قواعد الانجليزيه 2

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Dr.
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LITERATURE PRIMERS,
Edited by J. R. Green, M.A.
BNGLISH GRAMMAR,
'îttxidnu Prinwrs.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
BY THE
REV. RICHARD MORRIS, M.A., LL.D

PRESIDENT OP THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY,
Author of "Historical Outlines of English Accidence," "Elementary

Lessons in Historical English Grammar,'" &e.
JAMES CAMPBELL & SON.

1876.
Entered according to the Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one
thousand eight hundred and seventy-six by Jambs CaupbbUi
&i Son, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture.
HuNTBR, Robe & Co.

Printers,
Toronto.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER L
MGB
Relation of English to other Languages
Grammar and its
Sounds and Letters

Divisions .,--.,. . » , . i
7
8
Alphabet .it* . , , , , ., ,
10
CHAPTER H.
Parts of Speech , 12
On Parsing . . 14
On Changes that Words undergo . . . . -
^S
CHAPTER IIL
Nouns t • • 17
Gender
Number
Case
..••••••21
. •••••••
I
• • 18
24
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
PAGB
Adjectives . • 28
Comparison (..29
CHAPTER V.
Pronouns
Personal
••...•««• 3^
33
Demonstrative
Interrogative
Relative
.••••••• 3^
3^
37
Indetinite 39
CHAPTER VI.
Verbs 41
Voice 42
Mood 43
Tense 46
Strong and Weak Verbs 49
Classification of Strong
,, „ "Weak Verbs
Alphabetical List of Strong Verbs
Verbs
...... 50
54
58
,, ,, some Anomalous Weak Verbs . . 62

Anomalous Verbs 65
Be 65
Can. 66
Will 67
Owe, Dare 68
Have, Do 69
TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii
CHAPTER VII.
AdTerbs ••••i«ii«.74 FACa
CHAPTER VIIL
Repositions ••••.••, 76
CHAPTER IX.
(onjunctions •• •••••! 78
CHAPTER X.
Interjections ••#••*• 1 • 79
CHAPTER XI.
Word Making 80
English Suffixes 81
Compounds 83
Latin and French Suffixes 85
Greek Suffixes
Latin and French Prefixes

Greek Prefixes
....,» 88
88
90
CHAPTER Xn.
Syntax • « • • • 92
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XIII.
Analysis of Sentences ...>«.. PAGE

loi
Model of Grammatical Varsinijr , « , , ,

j
p»
PRIMER
OF
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
Relation of English to other Languages.
§ I. Every language has a history of its own, and it

may be made to tell us its own life, so to speak, if we
set the rightway to work about it.
There are two ways of getting at this history. The
first mode is by comparing one language with others
that are well known to us. The second is by study-

ing the literature of a language in order of time, or
chronologically, beginning with the very oldest written
books, and coming down and newest.
to the latest
The first method is one that you
or comparative
have no doubt tried yomrselves upon a small scale,
when you have noticed how closely our word house
resembles the German haus, or English thou hast the'
German du hast. You may have asked yourselves,
too, whether this likeness in words and in grammar
proves that one of the languages is borrowed from the
—
2 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [CHAP.
Other, as some have innocently supposed, or whether

both have come from one parent, and are, so to speak,
brothers or sisters.
But the English are quite as ancient a people as the
Germans, and their language is as old as German, if
not older, so that it would be decidedly wrong to
infer that the one language came from or was bor-
rowed from the other. So we are obliged to admit
that English and German are akin, or related to each
other, by having descended from a common parent.
§ 2. Scholars have carried out this comparison with

a large number of languages, and have shown us that
English is related, not only to German, but more
closely to Dutch, Danish, &c., and more remotely to
Welsh, Latin, Greek, Russian, Persian, Hindi, dr'e.
They have called these kindred tongues the Indo-

European family of languages.
They have grouped together, too, those languages
that most resemble one another.
The chief groups in Europe are
(i) Keltic, containing the Welsh, Irish, Gaelic, Manx, and

Armorican languages.
(2) Romanic or Italic, containing Zattn and the dialects

sprung from Latin, called the Romance languages
(Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese, &c.).
(3) Hellenic or Grecian, containing Ancient and Modem

Greek.
{4) Slavonic, containing the Russian, Polish, and Bohe-

laian languages.
—
L] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. 3
(5) Teutonic, containing (a) English, Dutch, Flemish.

(3) Icelandic, Swedish, Danish,
Norwegian.
[c) Modem German.
§ 3. They have proved
(i) That our language belongs to a group

called Teutonic.
(2) That English is most like Dutch, Frisian,
and Flemish. These, including English, are
called Lovsr-German languages, because
they were spoken originally along the low-
lying shores of the German Ocean and Baltic
Sea.
(3) That our language closely resembles Icelandic,

Danish, Nonvegian, and Swedish, called
Scandinavian languages.
(4) That it is also, as we have seen, much like
the modern German language which was at

spoken only in the highlands of Central
first
and Southern Germany, and hence called

High-German.
§ 4, History confirms the story told us by those
who have studied languages in the way we have
spoken of, for we know that the first Englishmen,
the Angles, came from the land of the Low Ger-
mans on and settled in Britain during
the continent,
the fifth century. England means " the land of the
Angles." We know, too, that there were other Low-
German tribes that came along with them, and spoke
—
4 PRIMER OF ENGLTSH GRAMMAR, [chap.
the same language. The Saxons were

the most im-
portant of these, and have names in their
left their
old settlements of Sussex, Wessex, Essex, and Mid-
dlesex.
§ 5. The second mode of arriving at the history of

a language by means of its literature is called the
historical method. We have a very long and complete
series of English works, written at different periods,
and going as far back as the ninth century (to the
time of Alfred). From these written documents of
the language we learn
(i) How English has changed from time to time,

and how many important events in the
history of the English people are bound up
with the changes that have taken place in
the English language.
(2) That we have gradually lost a large number

of grammatical endings or inflexions, which
we have replaced by using distinct words
for them, instead of adopting new endings.
At one time we could translate Lat. " bib-^ri?" by " drinc-o«,"

but now by to drink.
(3) That though we have lost very many of our

old English words, and have replaced them
by others of foreign origin, yet all the most
common and useful words, as well as all our
grammar, is thoroughly English, and is not
borrowed.
— — — ;
1.] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. 5
(4) That we have greatly added to our stock of

words from various sources, of which the
following are the most important :
1. Keltic words. We have a few words {crag,

glen,pooly mattock, ^'c.) which the old English settlers
took from the Keltic inhabitants of Britain, just as our
countrymen in America still retain a few words
borrowed from the native Indian tribes that once
peopled that continent.
2. Scandinavian words. The Danish Invasion

introduced some few Scandinavian words, as busk,
dairy, fellow, fro, gait, ill, same, till, are, &c.
3. Latin words. The bulk of our borrowed

words are, however, of Latin origin, and came into
the language at different times :
i. The old English invaders adopted the names

which the Romans had left behind in Britain
for a fortified paved road

station {castrd), a
[strata), and a rampart {vallum), which we
still retain in M.3Si-chester, Don-caster, &c.
street and wall.
ii. The Roman priests and monks, who brought

Christianity to our forefathers in the sixth
century, introduced some Latin words be-
longing to religion, worship, &c., as bishop,
priest, monk, mass, minister, &c., as well as
thenames of a few things they brought with
them butter, cheese, peasr, pepper, &c.
:
iii The Norman Conquest in 1066 was the means,

through French, of introducing fresh Latin
words much altered from their original form,
as caitiff, frail, feat {cp. captive, fra^le, fact).
iv. Through the Revival of Learning* the

Latin language became familiar to educated
men, and English writers introduced into
the language very many Latin words with
very little change of form. Hence we are
able to distinguish between the French Latin
and the later Latin words : thus poor, poison,
come through Norman-French, while /d!«/<r,
potion, come straight from the Latin, and are
due to English writers.
4. Greek words. We have also borrowed

many scientific and philosophical words from the
Greek language, as archceology, botany, physics, ethics,
music, &c
5. Miscellaneous words. There are miscel-
laneous words in our vocabulary from numerous other
languages. Our word tea is Chinese; canoe is American-
Indian ;
yachtis Dutch ; and cypher is Arabic, &c
'
This took p)ace in tlie dxtMnth cratnry.
— :
i.J GRAMMAR AND ITS DIVISIONS.
GRAMMAR AND ITS DIVISIONS.
§ 6. Language is made up of words.
Grammar tells us about the words that make up

a language :
I If we examine a word as we hear it, we find

that it consists of one or more sounds.
These sounds are represented to the eye
by written signs called letters,
ii Words may be put into classes, or classified
according to their distinctive uses. Words
sometimes undergo change when combined
with other words, or when they have some-
thing added to them to form new words.
iii. Words are combined according to certain

laws.
Hence Grammar deals with the following subjects
(i) Sounds and Letters : (Orthography.)
(2) Classification, inflexion, and derivation

(Etymology.)
(3) The relation of words in a sentence, and

the relation of sentences to each other
(Syntax.)
—
ORTHOGRAPHY.
I. Sounds and Letters.
§ 7. All sounds are not produced exactly in the

same way. Some sounds are produced by means of
the tongue and cavity of the mouth, which modify the
breath before it passes into the air, as a in father, i in
machine, 00 in fool, &c. These simple sounds are

called vowels.
Vowels were so called because they made distinct voices or
utterances and formed syllables by themselves. (Fr. voyelle, Lat.
vocalis. ) Two vowels sometimes unite to form a Diphthong, as
oi in boil, ai in aisle, &c.
§ 8. Other sounds are produced by the direct means

of the &c., which are called the organs of
lips, teeth,
speech. These sounds are called consonants, as

b, d, &c
Zz/>-sounds are called Labials ; to//^-sounds Dentals ; throat-
sounds Gutturals ; hissing-soxvadiS Sibilants.
Consonants (Lat. consonare, to sound along with) were so called
because they could not make a distinct syllable without being
sounded along with a vowel.
Some consonant sounds seem to have a little breath

attached to them and may be prolonged. Such sounds
are called spirants (Lat. spirare, to breathe), as f
th, &c.
The other consonants, in sounding which the breath
seems stopped, are called mutes or dttmb sounds.
Of the mutes and spirants some seem to have a
flat sound, and others a sharp sound, as :
b (flat) p (sharp) : z (flat) s (sharp)

—
I.] SOUNDS AND LETTERS.
I. Consonant Sounds.
MUTES.
PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap.
1 1 1.— Diphthongs.
i in high. ou in how, bound.

ai in aisle. tw in mew.
oi in boil.
The pupil must not confound the sound with the name of the
letter ;
" 3^" is only the name of the sign b, not the sound it
represents.
The Alphabet.
§ 9. An Alphabet is a collection of written signs
called letters.
The word Alphabet is derived from Alpha, Beta, the names of

the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. An old name for
our collection of letters was AB C.
There oughtbe as xnzny letters in a perfect alphabet
to
as there are sounds in the language. We have forty-
three sounds, which ought to be represented by forty-
three letters. Our alphabet is very imperfect, for it
consists of only twenty-six letters. Three of these

(r, qy X) are not wanted, so that we have really only
twenty-three useful letters.
(i) One letter has to stand for more than one sound, as s in
seas ; ch in chMrch, machine, chemistry ; g in girl and gin.
(see a, p. 9.)
(3) The same sound is represented by different signs ; as o in

note, 6oa.t, toe, crow, &c
(3) There are many silent letters, as in psalm, gnat, luncw,

calf.
(4) c, q, X, are called redundant letters : c may be represented

by s ox k, q by kw, and x by ks.
I.] SOUNDS AND LETTERS. xi
§ lo. Occasional Change of Sound in English.
Consonants are sometimes combined. If they are

unlike, one of them assimilates, or becomes like the
other. Thus, if the first is a sharp sound, the second,
if flat, will become sharp ; as weeped, yNQ.pt.
A. flat consonant must be followed by a flat conso-

nant, and a sharp consonant by a sharp one ; as,
I.
— (i) slabs, pronounced slabz,
{2) bathes „ bathz.
(3) hogged „ hugd.

lagged „ lagd.
II. — (i) slap-s.
(2) bath-s (gives a bath).

(3) sleeped pronounced slept.
lacked „ lackt.
The original sound of s was sharp, as in mousg,
(See Plurals of Nouns, § 22, p. it.)

PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap.
CHAPTER IL
ETYMOLOGY.
PARTS OF SPEECH.
§ II. Words are arranged in different Classes,

ACCORDING TO THEIR USE IN A SENTENCE.
1. Words used as names are called Nouns ; as,
yohn saw a snake in the garden.
2. Words used for Nouns are called Pronouns ;
as, / told John the snake would not hurt him or mCy
if he left it alone, to go its own way.
Words used with Nouns to distinguish or de-

3.
named are called Adjectives; as,
scribe the thing
The humble-bees are known by their large size and
hairy bodies, often of a black colour with orange bands.
Adjectives serve to modify the meaning of the noun to which

they relate. They may easily be found out by asking, " Of
what sortr " Hffw many ?" " Which ?"
4. Words used for stating what anything does or is

done to, are called Verbs ; One day John saw a
as,
rat come out of a hole ; he found it was hurt and

could not run fast.
n.] PARTS OF SPEECH. 13
5. Words used with Verbs to mark the when, wherCy

and how of what is done, are called Adverbs ; as,
The lark soars aloft, and always sings sweetly.
Adverbs maybe used with Adjectives and other Adverbs

to mark how, how much, how often, &c. ; as, My father is
quite well ; he is very seldoin ill ; he does not like to take too
much medicine.
6. Words used with Nouns (or Pronouns^ to join
them to verbs, adjectives, and other nouns, are called

Prepositions as, On Monday last, early in the
;
morning, as John was walking along the side of the

river, he saw a snake of a large size, which he
killed by striking it with his whip.
Prepositions join words together to show their bearing to

one another ; as, side — river ; side of the river.
The noun or pronoun with the preposition depends upon the

word to which it is j oined ; as, in "a man of wisdom," ofwisdom " '
'
depends on " man."

The preposition with noun is mostly of the same value as
its
an adjective or an adverb.Thus " a man of wisdom " = " a wise

:
man" (adj.) ; "he came on sAore"=:"he came ashore" (adv.).

Some p7-epositions cannot well be separated from the words
which they come before ; as, a-loft, in vain, at last, in deed.
We must parse these compounds as adverbs. (See 5 above.)
7. Words used to join sentences together are called
Conjunctions as. Birds fly and fish swim, but
;
worms creep along the ground, for they have no

power to do otherwise or else they would.
8. Words used to express a sudden feeUng are

called Interjections. They might be called Ela^-
clamations ; as, Oh ! Alas I
—
14 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap.
There are, as we have seen, eight Parts of

Speech :
1. Noun. 5. Adverb.
2. Pronoun. 6. Preposition.
3. Adjective. 7. Conjunction.
4. Verb. 8. Interjection.
On Parsing.
§ 12. When we say to what class or part of speech

& word belongs, we are said to parse it.
Wemust bear in mind that we cannot do this off-

hand, by merely looking at a word. We must ask
ourselves what duty it is doing in the sentence to which
it belongs, before we can parse it accurately.
The same word may be a noun in one part of a

sentence, an adjective in another, a verb in a third,
and so on ; as, John exchanged his silver watch for a
lump of silver, with which he meant to silver some
metal coins. The first "silver" is an adjective, the
second a noun, and the third a verb.
Cp. " I cannot second you in trying to get the second place
on the list without thinking a second or two about it"
"I learnt all my lessons but one, but that was very hard ; had
I had but more imc • toald have learnt it very well."
The first but — except, is a preposition ; the second joins two

sentences, and is therefore a conjunction : the third = only, is an
adverb.
The word that may be an adjective, a pronoun, or a conjunction.

"John said that that word that he had just parsed was a
pronoun."
n.] CHANGES OF WORDS. 15
As may be an adverb, a conjunction, or ^pronoun. " I am as

wise as my elder brother, who has had the same teaching as I
have had."
It must be recollected that some pronouns can be used as

adjectives ; as, "Thafs the boy that took that splendid book of
yours off your table."
Many words that are often used as adverbs may be used as

conjunctions. ^* Now all is ready, come now, and don't delay
a moment." "John was so naughty yesterday, he would climb
about, so he fell down."
On Changes that Words undergo.

§ 13. Some words alter their form to express a
change of meaning ; thus, child becomes (i) children,
to show that more than one is meant ; (2) child's, to
show that something is possessed by a child.
" We sleep," becomes " we slept," to show that the
action of sleeping is not now going on, but took place
in some time gone by or past.
Parts of Speech do not undergo a

All the
change of form, only the Noun, Pronoun, Adjec-
tive, Verb, and some few Adverbs.
These changes, called inflexions, are mostly brought
about by putting some additional letter or syllable to
the end of a word. These additions are often spoken

of as endings or suffixes.
I. The addition of a letter or syllable to the end of a word

often causes a change in the word itself ; as, sleep-ed becomes
(i) sleep-d, (2) slep-t; cp. gold and gild-en, nation and nitional^
goose and gosling.
,I6 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap.
2. The ending has sometimes disappeared altogether, and the

internal change does duty for an Thus, the word men
inflexion.
(for tnannis) has really lost the ending that brought about the
change ; cp. lead, led (once ledde) ; feed, fed {once fedde).
3. The loss of a letter in the middle of a word causes change ;
cp. e'er for ^/er. It is this change that explains made from
maked ; stile from stigel, &c.
§ 14. English has lost very many endings, but it is
not any the worse off on that account. It supplies
their place by what we may call relational words (or

words that carry us to some other word in the same
sentence). Thus instead of saying " a bafs wing,"
:
we can say " a wing of a batP Here of does duty for

the ending 'j.
We say " a lion-ess " to show that we are naming

the female. We might say " a j/z<?-lion," just as we do
always speak of " a she-\>f3xP The word she does '
exactly the same duty, and marks the same notion,

as the ending -ess.
In fact, these endings, which now mean little by

themselves, but modify greatly the words to which
they are added, were once independent words ; as, ly
in god-ly is only a corruption of the word like in god-

Wit.
—
III.] NOUNS: CLASSIFICATION. 17
CHAPTER III.
NOUNS.
I.—DEFINITION.
§ 15. A Noun is a word used as a name.
The word Noun comes from Fr. nom, Lat. nomen^ a name,
that by which anything is known.
II.—CLASSIFICATION.
§ 16. There are two kinds of nouns :
1. Proper.
2. Common.
A Proper Noun is the name of only one person
or thing in the same sense; as, Henry, London, Jupiter.
Proper means "belonging to oneself," not possessed by an-

other, peculiar to one thing.
A Common Noun is the name of each individual
in the same class or sort of things ; as, man, girl, city,

tree.
Common Nouns include what are called Collective Nouns

and Abstract Nouns.
(l) When a noun stands for a number (or collection) of persons
or things considered as one it is called a Collective

Noun; as, "a jury."
ig PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [CHap.
(2) When a noun isthe name of a quality, property, or action,

it is called an Abstract Noun as, whiteness, honesty,
;
Iffve, reading. The word abstract means drawn off

Abstract nouns are so called because they are the
names of qualities or states considered apart from the
objects to which they belong. "We see and speak of a
white flower, but we may think and speak of ê white-
ness alone.
The form of the verb with to before it is used as an abstract

noun; as"/0 play cricket is pleasanter than to learn
grammar,"
III.—INFLEXIONS.
§ 17. Nouns and Pronouns have inflexions to mark

Gender, Number, and Case.
i. Gender of Nouns.
§ 18. Gender is that form of the noun which

shows whether we are speaking of hving beings (males
or females), or lifeless things. The names of males
are called Masculine nouns. The names of females
are called Feminine nouns.
The word gender (Fr. genre, Lat. genus) means kind ox class.
It belongs only to words thus the person
: man is of the male sex,
but the word man is masculine or of the masculine gender.
TTie names of things without life are called Neuter

nouns, because they are of neither gender.
A noun that is either masculine or feminine is said

to be of the Common gender ; as parent (father or
mother), child (boy or girl).
When the masculine and feminine hare each a

—
III.] GENDER OF NOUNS. 19
distinct ending, then we have what is strictly termed

grammatical gender, as
Masc.
§ 19. Remains of Older Modes of Marking the

Feminine.
1, By the suffix -ster.
Spin-j/^r, the name of an unmarried woman, once

signified a female spinner.
In O.E. many masculines in -er had a corresponding feminine
in -ster : as,
Masc. Fern.
O. E. l^cec-ere =ha.ker, dcec-esire =ha.xter.
sang-en—sing-er, sang-estre— songstress.
In the 14th century the N. Fr. -ess took the place of the olde*
-ster as a feminine ending. After a time, -ster merely marked
the agent, as in songster zxA sempster ; then, to mark the femi-
nine, -ess was tacked on to -ster, as in song-str-ess, and semp-
str-ess.
2. By the suffix -en.

Vix-^, the old feminine oi fox (once pronounced
vox in some parts of England).
Irregular Forms.
Bridegroom ( = the bride's man) is formed from
the feminine bride. The word groom once meant
man.
Gander is formed from an old root, gans, a goose.
Drake ( = duck-king) is formed from the old roots,

end, a duck, and rake, a king.
Lady is the feminine of lord.
Lass { = lad-ess) is the feminine of lad.
Woman is a compound of wife and man.

BL] NUMBER OF NOUNS. 21
§ 20. As a substitute for suffixes of gender we can

make a compound term by putting a masculine or
feminine word to a noun of the common gender ; as,
^-goat, j^^-goat.
«/a;2-servant, wa/i!/-servant.
We have many distinct words for the masculine and

the feminine, the use of which does not belong to
grammar.
ft. Number.
§ 21. Number is that form of the noun or pro-

noun which marks whether we are speaking of one
thing or more than one.
When a noun or pronoun signifies one thing, it is
said to be of the Singular number.

When a noun or pronoun denotes more than one
of the same kind, it is said to be of the Plural
number.
§ 22. Formation of the Plural of Nouns.
General Rule. —The plural is formed by adding -s to

the singular j as, book-j-, bag-j, boy-j.
The letter s stands for two distinct sounds : (l) for the sharp
sound in book-j, and (2) for the flat sound z in bag-j, boy-x.
(See§ 10, p, n.)
Our plural s is a shortened form of O. E. as. Thus the plural

of smith was first smith-as, then stnith-es, and finally smiths.
22 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap
Modifications of the General Rule.
1. Singular Nouns ending in s, z, x, sh, soft ch,

j (all containing an s sound), form the plural by the
syllable es (pronounced ez) ; as gas-î-, box-^j, brush-^j,
church-<fj, judg-^x.
2. Nouns of English origin ending in f, fe, having 1
or any long vowel (except oo) before f, fe, change /

into V when adding the sign of the plural
Singular. Plural.
loaf, loaves,
wife, wives,
wolf, wolves.
The words life, -wife, were once written without the final t,
and the plural es made a distinct syllable.
3. Words ending in y (not preceded by a vowel)

form the plural by changing y into / and adding es; as,
Singular. Plural.
lady, ladies,
fly, flies.
§ 23. Remains of older Modes of forming the

Plural.
I. By change of vowel
Singular.
ni.] NUMBER OF NOUNS. 23
Ki-ne has two marks of the plural, change of vowel and the
suffix -en.
Childr-e-« and brethr-e-« are alô double plurals.
3. Some nouns have one form for the singular and

plural ; as, sheep, deer, switte.
§ 24. (i) Some words have two plural forms, one of which is
older than the other. They have different meanings.
Older form.
—
iii. Case.
§ 26. Case is that form of the noun {or pronoun)

which shows its bearing or relation to some other word
in the sentence, (See § 14, p. 16.)
The Teacher must first explain the Subject, Predicate, and Object of a
Sentence, before attempting to discuss cases. (See § ii8, p. lox.)
§ 27. When a noun {or pronoun) is the subject of

a sentence it is said to be in ^he Nominative
case, as yohn sings, / like to listen.
It is called the Nominative because it names the person or

thing that does or suffers the action stated by the verb.
To find the Nominative, ask a question by putting who or what

before the verb, and the answer will be the Nominative. Thus,
in the example above, if we ask " Who sings ?" likes?" "Who
The answers will htjohn and /, which are the Nominatives.
§ 28. When a noun stands for the person spoken to

or addressed, it is said to be in the Vocative case.
It has the same form as the Nominative, and is some-
times called the Nominative of Address; as, Father
come and look here Sir, do not be angry.
! O
§ 29. When a noun stands for the object of an
action it is said to be in the Objective case; as, John
killed a rat.
The Objective case of nouns isnow like the Nominative, but it

was not always so, and is not now so in the case of pronouns.
The Objective in English includes
ni,j CASES OF NOUNS. 25
(i) The direct object after a transitive verb ; as, "He

struck James. " "He hurt his foot " To find the direct
object, ask a question with wAo/n or w/ia( before the
verb, and the answer will give it, e.g. " Whom did he
strike?" " What did he hurt ? " James, foot, which
are the direct objects.
In Latin we should call the direct object the Accusative case.
(2) The indirect object, which is equivalent to a noun

with the preposition to or for before it ; as, "Givejohn
his book." "He bears Williams grudge," "Build
me a house." William = to William, /o^m = to John,
me = for me.
The indirect object answers to the Dalive in Latin

and
other languages. In O.E. was a suffix to distinguish
there
this case (in the singular and plural) from the direct object (or
accusative).
The form of the verb with io before it, when it denotes purpose, is an
indirect object. " What went ye out /i- .c^^ ?
" to see = for seeing.
(3) A noun after a preposition ; as, "He put his foot
on the ground." " He came from London," &c.
It must be recollected, that in English the preposition along

with a following noun is equal to a casefor7n in Latin.
§ 30. When a noun by its form denotes the pos-

sessor, it is said to be in the Possessive case ; as,
" the boy's book," " the cat's tail," " the smis rays." '
•
(a) The Possessive case is the only form of the noun

that
expresses a relation by means of an ending or
suffix.
The difference between the Nominative and Objective
must be thought out, the sense and position being our
guides in determining which is used.
{b) We use the Possessive case simply to mark possession.

It is chieflyused with reference to living things. The
preposition of is used instead of the inflexion in other
instances ; as, "The roof of the house ;" not, as we
could once say, "The hoiise's roof."
In old English this case corresponded to the Genitive in

German, Latin, &c. Nouns of time still keep it ; as, "a week's
supply " ; "a da/s journey."
§ 31. Formation of the Possessive Case.
The Possessive case is formed by adding 's to
the Nominative.
Singular man-'s
Plural men-'s
Exception. — Nouns forming their plural by S take

the apostrophe only.
Singular boy-'s sweep-'s

Plural boys' sweeps'
In the spoken language the possessive singular does

not differ from the possessive plural, boy's and boy^
being pronounced alike.
(a) Tlie apostrophe is really a mere written device for dis-

tinguishing the possessive case from the plural number
of the noun. It came into use about the 17th century.
Apostrophe means "turned away," and is so called
because it shows that something has been omitted,
cp. e'en = even. The real omisr.ion is the letter e ;
lord's and lordi^ were once written and pronounced

lord-es.
III.] CASES OF NOUNS. 27
{b) At one time it was supposed that 's meant his, and we
actually find some writers using such expressions as
" the king his crown."
The apostrophe is sometimes used to mark the loss of the

possessive sign in the singular, as ^^ Moses' law," "for
justice' sake." The sign '
is no real case form.
§ 32. Declension of a Noun.
Nominative
J
and >
Vocative )
—
aS PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap.
CHAPTER IV.
ADJECTIVES.
I.—DEFINITION.
§ 33. The Adjective is a word used with a noun

to distinguish or describe the thing named or spoken of.
Adjective (Lat. adjectivum) means "added to."
II.—CLASSIFICATION.
§ 34. Some Adjectives

express quality; as, large, tally
rich; others denote quantity or number; as, much,
little, few, one, both ; others again point out and limit
the thing spoken of ; as, " a book," " the man."
Hence there are three kinds of Adjectives :
1. Adjectives of Quantity.
2. „ „ QuaHty.
3. Demonstrative Adjectives.
Many of the pronouns are used as adjectives ; as, this, that^
tach, every, &c.
§ 35. The Adjectives an, a, and the are some-

times called Articles.
An or a is called the Indefinite Article, and the

the Definite Article.
An or a is used before a noun to show that any one

thing is spoken of ; as " an apple " = any apple.
j ;
IV. ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. 29
An drops 71 and becomes a before a consonant

as, " a book," " a history," " a yew-tree."
An is another form of the word one. Cp., " all of

a size = all oi-one size."
No, meaning not one, is used for "noi a;" as, "he is
no dunce."
The is used before a noun to show that some

particular person or thing is spoken of; as, " tke man,"
" t/ie boy."
Parse the as an adverb in "so much i'/î? more," " t/ie more
the merrier :" here the = iy that.
III.— INFLEXIONS.
§ 36. The Adjective once had inflexions to mark

ge7ider, and case.
nutnber, It now only changes its
form to mark comparison.
Comparison of Adjectives.
§ 37. The Adjective has three forms to express

Decrees of Comparison, the Positive, Comparative,
and Superlative.
The Positive is the adjective ill its simple form \
as, " a small boat," " a tall man."
The Comparative is formed by adding -er to
the Positive ; as, " a small-er boat," " a tall-er man."
It is used when two things or two sets of things are

compared, to show that one of them possesses the
quality in a greater or less degree than the other.
The Superlative is formed by adding -est to the

Positive; as, "the small-est boat," "the tall-est man."
It is used when one thing is compared with all

others of the same kind ; as, " John is the tall-«/ boy
in his class."
(fl)
When the Positive ends in a silent e, -r and -st only
are added ; as, large, large-r, large-St.
{b) When the Positive ends in y (not preceded by a

vowel), y is changed into i before the endings ; as,
happ^", happf-er, happj-est.
Words of more than two syllables, and most words

of two syllables, are compared by the adverbs more
and most; as, " more vaUant," " most valiant,"
The words that are compared by the inflexions (er and est)
are mostly pure English words.
§ 38. Irregular Comparisons.
'ositive.
IV.] ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. 31
loiter and last (the ones most changed) are the oldest, cp., near,
next ; elder, eldest.
Last is a contraction of an old form lat-st — lat-est.
Next a contraction of nighest (cp., O. E, nih-st, in which

is
the h was a sharp guttural, sounded as ch in loch).

Near was once comparative.
Elder, eldest have vowel change, as well as inflexion.
(2) The comparatives and superlatives in group (2) are all

formed from positives no longer in use.
Better comes from a root, bat = good (cp., our "to
boot"), with change of vowel, as in elder.
Best = bet-st - bet-est, cp. last.

"Wor-se comes from a root, weor = bad. The suffix
-se is another form of the comparative ending -er

Worst is shortened from worrest.
Less is formed from a root, las, meaning weak, infirm.
The suffix -s (= -se) is another form of the com-
parative -r.
Much once meant large, great.
The mo in rao-re and mo-st also meant great.

3. Farther and farthest are slightly irregular, a th
having crept in through a confusion with further (the com-
parative of the adverb forth.)
Rather is now an adverb ; it was once an adjective. Its
positive was rathe, meaning early.
Former is a corruption of an old forme, meaning first
(superlative of fore). The m is an old superlative
ending, still found in for-m-ost.
Most superlatives ending in -most contain two superla-
tive suf&xes, -m and -ost (= -est).
First is a superlative oifore — front ; c^.,fore leg, forehead.

O-ther contains the numeral one (from which the n has
gone), and a comparative ending -ther, cp. whe-tker.
Other once meant second; cp., every other day.

CHAPTER V.
PRONOUNS.
I. DEFINITION.
§ 39. The Pronoun is a word used for a noun.
A Pronoun can stand for an "equivalent to a noun," whether

itbe a phrase or sentence ^^ It mattered not to him whether it
:
were night or day." "/^" here stands for ^^ whether it were night
or day."
As the Pronoun stands for the noun, it always refers to some-

thing which has been named.
Many Pronouns are used as adjectives: (l) the Possessive

cases ;
some Demonstratives (3) some Relative and
(2) ;
Inter-
rogative Pronouns ; (4) some Indefinite Pronouns.
11. CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS.
§ 40. There are five kinds of Pronouns :•—
1. Personal Pronouns.
2. Demonstrative Pronoutia.
3. Interrogative Pronouns.
4. Relative Pronouns.
5. Indefinite Pronouns.
v.] PRONOUNS: PERSONAL. 33
I. Personal Pronouns.
§ 41. The Personal Pronouns are so called because
they name the persoji speaking, spoken to, or spoken
of. There are then three Persons :

—
1. The First, which denotes the person speaking;
as /, zoe, &c.
2. The Second, which denotes the person spoken

to ; as thou, ye, you, &c.
3. The Third, which relates to the person or thing

spoken of; as he, she, it, that, one.
Strictly speaking, the pronouns of the third person are not

personal pronouns ; thus he is demonstrative and has gender.
For convenience sake we may call it the pronoun of the third
person, not a personal pronoun ; one is an indefinite pronoun.
Declension of Personal Pronouns.
§ 42. Pronouns have more inflexions than nouns

for number and case.
The First Person.
Singular. Plural.
Nominative I we
Possessive mine, my our, ours
Objective (direct) me us
Objective (indirect) me us
B 3
34 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
v.] PRONOUNS: REFLEXIVE. 35
(2) Gender : t in i-t (O.E. once marked the neuter,

hi-t),
as in wha-t and tha-t. She was

once the feminine of
the definite article. The Old English for she was he-o,
from which he-r is formed.
Its is quite a modem form. The O.E. was hi-Sy which

we find in the authorised version of the Scriptures.
(A.D. 161I.)
They (with its cases) was once the plural of the, and
meant the and those,
§ 43. The Possessive cases of the Pronouns of the

three persons are now used as adjectives :
Singular: my, mine 5 thy, thine; his, her,

hers, its.
Plural : our, ours j

your, yours ; their,
theirs.
(1) Notice the use of mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs,
without a following noun ; as, It is mine, not yours.
(2) Notice that my, thy = Latin meus, tuus, not mei, tui,
which must be expressed hy of me, of thee.
§ 44. Self is added to the pronouns of the three

persons (i) to form Reflexive Pronouns; (2) to
express emphasis.
Singular: myself, thyself, yourself, himself,

herself, itself, oneself.
Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
(l) The Reflexives are used when a person does something to

himself; as, "I laid myself Aown," "he hurt himself."
In some old expressions the objective case of the simple
pronoun is used ; as, "I laid me down and slept," "he
sat him down."
(2) The compounds of self are emphatic in " I saw it »y-

self;" " he /^/wj^^ has done it, &c."
Formerly the dative was always joined to self; as himself,
not the possessive, as in myself, which used to be meself
(3) Self is sometimes a noun; as, " your innoceni self;"

."
"he thinks much of self
2. Demonstrative Pronouns.
§ 45. The Demonstratives are used in speaking

definitely of the thing named : as," fMs is the book I
want, but I should like which is on yonder table,
l/iaf
if it is not the sajne. I have never seen such books as

theser
§ 46. The Demonstrative Pronouns are this, that,

(with their plurals, these and those), same, such,
yon, self-same.
That was originally the neuter of the.
Such means " so-like :" / has been lost.
Yon has now become a mere adjective. The Scotch use
yon as a pronoun ; as, ^' yon's a grand house."
Self-same : self once meant sa7fie.
When such (= so), comes before an adjective, followed by the

conjunction that, it is used as an adverb. ,
He has such
great confidence that he will be sure to succeed. =
He has confidence so great that he will, &c. The use
of such in this way is a late usage.
3. Interrogative Pronouns.
§ 47. The Interrogative Pronouns are used in

—
isking questions : ^Who ? which } what ?
—
v.] PRONOUNS: RELATIVE. 37
Who is thus declined :
Nom. who \
Poss. whose f Masc. and Fem.
Obj. (direct) whom (Sing, and Plural.
„ (indirect) whom /
Who relates X.o persons; which to things ; what

always refers to things, unless it is used as an adjec-
tive : What book do you want ? What boy has got
my book ?
For the s in whose and the m in whom, see p. 34.
WTiich is made up of who and like, meaning who-like, or

what-like. It once related to persons ; as, " Our
Father, whuh Heaven."
art in It is also used for the
old word whether, which of two.
lA/'ha-t was originally the neuter of who. See p. 35.
Who-se is the possessive oinvhat as well as of who; cp.,

his once the possessive of he and it.
§ 48. Compound Relatives are formed by

adding -ever ; as, whoever, whatever, whichever,
4. Relative Pronouns*
§ 49. The Relative Pronoun is so called because it
relates or carries us back to some noun or pronoun

going before (and already stated), called the antecedent.
This is the house that I have built. Happy is the
man that findeth wisdom, and the man who getteth
understanding.
The Relative Pronouns are who, what, which,
that, as.
"
38 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [cHAP.
Who refers to persons ; which to animals and

lifeless thitigs ; that to person and thifigs.
What is used when the antecedent is omitted. It

means that which (or the thing which). " What I
have you are welcome to."

Do not call what a compound pronoun.
Who could be used for he who. " Who steals my

purse steals trash."
§ 50. As is used as a relative after same and such;

as, " This is the same as that ;
" " These apples are
very good, you may eat such as are ripe."
That was sometimes equivalent to tJiat which; as "We

speak that we do know.
That . ,ver follows the preposition that governs it ; as, " I
know the person thai you speak of."
§ 51. Compound Relatives are formed by

adding -ever and -soever to who, what, and
which ; as, whosoever, whatsoever, whichsoever.
Some adverbs (originally cases of pronouns) can be com-

bined with a preposition to do duty for relatives, though
they are not usually called such :
where-of = of which, of what

where-to = to which, to what
where-by = by which, by what,
there-of = of that.
&c., &c.
§ 52. The Relatives, with the exception of that

and as, were once Interrogatives only.
"
v.] PRONOUNS: INDEFINITE. 39
They are strictly so in all indirect questions: as, "Tell me

who has hurt you." " Ask him what is going on."
§ 53. The Relative "who is declined like the Inter-

rogative who, see p. 37.
5. Indefinite Pronouns.
§ 54. The Indefinite Pronouns do not point out and

particularize like the Demonstratives. To this class
belong one, none, any, some, each, every,
either, neither, other, another (all of which
may be used as adjectives) ; aught, naught, some-
body, something, nothing, anything.
One is the same word as the numeral one. The Fr. on is
the Latin homo.
None is made up of ne = not, and one.
Any contains the original form of one, seen in the article
an.
Some once meant one, a.
Ea-ch originally meant any one like (of two or more

things.) The -ch stands for -lich = like ; cp., which,
such.
Ever-y is a corruption of ever each, that is, "each and all
(of two or more things).
El-ther means any one of two. It can be used as a con-

Junction. Neither is the negative of either.
For the meaning of -ther see § 38, p. 31.
O-ther, one of two, see § 38, p. 31.
Aught means any whit or any wight. ( Wight = person,

thing ; cp. " an unlucky wight.")
Naught, nought is the negative oi aught = no whit.
The adverb not is a worn-down form of nought or naught.
40 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [cha-
Else in what else and something else is an indefinite pro-

noun, being tlie genitive of an old root el, meaning
other.
When else means otherwise it is a conjunction.
Something { — somewhat) ; anything ( = at all); nothing

(=not at all), are used as adverbs.
Certain and several are sometimes used as pronouns.

;
VI.] VERBS: CLASSIFICATION. 41
CHAPTER VI.
VERBS.
I. DEFINITION.
§ 55. The Verb is a word that states or asserts what

a thing does or is done to; as, " the fire burns" " the
child sleeps" " John is beaten."
II. CLASSIFICATION.
§ 56. Verbs are classified, according to their mean-

ing, into Transitive and Intransitive.
Transitive Verbs state an action that is not
confined to the doer ; as, " he iocks the gate."
Intransitive Verbs express an action that does

not go beyond the doer ; as, " the child sleeps" " he
behaves well."
Transitive raezxis passing over (Lat. trans-it-us), because in a

sentence containing a transitive verb the sense is not complete
unless the object to which the action passes over is stated
as, " the boy tore his coat."
When a verb that is usually transitive takes no object, it is used

intransitively; as, "the fire burns brightly."
Some intransitive verbs may be made transitive by means of

:
42 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [chap.
i preposition ; as, ^' he laughs," "he laughs-at me;" "the

river flozus" "the x\vtx flows over the land," = "the river
overflows the land."
All verbs containing the idea of to cause, or to make an action

take place, are called Causative verbs, and require an object
;"
"\\& fells the tree "="he cattsed th& tree to fall "he flies his
kite"="he causes his kite to fly."
Some transitive verbs are used reflexively ; as, "he turned
aside "= " he turned himself aside."
Transitive verbs used in a passive sense become Intransitive;

as "the vessel broke in two"= "the vessel was broken in two."
§ 57. Verbs used in the third person only are called

Impersonal Verbs ; as, methinks = it appears
to me; it seems good; it rams, &c.
III. INFLEXION.
§ 58. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Num-

ber, and Person.
1. Voice.
§ 59. Transitive Verbs have two voices; the

Active Voice and the Passive Voice.
A verb is in the Adive Voice when the subject

of the verb stands for the doer or agent of the
action ; as,
(i) "The boy struck the table."
A verb is in the Passive Voice when the subject of

the verb stands for the real object of the action ; as,
(2)
" The table was struck by the boy."
;
VI.] VERBS: MOOD. 43
The sentences quoted .''

>"ve ô-^ '•»'•'
t'ê "oc^ '' ''etennined
by the subject. If it is activ •& v { '^ ot, u . *ive ; if it
'•&
passive, i.e., suffers the action, as in ^^2), tae verb is passive.
In some languages this is shown by the form of the verb ; as,
Lat amatur, he is loved.
-ed are a remnant

In English the forms of the verb in -en and
and are always used along with the verb be
of the passive voice,
to form the passive voice ; as, "the cup which was broken has
been mended."
We have other roundabout ways of expressing the Passive

as, "the house is being built" or by the old phrase, "the
house ii a-building ;" a-building — on building,
2. Mood.
§ 6o. Mood is that form or modification of the verb
which marks the mode in which an action is viewed
or stated.
§ 6 1. There are three principal moods: (i) Indi-

cative, (2) Subjunctive, (3) Imperative.
When a verb is in any of these moods it requires a subject,
and is said to be a ^nite verb, i.e. limited by the conditions of
time, person, &c.
These are the only moods in English that have distinct forms
or are inflexional.
§ 62. The Indicative Mood is that form of the

verb that indicates or makes a direct assertion, or asks
some direct question ; as, He talks. Who talks f
§ 63, The Subjunctive Mood expresses possi-

bility, doubt, dependency \ as, " If he but blench I know
—
44 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [chaP.
my course." " For murder, though it have no tongue,

will speak."
This mood is called Subjunctive, because of its use in a sub-

joined or dependent sentence, as, "Love not sleep, lest it bring
thee to poverty." " If thou keep promise, I shall end this strife."
Here we see that bring and keep in the dependent sentences are
distinguished from the Indicative brings and keepest by their want
But the subjunctive once had its own endings, as
of inflexion.
in Latin. The subjunctive form of the verb is now seldom
employed. Its place is sometimes supplied by the use of the
verb should or would.
The conjunctions which were formerly followed by the sub-

junctive enable us to express doubt, condition, &c., without
employing the old inflexional form of the verb. These Conjunc-
tions are if, whether, provided, though, that, so that, lest, until,
till, ere, unless, except, which, however, are no parts of the sub-
junctive mood.
The verb to be has very distinct forms for the

subjunctive. See p. 65.
§ 64. The Imperative Mood is that form of the

verb that expresses a command or entreaty. **
Call
him back." ^^ Pardon my fault."
The Imperative contains the simplest form or root of the verb.
The plural imperative once had the suffix th to distinguish

it from the singular ; as, loveth = love ye.
The Imperative is only used in the second person.
In such expressions as "/^/ me sing," ''let him sing," parse

let as an independent verb, in the imperative mood. Do not parse
let sing as one verb.
§ 65. Other forms, not fijiite (see p. 43), are some-

times c;illedMoods. These are
)
VI.] VERBS: INFINITIVE MOOD. 45
1. The form of the verb with to before it, called

the Infinitive ; as, to sing.
The Infinitive once had no to before it, but was expressed

by the suffix -an ; as, drinc-an, to drink. The Infinitive
without to comes after the verbs, may, can, shall, will, dare,
must, &c, ; as, "he may be," "he will be," &c.
The Simple Infinitive is a noun in the nominative or objective

(direct) case :
" ^0 see is to believe," " he wants to see."
There is another kind of Infinitive called the Dative infinitive,

because it was originally the dative of the simple infinitive.
It is now often an indirect object. A house to let = a house
for letting ; easy to find = easy fior finding ; the cup I have to
drink [^= for drinking). It sometimes marks purpose, and is
equivalent to an Adverb ; as, he came to see me = he came for
the purpose of seeing me. {See p. 98.
2. The forms of the verb in -ed, -en, -ing, are

called Participles, and they are also used as adjectives.
" Then rode Geraint into the castle covit.
His charger trampling many a prickly star
Of sprouted thistle on the broken stones.
He look'd, and saw that all was ruinous.
Here stood a shatter' d z.rchwz.y plumed -with fern,
And here ha.d fall'n a great part of a tower."
These forms in -ed, -en, -ing, were called participles because

they participate of the nature of adjectives (in qualifying a noun)
and of verbs (in governing an objective case). The participle
in -ing once ended in -end, -and, or -itide.
Be careful to distinguish a noun in -ing from a participle in

•ing: this is a fine building (noun); he is building a house (par-
ticiple).
The form in -ing (O. E. -ung) is a noun in the following

passages The house is building
: — the house is a-buildingi
;
he is fond of building ( = of the building of ) houses ; he talked
of your coming here to-day ; he took to hunting. See Syntax,

p. 92.
The form in -ing is called the Present participle

the forms in -ed and -en are called Passive participles.
3. Tense.
§ dd. The form or modification of the verb used
to indicate tme is called Tense (Fr. Umps^ Lat.
tempus^.
Time may be considered as
1. Present,
2. Past.
3. Future.
There are three Tenses.

1. Present I speak.
2. Past I spoke.
3. Future I sha/I speak,

You wi7/ speak,
He wi'// speak.
The state of the action may be considered as
(i) Indefinite j as, I write.
(2) Progressive ; as, I am writing.
(3) Completed or perfect ; as, I kave written.
The words be, have, shall, will, which help to form tenses, are
called auxiliary verbs.
Each tense then has three forms, according to the

following scheme.
Notice that only the present and past tenses of the active voice,
indicative mood, are inflected tenses.
§ 67. An emphatic form of the present and past

tenses may be made by using do.
Present I do love.
Past I did love.
But it is not emphatic when used in interrogative

and negative sentences, but an auxiUary verb.
Do you hear f Did you listen f I do not hear. I
did not listen. (See note on Do, p. 72.)
4. Person and Number.
§ 68. The verb is Singular when it agrees with

a subject in the singular number, and Plural when
it agrees with a subject in the plural ; as,
Singular :
" he writes."
Plural :
" they write."
There are three persons (as in the pronouns, see

§ 41, p. 33), the first, the second, and the third.
The plural has no endings to mark person. We

know the person by looking to the subject ; as, " We
speak" ^^ you speak" " the boys speak" or " they speak."
The first person singular has no ending ; as, " I

talk."
The second person, which is seldom used, has -est

(-St) ; as, " thou talk-est."
;
VI.] VERBS: CONJUGATION. 49
The third person (present) has -s, with the old

form -eth ; as, " he talk-s," or " talk-eth,"
These endings belong only to the indicative mood.

The subjunctive has no person-endings.
We might do without any endings, because the personal pro-
noun marks the person.
These endings were once pronouns themselves. Cp. a-zw,
ar-^, &c
5. Conjugation.
§ 69. Verbs may be divided into two classes :
(i) Those that make their past tense by -d or-t ; as,
Present^ I love. Past^ I love-^.

I sleep. I slep-/.
(2) Those that make their past tense by changing

the vowel of the present \ as,
Present, I wr/te. Past, I wrf^te.
Verbs of the first class are called Weak, and those

of the second Strong verbs.
Be careful to notice that a strong verb adds nothing to the

past tense. Thus got, the past tense of get, is a strong verb
but tol-d, the past tense of tell, is a weak verb.
The change of vowel in the past tense of strong verbs, as fall,
fell, &c., must not be confounded with the shortening of the
vowel, as yd. feed zx\A fed [owct fed-de).
The Passive Participles of all strong verbs once ended in
-en but this suffix has fallen away in many verbs ; as, drunk
;
= drunken, &c. Passive participles of weak verbs end in -ed

(-d, -t); those of strong verbs never had this ending, and when
they take it they become weak ; as, he was tol-d (weak) ; he has
mown (strong) ; he has mowed (weak).
5° PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap.
§ 70. Classification of Strong Verbs.
Strong verbs are classified according to the changes of their
central vowels.
CLASS L
Pres. Past Pass. Part
a, o. e. a, O.
&U feU fallen
hold held held, holden*
blow blew blown

grow grew grown
know knew known
throw threw thrown
crow crew crown*
hang hung hung [hangen]*
beat beat beaten
Forms marked thus * ar« archaic.
Mow, sow, hew, once belonged to this class. Their strong

participles, mown, sown, hewn, are sometimes used.
Hang once made a past tense heng.
Go or gang has borrowed its past tense went from wend, to go.
Cone is a strong past participle.

VI.]
52 PRIMER
VI. 1
§ 71. Classification of Weak Verbs.

We may divide the weak verbs roughly into two
classes.
1. Those that have -ed^ -d, or -t in the past tense

and passive participle.
2. Those that have lost the -d or -/ in the past

tense and passive participle.
Class I.
We often write -ed, but we only sound it when the

verb ends in -d or -/, as mend-ed, lift-ed.
In all other cases it is pronounced -d or -/, as
dragged = dragd.
locked = lockt.
(i) This "//was once a separate verb and meant c&f. I loved
=1 love-did.
(2) -d becomes -t after a sharp mute (for reason see p. 1 1 ) and
sometimes after /, m, n, as slept, felt, burnt, dreamt.
(3) Some verbs shorten the long vowel in the past tense and
passive participle ; as, hear, heard ; flee, fled ; sleep, slept (see
§ 13, P- 15.)
(4) A few have not the same vowel in the present as in the
past.
{a) tell, tol-d, tol-d.
buy, bought, bought.
{b) teach, taught, taught.
work, wrought, wrought.
(5) Some have lost an internal letter ; as, made = maked ;
Aa^/=haved.
VI. J WEAJi: VERBS. 55
Class II.
I. Some verbs of this class shorten their vowel

in the past tense and passive participle, and look like
strong verbs.
feed, fed, fed.

&C., &C., &C.
3. Others ending in Id or nd change the d into /
m the past tense and passive participle.
builfl?', buil/, buil/.
sen^, sen/, sen/.

&C., &C., &c
3. A third kind ending \sx d ox t have the three

forms (present, past, and passive participle) alike.
rid, rid, rid.
set, set, set

&c., &c., &c.
All verbs of Class II. had an inflexion in Old English, e,g.
Past Tense. Pass. Part.
fi8d-de fed-ed = fed.
sende [= send-de] send-ed = sent

let-te sett-ed = set
As the verb in both conjugations is inflected only
in the present and past indefinite tenses, the forms of
the English verb are easily mastered

56
VI.] WEAK VERBS. 57
§ 73. II. WEAK CONJUGATION.

To Lift
Pres., lift. Past, VSt-ed. Pass. Part., lift-«/.
Present Tense.
Singular.
[N]
§ 74. Alphabetical List of Strong Verbs.
* The forms in italics ore WM/i. Those marked thus * are archaitm
Pres.
VI.]
6o PRIMER
VI.]
§ 75. Alphabetical List of Weak Verbs

apparently irregular.
Class I.
Pres.
VI.] LIST OF WEAK VERBS. 63
Pres,
64 PRIMER
VI.] ANOMALOUS VERBS. 65
§ 76. ANOMALOUS VERBS.

To Be.
Indicative Mood.
Imperative Mood.
Singular—be (thou). Plural —

^be (ye, you).
Infinitive, to be. Present Participle, \)Q-tng.

Will.
Indicative Mood.
68 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [ch\p.
Imperative Mood.
Singular —do (thou). Plural —do (ye, you).
Infinitive, to do. Present Participle, 6.Q-ing.
Passive Participle, do-«^.
§ 77. Remarks on Anomalous Verbs.

I. Be.
1. Am, art, is, are, are formed from an obsolete root as
to be. The na in am is identical with the pronoun me.
2. IRTas is the past tense of the old strong verb wes-an, to be.
The r in were represents an older s.
3. Bee-n shows that the old verb be was a strong verb.
4. We sometimes find, as late as the 1 7th century, the verb

be conjugated fully in the Present Indicative.
Singular. Plural.
1. I be 1. We be-n, bi-n, be
2. Thou bee-st, be'st 2. Ye be-n, bi-n, be
3. He be [be-th, be-eth] 3. They be-n, bi-n, be
5. When the verb is = exists, lives, it is not to be parsed as an

auxiliary verb (see § 66, p. 46).
2. Can.
This verb once signified "to know," "to be able," cp. to con,
cunning, uncouth.
Could. This form is weak. The / has crept in from false
analogy to should and would.
3. Shall.
I. "I shall" once meant "I owe," "I am bound to," "I
ought," " I must." It still has this sense in the second and
third persons. It is seen more plainly in such expressions as,
"you should be kind to one another."
2. Shall is only an auxiliary of the future in the first person,
and in interrogative sentences in the second person ; as, "shall

you go." It is an independent verb in the second and third
persons.
3. Should is a weak past form. When it means ought it

must be parsed as an independent verb. It sometimes has a
present tense. In such expressions as "should you see him"
(= if you see him) =
"if you shall see him," should must be
parsed as subjunctive past, used with the force of a present tense.
4. Will.
^Will once meant '•
to desire," "wish."
It is used as a sign of the future in the second and third per-
sons. It is an independent verb in the first person, and expresses
determination or purpose.
"Won't = wol not contains the Middle English form of will.
Would is a weak past tense, like should.
When will means to desire, exercise the will, it is conjugated
regularly. Wilt in this sense is often found for wiliest.
5- May.
May once meant "to be able" (cp., "Do what I may, I cannot
please him "). It expresses also permission.
It must be parsed as an independent and not as an auxiliary

verb.
In such expressions as " may they be happy," " teach me that

I Tnaybe able to learn," may is in the subjunctive mood.
Might is a weak past tense. It preserves the g of may, O.E.
•nmg.
6. Must.
Must is the past tense of an old verb, mot "to be able," "be
obliged." It expresses necessity, and is now used with a present
and future tense.
;
7. Ought.
Ought is the past tense of the verb owe. It has now a
present as well as a past meaning when used to express duty,
obligation.
Owe originally meant "to have" "to own" hence "^ have
as a duty."
When owe means " to have to pay," ^^
to be in debt" it is con-
jugated regularly: as, (i) owe, (2) owest, (3) owes ;
past tense,
owed.
8. Durst.
Durst is the old past tense of dare. When dare means to
challenge, it is conjugated regularly, and has dared for its past

tense and passive participle.
9. Wit.
The old verb to wit, " to know," makes its present tense wot
its past tense is wist. These forms are used in the English
Bible. To wit is the old dative infinitive, now used as an
adverb,
10. Have,
Hast = kai^st = havest.
Hath = ha'dth = haveth.
Has = hav^s = haves.
Had =hai/d — haved,
II. Do,
Did is not a weak form, like had, but a strong verb, being
originally the reduplicated perfect tense of do, cp. Lat. dedi.
It is used as (i) a tense auxiliary in negative and interro-

gative sentences; as, " I do not believe it ;^' Do you believe it?"
'^^
(2) To express emphasis " I do believe that he did do it."

:
I.] AUXILIARY VERBS. 73
12. Go.
Go has lost its true past tense. We supply its loss by the
verb went, the old past tense oiwend, "to turn."
Gone shows that go was originally a strong verb, cp. dont.
13. Let, in "let me go," is the imperative mood of the verb

let, to allow, permit.
14. The subjunctive mood of anomalous verbs, with the excep-

tion of the verb ^^to be," has no suffixes to mark person.
Auxiliary Verbs.
§ 78. The auxiliary verbs used for iormvagtenses are

be, have, shall, will, do. The verb to be is used for
forming the passive voice. To conjugate the verb in
all its parts, see tables, p. 47 and pp. 56, 57, 65 — 69.
CHAPTER Vn.
ADVERBS.
I. DEFINITION.
§ 79. An Adverb is a word that modifies the mean-
ing of a verb, adjective, or other adverb. (See page 13,)
II. CLASSIFICATION.
Adverbs may be divided into the following classes :
1. Adverbs of time. Wheni Then, now, often,
soon, &>£.
2. Adverbs of place. Where f Here, there^
whither; &•€.
3. Adverbs of manner. How 7 (i) Well, ill,
badly, so, thus. Degree, quality (2) ;

little, much,
quite, very. Affirmation, negation ; (3) yes, in-
deed, no, not.
4. Adverbs of cause and effect Why?

there/ore, thence^ wherefore, whence, &*c.
vii.] ADVERBS: INFLEXIONS. 75
III. INFLEXIONS.
§ 80. Comparison of Adverbs.

well
CHAPTER VIII.
PREPOSITIONS.
I. DEFINITION.
§ 82. Prepositions join words to mark certain
relations. See p. 13.
By means of prepositions we are able to express the relation

of things to other things, or the relation of things to their actions
or attributes. The most common relations expressed by pre-
positions zxe. place, time, manner, cause.
A preposition joins a noun {ox pronoun)
(i) to another noun (or pronoun) j There is a

book on the table.
(2) to an adjective; He is fond of his book.
(3) to a verb ; John goes to school in time.
II. CLASSIFICATION.
83. Prepositions are either simple or compound.
I, Simple :—
at, by, for, in, of, off, out, to, up, with.
—
Vin.] PREPOSITIONS. 77
2. Compound :
(i) af-ter, ov-er, un-der, throu-gh, b-tit, a-b-out,
a-b-dve, un-to, in-to, be-hind, with-tn, out of,
fro-m, for-th, out-side, inside.
(2) a-mong, a-gain, a-head, beside, be-yond,

a-thwart, be-twixt, a-round, a-long.
(3) From verbs (participles) ; owing to, notwith-

standing, except, save.
(4) We have many adverbial phrases ; as, in-
stead of, dose to, because of, on account of, in spite
of {= in despite of).
(5) Round — around ; down = a-down{— of down,

i.e. off or from the hill).
Nigh, near, nearer, next, since, are sometimes used as pre-

positions.
Past, the passive participle of the verb pass, is a preposition

in " I v/ent past the church."
—
78 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. ix.
CHAPTER IX.
CONJUNCTIONS.
I. DEFINITION.
§ 84. Conjunctions join sentences. See p. 13.
Sometimes they join two independent words together ; as,

*'
three and three make six"
II. CLASSIFICATION.
§ 85. Conjunctions are of two kinds :
1. Co-ordinate Conjunctions, which join two

independent sentences : and^ either, or, neither, nor^
but, also, moreover, besides (see § 126, p, 105).
2. Subordinate Conjunctions, which join a prin-

cipal sentence to another that depends upon it for
its full meaning : for, because, since, as, if, unless, lest,
that, whether, till, ere, hence, while, than, so, &c. (See
§ 130, p. 108).
Some conjunctions are used in pairs, and are called correlatives :
both —and, what—and, as well— as, either— or, &>€.
We use many compound expressions as conjunctions :
like wise, in order that, to the end that, so that, how be it,
although, albeit, nevertheless, however, "notwitlistanding,

whereas, provided that.
See Analysis of Sentences, p. loi.

!
CHAP. X.1 INTERJECTIONS. 7Q
CHAPTER X.
INTERJECTIONS.
§ 86. Interjectipns, being mere exclamations, do not

stand in grammatical relation to any other word in
the sentence. Oh ! Alas !
Many interjections are phrases cut short ; as, good-
bye ! = God be with you; marry ! = the Virgin

Mary ; wassail^ was (be) hale (healthy) ; cp., hail
all hail I welcome / adieu I
Many adverbs, prepositions, and even verbs, are used

as interjections % how t well / out I loon 1 behold I
8o PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap.
CHAPTER XI.
WORD-MAKING.
§ 87. A word that cannot be reduced to a simpler

form is called a root ; as, man, good, drink.
§ 88. Particles added to the end of the root are
called suffixes ; as, man-/)/, goo^-ness, drink-/;/^.
Suffixes are said to form derivatives ; as, man-/^,

is derived from man.
§ 89. Particles placed before the root are called

prefixes ; as, ««-man-ly, w/j--deed, &c.
Prefixes are used to form compounds ; zs,for-bid,
gainsay, &c.
Prefixes were once independent words. Many of them are
still so used: cp., /wzV-take = take a-mtss ; /on-know, know
before, wwoifr-stand, &c.
§ 90. Compounds are also formed by putting two

words together ; as, black-bird, ink-stand.
§ 91. Besides English suffixes we have very many

others that we have borrowed from French, Latin, and
Greek.
§ 92. These suffixes mark different notions and

relations. Some denote the doer or agent ; others
form abstract nouns; a few express diminution or
augmentation.
: : :
XI.] ENGLISH SUFFIXES. 8l
English Suffixes.
§93. I. NOUNS.
1. The Agent v
-er (-ar, -or) hzk-er, ; do-er, hegg-ar, li-ar,
sail-^r, cloth-i-^r, law-y-^r.
-en ;
(fem.) vix-en.
-ster ;
(fem.) spinsfer. It merely marks the
agent in song-sfer, malt-sier.
2. Abstract Nouns, marking siaê, action, con-

dition, being, &c.
-dom ; w'ls-dom, \img-dom.
-hood, -head ; goA-head, indsi-hood.
-ing learn-/«^, writ-/«^.
;
-ness ; good-ness, dark-«^w.

-red hat-r*?^, kind-rif^.
;
-ship intn6.-ship, lord-ship.

;
-th, -t ; heal-M, siesX-th, 'bxQz.d-ih, dep-Zyi,

md-th, heigh-/, drif-/, sigh-/.
3. Diminutives
-en ; chick-^;?.
-ing ; farth-z>f^, tith-/«^, shill-/«^, whit-/«^,

wild-/«^.
-ling ; dMcâ-ling, gos-ling.
-kin lamb-^?«, nscp-kin. "

J
§94. II. ADJECTIVES.
-ed (like, having) wretch-^^ boot-^^, : letter-^/,
-en (made of) go\d-en, vfood-en. :

"82 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap.
-ful {full of) tx\x\h-ful, kax-ful.:
-ish {somewhat like) gvcl-ish, wh\i-tsh. :
-ly (like) god-ly, good-ly, \o\Q-ly.

:
-like : god-like, vizx-lik^

-less (without) : shame-/<fj'^, hoMse-less.
-y {pertaining to, abounding in) : hill-_>', storm-_j'.
-some (full of) : gscme-some, -win-soMe.

-ward (turning to) : iro-ward, ?,oviih.-ward.
-teen, -ty {ten) ; nine-teen, twen-tj.
-th {order) : six-///, seven-//?.
-fold (folded) : twofold, ma,ny fold.

-ern (direction to) : east-^r«, north-(f;'».
§95. III. ADVERBS.
-ly (like) : god-ly, bad-Zy, on-ly.

-ling, -long (=-wise, -ways); flat-/m^, hea.d-long,
side-long.
-meal (division) : \inih-meal, piece-meal.
-ward, -wards (turning to) : hither-ward, up-
wards.
-wise (manner, mode) : other-wise, no-wise, like-
wise.
-way, -ways : a\-7vays, straight-a/oy.
-s, -ce, -St : need-j-, twi-^r^r, beside-j, whil-jA

-n : yfhe-n, the-n, the-«-ce, he-«-ce.
-om : se\d-om, whil-^m.
-.re : whe-r^, the-;r, he-rif.
-then whi-//?<rr, thit/ier, hi-t/ier.
(Seep. 75.)
: :
XI.] ENGLISH SUFFIXES. 83
§ 96. IV. VERBS.

X. Frequentative:
-k : tal-/^, har->J, stal-^f.
-le, -1 : dibb-le, spark-/*?, start-/*?, kneeV.

-er : ling-^r, flitt-^r, falt-^r.
a. Causative {making)
-en, -n : (aXt-en, short-<f«, length-<!w, lear-«
Some few Causative Verbs are formed from Intran-

sitive Verbs by vowel-change
Intransitive. Transitive.
fall, fell,
sit, set,
rise, raise,
&C. &c
§ 97. Compounds.
Two words may be joined together to make a new
word, as rail-road, steatn-boat, &c.
The accent of the true compound is on the first syllable j e.g.,
A crow is a black bird but not a blackbird.

The hyphen is used in writing to mark a compound; as,
passer-by, coast-line.
I. NOUN COMPOUNDSj
I. Adjective + Noun : black-bird, blue-bell.
a. Noun or Pronoun + Noun: noon-tide, shoe-maker^
heartsease, he-goat.
3. Noun + verb : tell-tale, scare-crow, dare-devil.
II. ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS
1. Noun + Adjective : sky-blue^ blood-red, foot-sore,

sea-sick, heart-rending, heart-broken.
2. Adjective + Noun: bare-foot.

3. Adjective + Adjective: blue-green, red-hot, new-
made, fair-haired, six-sided.
III. VERB COMPOUNDS.

1. Noun + Verb back-bite, way-lay. :
2. Adjective+ Verb white-wash, rough-hew. :
3. Verb + Adverb doff {do- off), don, (do- on).

:
For Adverb Compounds see p. 75.
§ 98. English Prefixes.
A- (on, in) a-bed, a-shore, a-b-out.

:
A- (out of, from) a-rise, a-wake, a-go. :
A- (of, off) a-kin, a-new, a-down.

:
After- (following) : after-noon, after-vidj:^

Al- (all) : al-one, lone, al-most, also.
At- (to) : a/-one, at-onement
Be- (by) : (i) It forms transitive and intensitive
verbs : ^^-speak, ^(?-think, ^^-dew, ^^-smear,
(a) It forms a part of some nouns, adverbs, and
prepositions : ^^-half, ^^-quest, ^^-low, ^^-neath, ^<f-sides,
ût.
For- (through, thorough) : /<;;^-swear, for-get, for-
bear.
Fore- (before) : fore-cast, fore-tell.
j
XI. LATIN AND FRENCH SUFFIXES. 8$
Forth- yorM-coming, for-yisx^.

:
Gain- (against) gain-say (cp., contra-diet).:
In- />i-come, /«-land, m-lay, in-to.

:
Mis- (amiss) mis-deed, mis-\ea.d, tnis-take.

:
Of- ( = off, from) o/-ia\, ^-spring. :
On- : on-set, on-waxd.
Out- : ouf-cast, out-let, ^«/-side, out-Xaxidx^h..

Over- (above, beyond, too): over-eaimg, over-ôvr,
over-hear, over-coat.
To- (to, for) : to-day, /i7-night, /^-gather, /(?-ward,
un-A?-ward.
Un- (not) : un-\me, un-trath., un-mse.
Un- (back) : ««-do, a«-bolt, un-tie.
Under- : under-go, under-mine, under-hand, under-
ling, ««^<fr-neath.
Up- «/-hold, up-shot,

: tt/>-right, «/-ward, up-on.
With- (against, back) : with-diayf, wiih-hold.
§ 99. Latin and French Suffixes.
I. NOUNS.
z. Agent;
-ain, -an : librari-flf«, viW-ain, artis-<3;«,
-ard : drunk-ar^ du\l-ard, mz-ard,

-ee : tws&t-ee, devot-ee.
-eer, -ier : engin-^^r, brigad-zVr.

-our, -er \
-or ( emper-<7r, govem-^z^r, preach-«r,
-tor ( robb-(f/, act-or, doct-<?r.
-sor /
:
-trix (fem.) : execu-Zr/jc, testa-//-/x
-ess : (fem.) : Xxon-ess, song-str-«j.
-ive : capt-zW, fugit-Zv^.

-iff: C3x\.-iff, plaint-^
-ant, -ent : merch-^;^/, gvant, stud-<r«/.
-ist : evangel-zV/, novel-zV/.
-ite, -it : Israel-//*?, Jesu-//.
2. Abstract Nouns (see p. 8i)
-age : cam-age, hom-^^^, xazxri-age.
-ance, -ence : endur-«w<?, ohtis-ance, obedi-

ence, ûxYty-ance, x\dd-ance.
-ancy, -ency : hxWM-aricy, exceW-ency.
-ess, ice, ise : \diXg-ess, xich-es, prow-<rjj,
. merchand-Zi-^, ]VLsX.-{ce.
-son : hexix-son, Tôi-son, xa.xi-som.
-tion : hexiedic-ft'on, po-//(?«, xedexnp-fion.
-sion : coxwex-sim, occa.-s/ofi, Tpxoces-si'on.
-lence : -pesti-knce, yio-Ience.
-ment : coxnxnsixid-menf, encha.xit-men/, nourish-

ment
-mony : ma.txi-mon/y, testi-monjy.
-our : co\-our, (av-oar, hoxi-our.

-eur : gxsLXid-etir, liqn-ettr.
-ry, ery : chival-rt^, jevvel-ry, poet-ry, surg-

ery, witch-ery.
-tude : longi-/«/^<?, xn.i\\ti-f?/de.
-ty : boun-/y, crueWy, frail-/y.
-ure creat-z/r^, vest-ure, t'oxfeit-ure.

:
-y felon-j/, victor-j", miser;^,

:
—
XI.] LATIN AND FRENCH SUFFIXES. 87
3. Diminutives :
-aster : poet-cj/ifr.
-el, le : parc-<?/, damsW, cast-/<r.
-icle, cule : dx\.-icle, ipsirt-tc/e, a.nima\-cu/e.
-ule : g\oh-i(/e.
-et, let : hatch-^/, lanc-i?/, pock-^/, brace-/-?/,

stream-/(?/.
-ette : etiqu-^//<f, coqu-^//<f.
II, ADJECTIVES.
-al loy-«/,
: xoy-al, equ-a/.
-an, -ain : cevt-ai'n, hum-an.

-ane : hum-a«(?.
-ant, ent : en-ant, ramp-a«/, pati-i?«/.
-ary : contr-ary, necess-ary, honor-rtrj;.

-ate : consider-«/£', deso\-ate, priv-ate.
-Lie, -alDle : sta-i^/i?, {ee-i/e, mov-al>/e, favour-

ad/e, la.ugh.-ad/e, eatable (edi-d/e).
-ese : Chin-ese, Malt-^J-^.
-esque hm\-es^tig, pictm-esûe, :
-He serv-//(f, frag-//«?.

:
-il, -le : civ-//, fra-//, gent-/<f.
-ine : div-/ne, inhnt-ine.
-ian : Austval-i'an, Christ-Z^z^.
-ive : a.ct-ive, cotxc-ive, spoxt-ive, td\\i-dX-ive.

-ose : Ytxb-ose, ]oc-ose.
-ous : dz-ngtx-ous, glori-^z^j, lepr-^^^j.
-ble : dow-ble, txe-ble.
-pie : ix\-ple, sixa-ple.
:
III. VERBS.
-ate : alien-«/^, assassin-aAr, accentu-«/<?.
-ish : flour-/V^, nour-/V^, pun-w^

-fy : magni;y3'> signi^^^'j simpli;^.
§ loo. Greek Suffixes.
I. NOUNS.
-Ic : log-/r, mus-?V.
-ism : idXdX-ism, barbar-/j»/, magnet-W'^?,
-sy :* drop-jj/, pal-jy/.
-sis : paraly-j-;j.
-y : monarch-j'.
-isk (diminutive) : aster-/V^, obel-w/5.
II. VERBS.
-ise, -ize : civil-w, fertil-w, anathemat-w.
*
§ loi. Latin and French Prefixes.
A-, al)-, aI)S- (away, from) ; «^-normal, fl^-dicate,

a<5j--tract, abs-%\.zxn, a-vert, dt-d-vance, &c.
Ad- (to)
By assimilation ad becomes ac-^ of-, ag-, aU, am-, an-, ap;

ar; as-, at-.
ad-join, ad-yert, ac-cept

Ante- (before): d:«/^-chamber, anfe-date.
Bene- (well) dene-fit :
Bi- (two), bis- (twice) : /^/-ennial, di-ped, ^/V-cuit.
Circum-, circu- (around) : circum-sta.ncQ, drcu-it.

* Norman- French 'bnn of -sis.
:
XI.] LATIN AND FRENCH PREFIXES. 89
Com-, con-, co- (with)
By assimilation, col-, com-, cor-,
f^;«-mand, r(7/z-tend, ft7-eternal, colAtoX^ cor-rect
Contra-, counter- (against) : contra-diet, counter-

act, counter-it\X.
De- (down) : </^-part, ^<?-scend, de-ioxva..
Dis-, di- (asunder, not) : ^/i--cord, ^w-honour, dis-
please, rt'/j'-like, dif-itx.
Demi- (half) : demi-god.

Ex-, e- (out of, from) : ex-dlt, ^-lect, ^jc-mayor.
Extra- (beyond) : ^x/rdt-ordinary, extra-woxk.
In-, en-, em- (in, into, on), with verbs : in-vext,
tm-pose, //-lumine, en-x'ich, i?;z-dear, ^;//-balm, ^;«-bolden.

In- (not) : /w-cautious, //-legal, /w-piety, /r-regular.
Inter-, intro- ] / -.i^- \ .( z>//i?r-course, i?itro-duce.
Enter- J ( ^;^/^r-tain, e?iter-px\se.
Male-, mal- (ill, badly) : /««/<?-factor, mat-txea.t.
Mis- (from Lat. mmus, less) : ?;«'j--chief, w/i--fortune.
Non- (not) «^«-sense, ;z^;2-existent.

;
Ob- (in front of, against) od-}ect, : oc-cnipy, of-fex,

<?/>-pose.
Par-, per- (through) : /^r-force, /^r-spire, J>er-}uxe,

par-doxi, pel\\xc\d, J>o/-lute.
Post- (after) : /^j/-date, /^j/-script
Pre- (before) : pre-dict, /r^-face.
Pur- (forth) : /«r-chase, pur-vcy.

Pro- (forward, forth, for) : pro-]ect, /r^-pose, pro-
noun.
Re- (back, again) : r^-claim, re-join, re-act, renew.
Retro- (backward) : r^/w-spect, r^/w-grade.

Se- (apart, away) : j-^-clude, j^-parate, j<f^-ition.
Semi- (half) : setni-cxxoSs,.
Sub- (under) : j-«(5-ject, suc-cgwx^ siif-iQX, sug-gt^t,

sub-covamiXXtQ, sus-tom.
Super, sur- (above, over, beyond) : super-slmctuxt,
sur-fa.ce, sur-pass.
Subter- (beneath) subter-ixxge. :
Trans- (across) trans-figwxe, frans-foxxa.

:
Tra-, tres- (across): tra-vexse, /r^j'-pass.

Ultra- (beyond) ultra-WbexsX, ?///r^-marine.
:
Vice-, vis- (instead of) vlce-xQgQni, m-count, :
wV^-roi.
§ I02. Greek Prefixes.
Amphi- (about, on both sides) : ampJU-theatre,

anip/n'-hious.
An-, a- (not, without ; Hke EngUsh an-) : an-axchy,
a-pathy.
Ana- (up to, again, back) : a;/a-tomy, ana-logy.
Anti-, ant- (opposite to, against) : ««//-christ,
a/i/-arctic,
Apo- (away from, from) : apo-logy, apo-stxophe.

Arch-, archi- (chief, head) : «/r/!-heretic, arcA-
bishop, ar^/«'-tect.
Auto- (self) : auô-gxaTph, «?^/^-biography.

Cata-, cat- (down) : â/a-ract, i:a/-hedral.
Dia- (through) ^//iC7-meter, dia-]ogi\e.

:
Di- (in two) ^//-syllable, ^/-phthong.

: f'
XI.] GREEK PREFIXES. 91
Dys- (ill) : ^J-peptic, ^'j-'entery.

Ec-, ex- (out, from) : i?^-odus, (f^r-centric.
En- (in) : ^^-thusiasm, ^z^z-phasis, (f/-lipsis.
Eu- (well) : <fe/-phony, ifZ'-angelist.
Epi- (upon, or) : epi-\.oxi\t, ep-och.

Hemi- (half) : hemisphere.
Hyper- (above, over, beyond) : ^y/>er-cnt{ca\, hyper-
bolical.
Hypo- (under) : hypo-Qx\\.e, ^j^^-thesis.
Meta- (after, across) : w^/rt;-morphosis, w<f/-aphor,

mef-onymy.
Mono- (single, alone) : mono-gra.ph, mon-axchy.
Pan- (all) : /d;;/-theist.
Para- (beside) : para-Tphrase, para-hle, par-ody.

Peri- (around) : peri-meier, /m-plirases.
Pro- (before) : />ri9-gramme, /r<?-logue.
Syn- (with): ^«-thesis, xy^-tax, jy;//-pathy, syi-
lable.
D 2
—
CHAPTER XII.
SYNTAX.
§ 103. Syntax teaches us how words are put to-

gether in a sentence. It treats of the right use of the
parts of speech and their inflexions.
The chief combinations of the Parts of Speech

are :
1. A verb and its subject ; as, ^^

Time flies!*
2. An adjective and its noun ; as, "A good man."
3. A verb and its object; as, "John hurt the
dog:'
4. An adverb and the verb, adjective, or adverb
to which it is joined. See examples on p. 13.
The first, which shows the relation of the Predicate to its

subject, is called Predicative combination. (See § 118,
p. lOI.)
The second 1% called Attributive combination. (See p. 103,

for the different modes of .ex]:)iessing an atbibiite. )
The third is called Objective combination. (See pp. 42,

104.)
Th& fourth is called Adverbial combination. (See pp. 74,
104, loS.)
XII.] SYNTAX. 93
§ 104. I. Verb and Subject. (See p. 104).
1. A finite verb is in the same number and person

as its subject ; as,
/ think We think
Thou think-est You think
He thinks They think
The verb must agree with its subject in number
and person.
I thinks would be wrong, because / is of the first person and
thinks of the third.
The subject of a finite verb is said to be in the

Nominative case.
2. The verb to be takes a Nominative case after it as

well as before it ; as,
'^
He is a king •'^
" The king is a child."
Some verbs are used lilce the verb to be in this respect as, ;
^'h.e becatne a. bankrupt /' '^h.Q seems a.n idiot;" "he is called a.
poet;" " he is tnade a knight."
3. When two or more subjects in the singular

number are joined together by the conjunction and,
the verb must be put in the plural number j as,
" John and William are good boys."
4. Two or more singular subjects joined by or or

nor take a verb in the singular number ; as, " John
or William, or James is going with me." " Neither
John nor William is going."

(1) Or originally meant eitJier (see p. 39). It implies any
one of two, or an alternative.
(2) When two nouns are of different numbers or persons the

verb must agree with the latter. "Either he or I «;« right."
" Neither John nor his brothers have cotne.''
5. When is a collective and singular

the subject
noun the verb is sometimes put into the plural ;
" The jury were dismissed." " The multitude were

divided."
When the collective noun refers to a number of things con-
sidered separately, then the verb should be in the plural number.
If the objects denoted by the collective noun be regarded as a
whole, the verb should be singular ; as,
(i) The jury (each of them) were dismissed. *

(2) The council (as one body) has chosen its president.
§ 105. 2. Adjective and Noun.
1. When the adjective is used after the verb to be
it is said to be used predicatively ; as, "The wound

is mortal" When put close to the noun (before or
after it) it is said to be used attributively; as, "He
received a mortal wound."
The adjective is used predicatively after the verbs become, seem,
appear, turn, &c. (See p. 93.)
2. A noun
pronoun) used as an attribute to
{or
another noun, signifying the same thing, is said to be
in apposition with it ; as, " William the Norman
conquered England " (= " the Norman William con-
quer'd England").
The word Norman is in apposition to William, and agrees
with it in number and case.
2. Sometimes the preposition (^ comes before the appositional

word ; as, the county of Rutland = the county Rutland.
Xii.] SYNTAX. 95
A noun {or pronoun) in the Possessive case stands

in the relation of an attribute to another noun.
Sometimes the preposition of marks the same re-
lation as the sign of the possessive case (see p. 26.)
" Eye of newt and toe offrog.

Wool of bat and tongue of dog,
Adder's fork and blind-ivornCs sting,
Lizard's leg and hoivlefs wing."
Macbeth iv. I.
§ 106. 3. Verb and Object.

I. Direct Object.
1. The direct object of a transitive verb is put in

the Objective case ; as, " The lightning struck the tree
and made it wither." (See p. 25.)
2. The verbs teach, ask, forgive, tell, 6^^., take two
Objectives, one of a person and the other of a thing.
" He taught his pupils history. " They asked him his
name.'''
The verbs to make, name, call, esteem, 6-r., take two

Objectives of the same person or thing ; as, " They
made him king." " They called 'yohn a traitor."
3. Intransitive verbs often take an objective case,
akin in form or meaning to the verb itself " : He
dreained a dream." " They way."
zvent their
The Objective case is sometimes used after intran-
sitive verbs to express (i) time —how long "i (2) space —
how much ? " The battle lasted the whole day." " He
slept three hours." " I walked two Piiles a day,"
The Objective case follows some few impersonal

verbs, as it did in Old English ; as, it repents me; me
lists ; it ails me; it irks me ; it recks me; it concerns
us; it grieves me.
2. Indirect Object.
The Indirect Object comes after many transitive
and intransitive verbs. It may be known by asking
the question to ox for whom or what? (See p. 25.)
" He built me a house." " Give me my book."
The Indirect object is used with the impersonal
verbs, become, behove, please, likes, beseem, &'c. ; cp.,
methinks it seems = me; methought

to it seemed to =
me. " Good actions become us." " It behoved Christ
to suffer." " If it please you; or, \i you please."
The Indirect object follows the adjective worth; as,
" woe worth the day." In imitation of this we have,
" woe is me ;" " well is him."
The words like (and unlike), nigh, near, next, are followed by
the Indirect object. " He is like z. giant. ''^ " He was nea7- its."
Many adjectives (as well as by the
verbs) are followed
preposition to, and the governed noun may be treated as the
indirect object ; as, dear to, cruel to, fair to, siniilcti' to, obedient
to, equal to.
The adjectives worth unworthy) are sometimes

and worthy (also
followed by the Indirect Object; not worth one's tohile.'"
as, "it is
In O. E. these adjectives, like many others, governed the geni-

tive case, cp. the adjectives, slow of, swift of, hard of, weary of,
worthy of, guilty of, fond of, proud of, ashamed of; and the verbs,
think of, smell of, taste of, laugh at (originally laugh of).
The genitive was once used with the adjectives long, high,
iiroaJ, &c. as, " the box was six yards long, and six feet broad,
;
aiiU ten inches high;" " the boy is iôyea7-s old."

XII.] SYNTAX. Q7
§ io;. 4. Adverb and Verb, Adjective,

or Adverb.
Adverbs, as we have already seen (p. 74), are
joined to verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, to express cer-
tain relations ol time, place, manner, cause, and effect.
The adverb is not ahvays a simple word. It is

often (i) a phrase, (2) clause or sentence; as,
1. "He went on shore"
•'He came down step by step"
2. ' The day having dawned we set out."
" When the day dawned we set out."
(See § 130, p. 108.)
MISCELLANEOUS RULES.
1. Pronouns.
§ 108. The relative agrees with its antecedent in

number and person ; as, " theboy who was late was
punished ; " " He that is contented is happy " " O ;
thou /"//a/ leadest Israel."

The reiativ.e does not always agêe in case with its relative.
" He .• lom we worship, by whose gift we live, is the Lord."
As the relative introduces a new must depend
clause, its case
upon its relation to the verb in its own
In the example
clause.
quoted above, who'K is objective, because governed by the transitive
*' Tell me whom
verb worship. I am " is wrong it ought to ;
be, ''Tell me who 1 am." " Do you know who you speak to,"
ought to be, " rô you know whom," &c.
§ 109. The Indefinite Pronouns, each, every,
either, neltViCr, ar^ singular, and must be followed
by a verb and pronoun in the singular. " Each person
knows his own property." " Every bird tries to pro-
tect its young." " Either of the two is to be taken."
D 3
;
2. Verbs,
§ no. The Indicative Mood states a positive

fact, and is used in simple assertions and questions.
(See p. 43.)
§ III. The Subjunctive Mood is used to express
a doubt, supposition, opinion. The inflected subjunc-
tive has nearly gone out of use. It is still found
after such conjunctions as if, unless, though, lest, till
as "i/" fortune serve me, I'll requite this kindness."
" For murder, though it have no tongue, will speak."

" Let me stand here //// thou remember it." (See p. 43.)
§ 112. Infinitive Mood.

The Infinitive Mood is used after the verbs shall,
will, may, can, must, dare, let, do, without the sign to
before it ; as, " he can read" " he will talk."
1. The infinitive without to occurs after the transitive verbs

bid, make, see, hear, feel.
2. used after go; cp., '^go seek," which
It is is sometimes
changed to "go and seek."
The gerundial infinitive is the infinitive with the
preposition to (=for) before it, used after nouns and
adjectives; as, "a house to let" " ready /<? ^^," "hard
to tell." Here the injinitives are equal to verbal nouns
with the preposition for ; as, to let =^for letting, &c.
The gerundial infinitive is also used to mark a pur-
pose ; as, " What went ye out to see?"
The gerundial infinitive is so called because it often corre-

sponds to a gerund in Latin.
The simple infinitive must be either in the nomi-
native or objective case; as, "A? err is human" (nom.);
*•
he began to err" (obj.).
xu.] SYNTAX. 99
§ 113. Participles.
Participles in -ing and -ed are used as adjectives,

and always refer to some noun in the sentence to
which they belong. They may be used attributively
or predicatively (see p. 45); as, "a loving mother 3"
" a drunken man /' " a bruised reed."
Participles {and Adjectives) with the before tliem are used as

nouns ; as, "the living •" "the dead ;" "the first begotten;" "the
Lord's anointed."
The Participle is sometimes used absolutely with

the Nominative case before it as, ''The dawn appear-
;
ing, we rose ;" " This done, Mazeppa spread his cloak."
The participle is said to be used absolutely because it stands in

no grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence.
The nominative before the participle is called the Nomina-
tive absolute, because it agrees with no finite verb.
§ 114. Verbal Nouns.
Verbal Nouns in -ing. These must not be

confounded with present participles in -ing.
Verbal nouns are used either as nominatives or
objectives.
(i) The mending of the table will not take long.

(2) The mending must be done at once.
(3) The table wants mettding.
(4) The cost of mending the table will not be
great.
ICO PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap.
The verbal noun mending in (4) seems to govern the noun

table but in older English the preposition of came between
:
the verbal noun and the following noun, and the phrase would
would have stood thus " The : cost of the mending of the table.''*
See example (i), p. 99.

In such phrases as,
'
' The house is building, " &c. ( = " the house
is a-building"), the form in -ing is a verbal noun.
3. Prepositions.
§ 115. Prepositions are said to govern the objective

case (see p. 25.)
Notwithstanding, considenng, respecting, &c., \<'ere once

participles used absolutely (see p. 99). They have now got the
force of prepositions.
4. Conjunctions.
§ 116. Conjunctions simply join sentences. They

must be carefully distinguished from (i) Adverbs,
(2) Prepositions.
Some words, as save, except, but, e're, are used both

as Conjunctions and Prepositions.
But is used as three parts of speech (see p. 14).
(1) "I cannot but believe."

Here not but must be taken together as a compound
Adverb = only.
(2) In " There is no one but knows," but stands for the older
English, that ne — that not. It must be parsed as a Conjunction.
Cp., "No roof arose, but was open to the homeless stranger"
= *'
No roof arose that was not," &c.
—
xiii.J ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
CHAPTER XIII.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
§ 117. A complete thought put into words is called
a Sentence.
Senteiue (Lat., sententia)means judgment, sense. A complete
sentence makes complete sense. Every sentence expresses either
an assertion or a question, command, wish, &c.
To analyse a sentence is to break it up into its separate parts.
§ 118. Subject and Predicate.

We can break up every sentence into two parts :
The name of that of which we speak.

1.
2. What is said about the thing spoken of.
The name of that which is spoken of is called the

Subject.
\\Tiat is said about the subject is called the
Predicate.
Subject. Predicate.
Com grows.
Rain falls.
Snow is white.
Every sentence must contain these two parts. Sometimes the
subject is omitted as, Go — go [thou].
;
Subject. Predicate.
thou go
——
PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [CHAP.
§ 119. The Siibject.
As the Subject names something that is spokep

of, it must be :
1. A Noun. (See p. 17 for the various kinds of

nouns.)
2. Some word or words that may take the place
and do the duty of a noun, as a Pronoun or
a Sentence.
Examples :
) — ;;
rjJI.] ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 103
Enlarged Subject. Predicate.

(i) Sharp words give offence,
(2) A virtuous man will be rewarded.
§ 121. Instead of adjectives we may use words,
phrases, or sentences, to qualify or enlarge the sub-
ject. These are called Attributes, and may be :
(i) A noun or pronoun in the possessive case

as, "John's hat is lost ;" " his coat is torn."
(2) An adjective phrase ; as, " A man of wisdom

is respected ;" "A walk in the fields is pleasant/'
" A desire to learn is to be encouraged."
(3) An
adjective sentence ; as, " John, who is a
carpenter, made this box."
(4) A shortened adjective clause, called a noun

in apposition ; as, "John, the carpenter, made
this box."
whether they come before or after the noun, are
Participles,
adjectives; "rolling stones gather no moss," or "stones,
as,
rolling continually, gather no moss."
§ 122. The Predicate.

The Predicate is that part of the sentence that
makes a statement about the subject. It must there-
fore contain the chief verb of the sentence. When the
predicate is a single word it is a verb; as, "Dogs bark."
The verb "to be," when it does not mean to live, or exist,
cannot form a predicate. We must therefore join some word to
it make the predicate ; as, " the earth is round."
to
Here we predicate of the earth, roundness, not existence
cp., " The lion is a noble animal."
Other verbs, like become, seem, &u, require another word after
them to form the predicate. (See pp. 93, 94.
I04 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [CHAP.
§ 123. When the Predicate consists of more than a

finite verb it may be called the Enlarged predicate;
as, " The village master taught his little school."
When the simple predicate is a transitive verb an

object must of course be added (see § 59, p. 42).
Subject. I Predicate. I Object.

The village master | taught | his little school
(l) The object must be a noun, or some word doing duty for
a noun. It may have attributes joined to it See Subject,

p. 102.
Some verbs have two objects, (l) direct, {2) indirect ; as.
Subject. I Predicate. Object.

j
They |
gave | him (indirect) a book (direct).
Others have two direct objects :
Subject. I Predicate. | Object.

They |
made |
him a king.
Some writers on grammar call the object the Completion of the

Predicate, or the Complement of the Predicate.
§ 124. The verb may be qualified by an Adverb, or

some viôrd or words (phrase or sentence) doing duty
for an adverb. This addition to the predicate is called
the Extension of the Predicate or Adverbial
qualification of the Predicate ; as,
Subject.
—
XUI.] ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. lOS
§ 125. The Extensions are nothing else than ad-

verbial adjuncts or qualifications of the Predicate, and
they may be put into the same classes as Adverbs
(see p. 74), according as they mark the when, where^
how, diXidiwhy of the Predicate.
Examples :
Subject.
" —
lo6 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chac,
simple sentences may be united together by a co-

ordinate conjunction (see p. 78) to form a compound
sentence ; as, ''^ Birds fly zxidifish swim."
Each member of the compound sentence makes
complete sense byitself, and neither depends upon
the other for its meaning. The second member of a

compoimd sentence is said to be co-ordinate with the
first.
(i)Compound sentences may be contracted as, "John re- ;
turnedhome and James returned home yesterday "= "John and

James returned home yesterday,
(2) And is often used to join two or more co-ordinate terms
belonging to the same word in the sentence ; as, that new and
expensive toy is spoilt.]
Subject. I Predicate.
That new and expensive toy I is spoilt.
§ 127. The Complex Sentence.
We have seen that a sentence may do duty for (i) a

Noun, (2) an AcJjective, (3) an Adverb. As such
sentences depend upon another sentence called the
Principal one, for their full meaning, they are hence
called Subordinate sentences. Subordinate sen-
tences are of three kinds, Substantival, Adjec-
tival, and Adverbial. The principal sentence,
with the subordinate part or parts, is called a Com-
plex Sentence.
In the complex sentence, "They lived unknown, till perse*
cution dva^^cd thcui into fame," the two sentences are :
xiiL] ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 107
(i) " They lived unknown."

{2) " Persecution dragg'cl them into fame."
Each sentence as it stands makes complete sense but the full :
meaning of sentence two is not felt before it is joined and related

to sentence one by the connecting word or conjunction till,
1. Houn-Sentences.
§ 128. A Substantival or noun sentence does the
duty of a noun, and may be used as the subject or
object of the verb in the principal sentence. It is
sometimes introduced by the word that; as, (subject)
" Thai Jûlius Ccesar invaded Britain is a well-known
fact /' (object) "he tried to prove that the earth is not
round."
Indirect questions are often objects ; as,
'
' Tell me who said
so," " Ask him why he did so," '*
Can he explain how it is done,"
2. Adjective-Sentences.
§ 129. The Adjectival sentence does the duty of
an adjective and qualifies some noun in the principal
sentence.
It is very often joined to the principal sentence by means of a
^ elative pronoun or relative adverb.
(i) At daybreak on a hill they stood that over-

looked the moor.
(2) And shall the audacious traitor brave

The presence where our banmrs wave.
In (i) the adjective sentence qualifies the noun hill in the
principal sentence.
In (2) the adjective sentence qualifies the noun presence in the
principal sentence. Notice that where = in which.
—
lo8 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap.
3. Adverb-Sentences.
§ 130. The Adverbial sentence does the duty of
an adverb, and modifies some verb, adjective, or adverb,
in the principal sentence.
The classification of adverbial sentences is the same

as that of adverbs (see p. 74). Adverbial sentences
are generally joined to the principal sentence by a
subordinate conjunction (see p. 78).
Examples :
" On Linden, when the sun was low,

All bloodless lay the untrodden snow."
" We went where the lions were kept." " He died as

he had lived." " That man is as good as he is great.**
« He is taller than his brother." " The higher he
climbs the more heavily he will fall." " The weather.
was so cold thai I was nearly frozen,**
A subordinate member of a complex sentence may stand in

the place of piiiicipal to some other subordiiiate sentence, thft^
modifies one of us elements. [See (2) p. iia]
XIII.] ANAJ:.y.^,lS OF SENTENCES, 109
u: tj H
3 "^
V Ji
§^
<u-S
is
<3 3
w ^ »,
to ^ o
•4 ^
PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chai.
of
Predicate)
Adverbial
Adjunct.
(Extensiop
the
t2
'^
XIII.] ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
;
tI3 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap.
§ 132. MODEL OF GRAMMATICAL PARSING.

I. Noun: — i. ^/W (Common, Proper) j 2. Aûm-
ber ; 3. Gender ; 4. Case; 5. Syntax.
II. Pronoun :
— i. Kind (Personal, Demonstra-
tive, &C.) ; 2. Person; 3. Number; 4. Gender ; 5. Case;
6. Syntax.
III. Adjective : — i. Kind; 2. Degree of Com-
parison; 3. Function (attribute of, or predicate of ).
IV. Verb : —
Kind (Transitive, Intransitive)
i'.
3. Conjugation (Strong, Weak) 3. Voice; 4, Mood; ;
5. Tense; 6. Person; 7. Number; 8. -Sy^z/ajf (agreeing

with) ; 9. Parts ; (Present, Past, Passive Participle).
V. Adverb —
i. Kind; 2. Degree of Comparison;
:
3. Function (qualifying Verb, Adjective, or Adverb).

VI. Preposition : — i. Kind; 2. Function (joining
a Noun to a Noun, &c.).
VII. Conjunction : — i. Kind; 2. Function (join-
ing t".vo sentences co-ordinately or subordinately).
Example.
My father lived at Blenheim then,
Yon little stream hard by ;
They burnt his dwelling to the ground.

And he was forced to fly.
My ... Pronoun, personal, possessive, 1st person,

singular number, common gender, attribute
di father.
Jather ... Noun, common, singular number, masculine

gender, nominative case, subject of lived.
xnt.l PARSING. "3
lived ... Verb, intransitive, weak conjugation, active

voice, indicative mood, past tense, 3rd
person, singular number, agreeing with its
%\xh]tci father.
Parts : live, lived, lived.
at ... Preposition, joining /jVf^ and ^/^«^«'»«.

BLiheim ... Noun, proper, singular number, neuter gender,
objective case, after at
then ... Adverb of time, qualifying the verb lived.
Yon ... Pronoun, demonstrative, used as the attribute

of stream.
little ... Adjective of quality, positive degree, attribute
of stream.
strfam ... Noun, common, singular number, neuter

gender, objective case, governed by the
compound preposition hard by.
They ... Pronoun, demonstrative, 3rd person, plural
number, common gender, nominative case,
subject of burnt.
burnt ... Verb, transitive, weak conjugation, active

voice, mood, past tense, 3rd
indicative
person, plural number, agreeing with its
subject they. Parts : btirn, burnt, burnt.
hit ... Pronoun, demonstrative, possessive, 3rd per-

son, singular number, masculine gender,
attribute of dwelling.
dwelling ... Noun, common, singular number, neuter

gender, objective case, governed by the
transitive verb burnt.
t» ... Preposition, joining ^«r«^ and ^<7«Mfl?.
thi ... Adjective, demonstrative, attribute of ô««rf.
^raund ... Noun, common, singular number, neuter gen-

der, objective case, after the preposition to.
" :
»4 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [t;«A^
^«^ ... Conjunction, co-ordinate, joining

the two len-
rcnccs, "They Dtrmt,"
&c., to "He wan
forced to fly.
^ ... Pronoun, demonstrative, 3rd

person, singular
number, masculine gender, nominative
case,
agreemg with the verb was forced.
was forced ... Verb, transitive, weak, passive
voice, indica-
tive mood, past tense, 3rd
person, singular,
agreemg with its subject he. Parts
-.force'
forced, forced.
tojiy ... Verb, intransitive, weak, infinitive mood, in-

direct object, after was forced.
§ 133 Examples of Analysis of Sentences not

in a Tabular form.
(See § 131, p. 109.)
I. My worthy friend, Sir

Roger, when we are talking
of the mahce of parties, very frequently
tells us an
ccident that happened when he was
a school-boy.
A.
My worthy friend, Sir Roger, very frequently tells us
accident
• The verbs was Âforced may be parsed «eparately as follows

was .. Verb, iutransitive. strong, auxiliary,
indicative mood, past
tense, 3rd person, singular, agreeing
with its subject Ae.
/tna ^ Verb, transitive, weak, passive participle
of the verb force
fonmug wiUx viat a passive past tense.
XIII.] PARSING. IIS
•
B.
(when) we are talking of the malice of parties
C
that happened
D.
(when) he was a school-boy.
A. Principal sentence.
B. Subordinate, Adverbial (time) to tells in A.
C. Subordinate, Adjectival to accident in A.
D. Subordinate, Adverbial (time) to happened in C
A.
Friend
My worthy, Sir Roger,
tells
us
an accident
very frequently
1 16 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [chap.
2. I had worn out all the waistcoats I had,

' and
my business was now to try if I could not make jackets
out of the great watch-coats which I possessed, and
such other materials as I had.
A.
I had worn out all the waistcoats
B.
[that] I had
C.
(and) my business was now to try
D.
(if) I could not make jackets out of the great watch-coats and
SHch other materials
E.
(which) I possessed
F.
as 1 had.
A. Principal ; co-ord. with C.

B. Subord. Adject, to waistcoats in A.
. C. Principal co-ord. with A.
;
D. Subord. Noun (obj.) to try in C.
E. Subord. Adject, to waistcoats in D.

F. Subord. Adject, to materials in D.
I Subject.
had worn out Predicate. 5
waistcoats Object.
all the Attributes of Object
till.]
u8 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
[jv
CONTRACTIONS.
O. E. = Old English.
Fr. = French.
N. Fr. = Norman-French.
^
JO.
iA
' \
3
-J
-a
CA
PRIMER
%t\tUtt — Edited J'u Vr.nrv,
INTRODUCTORY : pEi)v
'^ '
7 T T,T T '^ TRV ; PFOFKSSf»R J xr-^nt., I
}lSSt>B B.VLFOUR ST£

g i-HYSiCAL (jEOGRAPI-r.' . T'. <
GKOI.OGY: Pf<orr>!Sf.n A
OPE: E. A. Fkeeman, D.(\ '

i
< , L AND : J, R. Geben, M.-\

GREECE! 0. A. Fytfe, M.A.
ROME M. Creiohtok, M.A.
:
FRANCE Charlotte M. Yonge. :
ENGLISH GRAMMAR: Rev. T: M

ENGLISH LITERATURE:
LATIN LITERATURE: . . ^
i
'
-K LITERATURE : R. ' '
SPERE: rnniT.>,S0K D'..

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'ERATURF

R ,;-»k "T"^ T.---r-

REV. RICHARD MORRIS, M.A., LL.D

Author of "Historical Outlines of English Accidence," "Elementary

JAMES CAMPBELL & SON.

HuNTBR, Robe & Co.

Sounds and Letters

,, ,, some Anomalous Weak Verbs . . 62

AdTerbs ••••i«ii«.74 FACa

Latin and French Prefixes

Analysis of Sentences ...>«.. PAGE

Model of Grammatical Varsinijr , « , , ,

Relation of English to other Languages.

§ I. Every language has a history of its own, and it

that are well known to us. The second is by study-

2 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [CHAP.

Other, as some have innocently supposed, or whether

§ 2. Scholars have carried out this comparison with

They have called these kindred tongues the Indo-

The chief groups in Europe are

(i) Keltic, containing the Welsh, Irish, Gaelic, Manx, and

(2) Romanic or Italic, containing Zattn and the dialects

(3) Hellenic or Grecian, containing Ancient and Modem

{4) Slavonic, containing the Russian, Polish, and Bohe-

(5) Teutonic, containing (a) English, Dutch, Flemish.

§ 3. They have proved

(i) That our language belongs to a group

(3) That our language closely resembles Icelandic,

(4) That it is also, as we have seen, much like

the modern German language which was at

and Southern Germany, and hence called

the same language. The Saxons were

§ 5. The second mode of arriving at the history of

(i) How English has changed from time to time,

(2) That we have gradually lost a large number

At one time we could translate Lat. " bib-^ri?" by " drinc-o«,"

(3) That though we have lost very many of our

1.] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. 5

(4) That we have greatly added to our stock of

1. Keltic words. We have a few words {crag,

2. Scandinavian words. The Danish Invasion

3. Latin words. The bulk of our borrowed

i. The old English invaders adopted the names

for a fortified paved road

ii. The Roman priests and monks, who brought

iii The Norman Conquest in 1066 was the means,

iv. Through the Revival of Learning* the

4. Greek words. We have also borrowed

i.J GRAMMAR AND ITS DIVISIONS.

GRAMMAR AND ITS DIVISIONS.

§ 6. Language is made up of words.

Grammar tells us about the words that make up

I If we examine a word as we hear it, we find

iii. Words are combined according to certain

Hence Grammar deals with the following subjects

(i) Sounds and Letters : (Orthography.)

(2) Classification, inflexion, and derivation

(3) The relation of words in a sentence, and

§ 7. All sounds are not produced exactly in the