive strength using previously established empirical
correlation charts. The apparatus for pull off test consists of 50 mm
diameter steel disk and a pull-off tester. One commercially available
pull-off tester is shown in Fig. 4.3 below.

Fig. 4.3 Pull-off tester

73
 The pull-off test is based on the concept that the tensile force
required to pull a metal disk, together with a layer of concrete, from
the surface to which it is attached, is related to compressive strength
of concrete. In this test, a steel disk is glued to the surface of the
concrete with the help of epoxy resin. A pulling force on the
metal disk through a bolt screwed axially to it, is applied and the
disk together with a layer of concrete is jacked off. From the recorded
tensile force a nominal pull-off tensile strength is calculated on the
basis of the disk diameter (usually 50 mm). To convert this pull-off
tensile strength into a cube compressive strength, a previously
established empirical correlation chart is used.
4.2.4 Pull-out test
The pull-out test measures the force required to pull an
embedded metal insert with an enlarged head, from a concrete
specimen or a structure. Fig 4.4 illustrates the configuration of a
pull-out test.

Fig. 4.4 Arrangement for Pull-out test

The test is considered superior to the rebound hammer and

the penetration resistance test, because large volume and
greater depth of concrete are involved in the test. The pull-out
strength is proportional to the compressive strength of concrete.
The pull-out strength is of the same order of magnitude as the
direct shear strength of concrete and is 10 to 30% of the
compressive strength. The pull-out test subjects the concrete to
slowly applied load and measures actual strength property of the
concrete.
74
4.2.5 Windsor probe
The Windsor Probe is basically a hardness tester and
provides an excellent means of determining the relative strength
of concrete in the same structure or relative strength in different
structures. This test is not expected to determine the absolute
values of strength of concrete in the structure.

This test estimates the strength of concrete from the depth

of penetration by metal rod driven into concrete by a specific
amount of energy generated by standard charge of powder. The
penetration is inversely proportional to the compressive strength
of concrete. In other words, larger the exposed length of the
probe, greater the compressive strength of concrete.

In this test, a probe of diameter 6.35 to 7.94 mm and length

of about 79.5 mm is used. Probe is threaded into the probe
driving head and fired into the concrete using a template.
Exposed length is correlated to the compressive strength of the
concrete.

This test can be used for testing compressive strength of

concrete and gives strength up to 75 mm below surface. The
local damage caused to the member may be repaired. There are
requirement of minimum edge distance, probe spacing and
member thickness. If the minimum recommended dimension is
not complied with, there can be danger of splitting of members.

4.2.6 Rebar locators

These are portable, battery operated equipments used for

measuring the depth of cover concrete; location and size of steel
reinforcement embedded in the concrete. The equipment
consists of data logger, diameter probe, depth probe and
calibration block. The equipment works on normal batteries and
thus does not require any electric connection. The equipment is
available with different commercial names i.e. Pachometer,
Profometer, Fe-Depth meter etc. The instrument is based upon
measurement of change of an electromagnetic field caused by
the steel embedded in the concrete. The reinforcement bar is

75
detected by magnetizing it and inducing a circular eddy current
through it. After the end of pulses the eddy current dies away,
creating a weaker magnetic field as an echo of the initial pulse.
This eddy current echo is measured which gives indication about
the depth of the bar, the size of bar and orientation of the bar.

Before conducting core cutting in reinforced concrete, this

test is required to be conducted to locate the position of rebars.
Proper access is essential for carrying out field measurement.
Cover to reinforcement can be measured up to 100 mm with an
accuracy of 15% and bar diameter with accuracy of 2 to 3 mm.

4.2.7 Covermeter

The equipment is similar to rebar locator and used for

locating reinforcement and estimation of its cover. It consists of a
highly permeable U-shape magnetic core on which two coils are
mounted. When an alternating current is passed through one of
these coils, the current induced in the other coil can be
measured.

The cover is measured by placing the probe over the surface

of the concrete and dial reading directly gives the cover to the
reinforcement depending upon the diameter of the bar.

For locating the reinforcement, the search head is moved

slowly from one end to another end in perpendicular direction to
main bars. The sound of buzzer/beep will be strongest when the
bar will come just above or below the probe, thus the location of
main bar is detected.

4.2.8 Half-Cell Potential measurement

This test is useful for monitoring corrosion in the

reinforcement. When there is active corrosion, current flow
through the concrete between anodic and cathodic sites is
accompanied by an electric potential field surrounding the
corroding bar. The equi-potential lines intersect the surface of the
concrete and the potential at any point can be measured using

76
the half cell potential method. Apparatus for half cell potential
measurement is shown in Fig. 4.5.

Fig. 4.5 Apparatus for Half-Cell Potential measurement

The apparatus includes copper-copper sulphate half-cell,

connecting wires and a high impedance voltmeter. This half-cell
is composed of a copper bar immersed in a saturated copper
sulphate solution. It is one of the many half cells that can be
used as a reference to measure the electrical potential of
embedded bars. A high impedance voltmeter (normally greater
than 10 M ) is used so that there is very little current through
the circuit. The copper-copper sulphate half-cell makes electrical
contact with the concrete by means of porous plug and a
sponge that is moistened with a wetting solution (such as liquid
detergent).

The half cell potential readings are indicative of the

probability of corrosion activity of the reinforcing bars located
beneath the copper-copper sulphate reference cell. However, this
is true only if that reinforcing steel is electrically connected to
the bar attached to the voltmeter.

77
4.2.9 Resistivity test

This instrument (Fig. 4.6) is used to measure the electrical

resistance of the cover concrete. This method indicates the
likelihood of corrosion of steel and the location where corrosion
is likely to occur. The resistivity test combined with Half Cell
potentiometer test gives more reliable results about the corrosion
condition of the rebar. This is based on the principle that the
corrosion of steel in concrete is an electro-chemical process,
which generates a flow of current and can dissolve metals. The
lower the electrical resistance, more readily the corrosion current
flows through the concrete and the greater is the possibility of
corrosion.

Fig . 4.6 Resistivity meter

The limits of possible corrosion are related with resistivity as

under –
With 12 K cm - Corrosion is improbable
With = 8 to 12 K cm - Corrosion is possible
With 8 K cm - Corrosion is fairly certain
Where, (rho) is resistivity
4.2.10 Test for carbonation of concrete

Carbonation of concrete in cover results in loss of protection

to the steel against corrosion. The depth of carbonation can be
measured by spraying the freshly fractured concrete surface with
a 0.2% solution of phenolphthalein in ethanol. Since
phenolphthalein is a pH indicator, the area with pink colour

78
presents uncarbonated concrete and the remaining (colourless)
portion, the carbonated area. The change in colour occurs at
around pH 10 of concrete.

The test must be applied only to freshly exposed surfaces,

because reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide starts
immediately. Relating carbonation depth to concrete cover is
one of the main indicators of corrosion.

4.2.11 Test for chloride content of concrete

The presence of chloride in the concrete is the contributory

factor towards corrosion of reinforcement.

Portable equipments are available in the market, which can

be used for rapid on site measurement of chloride content of
concrete. The chloride content of concrete can also be
determined by chemical analysis of concrete in the laboratory.

A rotary percussion drill is used to collect a pulverized

sample of concrete and a special acid extracts the chlorides.
The amount of acid soluble chloride is determined directly by a
chloride sensitive electrode connected to a electrometer.

If different samples are obtained from different concrete

depths, it can be established whether the chloride contamination
was there in the original concrete or the same has come from
the environment.

4.2.12 Acoustic Emission technique

This method can be used for detection of cracks in concrete

as well as steel structures. This method can be helpful in
determining the internal structure of the material and to know the
structural changes during the process of loading.

Acoustic emission is the sound (both audible and sub-

audible), that are generated when a meterial undergoes
irreversible changes, such as those due to craking. In general,
acoustic emissions are defined as the class phenomena whereby
transient elastic waves are generated by the rapid release of
energy from localised sources within a material. These waves

79
propagate through the material and their arrival at the surface can
be detected by the piezoelectric transducers.

Acoustic emission test may be carried out in the laboratory

or in the field. Basically one or more acoustic emission
transducers are attached to the specimen. The specimen is then
loaded slowly and the resulting acoustic emissions recorded for
further processing. The test is generally conducted in two ways.

1. When the specimens are loaded till failure to know

about structural changes during loading.

2. When the specimen are loaded to some predetermined

level to assess whether the material meets certain
design or fabrication criteria.

4.3 NDT tests for masonry bridges

The various NDT methods for assessing the condition of

masonry bridges are given below.

4.3.1 Flat Jack testing

This test is used to determine the compressive strength and

in-situ stress of the masonry.

A flat jack is a flexible steel enveloper thin enough to fit

within a masonry mortar joint. During testing, the flat jack is
hydraulically pressurized and applies stress to the surrounding
masonry. The pressure at which the original opening is restored
is adjusted by the flat jack calibration constant, which gives the
in situ masonry compressive strength.

For deformation testing, two flat jacks are inserted, one

directly above the other and separated by five or six courses.

4.3.2 Impact Echo testing

This is a sophisticated version of “sounding” a material which

indicates the internal condition of the masonry. The technique
involves a hammer striking a masonry surface, with a receiving
transducer located near the impact joint. The hammer and

80
receiver are connected to a computer that records the input
energy from the hammer and the reflected compression wave
energy from the receiver. The response, then can be interpreted
to detect flaws within masonry structure. Generally denser the
material, higher the wave velocity response.

This technique can be used for determining overall

soundness of the masonry.

4.3.3 Impulse Radar

Electro magnetic waves in the band 50 megahertz to 1.5

megahertz are induced into the material by means of a
transducer and read by an antenna receiver. In this technique,
the receiver reads signal reflected due change in materials, voids
or buried objects. Access to both sides of test materials is not
required. The method is a very useful tool to get information
about internal structure of a masonary structure.

4.3.4 Infrared Thermography

This is also known as heat imagery. The technique involved

is that an object having a temp. above absolute zero will radiate
electromagnetic waves. Wavelength fall within certain bands,
depending on temperature. Wavelengths at room temperature are
outside the visible spectrum, while those at very high
temperature are shorter and fall within the visible spectrum.
Camera or video equipments are used to photograph the surface
temperature of the object. The resulting video images indicate
surface temperature variations. In masonry construction, the
different wavelengths often indicate the presence of moisture.
The results indicate whether the masonry is dense/sound or
porous/deteriorated.

4.4 NDT tests for steel bridges

4.4.1 Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)

This method is used to detect surface flaws by bleed out of

a coloured or fluorescent dye from the flaw. The technique is

81
based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a clean surface
breaking flaw by capillary action. After a period of time called
the “dwell”, excess surface penentrant is removed and a
developer applied. This acts as a blotter and draws the
penetrant from the flaw, which indicates the presence and
location of the flaw.

The method can detect the cracks/flaws which are open to

the surface. Internal cracks/blow holes etc. cannot be detected
using this method. Sometimes the very narrow flaws/cracks
cannot be detected by visual inspection because of the less
size. But using liquid penetrant inspection, even these narrow
cracks can be detected. LPI produces a flaw indication that is
much larger and easier for the eye to detect. Secondly, the LPI
produces a flaw indication with a high level of contrast between
the indication and background which makes the detection easier.

4.4.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

Magnetic particle inspection is a NDT method used for

defect detection in steel structures. This is a fast and relatively
easy method to apply in field. MPI uses magnetic fields and
small magnetic particles such as iron fillings to detect flaws in
components. The component being inspected must be made of
a ferromagnetic particle such as iron, nickle, cobalt or some of
their alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be
magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to be
effective.

The method may be used effectively for inspection of steel

girders and other bridge parts made of steel.

4.4.3 Eddy current testing

This is one of the several NDT methods that use the

principal of electromagnetic as the basis for conducting the test.
Eddy currents are created through a process called
electromagnetic induction. When alternating current is applied to
the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in

82
and around the conductor. This magnetic field expands as the
alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the
current is reduced to zero. If another electrical conductor is
brought into the close proximity to this changing magnetic field,
current will be induced in this second conductor. Eddy current
induces electrical currents that flow in a circular path. They get
their names from “eddies” that are formed when a liquid or gas
flows in a circular path around obstacles.

Eddy current equipment can be used for a variety of

applications such as detection of cracks (discontinuity),
measurement of metal thickness, detection of metal thinning due
to corrosion and erosion, determination of coating thickness and
the measurement of electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability.

4.4.4 Radiographic testing

This is a technique to obtain a shadow image of a solid

using penetrating radiation such as X-rays or gamma rays.
These rays are used to produce a shadow image of an object on
film. Thus if X-ray or gamma ray source is placed on one side of
a specimen and a photographic film on the other side, an image
is obtained on the film which is in projection, with no details of
depth within the solid. Images recorded on the films are also
known as radiographs.

The contrast in a radiograph is due to different degrees of

absorption of X-rays in the specimen and depends on variations
in specimen thickness, different chemical constituents, non-
uniform densities, flaws, discontinuities or to scattering
processes within the specimen.

Some of the other closely related methods are Tomography,

Radioscopy, Xerography etc.

4.4.5 Ultrasonic test

This method can be used on almost any solid material that

will transmit vibrational sound energy. An ultrasonic transducer

83
changes high frequency pulsating voltage into vibrational energy
and when properly coupled to steel with cellulose gum or
glycerine, to eliminate air space, most of the sound energy is
conducted to the steel for testing.

When coupled to the steel, the transducer is pulsed with

high frequency voltage. The sound travels through the steel until
an acoustical junction is met, such as the back surface of the
steel. From there the sound reflects back to the transducer. The
transducer produces a voltage impulse, which is fed back to the
ultrasonic test scope where a signal is shown on the cathode
ray tube (CRT).

If the metal being inspected has a discontinuity within the

path of sound, it will act as an acoustical junction. If some of the
sound is reflected back to the transducer, a reflected voltage
pulse will appear on the CRT between the front and back surface
peaks.

Ultrasonic testing can be used to inspect base metal or

welds for inclusions, voids, cracks and laminations. Both surface
and sub-surface discontinuities can be detected. Their size,
location and orientation can be closely delineated. Access to
only side of the work is required.

This test can be used at bridge site for testing welded

girders.

84
 CHAPTER 5

NUMERICAL RATING SYSTEM

5.1. Introduction

On Indian Railways, bridges are required to be inspected

once a year before the monsoon at the inspector level and once
a year after the monsoon by Assistant Engineer as per the
provisions in Indian Railways Bridge Manual. The condition of
various parts of the bridge is recorded by the Assistant Engineer
in Bridge Inspection Register in a short narrative manner. The
extracts of AEN’s remarks concerning repairs/replacement are
required to be sent to the inspectors with instructions for
compliance. The register is thereafter forwarded to the DEN/
Sr.DEN and the Territorial HOD for scrutiny and orders. Action
taken on the instructions of the officers (AEN onwards) is also to
be recorded in the register.

The present system of recording is qualitative and it is not

possible to readily identify the relative seriousness of defects or
distress in the bridge components. It follows that the need for
the extent of repairs/rebuilding/rehabilitation is not readily
discernible. The number of bridges on the railways being very
large, it is difficult to have an overall picture of the condition of
the bridges. The Bridge Registers are returned to AEN after
scrutiny by the Territorial HOD and sometimes a number of
months elapse before the AEN gets back the register. The
accessibility of records is therefore extremely poor.

85
5.2. Relevance of numerical rating system (NRS)
NRS for bridges have been evolved in UK and USA over the
last few years. It is essentially a method of examination and
assessment which gives, by means of a simple figure code,
quick appreciation of the physical condition of the bridge. The
system provides a means of recording progressive deterioration.
It also provides a way of assessing relative importance of factors
which should be taken into account to establish priorities for
undertaking repairs/rehabilitation. The system further provides a
common yardstick for technical examination not only on one
division but on the railway system as a whole. In addition, the
system being numeric based, is adaptable to computerization
with all the relevant advantages following it.

5.3. Numerical rating system for Indian Railways

1. As per directions of the Railway Board based upon the

recommendations of the 66th Bridge Standards
Committee, 1990, NRS was introduced on the entire
Indian Railway system.

2. NRS is in addition to the existing system of recording in

the Bridge Inspection Register. The numerical rating is
not in any way linked to load carrying capacity of the
bridge.

3. The NRS envisages assigning a numerical rating to the

bridge as a whole as also to its components.

Numerical Rating System is explained in the following

paragraphs:

5.4. Condition rating number (CRN)

A condition rating number is assigned to each of the bridge

components i.e. foundation and flooring, sub-structure, training
and protection works, bed blocks, bearings and expansion
arrangements, superstructure and track structure.

Values of CRN and brief description of the corresponding

86
conditions are given in Table 5.1 below.
TABLE 5.1 Condition Rating Number (CRN)

CRN Description

1 A condition which warrants rebuilding/rehabilitation

Immediately.
2 A condition which requires rebuilding/rehabilitation
on a programmed basis.
3 A condition which requires major/special repairs
4 A condition which requires routine maintenance
5 Sound condition
6 Not applicable
0 Not inspected

Some typical cases for assigning CRNs are indicated in

Annexure D for guidance. However, each case has to be judged
and rating decided on its merits by the inspecting officer.

5.5 Overall rating number (ORN)

ORN for the bridge as a whole is also to be given which is

the lowest rating number, except zero, given to any of the bridge
components.

5.6 Major bridges

1. The physical condition of each major bridge is to be

represented by a Unique Rating Number (URN)
consisting of eight digits, where the first digit
represents the ORN and each of the subsequent digits
represents the CRN of the different bridge components
in the following sequence:
a) Foundation and flooring
b) Masonry/concrete in substructure
c) Training and protection works
d) Bed blocks

87
 e) Bearings and expansion arrangements
f) Superstructure – girder/arch/pipe/slab etc.
g) Track structure

2. CRN of a bridge component shall be the lowest rating

number applicable to the worst element of that
component. For example, if a bridge has 5 piers and 2
abutments which, on physical condition basis, would
require rating of 5,4,3,2,5,5,4, then the CRN to be
recorded for the substructure component shall be the
minimum of the above i.e. 2.

3. If in any bridge, one or more components (say, training

and protection works) do not exist, the CRN for this
component will be 6.

For example, URN 20362544 indicates the following:

Digit No. Value Indication

1 2 Whole bridge or one or more of its

(ORN) components require rebuilding/rehabilitation
on programmed basis.

2 0 Foundation and flooring were not inspected.

3 3 Substructure requires major/special repairs.

4 6 Not applicable i.e. the bridge does not have

any training or protection works.

5 2 Bed blocks are cracked and shaking

6 5 Bearings and expansion arrangements are in

sound condition.

7 4 Superstructure requires routine maintenance.

8 4 Track requires routine maintenance.

88
5.7 Minor bridges

Physical condition of minor bridge is to be represented by

only one digit ORN to indicate the overall condition of the bridge.
This is because in the bridge inspection registers for minor
bridges used by most of the Railways, separate columns are not
available for recording the condition of the various bridge
components.

5.8 Road over bridges

The physical condition of a road over bridge is to be

represented as for a rail bridge.

5.9 Recording in bridge inspection register

1. During the annual bridge inspection, the condition of

different components of the bridge should be recorded by
the AEN in the bridge inspection register, as hitherto
being done. In addition, the AEN should also record the
rating numbers in the relevant columns of the bridge
components. He should also record ORN and URN as
applicable.

2. Bridges, which are rated with CRN of 3 or less should be

specifically included among the bridges referred by AEN
to Sectional DEN/Sr.DEN as these are actually/
potentially distressed bridges. The Sectional DEN/Sr.DEN
should inspect all these bridges and revise/confirm the
rating given by the Sectional AEN. All the bridges which
are rated with ORN 1 or 2 should be placed in the
distressed category I and II respectively.

3. Bridge components which have CRN as 0 should be

inspected by AEN at the earliest so that the uninspected
components are inspected.

89
 CHAPTER – 6

MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES

6.1 Introduction

Bridges represent a considerable capital asset not only

because of the heavy investment required in constructing or
replacing them but also because some of them form part of the
historic and cultural heritage of a country. None of the bridges is
endowed with an eternal life span. Lack of maintenance generally
results in reduced life span and deterioration in the bridge
structure. The adage “Prevention is better than cure” and “A
stitch in time saves nine” are eminently true for bridges, where
defects can rapidly lead to serious consequences if action is not
taken in time. Demands made on bridges as also problems in
attending to them have increased over the years. Therefore, it is
essential to prolong the life of structures and rehabilitate them
wherever necessary and possible.

In the olden days, bridge substructures were constructed in

brick or stone masonry in lime mortar. Over the years the lime
mortar in the joints becomes weak and cracks develop in the
masonry. There are cases where there has been weathering
action on stones or bricks which were possibly not of a good
quality. The distress can also be on account of weakness in any
part of the structure i.e. foundations, substructure or
superstructure. It can also be because of inadequate waterway or
inadequate cushion.

90
6.2 Symptoms and remedial measures

Some of the common symptoms and remedial measures

thereof are listed below:

Nature of the Problem Remedial Measures

a) Foundation
i) Settlement:
Moderate - Packing under superstructure
Severe - Stabilize by piles around
foundation
- Do micro pilling or root piling
or rebuild
ii) Scour:
Moderate - Protect by flooring
- Dump boulders around piers
in scoured portion.
Severe - Protect by piles around the
foundation.
b) Substructure
i) Weathering of masonry :
Joints - Superficial - Pointing
Deep - Grouting with cement or epoxy
- Plaster the masonry
Leaching of lime mortar - Cement grouting
Leaching of masonry - Guniting

ii) Vertical cracks - Grouting with cement or epoxy

- Jacketing
iii) Horizontal cracks - Increase the section by
jacketing
iv) Leaning/bulging - Backfill drain
- Weep holes
- Soil Anchoring/rock anchoring
- Jacketing
- Rebuilding

91
v) Hollow left in masonry - Cement grouting
due to defective
workmanship
vi) Reduction of gap at end - Check the bearing
of girder. - Pull back the girder after
checking the verticality of piers.
c) Training and Protection Works
i) Damaged pitching - Repair with stone and point
them.
ii) Toe wall damaged - Rebuild them
iii) Damaged apron or - Repair or rebuild them
washed away
iv) Reduction in section - Repair before monsoon
of guide bund/spur etc.
v) Railway affecting tanks - Inspect before monsoon and
repair them in coordination
with irrigation authorities.
d) Bed Blocks
i) Crushing of bed blocks - Repair them with epoxy
under bed plates mortar after removing all loose
material
ii) Shaken/loose bed blocks - Pointing around the bed
blocks
- Epoxy grouting
- Provide through bed blocks
iii) Cracked bed block - Recast bed blocks either
cast-in-situ or precast
iv) Cracks in masonry below - Repair the crushed masonry
bed block with epoxy mortar, if
necessary.
e) Bearings
i) Corroded but not - Clean and Grease it
seized

92
ii) Corroded and seized - Replace it
iii) Shearing of strips, - Check the movement of girder.
anchor bolts - Strengthen the approaches.
- Repair the sheared parts.
iv) Impact at bearing - Check the levels of bed blocks.
- Provide a layer of epoxy mortar
in the gaps.
v) Flattening of rollers - Replace the rollers
or cracked rollers
vi) Tearing/cracking/ - Replace the bearing with good
bulging of elastomeric quality bearing.
Bearings
f) Superstructure
1. Arches
i) Weathering - Pointing
- Grouting with cement or epoxy
- Guniting
ii) Visible distortion - Jacketing intrados or extrados
in profile
iii) Cracks in arch - Grouting with cement or epoxy.
- Jacketing intrados or extrados
iv) Cracks/bulges in - Draining the back fill
parapet/spandrel - Providing Ties
wall - Rebuilding
2. Plate Girders
i) Early steel - Replace the girder
- Check with reduced stresses
ii) Weathered paint - Painting
surface
iii) Flaking & peeling - Provide cover plates
of steel
iv) Distortion of - Change the bracings.
bracings Also check for its adequacy.

93
v) Distortion of - May be due to over load.
stiffeners - Redesign and provide a heavier
section
vi) Loose rivets at - Replace the rivets.
floor system joint
3. Open Web Girders
vii) Progressive loss - May be due to overload or
of camber bad riveting. Check for stresses
and strengthen it.
- Regirder the bridge
- Lift the panel joints and re-rivet
the girder joints.
4. Pipes
i) Distortion of - Change the pipe by
section/cracks rebuilding
ii) Sag - Strengthen sagged portion.
5. RCC/PSC Slabs
i) Map pattern surface - Keep under observation
cracks (not progressive)
ii) Structural cracks - Grouting with epoxy
iii) Spalling of concrete - Guniting
iv) Sag under train load - Replace the slab.

6. RCC/PSC Girders
i) Cracks in - Epoxy grouting
anchorage zone - Replace the girder.
ii) Spalling/crushing - Guniting
iii) Shear cracks, - Epoxy grouting.
Flexural cracks

94
 CHAPTER 7

REPAIRS TO CONCRETE
AND MASONRY BRIDGES

7.1 General

The Important defect in masonry and concrete structures,

which require repairs are:
a) Hollowness of the structure
b) Honeycombed concrete
c) Cracks
d) Disintegration of material
e) Loose joints due to leaching etc.

Cement pressure grouting and epoxy injection can be

adopted for repairing deficiencies a, b and c above. For repairing
the disintegrated masonry concrete or spalled concrete, guniting
is normally done. Loose joints around bed blocks in stone or
brick masonry can be repaired either by epoxy grouting or
cement grouting.

Before attempting repair of any crack, a full investigation

should be made to determine the cause of the crack and
remedial action taken. Cracks may be separated into two
classes for the purposes of deciding upon the type of repair.

i) Dormant cracks which are not likely to open, close or

extend further. These are also called ‘dead’ cracks.

95
 ii) Live cracks which may be subjected to further
movement. If repairs do not have to be carried out
immediately, observation over a period of time will
enable cracks to be classified and will assist diagnosis
of the cause.

In reinforced and prestressed concrete structures, the cracks

may also occur due to degradation of concrete, corrosion of
reinforcement and structures’ mechanical behaviour.

7.2 Cement pressure grouting of masonry structures

7.2.1 Equipments

1. Air compressor with a capacity of 3 to 4 cum per

minute and pressure of 2 to 4 kg per sq.cm.

2. Grout injecting machine which has inlet and outlet

valves, pressure gauge and an air-tight pressure
chamber into which grout is introduced.

3. Flexible hose pipe conforming to IS:5137 for

transmitting grout from pressure chamber to ports
embedded in the masonry (Fig. 7.1).

4. Drilling equipment, pneumatic or electric for drilling

holes upto 25 mm dia.

7.2.2 Procedure

1. 25 mm dia holes are drilled to a depth of 200 mm in a

staggered manner in the area in which pressure
grouting is to be done, particularly along cracks and
hollow joints.

2. G.I. pipes 12 to 20 mm dia and 200 mm long with a

threaded end are inserted and fixed with rich cement
mortar.

3. Any crack and annular space around the G.I. pipes are
sealed with rich cement mortar. All the cracks are cut

96
 Water Tank Auxiliary petrol engine for
Handle for working
the stirrer.
driving the stirrer
Pressure adjusting valve
Pressure gauge

Sand blasting
quality hose Prime mover
pipe
Grout tank with stirrer

grouting nozzle
Grout pump mounted on trolly

Fig. 7.1 Detail of pressure grouting machine

97
 open to a ‘V’ shaped groove, cleaned and sealed.

4. Grout holes should be sluiced with water one day

before grouting so as to saturate the masonry.

Sluicing is circulation and filling of water. This is

carried out by using the same equipment as for
grouting. All holes are plugged with wooden
plugs. Bottom most plugs in holes 1, 2 and 9 (Fig. 7.2)
are removed. Water is injected in hole 1 under
pressure. When the water comes out through holes
2 and 9, injection of water is stopped. Plugs in holes
1 and 9 are restored. The process is repeated in
all the holes. After 24 hours all plugs are removed
to drain out excess water. The plugs are restored
after draining.

5. Cement grouting with water-cement ratio of 0.4 to 0.5

is done from bottom to top and left to right using
grout injecting machine. The cement grout should
be completely used within 15 minutes of mixing.
The procedure for grouting is similar to sluicing
in terms of removal and refixing of plugs and sequence
of operation. The recommended proportion may
be altered if admixtures are used to attain flowability
of the grout. In case admixtures are used,
manufacturer’s specifications should be adopted for
grout proportioning.

Curing with water is to be done for 14 days over the

grouted portion.

6. Effective grouting is achieved with the help of hand

grouting machine if the holes are provided in every 3rd
layer of masonry or at intervals of 1.2 to 1.5 meters in
staggered position.

7. The grouting machine must be properly cleaned

immediately after use.

98
 25 mm HOLE DRILLED IN
MASONRY

20 mm G.l. PIPE
RICH CEMENT
MORTAR

THREADED END

ENLARGED VIEW AT ‘A’

Fig. 7.2 Cement pressure grouting

99
7.3 Epoxy resin grouting of masonry structures

7.3.1 General

The structures built of stone masonry, brick masonry or

concrete get affected by prolonged weathering action. The
ingress of moisture sometimes associated with the extraneous
chemicals such as nitrates, chlorides and sulphates combined
with either proximity of sea or aggressive ground soil conditions
accelerate the deterioration of the structures. Stone masonry
built with inferior stones such as sand stones, laterite, etc. is
prone to spalling by ingress of moisture. Brick masonry built with
porous bricks is subjected to similar action. Leaching of cement
and lime on account of poor drainage and consequential
deterioration of strength also takes place.

It is a known fact that adhesion between the old damaged

masonry or concrete and newly-laid masonry or concrete is poor.
Besides this, the cement does not get enough time for setting
and hardening before traffic is allowed over the newly repaired
structures. This also leads to frequent repairs at the same spot.

Epoxy resins have the following advantages over cement as

a bonding medium.
1. Quick setting
2. Low viscosity to fill up hair cracks
3. Low shrinkage
4. High adhesion to any material
5. Stable at all temperatures.

Epoxy resins consist of condensation products of

Epichlorohydrin and Bisphenol-A. They are thermosetting with
high adhesive strength and practically no shrinkage with good
resistance to wear and to most of the chemicals. The resin and
hardener have to be mixed for starting the chemical reaction of
hardening. The pot life of the mixture varies between 30 minutes
and 2 hours depending on the ambient temperature and the type

100
of hardener. For preparing mortars, silica flour is added. It is
important to follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for the
best application procedure, temperatures and pot life. For mixing
epoxy components, the use of polythene vessels is
recommended.

7.3.2 Procedure

The surface over which epoxy is to be applied must be

strong and sound as well as dry and clean. It should be free
from oil, grease, loose materials, laitance, dust and debris. If
necessary, compressed air can be used to remove the loose
materials from the surface.

Low viscosity resins may be adopted for thin cracks. In

case of vertical crack, the injection of resin should be done from
bottom to the top to ensure complete filling.

A “V” groove about 10 mm deep is made all along the crack

by mechanical or manual means. All loose fragments of concrete
are removed by using a jet of air. Nails are driven into the cracks
at 15 to 30 cm interval. Holes of 7-10 mm dia should be drilled
along the cracks and copper, aluminum or polythene pipe pieces
40 to 50 mm long and 6 to 9 mm dia are inserted around the
nails and allowed to rest on them. All the cracks along the
groove are now sealed with epoxy putty. The tubes furnish an
unobstructed passage for the epoxy resin into the crack and also
forms an outlet for the entrapped air (Fig. 7.3).

Epoxy of suitable formulation is injected from the bottom

most pipe, keeping all other pipes, except the adjacent one,
blocked by wooden plugs. The injection is done using suitable
nozzles connected to air compressor or by modified grease guns
or hand operated guns. Pressure of 3.5 to 7 kg per sq.cm is
normally used. As soon as the epoxy comes out from the
adjacent open pipe, it is plugged and the pressure increased to
the desired level and maintained for 2 to 3 minutes. The
injection nozzle is then withdrawn and the hole sealed with
epoxy mortar. This operation is continued for the other pipes
also. Any resin that remains or overflows the copper pipe is

101
REMOVABLE METAL CAP
VALVE
VALVE
OUTLET
INLET FOR POLYTHENE PISTON
COMPRESSED AIR (PLACED IN POSITION AFTER
POURING EPOXY)

POLYTHENE CYLINDER
METAL CYLINDER

POLYTHENE NEEDLE

OUTLET FOR EPOXY

7
6
12 5
1110
9 4 COPPER OR ALUMINIUM OR
8 3 POLYTHENE PIPE
2
1

ELEVATION

COPPER, ALUMINIUM OR
POLYTHENE PIPE
CRACK

SEALED
NAIL (PULLED OUT BEFORE GROOVE
INJECTION)
SEALED GROOVE

CROSS SECTION SECTIONAL PLAN

FIG. 7.3 EPOXY GROUTING

102
scraped off with a metal spatula and the surface cleaned with a
rag soaked in non-inflammable solvent. For this purpose, it is
recommended that persons who work with epoxy wear rubber
gloves. The grease gun or syringe should be washed with
acetone immediately after the completion of the work.

In the case of a network of fine cracks, which do not

endanger the stability of the structure, it may be sufficient to
apply a coating (300 to 400 micron thick) of a solvent-free epoxy
system. Wider cracks which do not endanger the concrete
structure can be filled atleast partially with epoxy putty (epoxy,
hardener and china clay).

Since epoxy is a costly material, its use should be

restricted to areas where dynamic forces are transmitted (e.g.
areas below and around the bed blocks, cracks in PSC/RCC
slabs or girders etc.).

7.4 Repair of cracks in reinforced concrete and prestressed

concrete girders and slabs

7.4.1 General

In reinforced concrete, cracks wider than 0.3 to 0.4 mm

should be sealed and filled with injection. A crack resulting from
a rare load-application can be repaired (if it is wider than 0.3 to
0.4 mm) by pressure injection with a suitable epoxy formulation
so that the integrity is restored. Dormant cracks in excess of
about 0.4 mm width, must be cleaned and then filled and sealed
with epoxy injection for widths upto about 2 to 3 mm, and with
fine cement grout for wider cracks.

7.4.2 Materials used for filling the cracks

The material used for crack injection must be such as to

penetrate easily into the crack and provide durable adhesion
between the cracked surfaces. Currently, the following fluid
resins are used for crack injection (together with hardeners):

103
 i) Epoxy resin (EP)
ii) Polyurethane resin (PUR)
iii) Acrylic resin
iv) Unsaturated polyester resin (UP)

The formulations of commercially available injection resins

vary widely in their properties, and care must be exercised in
making proper selection. Important properties of any injection
resin are its resistance to moisture penetration and alkaline
attack from the cement. Where tensile strength is a
requirement, the tensile strength of the resin should approach
that of the concrete as closely as possible. Therefore, a stiff
and highly adhesive resin is desirable. These properties are
available in epoxy or unsaturated polyester resins. After
hardening of the injection material, the ‘stiffness’ of crack will
depend upon the elasticity of the resin.

The polyurethane or acrylic resin is recommended where

moisture resistance is a requirement. Some epoxy based low-
viscous resin will penetrate to the crack-root even when the
crack width at the surface is only about 0.2 mm. Comparable
results can be obtained from unsaturated polyester and
polyurethane resins. Acrylic resins are capable of sealing fine
cracks because of their low viscosity. However, in all cases,
this requirement can only be fulfilled with an appropriately long
‘reaction time’. Fast reactive systems will only close the crack
at its surface, which may not be desirable.

Although cement paste is relatively inexpensive, its use is

limited to crack widths of approximately 2 mm or more because
of its limited viscosity. Cement glues and mortars are of
importance in such applications as injection of voids, hollows,
cavities, honeycombing, and sealing of ducts, etc. For these
applications the use of appropriate additives is recommended to
reduce viscosity, shrinkage and the tendency for settlement.
Improvement of workability will be obtained if the cement
suspension is formed by using high speed mixers.

104
 The following table gives general idea about selection of
materials for repair of cracks.

Table 7.1 Selection of materials for repair of cracks

Type of Width Type of material Mode of application

Crack (mm) and/or principle

Shrinkage <0.2 Two component Surface treatment

cracks epoxy injection which works through
capillary action
Structural 0.2-1.0 Two component Low pressure
cracks epoxy injection treatment which works
through capillary action
1.0-2.0 Two component Low pressure injection
epoxy injection
and solvent free
epoxy
2.0-5.0 Solvent free Low pressure injection
epoxy thixotropic with hand pump
5.0-15.0 Polymer modified Grout with injection by
cement based gravity or hand pump
grout
>15.0 Non shrink grout Cut and fill non-shrink
grout

7.4.3 Crack injection steps

As a rule, the following steps are necessary for injection:

i) Thoroughly cleaning the cracks with high pressure clean

air.

ii) Drilling the injection holes and blowing-clean the holes

and cracks. Space the ports at the desired depth of
penetration since the resin generally travels as far into
the crack as along the face of the crack. If the cracks

105
 are less than 0.2 mm wide, entry ports should not be
spaced more than 150 mm apart. If the cracks are more
than 600 mm in depth, intermediate ports should be
inserted. Port spacing in cracks extending the full depth
of the member are given in Table 7.2.

Table 7.2 Spacing of Ports

Thickness of Ports on one side Spacing of ports

member (m) or all sides
0.3 & less One side Thickness of member.
0.3 – 0.6 All available sides Not greater than
thickness of member.
Greater than 0.6 All available sides Thickness of member
with immediate ports.

iii) Fixing of flanged injection nipples along the cracks. A ‘V’

groove may be cut near the ports for facilitating proper
fixing of the nipples.

iv) Covering the crack surface between nipples by a

thixotropic liquid sealent.

v) Mixing the injection material.

vi) Injecting the injection material through the nipples

against gravity (unless the crack is horizontal), in a
progressive serial order, and

vii) Re-injection and testing, if required or found necessary.

7.4.4 Injection equipment and injection process

(Fig. 7.4 a & b)

Different injection equipments are available, depending on

whether the materials are premixed or used separately. In the
case of 'premixed components' equipment, the resin and
hardener are mixed first and subsequently injected into the crack

106
 3 EP - IS

5 2 1

1. Injection gun. 2. Plastic tube. 3. Crack 4. Thixotropic compound.

5. Flanged injection nipple.

FIG. 7.4 a CRACK INJECTION

A
1 2 3 4
c
b
d

a
A

A - A
1. Untreated crack in face of wall 2. Crack cleaned and injection nipples
fixed 3. Crack sealed with thixotropic compound and ready for injection
4. EP-IS system injected and nipples removed
(a) Concrete wall (b) Crack (c) Injection nipples
(d) Adhesive securing nipples and sealing cracks

Fig. 7.4 b Sequence of operation

107
using this equipment. Typical ‘premixed components’ equipment
consists of:
i) A hand grease gun

ii) An air pressure tank

iii) A high pressure tank

iv) A hose-pump

With these equipments, rather high pressures can be

applied. The pot life of the mixture is an important parameter in
the application by such equipments.

Therefore, the length of the crack that can be injected in one

go is subject to the volume of material mixed for use and its pot
life.

In the case of ‘separate components’ equipment, resin and

hardener are separately transported to the ‘mixing-head’ by
means of fully automatic dispensing equipment. Therefore, pot-
life is only of secondary importance here.

A distinction must be made between low pressure injection

(upto 2 MPa) and high pressure injection (upto 30 MPa). The
penetration speed of the injection resin does not increase
proportionately, with increasing pressure.

The viscosity of the resin strongly influences the rate of

injection, especially for small crack widths and in reaching the
crack root.

7.5 Spalled Concrete - Hand applied repairs

In the case of repair to spalled concrete, it is particularly

necessary to distinguish between mechanical damage and spalls
caused by corrosion of reinforcement. Mechanical damage is
usually relatively simple to repair. Corrosion of reinforcement,
however, may be caused by contamination of the concrete with
aggressive ions such as chlorides or by reduction in alkalinity of

108
the concrete, and in either case restoration of the damaged
member to its original state may be inadequate.

7.5.1 Preparation

Whatever the cause of damage, preparation of the structure

for repair is vitally important. Application of a sound patch to an
unsound surface is useless because the patch will eventually
come away, taking some of the unsound material with it.
Similarly, contamination that has once caused trouble must not
be allowed to remain where it is likely to cause trouble again.
Any attempt to take short cuts over preparation is a false
economy.

The first step must be to remove unsound concrete. The

area to be cut out should be delineated with a saw, cut to a
depth of about 5 mm in order to provide a neat edge but the
remainder of the cutting out can be done with percussive tools.
Feather edges should be avoided if at all possible - edges should
be cut for a depth of at least 10 mm as shown in Fig. 7.5 a & b. If
any corroded reinforcement is present, the concrete should be
cut back far enough to ensure that all corroded areas are
exposed so that they can be cleaned.

Dust should be removed, as far as possible, from the

surface of the concrete before patching material is applied,
especially when resin-based compounds are to be used. Oil free
compressed air jets are effective on small areas but they merely
tend to redistribute dust on large areas. For these, industrial
vacuum cleaners can be more effective.

7.5.2 Choice of material

The basic choice of repair system is between those based

on Portland cement and those based on synthetic resins. In
reinforced concrete, they protect reinforcement from corrosion in
different ways. Cement based materials provide an alkaline
environment for the steel (pH of the order of 12) and, in these
conditions, a passivating film forms on the surface of the steel.

109
 SECTION

PLAN

Fig 7.5 a Incorrect method of cutting out

SECTION

PLAN

Fig. 7.5 b Correct method of cutting out

110
Corrosion will occur if the alkalinity of the concrete surrounding
the steel is reduced by carbonation i.e. a penetration of carbon
dioxide from atmosphere or if aggressive ions such as chlorides
are present. Consequently, the provision of an adequate
thickness of dense concrete cover is important. Resin based
materials do not generally provide an alkaline environment; they
normally rely for their protective effect on providing cover that will
exclude oxygen and moisture, without which corrosion would not
take place.

7.5.2.1 Application of cement based system

After the surface has been prepared, a bonding coat should

be applied to all exposed surfaces. It can consist of a slurry of
cement and water only; but it is always desirable to incorporate
a polymer admixture.

Typical proportions would be two part (by volume) cement to

one part polymer latex, but the supplier’s advice may vary. The
first layer of patching material should be applied immediately
after the bonding coat, while the latter is still wet. If some delay
is inevitable, there are resin-based bonding agents that have a
longer ‘open time’ than cement slurry. If reinforcing bars cross
the repair they may provide a good mechanical anchorage for the
patch, especially if the concrete has been cut away behind
them.

Hand applied repairs usually consist of cement and sand

mortar in proportions of 1:2.5 or 1:3, using coarse sand. If a
smooth surface finish is required it may be necessary to use
finer sand for the final layer. Repair mortar should be as stiff as
possible consistent with full compaction and it should be
rammed into place as forcibly as possible. An experienced
operator can judge the degree of workability that is best suited
to a particular job.

Repairs should be built up in layers and each layer should

normally be applied as soon as the preceding one is strong
enough to support it. The thickness of each layer should not

111
normally exceed 20 mm. If there is likely to be a delay between
layers, the first should be scratched as in normal rendering
practice in order to provide a key, and a fresh bonding coat
should be applied when work is resumed.

7.5.2.2 Application of resin based system

The requirements for preparation for resin-based repairs are

generally similar to those for cement-based repairs. Removal of
dust is particularly important.

Resin based materials are usually supplied as two or three

constituents that must be mixed together immediately before
use. This must be done thoroughly, especially when epoxy
resins are involved. Use of mechanical mixers or stirrers is
advisable.

It is necessary to apply a primer or tack coat of unfilled

resin to the freshly exposed surface of concrete and
reinforcement. In general one coat will be enough, but two coats
may be needed in some cases, especially if the substrate is
porous.

With the majority of resin-based systems, the patching

material must be applied while the primer is still tacky and each
successive layer of patching material must be applied before the
previous one has cured too much.

Resin based materials cure by chemical reaction which

starts immediately after the constituents are mixed, so they have a
limited ‘pot life’, which decreases with increasing temperature.
This must be borne in mind when repair work is being planned,
and the quantity of material to be mixed in any one batch must
be chosen so that it can be used before it becomes too stiff.

7.5.3 Curing

Resin-based repairs do not generally need any protection

during their curing period, which is usually quite brief. Repairs
consisting of cement, aggregates and water require careful curing

112
by covering with absorbent material that is kept damp, preferably
covered in turn by polythene or similar sheets which are sealed
at the edges. Shading from the sun may be necessary.
Alternate wetting and drying must be prevented because of the
alternating stresses that it would cause.

7.6 Guniting

This process of depositing a dense layer of sand cement

mixture can be used profitably for repairing spalled concrete
structures or weathered stone or brick masonry. The mortar or
concrete is conveyed through a hose and pneumatically
projected at high velocity on to the surface. The force of jet
impinging on the surface compacts the material. Generally, a
relatively dry mixture is used and so the material is capable of
supporting itself without sagging or sloughing even during vertical
and overhead applications.

7.6.1 Equipments and Materials

The equipment used for this process is a cement gun

(conforming to IS:6433), which is operated throughout by
compressed air. The sand used should comply with the
requirements given in IS: 383 and graded evenly from fine to
coarse as per zone II and zone III grading with a nominal
maximum size of 6 mm. One part of cement shall be added to 3
parts of sand. The optimum moisture content for sand is in the
range of 3 to 6%. This mixture is placed in the feeding chamber
and by the action of compressed air it is fed into the working
chamber through a cone valve controlled from outside. The
mixture is then agitated through an agitator mounted on a vertical
shaft. The mixing time shall be not less than 1 minute. The
mixed material is carried in suspension by compressed air
through the delivery hose to a nozzle. As the material passes
through the nozzle body, it is hydrated with water introduced in
the form of a fine needle spray controlled through a valve in the
nozzle body. The water-cement ratio for concrete used in this
process is normally in the range of 0.35 to 0.50. For a length of
hose upto 30 m the air pressure at the nozzle shall be 3.0 kg
per sq.cm or more. Where the length exceeds 30 m, the

113
pressure shall be increased by 0.35 kg per sq.cm for each
additional lead of 15 m and by 0.35 kg per sq.cm. for each 7.5 m
that a nozzle is raised above the gun. The water pressure at
the discharge nozzle shall be sufficiently greater than the
operating air pressure to ensure that water is intimately mixed
with the other material (Fig. 7.6).

7.6.2 Procedure
In case of repairs to existing deteriorated concrete all
unsound materials shall be first removed. The exposed
reinforcement shall be cleaned free of rust, scales, etc. In the
case of stone masonry all weathered or disintegrated part of
stone shall be knocked down with a chisel and/or a heavy
hammer so as to expose sound and undamaged part of the
stones. The stone or brick masonry surface shall be cleared of
all loose mortar, dust, moss, etc. and washed down with a
strong jet of air or water. If mortar at the joint is weak, the joint
shall be raked to about 10 mm depth and all loose and dry
mortar scraped out from inside.
The form work, if required, shall be of plywood or other
suitable material fixed in proper alignment and also to proper
dimensions. For repair work the reinforcement shall be fixed to
existing masonry or concrete by using wire nails or dowels at
one metre intervals. Depending on the thickness and nature of
work, reinforcement may consist of either round bars or welded
wire fabric. Hard-drawn wire fabric consisting 3 mm dia wires at
10 cm centers in both directions can be used. The minimum
clearance between reinforcement and formwork shall be 12 mm
for mortar mix and 50 mm for concrete mix.

Each layer of shotcrete (concrete placed by guniting) is built

up by making several passes or loops of the nozzle over the
working area. The distance of the nozzle from the working face
is usually between 0.5 and 1.5 m. The nozzle shall be held
perpendicular to the surface of application. The amount of
rebound concrete varies with the position of work, angle of
nozzle, air pressure, cement content, water content, size and
grading of aggregate, amount of reinforcement and thickness of
layer.

114
 AIR RELEASE
OPERATING LEVER

AIR TO FEEDING
CHAMBER

FEEDING CHAMBER

DISC VALVE
RUNNING WHEEL
CONE DOOR
WORKING
AGI CHAMBER
TAT
OR

AIR SUPPLY FEEDING WHEEL

METAL
PIPE TO PLACING
AIR MOTOR
NOZZLE

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
OF
A GUNITING MACHINE

WATER SUPPLY WATER REGULATING VALVE

ANNULAR WATER CHAMBER

DRY SAND AND CEMENT
UNDER AIR G.M. NOZZLE
PRESSURE

WATER JETS FOR MIXING

DRY SAND AND CEMENT

DETAILS OF PLACING NOZZLE

Fig. 7.6 Guniting machine

115
 Rebound of concrete with different positions of work is shown
in Table 7.3 given below.

Table 7.3 Rebound of concrete

Type of surface % Rebound

Slabs 05 to 15%

Sloping and vertical walls 15 to 30%

Overhead work 25 to 50%

Rebound shall not be worked back into construction. If it

does not fall clear of the work it should be removed. Rebound
shall not be salvaged and included in later batches. Where
a layer of shotcrete is to be covered by a succeeding layer,
it shall first be allowed to take its initial set. Then all laitance,
loose material and rebound shall be removed by brooming.
Surfaces shall be kept continuously wet for at least 15 days after
guniting.

7.7 Jacketing

7.7.1 General

Railways are often required to undertake strengthening of

existing bridge substructures in connection with works of
following nature.

1. Increase in vertical clearance to satisfy codal

provisions.

2. Regrading of track

3. Introduction of heavier type of locomotives and other

rolling stock with higher longitudinal forces.

With the raising of formation levels, the existing

substructures are subjected to higher loading by way of higher
earth pressure and increased moments. To strengthen the
substructure, the cross-sectional area may require to be

116
increased. For this purpose jacketing of existing substructure is
resorted to. Jacketing should be undertaken only when the
existing structure is fairly sound and does not show signs of
distress. All cracks should be thoroughly grouted before providing
the jacket. For the jacketing to be effective, it has to be taken
right upto the foundation and integrated at this level with the
existing foundation.

The foundation shall be exposed for only limited width at

a time and for the shortest time necessary for strengthening
so as to avoid endangering the safety of the structure. Site
and soil conditions including water table shall be considered
for deciding the width of foundation to be exposed at a
time. The minimum thickness of jacketing should be at least 150 mm.

7.7.2 Procedure
The face of the existing masonry or the concrete should
be thoroughly cleaned free of all dirt. Before laying new
concrete, neat cement slurry should be applied uniformly over
the face of the old masonry. Dowel bars consist of M.S.
rods 20 mm dia hooked at the exposed end. M.S. tie bar
flats with the ends split can also be similarly fixed into the
old masonry. These dowels should be taken down to a depth
of not less than 200 mm inside the masonry (Fig. 7.7). For
driving of dowels many times holes are required to be made.
These holes must be drilled and not made by pavement
breakers. The spacing of the dowels should not be more
than 450 mm horizontally and vertically. The dowels should
be staggered. The new concrete layer should be of minimum
cube strength of 250 kg per sq.cm at 28 days. A mat of steel
reinforcement bars spaced at minimum 200 mm horizontally and
vertically may be provided as distribution reinforcement. The
concrete should be cured for a minimum period of 28 days by
covering with gunny bags or similar material and splashing with
water.

117
 RAIL LINE

GIRDER GIRDER
200
OFF SET MINIMUM 150 mm

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL 20 MS BAR

MS ROUNDS 10 MM @ 200 C/C
450 + 450 +450 HOLES TO BE
GROUTED
DOWEL BARS 20 mm 5O COVER
DEFORMED OR MS TIE BARS
(WITH SPLIT END @ 450 mm
c/c HORZ. & VERT.
PART ENLARGED

450 + 450
SECTION
TOP OF
FOUNDATION

SECTIONAL ELEVATION SIDE ELEVATION

Fig. 7.7 Strengthening of substructure by jacketing

118
 CHAPTER 8

MAINTENANCE OF STEEL BRIDGES

8.1 Painting of girder bridges

Girder painting is essentially an application of surface

coating to the steel work so as to inhibit corrosion. The basic
principle underlying maintenance painting is not to allow
deterioration of existing paint film to reach such a stage that
rusting starts underneath the paint film.

8.1.1 Surface preparation

Correct surface preparation is the most important single

factor in ensuring the good performance of a painting scheme
applied to steel work. The duration of protection afforded by a
given painting scheme when applied to a well-prepared surface is
many times more as compared to that obtained on a badly
prepared surface. Removal of rust, oil, grease and dirt is
necessary to ensure adequate adhesion of paint film to the
surface.

The surface preparation in maintenance painting depends

upon the condition of the existing paint film.

1. Where only the finishing coat of paint shows signs of

deterioration, the surface should be washed with
lukewarm water containing 1 to 2% detergent to remove
salt deposits and grime. After this, the surface is to
be dried and lightly wire brushed and sand papered.

119
 On this prepared surface, finishing coat of paint is to
be applied.

2. In cases where the parent metal is exposed and

portions of girders show signs of corrosion, the surface
preparation is done in the following manner:

i. Sand or grit blasting is one of the best methods of

surface preparation by which the surface can be
completely cleared of mill scale and rust. A
properly sand blasted steel surface appears silvery
grey in colour.

ii. Scraping, chipping and wire brushing

In this method, the surface is scraped, chipped and

wire brushed manually or by power tools so as to
remove the mill scale and rust. Finally, the surface
is sand-papered and dusted. The surface prepared
by this method is of a lower standard than the one
prepared by the sand blasting.

iii. Flame cleaning by directing an oxyacetylene flame

on the steel surface and then wire brushing is
another method. Though it is inferior to grit blasting,
it is a good method for use with excessively rusted
surface. Flame cleaning should not be done on
plates with thicknesses 10 mm or less as it may
lead to permanent distortion of such plates. The
surface being flame cleaned should not be exposed
to the flame for a longer time. After passage of
flame the surface is cleaned by wire brush, sand
papered and dusted.

iv. Temporary coatings: If, for any reason, painting

cannot immediately follow surface preparation,
corrosion can be prevented for a short time by
means of temporary coating of linseed oil applied
uniformly and thinly (one third litre on 10 sq.m area

120
 will be sufficient) Modern pre-fabrication primers are
also available.

8.1.2 Painting scheme as per IRS Code

The following painting schedule is to be adopted in areas

where corrosion is NOT SEVERE.

1. Priming coat

One heavy coat of ready-mixed paint red lead priming

to IS:102

OR

One coat of ready mixed paint zinc chromate priming

to IS:104, followed by one coat of ready mixed paint
red oxide zinc chrome priming to IS:2074.

OR

Two coats of zinc chromate red oxide primer to

IRS–P –31.

2. Finishing coat

Two cover coats of red oxide paint to IS:123 or any

other approved paint applied over the primer coats.

The painting scheme for girders in areas where corrosion is

SEVERE is given below.

1. Priming coat

Two coats of ready-mixed paint red lead priming to

IS:102.

OR

One coat of rady mixed paint zinc chromate priming to

121
 IS:104 followed by one coat of zinc chrome – red oxide
priming to IS:2074.

2. Finishing coat

Two coats of aluminium paint to IS:2339

8.1.3 Important precautions

a) Paints from approved manufacturers only should be

used.

b) Special care should be taken to shift sleepers on

girders or rail bearers to clean the seating very
thoroughly before applying the paint.

c) Paint should be mixed in small quantities sufficient to

be consumed within 1 hour in the case of red lead
paint and 5 days in the case of red oxide paint.

d) While painting with red oxide paint, a little quantity of

lamp black shall be added to the paint while doing the
first coat to distinguish it from the second coat.
Similarly, in case of aluminium paint a little blue paint
can be added instead of lamp black for 1st coat.

e) Paints should be used within the prescribed shelf life

from the date of manufacture. The quantity of paint
procured should be such that it is fully utilized before
the period prescribed for its use.

The shelf life of various paints used in the Railways

are as follows:

i) Paint Red Lead Ready Mixed 4 months

(IS:102)

ii) Paint Red Oxide Ready Mixed 1 year

(IS:1237)

122
 iii) Paint Aluminium:
When paste and oil are not mixed 1 year
When paste and oil are mixed 4 months

iv) Oil linseed boiled 2 years

v) Red lead dry paint No time limit

f) Brush shall not be less than 5 cm in width and

should have good flexible bristles. A new brush,
before use, should be soaked in raw linseed oil for
at least 24 hours. The brushes shall be cleaned in
linseed oil at the end of each day’s work.

g) Dust settled after scraping shall be cleaned before

applying paint.

h) When the paint is applied by brush, the brush shall

o
be held at 45 to the surface and paint applied with
several light vertical/lateral strokes turning the brush
frequently and transferring the paint and covering the
whole surface. After this, the brush shall be used
cross wise for complete coverage and finally finished
with vertical/lateral strokes to achieve uniform and
even surface.

j) Rags, waste cotton, cloth or similar articles should

not be used for applying paint.

k) The coat of paint applied shall be such that the

prescribed dry film thickness is achieved by actual
trial for the particular brand of paint. The applied coat
of paint shall be uniform and free from brush marks,
sags, blemishes, scattering, crawling, uneven
thickness, holes, lap marks, lifting, peeling, staining,
cracking, checking, scaling, holidays and
allegatoring.

l) Each coat of paint shall be left to dry till it sufficiently

hardens before the subsequent coat is applied. The

123
 drying time shall not be less than 3 days in case of
Red Lead paint.

m) The entire content of a paint drum should be mixed

thoroughly either by pouring a number of times or by
mechanical mixing to get uniform consistency. The
paint should not be allowed to settle down during
painting by frequent stirring or mixing.

Driers such as spirit or turpentine should not be

used. Mixing of kerosene oil is strictly prohibited.

n) The maximum time lag between successive

operations as indicated below shall not be exceeded.

i) Between surface preparation

and the application of primer coat 24 hours

ii) Between surface preparation

and 1st finishing coat in the case
of patch painting 48 hours

iii) Between the primer coat and

the 1st finishing coat 7 days

iv) Between the Ist finishing coat

and the 2nd finishing coat 7 days

8.2 Replacing loose rivets

8.2.1 General

i) Slight slackness of rivet does not cause loss of rivet

strength.

ii) Renewal of slack rivets should be done only when the

slack rivets are in groups or are bunched up. Individual
scattered slack rivets need not be touched.

124
 iii) Rivet is to be considered finger loose when the
looseness can be felt by mere touch, without tapping.
Rivets should be considered hammer loose, when the
looseness can be felt only with the aid of a hand
hammer.

Loose rivets occur more frequently at certain locations

especially where dynamic stresses, reversal of stresses and
vibrations are at their maximum. Similarly in-situ rivet
connections are carried out under less ideal conditions than in
the case of shop rivets and hence the incidence of loose rivets is
likely to be more at such joints.

8.2.2 Procedure

Generally the loose rivets are replaced by using pneumatic

equipment. In pneumatic riveting, the driving of the rivet, filling the
hole and formation of the head is done by snap-mounted
pneumatic hammer by delivering quick hard blows on the
practically white-hot rivet. The rivet head is held tightly against
the member through a pneumatically/hand-pressed dolly. The
rivet shank is about 1.5 mm less than the diameter of the drilled
hole. The normal working pressure of the compressed air should
be between 5.6 and 7 kg per sq.cm. The length of the rivet
shank is given by the formula:

L = G +1.5D + 1 mm for every 4 mm of grip or part thereof

for snap head rivet.

L = G + 0.5D + 1 mm for every 4 mm of grip or part thereof

for counter shunk rivet.

Where L = length of rivet shank

G = length of grip in mm

D = diameter of rivet in mm

While riveting a loose joint, not more than 10% rivets should
be cut at a time. Besides, each rivet should be replaced

125
immediately after cutting with a turned bolt of adequate diameter
and length and then only the next rivet should be cut. Parallel
drifts can be used in place of 50% of the turned bolts provided
the work is executed under block protection. It is preferable to
drill a rivet out than to use rivet burster as the latter cuts the rivet
head in shear, imparting very heavy shock to the adjoining group
of rivets. In a joint where only a few rivets are loose, the
adjoining rivets are also rendered loose while bursting the loose
rivets. In any case, after the loose rivets at a joint are replaced,
it should be rechecked for tightness.

The rivet must be heated almost to a white heat and to a

point when sparks are just beginning to fly off. The whole rivet
must be brought to the same heat. The rivet shuld be driven and
the snap removed within 20 seconds of the rivet leaving the fire.
While the rivet is hot, it must be driven straight keeping the
hammer in straight position. The riveter must have his staging at
a height which enables him to put the whole weight of his body
behind the hammer. This prevents it from bouncing.

8.3 Loss of camber

Steel triangulated (open web) girders are provided with

camber to compensate for deflection under load. Out of the total
design camber, the part corresponding to deflection under dead
load is called dead load camber. The balance called live load
camber should be available as visible and measurable camber in
the girder when not carrying load. Loss of camber can be
attributed to:
1. Heavy overstressing of members beyond elastic limit
2. Overstressing of joint rivets
3. Play between rivet holes and rivet shanks because of
faulty riveting.
Out of the above, item (1) can be ruled out unless heavier
loads than those designed for are being carried over the bridge.
If this is found to be the case, action should be taken for
immediate replacement of the girder. Item (2) can be checked
from design. The action required to be taken is to lift the panel

126
points on trestles and jacks up to full design camber (including
dead load camber) or till the bearings start floating. The existing
rivets should be removed and replaced with bigger diameter rivets
or with bigger gussets and more number of rivets. As regards
item (3), if the number of rivets and diameter are sufficient, then
the existing rivets can be replaced by sound rivets.
8.4 Oiling and greasing of bearings
The bearings of all girder bridges should be generally
cleaned and greased once in three years. In the case of flat
bearings, the girder is lifted a little over 6mm, the bearing
surfaces cleaned with kerosene oil and a mixture of black oil,
grease and graphite in a working proportion should be applied
between the flat bearings and the girder lowered. For spans
above 12.2 m, special jacking beams will have to be inserted and
jacks applied. The rollers and rockers are lifted from their
position by adequate slinging. The bearings are scraped,
polished with zero grade sand paper and grease graphite of
sufficient quantity to keep surfaces smooth should be applied
evenly over the bearings, rockers and rollers before the bearings
are lowered. The knuckle pins of both the free and fixed end
should also be greased at this time. While lifting fixed ends, the
space between girders (in case of piers), or between the girder
and the ballast wall (in case of abutment), at free ends should be
jammed with wedges to prevent longitudinal movement of the
girder.
Phosphor bronze bearings need not be greased as they are
corrosion resistant and retain the smooth surface and
consequently the limited initial coefficient of friction of 0.15.
In case of segmental rollers, it should be seen that they are
placed vertically at mean temperature. It will be better to
indicate, in the completion drawings of bridges/stress sheets, the
maximum expansion with range of temperature to which it is
designed (by indicating the maximum and minimum
temperature), so that the slant at the time of greasing can be
decided depending on the temperature obtaining at the time of
greasing.

127
 Annexure A/1
Proforma for Bridge Inspection Register for inspection of
major and important bridges (AEN) (Para 1.5)

1. General :

Division……………Sub Division…………… Section…………….

Br. No………………….. Span details…………No..................m.

Name of river …………………… Class of structure……………

Type of girder…………….... Strength of girder………………..

Rail level……………………………………..m

High flood level ………………………….m

Danger level………………………………..m

Bottom of girder / slab or crown of arch …………….m

Abutment : Materials of construction

i) (with splayed wing walls)

ii) (with parallel wing walls)

Pier : type

Strength of : Piers
Abutments
Wing walls

Depth of cushion …………….m below bottom of sleeper (for

arch slab top and pipe bridges only)

2. Previous history regarding high flood, scour, erosion,

suspension of traffic etc.

128
3. Record of afflux : Year …………..Max. afflux………………….

4. Foundation details …………..Velocity of flow………….

Pier/ Details of B.F. T.F. Bed Floor Thickness Safe

Abutment wells/ piles/ level level of floor scour
No. open limit
foundation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

5. Description of protection works (wherever provided)

Description Up stream Down stream

Left Right Left Right

i) Length of guide bund

ii) Crest level of guide bund

iii) Crest width

iv) Width and depth of apron

v) Thickness of pitching

vi) Width and depth of nose of

guide bounds

vii) (a) Depth below floor level and

distance from the center
line of bridge of curtain wall
(b) Drop wall
Deepest known scour,
year and its location.

129
6. In the case of bridges with railway affecting works, the
following details may be recorded:

i) Tank and its capacity and distance from bridge

ii) Dam/weir across river, its designed discharge and distance
from bridge
iii) Details of marginal bunds
iv) Details of road/canal running parallel.

7. Key plan of the bridge.

130
 Annexure A/2
Proforma for Bridge Inspection Register for inspection of
major and important bridges (AEN) (Para 1.5)

Condition of the bridge at the time of inspection

Date Foundation Masonry Protective Bed Girder

of and condition, works blocks bearings
inspe- flooring, extent of and cracks, &
ction exent of defect waterway tend- expan-
scour and in sub- scour, ency sion
damage structure slips or to arrange-
settlements, move ment
sanctioned
reserve
available and
whether
water way
is clear

1 2 3 4 5 6

Steel work in the case PSC/concrete/ Sleepers-

of steel/composite composite girder year of laying,
girder bridge, in superstructure- condition and
structural condition and condition of girders/ renewals
state of painting beams, any cracks or required.
defects noticed,
condition of
slabs/decks

7 8 9

131
 Track on bridge Drainage Track on
arrange- approaches
Line & Bearing Guard Hook ments Approach
level plates rails bolts on ballasted slabs, ballast
& their deck and walls & rails,
seating arch bridge earth slopes,etc.

10 11 12 13 14 15

Other items Action taken Initial Initials of

like trolley on last of higher
refuges/foot year’s notes inspecting officials
paths, fire official with
fighting and URN remarks
equipment
etc.

16 17 18 19

132
 Annexure A/3
Proforma for Bridge Inspection Register for inspection of
minor bridges (AEN) (Para 1.5)
Minor Bridges :

Division……………… Sub Division…………… Section……………

Bridge No…………….. Span details…………… No………….…m.
Name of river, if any……………… Class of structure……………
Type of girder/slab……………. Strength of girder/slab……………
Rail level…………………………m
HFL………………………………….m
Danger level…………………..m
Bottom of girder/slab……………………………….m

Abutment Material of Strength

Construction
(with splayed wings)
(with parallel wings)
Depth of cushion…………………………………..m below bottom of
sleeper (Arch, slab top & pipe bridges only)
Foundation details (Reduced level)
Bottom of foundation.................................m
Floor or bed level......................................m
Thickness of floor......................................m
Bottom of drop wall/curtain wall.................m
Record of afflux, year and velocity
Deepest known scour (if any), year and location
Space for key plan of the bridge

133
 Annexure A/4
Proforma for Bridge Inspection Register for inspection of
minor bridges (IOW/PWI and AEN) (Para 1.5)

Date of Condition of Action Initial of Initials of

inspection bridge at the taken on inspecting higher
time of the previous officer with officials
inspection year’s notes remarks if with
any remarks
If any

1 2 3 4 5

134
 Annexure B

Elastomeric Bearing ( Para 2.6.1)

Elastomers are polymers with rubber-like properties.

Synthetic rubber (chloroprene) and natural rubber with a Shore
hardness of approximately 50 to 70 have been extensively used
in bridge bearings. Elastomers are very stiff in resisting volume
change but are very flexible when subjected to shear or pure
uniaxial tension. Most elastomers stiffen drastically at low
temperatures. Natural rubber stiffens less than chloroprenes.
Elastomers creep under continuously applied stress and are
subject to deterioration due to high concentration of ozone or
severe chemical environment. Chloroprenes usually creep more
but are less susceptible to chemical deterioration.

Elastomeric bearing will permit translation along any planned

direction and rotation around any axis. The longitudinal
movement of the bridge deck due to temperature and other
effects are accommodated upto a certain limit by the shear
deformation of the bearing. Rotation of the girder at the bearing
point is also accommodated by a flattening of the bearing in the
direction of the rotation. Elastomeric bearing can be made to
behave like a hinge by passing a dowel through the bearing. The
dowel hole should be along the center line in the longer plan
direction of the bearing. This center line should be parallel to or
coincide with the center line of rotation.

Reinforcement is required between horizontal layers of the

bearing to prevent any outward bulging or splitting under service
load. The design of elastomeric bearing takes into account the
dimensions of the bearings by the term shape factor. The shape
factor is defined as ratio of effective plan area to the force free
surface area (force free perimeter multiplied by actual thickness
of internal layers of elastomers). Low values of shape factor
should be avoided since bulging and low elastic modulus are
likely to occur. Closely spaced steel plates are used to increase
the shape factor. The vertical stiffness is a function of shear
modulus and total thickness of elastomer. Typical elastomeric

135
 2
bearing have a shear modulus in the range of 8kg/cm for long
2
term shear deformation and 16 kg/cm for short term shear
deformation. The UIC practice is to permit a translation of 0.7 h
where ‘h’ is the effective elastomer thickness. The British
practice is to restrict the translation movement to
0.5 h.

Another factor in choosing the right type of bridge bearings

is the hardness of the elastomer material. This is typically
specified by durometer or shore hardness and is limited to a
maximum value of 70. Higher values for the material result in
bearings which are too stiff.

The following codes and specifications are used for the

design of elastomeric bearings.

1. BS 5400 Part 9, U.K.

2. UIC 772 R

3. UNI 10018 – 72, Italy

4. AASHTO Standard specifications for highway bridges,

U.S.A.

5. IRC 83 (Part II) – 1987.

136
 Annexure C

Teflon or P.T.F.E. Bearing (Para 2.6.2)

This is a short form of poly-tetra fluoro ethylene. The

coefficient of friction between steel and PTFE is quite low. The
mating surface, which forms the upper component, is stainless
steel with good surface furnish. The PTFE can be unfilled or
filled with glass fibre or other reinforcing material. Its bonding
property is very poor. Hence, it is preferable to locate the PTFE
by confinement and fitting of half the PTFE thickness in recess
in a metallic matrix. Lubricating the mating surface by silicone
grease reduces the coefficient of friction.

PTFE is a fluoro carbon polymer ( a type of plastic) known

for extreme chemical resistance and excellent dielectric
properties under a wide range of working temperature. The static
and dynamic coefficient of friction are almost same for this
material. Pure PTFE has a low compressive strength, high
thermal expansion and very low thermal conductivity and is,
therefore not very suitable for heavy bridge bearings. However,
these detrimental properties can be improved by the use of fillers
like glass fibre and bronze.
The low friction surface between PTFE and stainless steel is
used in bridge bearings either to provide rotation by sliding over
cylindrical or spherical surfaces or to provide horizontal sliding
movement over flat surfaces or a combination of both. This type
of bearing is also used in incremental launching construction
where the girder is launched longitudinally in stages with the help
of jacks. Where there are large displacements accompanied
with relatively small loadings as in case of centrifugal loads, wind
loads or seismic loads PTFE slide bearings are utilized.
There are firms manufacturing self-aligning spherical bearings
designed to support loads from 50 tonnes to 3000 tonnes for a
mean concrete stress of 200 kg/cm2. This uses PTFE sliding
surface of rotation as well as translation. The coefficient of
friction of PTFE – Stainless Steel bearings reduces with increase
in contact stress. The table given on the next page illustrates
this.

137
 Contract Stress Coefficient of friction
(kg/cm2) Unlubricated Lubricated
pure PTFE pure PTFE

50 0.16 0.08
100 0.12 0.06
200 0.08 0.04
300 & above 0.06 0.03

This property is advantageously used since any overload will

reduce the frictional coefficient thereby maintaining the same
stress level in sub-structures.

The following codes and specifications are used for the

design of P.T.F.E. bearings.

1. BS 5400 Part-9, U.K.

2. AASHTO – Standard specifications for highway bridges,

U.S.A.

138
 ANNEXURE D

Guidelines for alloting Condition Rating Number (CRN)

Visible symptom Possible cause Suggested

rating
a) FOUNDATION
AND FLOORING
i) Foundation
- Dip in longitudinal Uniform settlement. 4-3
level of track settlement with scour
- Kink in alignment Differential 4-2
of track over a settlement
pier/abutment scour 3-1
ii) Flooring
- Flooring damaged Leaching of mortar 4-2
or washed away and/or scour
b) MASONRY/CONCRETE
IN SUBSTRUCTURE
i) Pier/abutment/
retaining walls/
wing walls etc.
- Loss of jointing Leaching of mortar 4-3
material (in masonry)
- Hollow sound on -do- 4-3
tapping
- Deterioration of Weathering 4-3
surface, spalling,
surface cracks
- Lateral tilt Differential settlement 3-2
- Vertical cracks Differential settlement, 3-1
scour
- Longitudinal tilt Inadequate section 3-1
(in the direction of scour/inadequate
track) or bulge design/weep holes
not functioning

139
 - Weep holes not Poor filter & 4
functioning and no backfill
tilt or bulge
- Map pattern Shrinkage of 5-4
(surface) cracks concrete
in concrete, not
progressive
- Deep & Weathering/bad 4-3
progressive cracks construction joints
(in concrete)
- Longitudinal tilt Scour/Inadequate 3-2
section
- Horizontal cracks Inadequate section 3-2
ii) Ballast Wall
- Tilt/cracks (no Inadequate section 4
distress in main (of ballast wall)
abutment)
- Reduction of Shear failure (sliding) 3-2
gap at the end of abutment/scour
of girder movement of girder 4
c) TRAINING AND
PROTECTION WORKS
- Pitching damaged Flood 4-1
or washed away
- Toe wall damaged Flood 4-2
or washed away
- Apron damaged Flood 4-2
or washed away
- Earth work Flood/trespassing 4-2
section of guide
bund/spur reduced
d) BED BLOCKS
- Crushing of Failure of bed block 3-1
bed block under
bedplates
- Cracked bed block Failure of bed block 4-2

140
 - Cracks in Crushing of 4-2
masonry below masonry
bed block
- Loose/shaken Excessive vibration/ 4-3
bed-block improper pointing work
e) BEARING OF
GIRDERS
i) Sliding bearing
- Corroded but not Cleaning & greasing 4
seized not done
- Corroded and Cleaning & 3
seized greasing not done
- Irregular gaps Movement of girders 4
between bearing
strip and location
strips
- Sheared location Excessive 3-2
strips and/or Sheared movement of
anchor bolts girder/sliding or
tilting of substructure
- Impact at bearing Incorrect levels of 3
(floating) bed block
ii) Roller & Rocker
Bearing
- Corroded but Cleaning & 4
not seized greasing not done
- Corroded and Cleaning & 3
seized greasing not done
- Flattening of Failure 3-2
rollers (ovality)/cracking
- Impact at bearing Incorrect levels of 3
(floating) bed block
iii) Elastomeric
Bearings
- Tearing/cracking/ Inferior quality material, 4-1
bulging weathering

141
iv) All bearings
- Displacement Settlement/scour 4-2
under pier
f) SUPERSTRUCTURE
i) Arch
- Visible distortion Inadequate 3-1
in profile thickness of
(shown by disturbed arch ring
longitudinal levels
of parapet)
- Dislocation of Inadequate thickness 3-1
arch stones or bricks of arch ring
- Longitudinal Excessive lateral 3-2
cracks (no cracks thrust on spandrel
in pier) walls/differential
behaviour of arch ring/
inadequate cushion.
- Transverse cracks Overloading on arch 3-1
causing tension in
intrados.
- Diagonal cracks Overloading on arch 3-1
causing tension in
intrados.
- Separation of Distortion/shortening 4-2
ring at extrados of arch ring
ii) Plate girders
- Early steel Material 2
- Weathered paint Weathering 4
surface
- Flaking/peeling of steel Corrosion 4-2
- Distortion of Accidents/ 4-2
bracings inadequate section
- Distortion of stiffeners Overload 3-1
- Loose rivets at Overload/bad 4-2
floor system joints quality of rivetting

142
iii) Open Web Girders
- Early steel Material 2
- Weathered paint Weathering 4
surface
- Flaking and Corrosion 4-2
peeling of steel
- Distortion of Accident/inadequate 4-2
bracings section
- Distortion of Overload 3-1
stiffeners
- Loose (field) rivets at Overload/bad 4-2
floor system joints riveting
- Loose (field) rivets Overload/bad riveting 4-2
at main chord joints
- Progressive loss of Overload/bad riveting 3-1
camber (needs to be
reliably established)
iv) Pipes
- distortion of Inadequate design/ 4-2
section/Cracks weathering
- Sag Failure of pipe/ 4-2
settlement
v) RCC/PSC Slabs
- Map pattern surface Shrinkage of concrete 5-4
cracks (not progressive)
- Longitudinal Weathering/bad 4-3
cracks construction joints
- Transverse cracks Inadequate design/ 3-2
corrosion of
reinforcement
- Sag -do-
vi) RCC/PSC Girders
- Cracks in anchorage Inadequate design/ 3-1
zone of PSC girders defective construction

143
- Rust streaks along the Corrosion 3-2
reinforcement/tendons
- Spalling/crushing Construction 3-1
of concrete defect/weathering
- Diagonal shear Inadequate design/ 3-1
cracks in web corrosion
- Flexual cracks, cracks Inadequate design/ 3-1
at junction of precast construction
beam and in-situ slab defect/weathering
- Cracks in diaphragm Design deficiencies/ 4-2
weathering/
construction defect

144