Business Revision Guide

Also by the same author
Economics for the IB Diploma Revision Guide
Build revision skills through a range of

strategies and detailed examiner advice
Cover all the syllabus requirements and topics
with concise, clear explanations
Demonstrate what is required to get the best
grades with tips, sample questions and model
answers
9781471807183
Economics for the IB Diploma Paper 3 Workbook

FOR THE
IB DIPLOMA
Presents the questions in context of their

Economics topics for better understanding of the syllabus
requirements and knowledge
Paul Hoang
PAPER 3
Plenty of practice with exam-style questions
WORKBOOK
and actual exam questions, covering all the
assessment objectives and mathematical
calculations needed
Mock exam at the end of the book consisting of
full 25 mark questions
9781471851322
FOR THE
IB DIPLOMA
Business
Management
Study and Revision Guide
Paul Hoang
868429_FM_IB_BusMan_RG_00i-viii.indd 1 19/01/2016 07:43

Dedication
This book is dedicated to Mrs Smith, my wonderful primary school teacher who taught at
Fonthill Junior School, Bristol, UK.
Acknowledgements
My deepest thanks and love to Kin, Jake and Luke for always being there for me.
My heartfelt thanks to So-Shan Au, my Publisher and a fellow Arsenal fan, for her dedication,
support and guidance throughout the many projects we have worked on.
Finally, my sincere gratitude also goes to Anson Miu and Joyce Tong, outstanding students
who provided me with invaluable feedback from the perspective of IB learners.
The Publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright
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Text credits
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Contents
How to use this study and revision guide v
Getting to know the exam vi
Assessment objectives and command terms vi
Countdown to the exams viii
Unit 1 Business organization and environment

1.1 Introduction to business management 1
1.2 Types of organization 6
1.3 Organizational objectives 12
1.4 Stakeholders 18
1.5 External environment 21
1.6 Growth and evolution 25
1.7 Organizational planning tools (HL only) 31
Unit 2 Human resource management

2.1 Functions and evolution of human resource management 36
2.2 Organizational structure 45
2.3 Leadership and management 52
2.4 Motivation 56
2.5 Organizational (corporate) culture (HL only) 65
2.6 Industrial/employee relations (HL only) 67
Unit 3 Finance and accounts

3.1 Sources of finance 74
3.2 Costs and revenues 79
3.3 Break-even analysis 82
3.4 Final accounts (some HL only) 86
3.5 Profitability and liquidity ratio analysis 92
3.6 Efficiency ratio analysis (HL only) 94
3.7 Cash flow 97
3.8 Investment appraisal (some HL only) 101
3.9 Budgets (HL only) 105

iv Contents
Unit 4 Marketing
4.1 The role of marketing 108
4.2 Marketing planning (including introduction to the 4 Ps) 114
4.3 Sales forecasting (HL only) 119
4.4 Market research 122
4.5a The 4 Ps: Product 130
4.5b The 4 Ps: Price 135
4.5c The 4 Ps: Promotion 138
4.5d The 4 Ps: Place 143
4.6 The extended marketing mix (7 Ps) (HL only) 146
4.7 International marketing (HL only) 148
4.8 E-commerce 152
Unit 5 Operations management

5.1 The role of operations management 157
5.2 Production methods 160
5.3 Lean production and quality management (HL only) 162
5.4 Location 167
5.5 Production planning (HL only) 169
5.6 Research and development (HL only) 174
5.7 Crisis management and contingency planning (HL only) 176
Glossary 179

How to use this study
and revision guide
Welcome to the Business Management for the IB Diploma Revision and Study Guide!
This book will help you plan your revision and work through it in a
methodological way. The guide follows the Business Management syllabus topic
by topic, with revision and exam practice questions to help you check your
understanding.
Features to help you succeed
CUEGIS CONCEPTS EXAM PRACTICE Expert tip

These provide you with activities Exam practice is given for both These tips give advice that will help
and essay questions to help prepare Papers and for the type of you boost your final grade.
you for the Paper 2 Section C questions you might get – short
component of the final examination. data questions, definitions, and
Have a go at these to consolidate mathematical calculations, and Keyword definitions
your understanding and application extended response questions, with The definitions of essential key
of the conceptual lenses used in suggested answers online. Use
terms are provided on the page
Business Management – change, these to consolidate your revision
culture, ethics, globalization, and to practise your exam skills.
where they appear. These are
innovation and strategy. words that you can be expected to
define in exams.
You can keep track of your revision by ticking off each topic heading in the book.
Use a checklist to record progress as you revise. Tick each box when you have:
revised and understood a topic
used the Exam practice questions and gone online to check your answers.
Use this book as the cornerstone of your revision. Don’t hesitate to write in it and
personalize your notes. Use a highlighter to identify areas that need further work.
You may find it helpful to add your own notes as you work through each topic.
Good luck!

vi How to use this study and revision guide
Getting to know the exam

Exam paper Duration Format Topics Weighting Total marks
Paper 1 (SL) 1 hour 15 mins Pre-release case study All 30 40
Paper 2 (SL) 1 hour 45 mins Structured questions All 45 50
Paper 1 (HL) 2 hours 15 mins Pre-release case study All 35 60
Paper 2 (HL) 2 hours 15 mins Structured questions All 40 70
At the end of your Business Management course you will sit two papers – Paper 1 Expert tip
and Paper 2. The external exams (Paper 1 and Paper 2) account for 75% of the
final marks. The other assessed part of the course (25%) is the Internal Assessment SL students must include
documentary evidence of their three
(IA) which is marked by your teacher, but externally moderated by an examiner.
to five supporting documents in the
Here is some general advice for the exams: IA, otherwise you will score zero
marks in Criteria A and C.
Make sure you have learnt the command terms (e.g. evaluate, explain, outline,
etc.); there is a tendency to focus on the content in the question rather than
the command term, but if you do not address what the command term is Expert tip
asking of you, then you will not be awarded full marks. Command terms are Spend time learning the key terms
covered below. featured in the case study as definition
questions will appear in the Paper 1
If you run out of room on the page, use continuation sheets and indicate
examination. Also, use the Business
clearly that you have done this on the cover sheet.
Management syllabus to guide you in
The fact that the question continues on another sheet of paper needs to be determining the topics that are likely to
clearly indicated in the text box provided. be tested in your Paper 1 examination.
Plan your time carefully before the exams.

Expert tip
Assessment objectives Students do get a formulae sheet in

the final exams, but it is still worth
and command terms spending revision time learning the
formulae for all quantitative elements
To successfully complete the course, you have to achieve certain assessment of the syllabus, such as ratio analysis
(Unit 3.5 and 3.6). For HL students,
objectives. The following table shows all of the command terms, with an
the relevant discount factors will be
indication of the depth required from your written answers. provided in the final examination if
an investment appraisal question
Define AO1 Assessment objective 1 These command terms
(see Unit 3.8) is asked.
Describe AO1 Demonstrate knowledge require students to learn
and understanding and comprehend the
Outline AO1 meaning of information.
State AO1
Apply AO2 Assessment objective 2 These command terms

Comment AO2 Demonstrate application require students to use
and analysis their knowledge and skills
Demonstrate AO2 to break down ideas into
Distinguish AO2 simpler parts and to see
Explain AO2 how the parts relate
Interpret AO2
Suggest AO2
Compare AO3 Assessment objective 3 These command terms

Compare and AO3 Demonstrate synthesis require students to
contrast and evaluation rearrange component
ideas into a new whole
Contrast AO3 and make judgements
Discuss AO3 based on evidence or a
Evaluate AO3 set of criteria
Examine AO3
Justify AO3
Recommend A03
To what extent AO3

How to use this study and revision guide vii
Annotate AO4 Assessment objective 4 These command terms

Calculate AO4 Demonstrate a variety of require students to
appropriate skills demonstrate the selection
Complete AO4 and use of subject-specific
Construct AO4 skills and techniques.
Determine AO4
Draw AO4
Identify AO4
Label A04
Plot AO4
Prepare AO4
Source: IB Diploma Business Management Guide 2014
Each section in this study and revision guide starts with the syllabus content and
the relevant assessment objectives (AO1 to AO4). Use these as a guideline to the
level of depth needed when studying and revising the various components of the
Business Management Guide.
Command terms indicate the depth of treatment required for a given assessment
statement. Assessment objectives 1 and 2 address simpler skills, assessment
objective 3 relates to higher-order skills, whilst assessment objective 4 refers to the
skills of selecting, using and applying Business Management skills and techniques.
It is essential that you are familiar with these terms, so that you are able to
recognize the type of response you are expected to provide as well as the depth
your response should be.

viii How to use this study and revision guide
Countdown to the exams

Four to eight weeks to go My exams
Start by looking at the Business Management syllabus and make sure
you know exactly what you need to revise. Paper 1
Work out a realistic revision plan that breaks down the material Date:……………………………..
you need to revise into manageable pieces. Each session should be
around 25–40 minutes with breaks in between. The plan should Time:……………………………..
include time for relaxation.
Read through the relevant sections of this book and refer to the Location:………………………...
expert tips, CUEGIS concepts boxes, key definitions and worked
examples. Paper 2
Tick off the topics that you feel confident about, and highlight the
Date:……………………………..
ones that need further work.
Look at past papers. They are one of the best ways to check Time:……………………………..
knowledge and practise exam skills. They will help you identify areas
that need further work. Location:………………………...
Try different revision methods, e.g. summary notes, mind maps and
flash cards.
Test your understanding of each topic by working through the exam
practice questions.
Make notes of any problem areas as you revise, and ask a teacher to
go over them in class.
One week to go
Aim to fit in at least one more timed practice of entire past papers,
comparing your work closely with the mark scheme.
Examine the contents list of this revision guide carefully to make sure
you haven’t missed any of the topics.
Tackle any final problems by getting help from your teacher or
talking them over with a friend.
The day before the examination

Look through this book one final time. Look carefully through
the information about each exam paper to remind yourself what
to expect, including timings and the number of questions to be
answered in each section of the examination paper.
Check the exact time and place of your exams.
Make sure you have all the equipment you need (e.g. extra pens,
pencil and ruler for diagrams, a watch, tissues and water). Make sure
you have a GDC calculator (or a simple four-function calculator) for
both examination papers.
Allow some time to relax and have an early night so you are rested
and ready for the exams. There is a huge opportunity cost if you are
not refreshed!

Unit 1 Business organization
and environment
1.1 Introduction to business management

The role of businesses in combining human,
physical and financial resources to create goods
and services (AO2)
A business is any organization set up to provide goods and/or services.
Businesses aim to satisfy the needs and desires of their customers by selling a
good or providing a service.
To produce goods and services, a business needs to combine human, physical,
financial, and entrepreneurial resources. These resources are referred to as the
factors of production, comprising land, labour, capital and enterprise:
Land – Natural resources used in the production process, e.g. wood, water,
physical land, fish, water, metal ores and minerals.
Labour – Physical human effort and psychological intellect used in the
production process.
Capital – Non-natural (manufactured) resources used to further the
production process, e.g. tools, equipment, machinery, vehicles and buildings.
Enterprise – An individual with the necessary skills and ability to take
risks in organizing the other factors of production to generate output in a
profitable way.
The production process adds value to the final goods and services sold to
customers. Value added is the process of creating a product that is worth more
than the cost of the inputs used to produce it, e.g. bottled orange juice is worth
more than the original oranges grown on a farm.
Expert tip
Businesses strive to add value to a good or service so that the product better
Consumers are the people who use
meets the needs and wants of their customers. a good or service. Customers are the
Value added is measured as the difference between the cost of the inputs in buyers of a good or service. Buyers and
the production process and the price of the final output. users are not necessarily the same.
The main business functions and their roles (AO2)

Human resources
Human resource management oversees staffing (personnel) within an
organization.
It handles human resource (HR) issues such as recruitment, dismissal, training
and development, redundancies, appraisals, performance management, career
planning and the general welfare (wellbeing) of the firm’s employees.
The HR department must comply with employment legislation (labour
laws), e.g. minimum wage legislation, regulations about working hours, equal
opportunities laws, and anti-discrimination acts.
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2 Unit 1 Business organization and environment
Finance and accounts

The function of the finance department is to manage the organization’s
money.
It processes payments for its bills (e.g. suppliers and the tax authorities) and
financial compensation to the organization’s employees.
It prepares the final accounts such as income statements and balance sheets
(see Unit 3.4) and the various budgets of the organization (see Unit 3.9) in
order to improve its financial control.
Marketing
The marketing department is responsible for identifying the needs and wants
of its customers, and ensuring the organization’s goods and services meet these
demands in a profitable way.
It conducts market research to identify the changing needs of the
organization’s customers.
It arranges promotional activities to sell the firm’s products at appropriate
prices, distributed to customers at the right place and time.
Operations
Operations, or production, covers the process of making products from the
available resources of the business.
The operations department is responsible for manufacturing finished goods or
providing services to the organization’s customers.
It is responsible for meeting production targets and deadlines, stock control
management, research and development (innovation), and meeting quality
standards.
Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary sectors,

and the nature of business activity in each sector
and the impact of sectoral change on business
activity (AO2)
The primary sector
The primary sector is the first stage of production. It refers to businesses
involved in the extraction of natural resources and raw materials, e.g. farming
(agriculture), fishing, forestry and mining.
In less economically developed (low income) economies, the majority of
people are employed in the primary sector.
Value added in the primary sector is relatively low compared to the other sectors.
The secondary sector

The secondary sector refers to businesses engaged in manufacturing and
construction to create finished, usable products.
It involves businesses using and transforming primary products and
components into finished goods for sale, e.g. car making, aerospace
manufacturing, construction (road building and other forms of infrastructure),
breweries and bottlers, engineering, and ship building.
In many parts of the world, the use of mechanisation and automation has
caused a decline in employment in the secondary sector.
868429_01_IB_BusMan_RG_001-035.indd 2 19/01/2016 07:44

The tertiary sector Expert tip

The tertiary sector refers to businesses that focus on providing a service to It is wrong to assume that those
consumers and other businesses, e.g. banking, insurance, security, catering, working in the tertiary sector are
education, healthcare, retail, transportation, news media, law, leisure and paid more than those in the primary
tourism, and entertainment. or secondary sectors. Whilst value
added is higher in the tertiary
The tertiary sector accounts for the largest sector (in terms of employment and
sector, plenty of people working in
the value of output) in economically developed (high income) countries. the tertiary sector, such as in the
retail and fast-food industries, earn
The quaternary sector minimum wages. Engineers in the
secondary sector and fishermen or
The quaternary sector refers to businesses engaged in the creation or sharing of
miners in the primary sector are often
knowledge or information. very well paid.
Value added is high in both the tertiary and quaternary sectors.
Sectoral change happens over time because, as a country develops, it shifts
the majority of output from the primary sector, to manufacturing and then
eventually to the tertiary sector and quaternary sectors.
The role of entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship

in overall business activity (AO3)
Entrepreneurship is the term for the activity undertaken by individuals
who take calculated risks and initiative in the start-up of a new business or
commercial project.
An entrepreneur is someone who is willing to take financial risks by investing
in a business idea. Entrepreneurs are usually self-employed and develop new
products or services mainly for their own benefit.
The entrepreneur brings together the factors of production necessary to
produce goods and services to meet the needs and desires of customers.
The economic success of countries worldwide is largely the result of
encouraging and rewarding an entrepreneurial culture. It is entrepreneurs
who take the risk of business management in search of profit. They provide
employment opportunities, satisfying the needs of customers and contribute to
overall economic prosperity.
Entrepreneurs are unique in that they are capable of bringing together the
necessary finance, manufacturing facilities, land and buildings facilities, and
skilled labour required to produce a good or service. They are also capable
of planning, executing and managing the marketing of that particular good
or service.
Entrepreneurship is a rare trait that requires a profound skill set: time
management, creativity, communications, leadership, teamwork, business
planning, and risk management.
An intrapreneur is someone who develops new products or services within an
organization, usually a large one, for the benefit of the firm and its employers.
Intrapreneurs are important to a business as their creative skills and innovative
thinking can give the organization a competitive edge over its rivals.
Intrapreneurs provide the right environment to support sustainable innovation
over time.
Intrapreneurs possess the same kind of skills set and competencies and
behaviours found in entrepreneurs and business leaders. These assets can
undoubtedly help businesses to thrive as they implement new growth
initiatives and strategies.
Intrapreneurs are change agents who initiate and implement change for
improvement. Their level of involvement in the organization is such that it
can inspire and motivate others.
868429_01_IB_BusMan_RG_001-035.indd 3 19/01/2016 07:44

Reasons for starting up a business or an

enterprise (AO2)
Table 1.1 Reasons for starting up a business/enterprise
To be your own boss ‘Wanting to work for yourself’ is a key reason many people start up their own business
Some people don’t like working for others and natural-born entrepreneurs feel that they aren’t able to
work for someone else
They prefer the freedom of decision making by being their own boss
This can help individuals to meet their self-actualization needs on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (see Unit 2.4)
Challenges Setting up a business involves obstacles and opportunities that employees would not otherwise face if
they work for someone else
Some people are motivated by and thrive on personal challenges. They enjoy gaining knowledge and
developing new skills
Interest and enjoyment Some people have a desire to follow a personal interest and pursue this as a business opportunity
Doing something you are passionate about every day is a key reason for the motivation of entrepreneurs
The aim is not always primarily to make a profit
Niche market opportunities Some people identify business opportunities or gaps in the market so start their own business,
e.g. Stelios Haji-Ioannou (easyJet) and Tony Ryan (Ryanair) saw huge business opportunities in the
low-budget European airline industry
Recognizing a niche in the market helps the business to gain a first mover advantage
Family tradition Being entrepreneurial is often a family trait, e.g. the Trump family (Trump Organization), the Walton
family (Walmart) and the Hilton family (Hilton Hotels)
Flexibility (autonomy) Setting up and running your own business means the owners can set their own deadlines and get things
done in their own way
Money The key driver for starting up a business or an enterprise is the potential to earn a lot of money through
hard work and sheer determination
Common steps in the process of starting up a

business or an enterprise (AO2)
Table 1.2 Steps to starting up a business
Have an idea Entrepreneurs identify and develop market opportunities. Many new businesses start from the innovative and creative
ideas of entrepreneurs, such as Red Bull, Alibaba.com and the Walt Disney Company
Conduct relevant This helps to determine the likelihood of success, e.g. size of the potential market, set-up costs, cash flow forecasts,
research barriers to entry, and a competitor analysis. A suitable business location also needs to be determined
Produce a A business plan is created, outlining the firm’s mission, goals, resources, personnel, finances and budgets, marketing
business plan plans and overall business strategy. A business plan is important if the firm wishes to seek external finance from banks
and investors
Determine The owner(s) need to decide on the legal structure of the business, e.g. a sole trader, partnership or limited liability
a business company (see Unit 1.2). The owner(s) should also decide on an appropriate business name
structure
Meet legal Business registration is important to get formal certification, permits and licenses to trade. The owner(s) must make
requirements necessary payment to solicitors for legal fees. Insurance needs to be sorted out for employees and the business itself
Once these steps have been completed, the business can set up its premises in
order to trade. The business will need to be managed effectively in terms of
human resources, operations management, marketing and finance.
868429_01_IB_BusMan_RG_001-035.indd 4 19/01/2016 07:44

Problems that a new business or enterprise

may face (AO2)
Table 1.3 Problems that a new business may face
Planning Poor market research can result in the business idea being flawed as the product fails to meet the needs and wants of
customers. The set-up procedures can be time-consuming, especially with complicated legal aspects to deal with
Finance Inability to raise sufficient start-up finance or to maintain liquidity in the business (see Unit 3.7) can cause financial
problems. Start-up businesses often struggle to secure external sources of finance from banks and other lenders to fund
their operations. In some cases, set-up costs can prove to be unaffordable
Marketing Start-ups have a limited budget available for promotion and advertising. The product might lack differentiation or a
distinctive selling point, so fails to gain recognition and market share. A small customer base is likely to cause liquidity
issues
Human resources New, unestablished businesses may struggle to recruit suitable and experienced employees
Operations New businesses lack an established relationship with suppliers, which can cause delivery and distribution problems.
management They lack necessary finance to fund research and development, so are at a disadvantage against established businesses
Strategic thinking Entrepreneurs may lack the necessary experience in strategic decision making, causing major problems for the start-up
business. Their business plans are often not convincing or detailed enough to secure the necessary finance to get the
business started
The elements of a business plan (AO2)

Table 1.4 Elements of a business plan
Executive An overview of the business, its objectives and strategies. It is essentially
summary a summary of the business plan
Keyword definition
A business plan is a formal
Business Description of the business, its legal status and ownership, and the goals
description and objectives. It may also include the firm’s mission or vision statement document that details how an
(see Unit 1.3). For larger firms, the plan might also include details of the organization intends to meet its
management team objectives. It adds substance to
Business Details of the market or industry in which the firm operates, e.g. market
a business idea and helps with
environment leaders or market share data. This section is likely to include a SWOT strategic thinking and decision-
analysis (see Unit 1.3) or a STEEPLE analysis (see Unit 1.5) making.
Product Details of the product offering (goods and/or services) to prospective
description customers. The plan should identify what makes the product unique or
distinguishable from others that might be available on the market
Marketing This section details the state of the market, including projected sales
figures and marketing opportunities. It may include information about
market research, branding, prices, distribution channels, promotions and
advertising, and online processes
Finance This part outlines the finances of the organization, including its balance
sheet and income statement (see Unit 3.4), thus defining the financial
status of the firm. Business plans are often used to attract funds from
banks, venture capitalists or other investors
Operations Production processes and operational costs appear in this section. It may CUEGIS CONCEPTS
include sections on quality assurance, stock control (inventory management), For an organization of your
supply-chain management (see Unit 5.5) and supplier networks choice, explore how the concepts
Human This section contains information about staffing and may include an of change and innovation have
resources organizational chart impacted on its business start-up.
868429_01_IB_BusMan_RG_001-035.indd 5 19/01/2016 07:44

1.2 Types of organization

Distinction between the private and the
public sectors (AO2)
The private sector is the commercial sector of the economy, mainly owned and
run by private individuals and organizations that typically strive for a profit.
Examples of private sector businesses include: sole traders, partnerships, limited
liability companies, franchises (see Unit 1.6) and multinational corporations
(see Unit 1.6).
Organizations in the public sector are controlled by regional and/or national
governments.
The public sector provides goods and services deemed to be essential and of
benefit to its citizens, e.g. transport and communications networks, healthcare
services, education and national defence.
The main features of the following types of

for-profit (commercial) organizations (AO3)
Sole traders
A sole trader (or sole proprietorship) is a commercial business owned by a
single person (known as the sole trader). S/he can employ as many people as Keyword definition
required, but remains the only owner of the business. Unlimited liability means that the
owner of a business is personally
It is run as an unincorporated business, i.e. there is no legal separation
liable for all of its debts. This
between the owner and the business itself. Hence, a sole trader has unlimited
means s/he may need to pay for
liability and is responsible (liable) for any debt of the business which may be
the debts by selling off their
paid from the sole trader’s personal assets.
personal assets.
Finance to run the business is provided by the owner.
Legally, a sole trader and the business are considered as one, i.e. the owner is
not a separate legal entity from the owner.
The individual owner accepts all the risks of running the business, including
possible losses or business failure, but receives all profits if the business succeeds.
Table 1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of sole traders
Advantages of sole traders Disadvantages of sole traders
A sole trader is quick to create, without long and expensive The sole trader bears all risks and has unlimited liability as the
set-up procedures; it is the easiest form of business organization firm’s finances are not separate from the owner’s
to set up Finance is limited as the main source is provided by the owner;
The owner has complete control and is free to make decisions access to external finance is difficult as the firm represents high risk,
without any consultation with others so expansion is difficult
Decision making is therefore quick There is no one else to share ideas, burdens or responsibilities,
The owner enjoys tax advantages as a small business limiting the extent to which sole traders can benefit from
specialization and division of labour
The owner enjoys privacy as the business does not need to
publish its financial accounts to the general public (only the tax Added workload and stress from having to run the business as a
authorities need to see these) sole owner, often having to work long hours
Flexibility as the sole trader can introduce new trading activities The lack of continuity if the owner is sick or wishes to go on
or change what the business does with relative ease holiday as the business will struggle to continue
Motivational as owners have a sense of achievement from Inability to exploit economies of scale which means that a sole
running their own business trader struggles to gain cost advantages so has to charge higher
prices for their products
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Partnerships
A partnership is a commercial business organization owned by two or more
people. In an ordinary partnership, there are usually between 2 to 20
owners (depending on the country’s laws on partnerships). These owners are
called partners.
As an unincorporated business, at least one partner will have unlimited
liability, although it is usual for all the partners to share responsibility for any
losses made by the partnership.
It is possible for some businesses, such as law firms and health clinics, to
operate with more than 20 partners.
To prevent potential misunderstandings and conflict, most partnerships draw
up a legal contract between the partners, known as a deed of partnership,
stating their responsibilities, voting rights, and how profits are to be shared
between the owners.
Partnerships are usually found in professional services (such as doctors,
solicitors, dentists and accountants) and in family-run businesses.
Table 1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of partnerships

Advantages of partnerships Disadvantages of partnerships
With up to 20 owners (depending on the country), partners are As there is more than one owner, there might be disagreements
able to raise more finance than sole traders and conflict between the partners, which can undoubtedly harm
The partners can benefit from having more ideas and expertise, the running of the firm
along with shared workloads and responsibilities Any profits made must be shared between all the partners
They can also benefit from specialization and the division of labour The death or departure of a partner can cause the organization
Business affairs are kept confidential, so only the tax authorities to cease until a new partnership agreement is legally created
need to know about the financial position of the partnership In most cases, partners have unlimited liability (sleeping
There is improved continuity as the partnership can remain in partners are exempt)
business if a partner is ill or goes on holiday Limited ability to raise capital compared with limited liability
Silent partners (or sleeping partners) can provide additional capital companies; access to finance is constrained by the number of
without having an active role in the running of the business partners
Companies/corporations
Companies (or corporations) are commercial businesses with limited liability
and owned by their shareholders. Hence, any profits must be distributed
among shareholders.
As incorporated businesses, there is a divorce of ownership and control (a
legal difference between the owners of a company and the business itself), so
shareholders have the benefit of limited liability.
Limited liability protects shareholders who, in the event of the company going
bankrupt, cannot lose more than the amount they invested in the company.
Typically, to set up a limited liability company, the owners must submit two
important documents:
The Memorandum of Association – a relatively short document that
records the name of the company, its registered business address, the amount
of share capital and an outline of the company’s operations (what it does).
The Articles of Association – a longer document that contains
information about:
– The details and duties of the directors of the company
– Shareholders’ voting rights
– The transferability of shares
– Details and procedures for the Annual General Meeting
– How profits are to be distributed (dividend policy)
– Procedures for winding up (closing) the company.
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Once the authorities are satisfied with the paperwork, a Certificate of

Incorporation is issued to the limited company so that it can begin trading.
The shareholders elect a Board of Directors (BOD) to take charge of the
strategic direction of the company on behalf of its owners.
There are two types of limited companies: private limited companies and
public limited companies (see Table 1.7).
Table 1.7 Features of private limited companies and public limited companies
Features of private limited companies Features of public limited companies
Usually smaller businesses than public limited Shares in a public limited company can be bought by and sold to any member
companies of the public or institution
Shares can only be transferred (bought or sold) The first time that shares in a public limited company are sold via a stock
privately, and all shareholders must agree on the exchange is called an initial public offer (IPO)
sale/transfer There is no legal maximum number of shareholders; the company can have as
Typically, shares are owned by family, relatives many shareholders as its share capital can accommodate
and close friends Public limited companies tend to be the largest type of business organizations
The shares cannot be advertised for sale or sold They are strictly regulated and are required by law to publish their complete
via a stock exchange financial accounts (see Unit 3.4) on a yearly basis
Examples include Mars and IKEA Examples include Google, Toyota and Samsung
Table 1.8 Advantages and disadvantages of private limited companies

Advantages of private limited companies Disadvantages of private limited companies
Control of the company cannot be lost as shares cannot be bought Shares cannot be sold to the general public, restricting
without the agreement of existing shareholders finance compared with a public limited company
More finance can be raised compared with a sole trader or a partnership Legal fees and auditing fees mean it is more expensive
Private limited companies tend to have more privacy than public limited to set up compared to a sole trader or partnership
companies The company can become vulnerable to a takeover by
There is continuity in the event of the death of one of the main a larger company
shareholders There is a lack of privacy as financial accounts must be
Owners have limited liability so can only lose up to the sum of their investment made available upon request
Table 1.9 Advantages and disadvantages of public limited companies

Advantages of public limited Disadvantages of public limited
companies companies
It is easier to obtain finance for growth The financial information becomes
and evolution (see Unit 1.6) by selling public as people have access to the final
additional share capital accounts of a public limited company
It is also easier for large public limited They are the most administratively
companies to secure external sources of difficult, time consuming and expensive
finance from banks and other investors type of commercial business to set up
or financiers There are high costs of complying with Keyword definition
They can enjoy the benefits of being the rules of the stock exchange
large, e.g. economies of scale, market A stock exchange (or stock
There is the potential threat of a
power and market dominance market) is the marketplace where
takeover by a rival company
Owners enjoy limited liability people and businesses buy and sell
There is the possibility that the firm
second-hand company stocks and
As with private limited companies, there becomes too large to manage efficiently
shares, e.g. the New York Stock
is continuity, even if one of the principal so suffers from diseconomies of scale
shareholders dies i.e. higher average costs of production Exchange.
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Types of for-profit social enterprises (AO3)

A social enterprise is an organization that uses commercial business practices
to improve communities, the environment and human well-being rather than
focusing on profits for external shareholders.
Some social enterprises are run for profit (e.g. cooperatives, microfinance
providers and public–private partnerships), whilst others are run as non-profit
organizations (e.g. non-governmental organizations and charities).
Non-profit organizations can earn a surplus from selling goods and services but
reinvest this back into the business and/or local community.
Cooperatives
Cooperatives are for-profit social enterprises owned and run by their members,
such as employees, managers and customers. Cooperatives strive to provide a
service and to create value for their members, rather than a financial return for
their member-owners.
Like a limited liability company, a cooperative is a separate legal entity.
Shareholders, directors, managers and employees have limited liability so are
not personally liable for any debts incurred by the business.
All members have equal voting rights irrespective of their position in the
organization or their level of investment.
All shareholders are expected to help run the business.
They promote a democratic style of managing the organization, with a culture
of promoting the concepts of sharing resources and delegation to increase
competitiveness.
Table 1.10 Advantages and disadvantages of cooperatives

Advantages of cooperatives Disadvantages of cooperatives
It is usually straightforward and inexpensive to set up a It can be difficult to attract potential members/shareholders as
cooperative cooperatives are not formed to generate a financial return on
All members and shareholders must be active stakeholders of investment
the cooperative, making it more likely to succeed Limited resources as the financial strength of cooperatives
Shareholders have equal voting rights (all members are equally depends on the capital contributed by its members (membership
important for the cooperative), making the organization more fees are limited so they are unable to raise large amounts of
democratic and harmonious finance)
Members have limited liability Employees and managers may not be highly motivated due to
the absence of financial rewards and benefits
Members own and control the business rather than being
governed by external investors As cooperatives are managed by their members only, employees
may not have any managerial skills so inefficiencies can hinder
Any surplus is spent on the welfare of the members and a
the success of the business
portion is kept for reserves as an internal source of finance
Although some members have more responsibilities, they still
Governments often provide special financial assistance to
only get one vote, which may be deemed as unfair
help cooperatives
Microfinance providers
Microfinance providers are a type of banking service provided to unemployed
or low-income earners who would otherwise struggle to gain external finance,
e.g. savings, insurance, loans and remittance transfers.
Microfinance gives these people, women in particular, the opportunity to become
self-sufficient by providing small loans, savings and other basic financial services.
Microfinance providers charge interest on loans, although the rates are
generally lower than those offered by commercial banks.
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Table 1.11 Advantages and disadvantages of microfinance providers

Advantages of microfinance providers Disadvantages of microfinance providers
Helps those living in poverty to become financially independent Critics of microfinance condemn the system for earning
Empowers entrepreneurs (especially females) of small businesses profits from the poor, so is regarded as being unethical
As around half of the world’s population survives on less than $2 a Microfinance is small scale, so is insufficient to transform
day, microfinance provides poverty relief communities and societies
They generate social benefits, e.g. health, education, clean water, and Microcredit loans can prove to be too expensive for some
job creation borrowers as it is difficult for them to earn enough profit
to sustain the loan repayments
Helps to build and encourage a culture of economic responsibility
Public–private partnerships (PPPs)

Public–private partnerships (PPPs) are organizations jointly established by the
government and at least one private sector organization, e.g. the Hong Kong
government owns 51% of the stake in Hong Kong Disneyland whilst the Walt
Disney Company owns the other 49% stake.
PPPs have been used for a wide range of projects that benefit local communities
and society, e.g. schools, hospitals and health care services, bridges, roads,
public transportation networks, prisons, parks and convention centres.
They are suitable when the capital to finance a public project from public
funding is insufficient or not available, e.g. a government might be heavily
indebted but collaborates with a private sector firm in exchange for receiving
some of the operating profits from the project.
Once the project is built or complete, it is usually maintained by the private sector
contractor on a medium to long term basis (up to 30 years), after which time there
is the option to renew the partnership or the asset returns to public ownership.
According to the World Bank, more than half the countries around the world
now use PPPs.
Find more about PPPs on the World Bank website (http://goo.gl/fm62u3),
which includes an introductory video on Vimeo: https://vimeo.com/47015729
Table 1.12 Advantages and disadvantages of public–private partnerships (PPPs)

Advantages of PPPs Disadvantages of PPPs
Both private and public sectors contribute financial resources There is always an opportunity cost of public sector finances and
towards the project and share some of the risks resources; by engaging in a PPP, the government forgoes (turns
They are run more efficiently than traditional bureaucratic down) other projects or areas of expenditure
public sector organizations As PPPs tend to be large projects and involve vast sums of
They provide a solution to the funding shortfall of many money and high operational costs for a long period of time, they
governments are high risk investments
Similarly, government funding can help private firms to reduce There is the potential danger of conflict of interests between
the amount of money they need for investment projects stakeholders of the PPP, e.g. private sector managers need to
act in the interest of their shareholders whilst the government
Private sector management skills and financial support help to
has alternative priorities
create better value for money for taxpayers (who help to fund
the PPP) Private investors might be put off due to the difficulty in estimating
financial outcomes of the PPP over such long time periods
PPPs have positive impacts on employment and economic growth
Types of non-profit social enterprises (AO3)

Social enterprises are organizations that generate revenue but act with
community objectives (for the well-being of others) at the core of their operations.
A non-profit organization acts in a business-like way but does not distribute
profits to its owners or shareholders, but instead uses the surplus to pursue its
mission or vision.
Examples of non-profit social enterprises include non-government
organizations and charities, such as UNICEF, Human Rights Watch,
Greenpeace, Ronald McDonald House Charities, and World Wildlife Fund.
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Figure 1.1 Greenpeace is a non-

profit social enterprise
Table 1.13 Advantages and disadvantages of non-profit social enterprises

Advantages of non-profit social enterprises Disadvantages of non-profit social enterprises
They are exempt from paying income taxes and In order to protect the general public, there are strict restrictions
corporate taxes and guidelines that must be followed, including the types of trading
They qualify for government grants and subsidies activities allowed
They exist for the benefit of local communities and Earnings of workers are often lower as it would be regarded as unethical
societies, which can assist fundraising and donations if workers were paid similar wages to those in for-profit firms
As part of government incentives to encourage donors, They are often reliant on donations and external support in order to
non-profit social enterprises qualify for tax reductions survive
on their donations Cost and financial control may not be stringent as there is no expectation
to earn a profit
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a type of non-profit social
enterprise that is neither part of a government nor a traditional for-profit
business but run by voluntary groups.
They may be funded by governments, international organizations, charities,
commercial businesses or private individuals.
NGOs can operate at a local, national or international level but are not
usually affiliated with any government.
The majority of NGOs are run to promote a social cause, e.g. human rights,
animal rights, environmental protection, disaster relief, and development
assistance.
Examples include: Oxfam, the Wikimedia Foundation, Amnesty International,
Doctors Without Borders and World Vision International.
They exert pressure and influence on government policies to support their
cause and/or a wide range of global issues.
Charities
Charities are not-for-profit organizations that operate in an altruistic way
with the objectives of promoting a worthwhile cause, e.g. child protection Expert tip
or anti-whaling. Be sure to know the difference
They predominantly operate in the private sector. between charities and NGOs. Whilst
both are non-profit organizations
As with all non-profit social enterprises, charities are run for the benefit of (NPOs), not all NPOs are charities. To
others in society. be a charity, the organization must be
registered with the respective Charity
Charities get their finance from a limited range of sources, e.g. donations, Commission. This is why organizations
fund-raising events and selling goods. can be charities in some countries
Whilst they do not always necessarily sell goods, they operate to promote and (such as Oxfam and VSO in the UK)
raise money for social causes. yet be NGOs in other countries.
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1.3 Organizational objectives

Vision statement and mission statement (AO2)
Keyword definitions
A vision statement is an optimistic and inspiring declaration that defines the
purpose and values of an organization and where it wants to be in the future.
A mission statement is a clear and concise declaration of an organization’s
fundamental purpose, i.e. a succinct description of what the organization
does, in order to become what it wants to be.
Expert tip
Table 1.14 Vision and mission statements
Vision statement Mission statement Not all businesses have separate vision
and mission statements. For example,
Abstract statement that outlines what the A concrete and practical statement Facebook combines its vision and
organization ultimately wants to be or do intended to state the purpose and guide mission as ‘… to give people the
Concentrates on the future direction of the actions of an organization power to share and make the world
the organization A declaration of an organization’s more open and connected’. Amazon’s
A source of inspiration (driving force) reason for existence, i.e. why it exists vision and mission statements are
for internal stakeholders Symbolizes an organization’s also combined as ‘To be earth’s most
philosophies, goals and ambitions customer centric company; to build
A statement of the purpose of the
a place where people can come to
organization, in terms of its core Enables the organization’s stakeholders
find and discover anything they might
values or ideals to understand the desired level of
want to buy online.’
Provides guiding beliefs about how performance
things should be done within the Incorporates meaningful and
organization measurable criteria, e.g. expectations CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Informs strategic planning, i.e. where of growth and profitability
For an organization of your choice,
the organization wants to be Describes how an organization will
investigate how the vision and
Does not change, even as business execute its vision, i.e. the tactics that
mission statements have impacted
models adapt over time make the vision a reality
on its organizational culture and
Broad statements Narrow and specific statements strategy.
Aims, objectives, strategies and tactics, and

their relationships (AO3)
Aims
Aims are long-term goals of an organization, formulated by the senior
management team.
The aims of a business are often found in its mission statement.
Objectives
Objectives are the targets an organization is trying to achieve, e.g. to maximize
shareholder value.
Objectives can be strategic (long term), tactical (medium term) or operational
(short term). Expert tip
They are often set as SMART goals (specific, measureable, achievable, realistic Objectives are vital for any business
and time constrained), e.g. to achieve sales growth of $250 m by 2023, or organization so that stakeholders
know where it is going, and be able
increase market share by 3% within five years.
to measure its progress towards it.
They can give a sense of direction to employees, managers, departments and Objectives give departments and
the whole organization. the organization a sense of common
purpose, making it easier to create
Objectives can define both the purpose and the aims of an organization. a team spirit and coordinate the
They can be communicated through the organization’s mission statement. business.
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Strategies
Strategies are how an organization intends to achieve its aims and strategic
objectives.
They are usually long-term, overall corporate decisions made by
senior management.
Examples of strategic decisions include decisions to expand Vision
overseas or to change location or product lines in order to Purpose Mission Values
develop competitive advantages.
Aims Aims
Tactics
Tactics are short-term, smaller-scale or routine decisions about
how an organization intends to achieve its aims and objectives Objectives Objectives Objectives
on a day-to-day basis. The responsibility of making these
decisions is usually delegated to employees lower down in the
hierarchy to motivate and inspire workers. Strategies Strategies Strategies
Tactics are concerned with reaching more limited and
measurable goals.
Tactical objectives have specific targets and timelines, enabling Tactics Tactics Tactics
managers to assess if or when these have been achieved.
Figure 1.2 The relationship between aims, objectives,
They are set to facilitate the strategies of the organization. strategies and tactics
The need for organizations to change objectives and

innovate in response to changes in internal and external
environments (AO3)
Internal factors are those within the control of an organization.
Corporate culture – the traditions and norms within an organization.
Businesses that have a dynamic and adaptable corporate culture (such as
Google or Apple) are likely to have changing and innovative objectives.
Growth and size of the organization – New businesses tend to aim for break-even
and survival, whereas established businesses might aim for greater market
share. Inorganic growth through mergers and acquisitions (see Unit 1.6) is
likely to create a change in corporate objectives.
A change in senior management – Individuals have the capacity to change
the corporate culture of an organization (see Unit 2.5). Hence, a change in
leadership can result in changing business objectives. An ambitious leader is
more likely to strive for innovative practices.
Crisis management – A business that experiences an internal crisis (see Unit 5.7)
such as working capital issues (see Unit 3.7) or a major product recall (see Units 5.7
and 5.3) will need to focus on maintaining its market position and corporate image.
External factors are those beyond the control of an organization.
Business cycle – Organizational objectives change depending on the business
cycle (see Unit 1.5), e.g. during a recession (when consumer spending is
low and unemployment is high), there are few opportunities. Change and
innovation become vital for business survival.
Laws and regulations – Changes in the legal system (see Unit 1.5) can
constrain business activity, e.g. complying with employment laws and ethical
codes of practice can lead to higher costs.
Social trends – Environmental pressure groups (see Unit 1.4) can cause
businesses to change their objectives and practices, such as being socially
responsible to their stakeholders.
Technological changes – Technological progress and innovations can
lead to many new opportunities, thereby changing the firm’s corporate
objectives, e.g. internet technologies have led to the growing popularity of
e-commerce (see Unit 4.8).
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Ethical objectives and corporate social responsibility

(CSR) (AO1)
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to the concern and obligation of
a business in committing to behaving ethically and responsibly towards its Keyword definition
various stakeholders (see Unit 1.4).
Corporate social responsibility
Examples include improving the quality of work life for the employees, (CSR) refers to an organization’s
adopting green practices to protect the natural environment, and using duties to its internal and external
socially responsible marketing strategies (see Unit 4.1). stakeholders by behaving in a way
CSR involves voluntary actions a business can take, over and above that positively impacts society as
compliance with minimum legal requirements in order to address competitive a whole.
interests and the interests of wider society.
It is based on what is deemed to be morally correct according to societal norms
and values.
The reasons why organizations set ethical objectives

and the impact of implementing them (AO3)
Organizations are increasingly setting ethical objectives as they are more
aware of their corporate social responsibilities (CSR).
Setting and pursuing ethical objectives can increase employee motivation
and productivity. Businesses might also find it easier to recruit and retain
employees.
It can reduce negative publicity from news media and pressure groups.
The growing use of social media makes it easier for the general public to
demand transparency and ethical business behaviour.
Having a good corporate image with customers and a good corporate
reputation with the government enables the organization to gain
competitive advantages. Hence, CSR can be profitable (the ultimate aim
of for-profit organizations).
Pursuing ethical objectives is a form of self-discipline which avoids government
intervention.
However, there can be negative impacts of implementing ethical objective, such as: Expert tip
The compliance costs of acting in a socially responsible way and the extra It is incorrect to assume or state
management time required to execute ethical business practices places the that only non-profit organizations
organization at a competitive disadvantage. (NPOs) set ethical objectives such as
corporate social responsibility. NPOs
This can mean lower profits being available to be distributed to shareholders may have different objectives (as they
in the form of dividends. This might therefore create some resentment with are not profit seeking), but it can
investors. be for humanitarian and altruistic
Furthermore, as competitors are in pursuit of similar ethical objectives and reasons that for-profit organizations
set ethical business objectives.
practices, any unique selling point (USP) might not be sustainable.
The evolving role and nature of CSR (AO3)

As a business becomes more established and grows, the scale of its operations
enlarges. For example, more workers are needed. As a result, organizational
objectives and priorities may change.
For example, the opportunity cost for a large multinational company that
doesn’t act ethically is potentially huge, especially when compared to a small
sole trader operating in a remote town.
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Modern business practice in many countries has shown that CSR has an Expert tip
important role in determining the market position (see Unit 4.2) of an
organization. The nature of CSR is further
complicated when organizations
Attitudes towards CSR can change over time. What was previously operate in overseas markets. What is
considered socially acceptable, such as smoking in public areas, may no considered socially acceptable in one
longer be the case. Environmental protection was not a major corporate country might not be in others. For
priority until the 1980s. example, Australia and the UK have
very strict laws on tobacco advertising,
Hence, changes in societal norms, expectations and values mean that whereas Japan and Greece are far
organizations may need to review their CSR policies and practices occasionally. more relaxed about this.
Media exposure, pressure group action and educational awareness have
ensured that an increasing number of businesses are actively implementing
ethical objectives.
SWOT analysis of a given organization (AO3, AO4)

A SWOT analysis is a management tool to assess where a business is at the
present time and how it is affected by the external business environment. It is
sometimes referred to as situational analysis as it examines the position of an
organization at one point in time. SWOT stands for:
Strengths – Internal factors that reveal what the organization does well
compared to its rivals, e.g. high market share.
Weaknesses – Internal factors that reveal what the organization does not
do so well compared to its rivals, e.g. poor customer service or low employee
motivation.
Opportunities – External factors that may enable the organization to develop
and prosper, e.g. an economic boom (see Unit 1.5).
Threats – External factors that may hinder the organization’s ability to achieve
its aims, e.g. higher interest rates (see Unit 1.5) or increasing competition in
the industry.
Table 1.15 Example of SWOT analysis Expert tip
Strengths Weaknesses
What might be viewed as a strength
Dedicated and productive workforce High labour turnover (demotivated staff)
for one organization might be
High market share Low profit margins regarded as a weakness for others.
Brand loyalty/brand reputation High wastage rate What is important is to write your
Customer loyalty Poor customer service answers in the context of the business
and the industry in which it operates.
Opportunities Threats
Internet technologies Higher raw material costs
New overseas markets Economic recession
The collapse of a major competitor Protests from pressure groups
Demographic changes Demographic changes
CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Investigate how change and
Table 1.16 Advantages and disadvantages of SWOT analysis globalization present both
Advantages of SWOT analysis Disadvantages of SWOT analysis opportunities and threats for
A useful visual tool to assist managers It is only a snapshot of the current a multinational corporation of
in the planning process situation for the organization your choice.
A decision-making tool which can give It may need to be revised regularly,
a good picture of the organization’s accounting for changes in the internal Expert tip
actual position in the market and external business environment In preparation for the Paper 1
It encourages an examination of strategic It is subject to some bias as the analysis examination (pre-released case
opportunities for an organization, e.g. is based on opinions, not only facts and study), construct a full SWOT analysis
growth (expansion) or relocation figures for the organization.
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Ansoff Matrix for different growth strategies

of a given organization (AO3, AO4)
The Ansoff Matrix is a management growth tool, first published in
an article titled ‘Strategies for Diversification’, featured in the Harvard
Business Review (1957).
It is used by businesses to identify and decide their product and market growth
strategies (see Figure 1.3).
Existing products New products

Existing markets
Market Product
penetration development
New markets
Market
Diversification
development
Figure 1.3 The Ansoff Matrix
Market penetration
Market penetration focuses on existing markets and existing products, i.e. the
firm focuses on what it knows and does well.
It is a low-risk strategy so requires little, if any, investment in new market
research as the organization aims to increase revenues by focusing on its
existing products to existing customers.
The strategy concentrates on increasing the organization’s sales revenue
or market share of its existing products, e.g. by using competitive pricing
strategies, introducing customer loyalty schemes, widening distribution
channels or using a more effective promotional campaign.
Market development
Market development is the growth strategy where a business sells its existing
products into new markets, i.e. the product remains the same, but it is sold to a
new group of customers.
An example would be car manufacturers that export their cars to overseas
markets or have production plants in various countries.
There is an element of risk with market development because customer tastes
may vary in different regions and countries. There is also the added cost of
market research. In the case of foreign direct investment, market development
presents even higher financial risks.
Nevertheless, the business knows their products well so should be familiar
with customer needs. This helps to minimize some of the risks involved with
market development.
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Product development
Product development is a growth strategy where a business introduces
new products into existing markets, i.e. it targets new products at existing
customers.
It is common for businesses, such as carmakers, to develop and innovate new
products to replace their existing ones. These new products are then marketed
to existing customers.
An example is Apple’s introduction of the iPhone, iPad and iPad Mini, and
Apple Watch.
Product development often involves a business developing modified products
as part of its product extension strategy.
It is a medium-risk strategy as product development often involves significant
investment in research and development (R&D).
Diversification
Diversification involves businesses marketing completely new products to new
customers. It is a high-risk growth strategy as the business enters markets in
which it has little or no experience.
Related diversification means that organizations remain in a market
(industry) that they are familiar with. Unrelated diversification involves
businesses entering new industries, i.e. in which they have no previous
market experience.
For example, Honda launched its HondaJet (aircraft) division in 2015. Lenovo
introduced smartphones, watches and sports shoes in 2015.
Table 1.17 Examples of diversification

Company Original business Company Original business
American Express Postal services Peugeot Toolmaker
Shell Collectable shells Nintendo Playing cards
Nokia Rubber and paper Lamborghini Tractors
Wrigley’s Soap and baking powder Mitsubishi Shipping
Table 1.18 Summary of the Ansoff Matrix

Market Product Market
penetration development development Diversification
Same products for New products for New customers for New products for
existing customers existing customers existing products new customers
Familiar markets Product extension Familiar products Spreading of risks
strategies and
product development
Minimal risk Moderate risk Moderate risk High risk
Seek to maintain or Innovation to replace Entering overseas Spreading of risks
raise market share existing products markets
Intense competition Product New distribution Use of subsidiaries CUEGIS CONCEPTS
improvements channels and strategic The needs of customers change
business units over time. Investigate how the
Changing Brand extension Changing Less focus on Ansoff Matrix is connected to the
marketing mix strategies marketing mix core markets and concepts of change and innovation
competencies for an organization of your choice.
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1.4 Stakeholders
The interests of internal stakeholders (AO2)
Keyword definitions
Stakeholders are individuals, organizations or groups with a direct interest
in the operations and performance of a particular business or organization.
They have varying degrees of influence on the organization.
Internal stakeholders are members of the organization, such as employees,
managers, directors and shareholders (the owners of the business).
Expert tip
Employees are the people who work within an organization. They can have Shareholders can be classified as both
significant influence on the organization, such as their level of motivation internal and external stakeholders.
and productivity. Employees seek to improve the terms and conditions For example, employees and directors
of employment, e.g. competitive levels of pay, job security, good working may hold shares in the company so
conditions and opportunities for professional advancement. are internal stakeholders. However,
the general public and other
Managers and directors are people hired to be in charge of certain organizations may also own shares in
departments or operations within an organization. They may aim to maximize the company but these stakeholders
profits, improve operational efficiency and enhance customer relations. They are external to the business.
also strive to improve their own conditions of employment and financial
rewards, such as bonuses, share ownership schemes, performance-related pay, Expert tip
and fringe benefits (see Unit 2.4).
Do not confuse the terms
Shareholders are individuals or organizations that buy shares in a company, ‘shareholders’ with ‘stakeholders’.
thereby owning a part of the business. As part-owners of the company, they The latter is a much broader term
have rights to a share of any profits earned (such payments are known as and includes more than shareholders.
dividends), and voting rights at the company’s Annual General Meeting All shareholders of a business are
(AGM) to decide who serves on the company’s Board of Directors. They also stakeholders, but not all stakeholders
expect the company to earn an acceptable return on their investment. are shareholders.
The interests of external stakeholders (AO2)

Customers are the clients of a business. They want overall value for money,
i.e. prices that reflect the quality of the goods and services received, products Keyword definition
that are safe and fit for their purpose, good customer care and the provision
External stakeholders are
of after-sales support.
not members of a business or
Suppliers provide the goods and support services for other businesses, e.g. organization, yet have a direct
Coca-Cola supplies supermarkets with soft drinks and McKey’s supplies stake (interest) in its operations
McDonald’s restaurants in Hong Kong and Southern China with its Chicken and performance. Examples
McNuggets. Suppliers are important stakeholders as they can decide what include customers, suppliers,
credit terms or discounts (if any) are offered to the business. They are competitors, the local community,
interested in securing reasonable prices for their goods and services, regular pressure groups, financiers and the
orders and prompt payment from their business clients. government.
Competitors are the rivals of a particular business. As external stakeholders,
they are interested in the business operating in a fair and honest way.
Competitors set their own targets and strategies based on the actions of
other firms in the industry.
The local community is interested in businesses acting in a socially responsible
way, such as creating job opportunities, protecting the environment, and
supporting local residents and events such as sponsorship of public events.
Pressure groups are organizations or groups of people who have a common
interest. They try to influence governments and public opinion in favour of
their cause, such as environmental protection, fair trade or human rights.
Therefore, these special interest groups put pressure on businesses to work in a
socially responsible and ethical way (see Unit 1.3).
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1.4 Stakeholders 19
Financiers are banks and other creditors that provide sources of finance for
businesses (see Unit 3.1). They are external stakeholders interested in the
financial well-being of a business to assess its ability to repay debts such as bank
loans and mortgages using quantitative factors such as liquidity (see Unit 3.7)
and investment appraisal (see Unit 3.8).
The government is a key external stakeholder of all businesses. It is keen to see
that firms operate legally and in a socially responsible way. The government
affects businesses directly by its policies, such as tax rates, employment
legislation, consumer protection rights and environmental protection laws.
Possible areas of mutual benefit and conflict

between stakeholders’ interests (AO3)
As outlined in the sections above, each stakeholder group has different interests
in the various activities of a business. In practice, it is difficult to satisfy all
stakeholder groups all of the time. There may be areas of mutual benefits, but
there may also be disagreements or differences in opinions with others. For
example, business growth can create jobs, thus creating positive impacts on the
local community, such as creating more choice for consumers. However, business
expansion in the local community might create traffic congestion and cause more
pollution which defies the interest of pressure groups. Other examples of possible
conflict between stakeholders’ interests include:
Owners of the business may be reluctant to pay higher wages to employees as
they seek to use the surplus to distribute profits instead.
Directors may want large bonuses but this may conflict with the desire of
shareholders to have higher dividend pay outs.
In general, customers may want lower prices, but shareholders may prefer
higher prices as this would generate greater profit margins.
In the pursuit of efficiency and productivity gains, employers may invest in
new machinery, but this may result in redundancies (job losses) for employees
(see Unit 2.1).
Shareholders may demand a greater proportion of profits to be distributed
as dividends, yet this leaves less funds for management to use on marketing,
product development or to improve working conditions for their employees.
Interest
Pressure groups might deem the corporate profits of some large multinational
Low High
companies to be too high, although the management team would argue the
profits are necessary to remain competitive.
Minimal Keep
Low
Acting in a socially responsible way, such as reducing and recycling waste, may effort informed
Power
help to please the local community but could upset directors and shareholders
due to the high costs of compliance and implementation.
Keep Maximum
High
To some extent, stakeholder conflict is always likely to exist, so the varying satisfied effort
interests of stakeholders must always be carefully managed. In order to deal with
potential stakeholder conflict, businesses often use stakeholder mapping (see
Figure 1.4) as a management tool to determine the key stakeholders. Stakeholder Figure 1.4 Stakeholder mapping
mapping (or stakeholder analysis) involves organizing the various stakeholders of
the business into a matrix, based on their degree of power (influence) and their
level of interest in the business. Keyword definition
Stakeholder mapping (or stakeholder
The stakeholder groups with a high degree of power and interest are known
analysis) is a management tool used
as the key stakeholders. Successful businesses strive to fulfil as many of the
to determine the key stakeholders of
needs and interests of various stakeholder groups as possible, but give priority
an organization based on the varying
to satisfying the needs and interests of their key stakeholders. Due to the
degrees of power and interest of the
complexities of operating large businesses, managing stakeholder interests in
various stakeholder groups.
smaller businesses tends to be simpler.
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Potential solutions in handling stakeholder conflicts include the following:

Use a conciliation service (see Unit 2.6) to align the conflicting interests of
different stakeholder groups.
Use an arbitrator to assess the conflicting interests, with the stakeholder groups
agreeing to accept the judgment of the independent arbitrator (see Unit 2.6).
Hiring public relations (PR) consultants (or use an internal PR team)
to communicate with the local community and to keep other stakeholders
informed of the positive aspects of the organization’s operations or
planned changes.
Improved communications with the various stakeholder groups, i.e. keeping
stakeholders informed of new developments and communicating the rationale
for change.
The use of financial rewards linked to employee productivity gains. This helps
to motivate workers to perform more effectively, thereby enabling the business
to earn more profits. Shareholders would also be content as higher profits
should lead to higher dividends payments and increased share prices.
Ensuring wider representation of stakeholders in the decision-making process,
e.g. the involvement of a trade union representative in strategic decision making
or including an employee representative at a Board of Directors’ meeting.
In resolving conflict, the outcome of negotiations is largely influenced by
the relative bargaining power of the various stakeholder groups. For example,
employees who are backed by powerful labour unions may be in a better position
to secure improved terms and conditions of employment. International pressure
groups, such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth, can exert huge pressure on
businesses, because they have greater backing of the general public and media.
Expert tip
However, it is possible to have mutual benefits between stakeholders’ interests Whilst different stakeholder groups
rather than conflict. For example, offering competitive financial rewards and have different aims and objectives,
good terms and conditions of employment for all workers can result in a highly some stakeholders belong to multiple
motivated, loyal and productive workforce. This leads to lower staff turnover groups, e.g. managers are employees
(see Unit 2.1) and greater output. It can also result in an improved corporate of the organization and might also be
image, thereby helping with the firm’s marketing and its recruitment. By contrast, shareholders in the company. Hence,
conflict between management and the workforce can lead to industrial action stakeholder analysis is a difficult
such as strikes (see Unit 2.6). Ultimately, resolving the potential conflict between balancing act of trying to meet the
stakeholders leads to improved efficiency and higher profits. interests of most stakeholder groups.
EXAM PRACTICE
1 In 2015, HSBC announced 25 000 jobs losses around the world, including the
sale of its troubled businesses in Turkey and Brazil (where it reported losses in
2014 of $232 million and $377 million respectively). The cuts would allow the CUEGIS CONCEPTS
banking giant to save $4.5–5 billion per year. Analysts suggested the news
Investigate how the various
would reduce the return on investment for shareholders, at least in the short run.
stakeholder groups in an
a Identify two internal stakeholders of HSBC. [2] organization of your choice have
b Explain two conflicts following HSBC’s decision to reduce its global influenced corporate culture and
workforce. [4] business strategy.
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1.5 External environment

STEEPLE analysis of a given organization
(AO2, AO4)
As a brainstorming framework, STEEPLE analysis is quite simple to construct
and interpret. Keyword definition
It can help managers be more objective, proactive and comprehensive in their A STEEPLE analysis examines
analysis of external opportunities and threats for the business. the influences in the external
environment in which a business
Hence, the tool enables managers to be more informed and better prepared to
operates, i.e. social, technological,
deal with changes in the external business environment.
economic, ethical, political, legal,
The STEEPLE factors in the section below can provide both opportunities and and environmental factors.
threats for businesses.
Social factors
Demographic changes are classified as a social factor. Changes in fashions and
trends are also social factors affecting businesses. Other examples are shown
below, which may not necessarily apply to all countries or regions of the world.
An increasing number of people now live in single-person households.
In many parts of the world such as France, the UK and Japan, there has been
an increase in the retirement age.
An ageing population is common in many economically developed countries,
aging population and increase
which has affected recruitment practices in these nations. Similarly, there is an
in the retirement age
increasing number of older and retired people living in these countries.
Women in modern societies are choosing to have children at a later age due
to the higher costs of raising children and due to the desire to advance their
careers.
A common trend is the increasing movement of young workers to cities away
from rural areas.
Technological factors
The increasing use of mobile devices and internet technologies provides huge
opportunities for businesses engaged in e-commerce.
The increasing number of businesses that strive to have a greater online
presence by developing their e-commerce strategies.
Advances in automation and industrial technologies that improve efficiency
and productivity in the manufacturing process. capital intensive and e-commerce
and technology advancement
Unemployment in certain industries due to the use of automation and more
capital-intensive methods of production.
The increasing ability to communicate with customers all around the world,
using social networks and social media.
Economic factors
The level of consumer confidence influences the level of demand in an
economy.
Higher costs of production will tend to force prices to go up. Higher prices will currency and interest rate
also tend to damage a country’s international competitiveness. and economic situations
A currency appreciation reduces the competitiveness of an exporter’s prices,

e.g. an appreciation of the US dollar against the yen will tend to lead to a fall
in US exports to Japan.
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An increase in interest rates makes borrowing more expensive, thus

discourages investment expenditure. In addition, firms with existing loans
have larger repayments.
An economic boom is associated with an expanding economy, i.e. high levels
of consumption, income and investment, creating many opportunities for
businesses (see Figure 1.5).
Actual
growth
Peak
Output (GDP)
Expansion
Growth
trend
Contraction
Trough
Time
Figure 1.5 The business cycle
By contrast, an economic recession occurs when the level of economic activity

contracts for at least two consecutive quarters (half a year), caused by lower
levels of consumption and investment expenditure in the economy.
Table 1.19 Phases in the business cycle

Expansion Contraction
Trough (Slump) (Recovery) Peak (Boom) (Recession)
Consumer and Very low confidence Increasing levels of Very high (optimistic) Low and falling
business confidence (pessimistic) confidence confidence levels
Consumer spending Very low Increasing High Falling
Economic growth Negative GDP growth Rising levels of GDP Positive growth, high GDP begins to fall
GDP
Unemployment Very high Falling Low Rising
Inflation Low or negative Rising prices High price levels Price levels begin to fall
(deflation)
Number of firms High Falling Low Rising
failing
Business investment Very low, if any Rising High Falling
EXAM PRACTICE
2 Bristol Cars, a specialist British car maker, sells its sports cars at an average
price of £120 000 to customers in America. Calculate the change in the
price paid by American customers if the US dollar depreciates from
£1 = $1.6 to £1 = $1.8. [2]
Environmental factors
The depletion of renewable resources raises concerns about the sustainability
of business activity (see Unit 5.1).
Inclement weather and climate change are environmental factors that can
cause major threats to businesses, e.g. severe flooding, droughts, typhoons,
tsunamis and snowstorms.
climate change and pollution and renewable
An increasing number of businesses use green technologies as part of their
resources and ecological footprint
operations in order to conserve the planet, e.g. renewable energy sources or
cradle to cradle design and manufacturing (see Unit 5.3).
Firms also have to consider their ecological footprint, i.e. the impact of their
business activities such as waste production on the natural environment.
Firms that take an active approach can benefit from having a positive
corporate image, whilst those that do not may face financial penalties.
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Political factors
Political instability due to regional conflict can be a major threat to business
activity.
The government might use the rate of income tax to manage the economy,
e.g. countries such as Bahrain, Brunei, Kuwait and the Bahamas have a zero
rate of income tax to attract a migration of workers.
Laws such as censorship or bans on the production or sale of certain goods and
services can be a threat to business operations.
Some governments use trade protectionist measures to safeguard domestic
businesses and jobs, e.g. a tariff on imported cars protects the domestic car
political instability and government
industry.
taxation and laws and policies and tariff
Similarly, governments may impose quotas (quantitative limits) on the number and subsidy and grants and
of foreign products sold in the country, e.g. Hollywood movies released in government purchase and investment
Hong Kong to protect the local film industry.
Governments also provide subsidies as a form of protection for certain
domestic industries, e.g. the French government for farmers and the Chinese
government for the film (movie) industry.
The government itself is a large consumer with its various forms of
expenditure, e.g. education and health care services, and thus provides huge
opportunities for some businesses.
Legal factors
Businesses must meet certain legal standards that help to reduce any adverse
effects from a company’s operations, corporate image and profits.
Many countries have data protection laws as a form of consumer protection.
Businesses must operate within the constraints of employment laws, e.g. a legislations and law
National Minimum Wage, laws on maximum working hours, health and safety
regulations, and anti-discrimination employment legislation.
Smoking bans in restaurants, shopping malls and public parks can have a
significant impact on businesses.
Environmental protection legislation can impact on the production and
investment decisions of businesses.
Ethical factors
Businesses need to consider the impact of their activities on society and the
environment. moral principles
Ethical factors consider doing what is right or morally correct.

Businesses are often presented with ethical dilemmas, e.g. determining how Expert tip
much of the firm’s profits to keep for investment purposes or to distribute to It is not always easy to classify
shareholders. external factors into the STEEPLE
categories. For example, an increase
Bribery, fraud, embezzlement and theft are examples of unethical and illegal in the tax on cigarettes can be
practices. regarded as a political, legal or
Businesses choose to adopt environmental practices and to meet their economic factor. What matters is
corporate social responsibilities. how you justify your answer.
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Consequences of a change in any of the STEEPLE

factors for a business’s objectives and strategy (AO3)
Oil prices around the world increased by 110% between 2007 and 2008.
Expert tip
The global financial crisis of 2008 caused many countries to go into recession
for several years. Countries were hit by another round of financial turmoil in The contextualized nature of the
late 2015 when Chinese, US and European stock markets crashed. Business Management course
means that you will need to be
In 2009, China overtook the USA as the world’s largest car market by sales. able to examine how changes in
This has a significant impact on the marketing strategies of all car makers any combination of the STEEPLE
around the world. factors impacts on the objectives and
strategies of a particular basis. Some
Severe flooding in Kaohsiung, Taiwan (September 2010) cost the economy
examples that you might choose to
$211m. investigate further are outlined in
The devastating 9.0-magnitude earthquake followed by the tsunami that hit this section.
Japan on 11 March 2011 was the worst in Japanese history.
Indonesian authorities outlawed Lady Gaga’s Born This Way Ball concert tour
in Jakarta (May 2012), following concerns from Islamists and local community
leaders about her inappropriate image, dress code and use of language. More
than 50 000 tickets had been sold.
The Twitter feeds of several high profile companies were hacked into in
February 2013, including Burger King and Jeep.
In February 2013, frozen meat producer Findus had all its beef lasagne
products withdrawn from UK supermarkets after horsemeat was found in some
products.
CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Investigate how changes in the
STEEPLE factors have affected
the objectives and strategy for an
organization of your choice.
Figure 1.6 Car wash firms struggle on a snowy day
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1.6 Growth and evolution

Economies and diseconomies of scale (AO2)
Economies of scale are the cost-saving benefits of operating on a large scale,
i.e. the reduction in unit costs of production as an organization grows.
Keyword definitions
By contrast, diseconomies of scale arise when unit costs increase due to the
Internal economies of scale
organization being too large and inefficient, e.g. problems with communication
refers to the fall in unit costs
and coordination.
of production for a single
Internal economies of scale are generated and enjoyed within the organization organization as it experiences
when it operates on a larger scale. Examples include: growth, e.g. managerial and
financial economies of scale.
Financial economies – larger firms can obtain finance easier and at better
lending rates due to their relatively lower risk. External economies of scale
refers to the fall in unit costs of
Managerial economies – larger organizations can afford greater numbers of
production for all organizations as
specialized managers, thereby boosting productivity and output.
the industry experiences growth.
Production economies – fixed costs of production are spread out over a larger
volume of output, thereby reducing average fixed costs of production.
Marketing economies – marketing costs per unit fall when sales volume
Costs ($)
grows as the larger firm can market its entire product range. Average
Purchasing economies – bulk purchase and delivery of raw materials, cost
components and stock reduces average costs of production. Economies Diseconomies
of scale of scale
External economies of scale arise from having specialized back-up services
Quantity (units)
available in a particular region where firms are located, e.g. Silicon Valley in
California is home to many of the best-known technology companies. Figure 1.7 Economies and
diseconomies of scale
Diseconomies of scale occur when an organization becomes too large to
manage effectively so its unit costs begin to increase, e.g. a firm increases its
factor inputs by 50% but the subsequent output only increases by 20%.
Internal diseconomies of scale are caused by problems of coordination, control
and communication within a firm. For example:
As firms get larger, managers find it more difficult to coordinate, control
and communicate with a larger workforce, resulting in higher unit costs.
It also occurs when fixed costs increase, such as the purchase of additional Expert tip
premises as a firm grows but this substantially increases its average costs of
production. Students often state that costs of
production will fall as a firm increases
External diseconomies of scale (those that affect all firms in an industry) the scale of its operations. This is not
include: quite correct – clearly it is cheaper
to produce 1000 cans of Coca-Cola
Traffic congestion causing costs to increase. than it is to produce 500 000 cans.
Higher rent costs due to the high demand for firms locating in a However, it is cheaper to produce
particular area. each can of Coca-Cola on a larger
scale, i.e. economies of scale reduce
Labour shortages in a certain area, thus leading to increased labour costs. the average costs of production.
EXAM PRACTICE
Expert tip
3 Armstrong’s Candies has monthly fixed costs of $4800 and average variable
costs of $1.50. Demand for its candies is 4000 units each month. The Candidates need to demonstrate they
average unit price is $4. clearly understand the distinction
a Distinguish between internal and external economies of scale. [3] between internal economies of scale
(which relate to a specific firm) and
b Calculate the average costs for Armstrong’s Candies each month. [2] external economies of scale (which
c Calculate the profit made by Armstrong’s Candies each month. [2] relate to the whole industry).
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The merits of small versus large organizations (AO3)

Table 1.20 Merits of small versus large organizations
Merits of small organizations Merits of large organizations
Small businesses are easier to set up Greater access to financial resources;
and at a much lower cost having more capital than their rivals
Owners of small businesses enjoy means larger firms have scope for
independence in decision making, i.e. the further growth
freedom to operate independently from They can attract better skilled staff as
demands of directors and shareholders they can offer better career development
Greater control and ownership of the and remuneration packages
business Customers tend to be attracted to
Greater ease in introducing new goods larger, well known brand names as they
recognize and trust these names more
Expert tip
and/or services quickly, and typically
more flexible in responding to changes Large firms are less likely to fail so Students are not expected to give a
in the marketplace represent lower risk for owners, investors definitive verdict about small versus
and financiers; small firms are more large organizations. Both large and
They can serve specialized niche markets
vulnerable during an economic recession small businesses can thrive; the
that are potentially highly profitable
important thing is to consider size
Small businesses tend to have a closer Larger firms benefit from economies of
in a critical way and in the context
relationship with their customers scale so may be able to offer lower prices
of the organization. There are other
yet offer greater choice to customers
Financial accounts can be kept private; factors to consider, e.g. size might
only the tax authorities need access These advantages can give larger firms not matter as much as the firm’s
to these a competitive edge over smaller rivals vision and the organizational culture.
The difference between internal and external

growth (AO2)
Internal growth (also known as organic growth) occurs when an organization
expands using its own resources, without involving other organizations, e.g.
using Ansoff’s Matrix strategies such as market penetration and product
development (see Unit 1.3).
External growth (also known as inorganic growth) occurs when a business
relies on third party organizations for growth, e.g. mergers, acquisitions, and
franchising.
Key indicators of growth include an increase in an organization’s sales revenue,
its market share (see Unit 4.1), and the number of employees hired.
Table 1.21 Differences between internal and external growth
External growth Internal growth
External growth is usually the quickest form of growth Brand identity and corporate culture can be maintained
Ordinarily requires external sources of finance (see Unit 3.1) Less risky, especially if financed by using retained
Often results in the dilution of ownership profits (see Unit 3.1)
Far more bureaucratic, especially with mergers and acquisitions (M&As) Often involves expanding the range of products and/or
locations
Involves greater financial risk
In the case of M&As, external growth reduces or eliminates competition
Methods of external growth (AO3)

Methods of external growth include: mergers and acquisitions (M&As), takeovers,
joint ventures, strategic alliances, and franchising.
Mergers and acquisitions (M&As) and takeovers

A takeover is a form of external growth that occurs when one company buys a
controlling interest in another company, i.e. it purchases enough shares in the
company to own a majority stake.
For example, in July 2015 British publishing giant Pearson sold the Financial
Times to Japanese media firm Nikkei for £844 million ($1.27 billion) in cash.
Interestingly, the FT was founded through a merger in 1888.
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Takeovers are often hostile, i.e. the target company does not wish to be bought
out by the purchasing company.
Takeovers (also called acquisitions) often result in redundancies (job losses) of
the target firm due to cost savings desired by the purchasing company.
Table 1.22 Advantages and disadvantages of M&As
Advantages of M&As Disadvantages of M&As
A range of economies of scale gained through external growth Resistance from employees, trade unions, managers and
Enables the larger firm to spread costs, expertise and risks shareholders (who are unwilling to sell their shares)
Quick way for the firm to enter new industries and geographic M&As are not always successful, especially when firms pursue a
markets diversification strategy
Instantaneous growth as M&As are quicker than methods of M&As are generally very expensive, especially if there are delays
organic growth in the process; in some cases the purchase price ends up being
unaffordable
The cutting of costs and synergies from M&As allow the
business to earn higher profits and/or gain market share Corporate culture clashes, such as contrasting management
styles and organizational structures, cause huge problems for
The newly formed business gains market power to influence
M&As
prices and output in the industry
Diseconomies of scale may occur due to a firm’s loss of cost
A merger or takeover could be the only way that a business can
control and the loss of focus of its core activities
survive due to its poor cash flow or financial difficulties
Expert tip Expert tip

There is technically no difference between an acquisition and a takeover; the It is not necessary for the purchasing
terms are often used interchangeably. ‘M&As’ is used to describe a mutual company to buy 51% of the shares
agreement to form a new company, be it through a merger or acquisition. in the target company to take full
‘Takeover’ is often used to refer to a hostile acquisition of another company, management control – purchasing at
against the wishes of the firm being bought out. least 50% and one additional share
gives it a majority stake.
Joint ventures
A joint venture (JV) is an arrangement between two or more separate parties
to pool their resources together to form a new legal entity.
An example is Hong Kong Disneyland, a joint venture between the Hong
Kong government (which owns 51% of the JV) and the Walt Disney Company
(with a 49% stake).
The companies engaged in a JV seek profit, sharing resources (financial,
capital and human), such as personnel, assets, costs and revenues.
Table 1.23 Advantages and disadvantages of joint ventures

Advantages of joint ventures Disadvantages of joint ventures
The firms combine their resources, such as technology and Possible conflicts and disagreements due to different corporate
capital, creating synergies and strengthening their position in cultures and management styles of the partner firms
the market Compromises are often made with JVs and this can lead to
Financial risks of the project are shared between the partner suboptimal outcomes for both parent companies
companies Execution of business strategy is more decisive with acquisitions
Local firms can enable the partner to overcome cultural and takeovers
difficulties that a foreign company may encounter Diseconomies of scale may occur due to operations on a larger
JVs enable companies to become larger and thus benefit from scale, e.g. extra meetings and administrative processes, and
economies of scale communication problems
The partner firms enjoy the advantages of growth without losing JVs are generally more difficult to terminate due to the lawfully
their identities binding obligations of the newly created legal entity
Firms in the JV avoid high legal and administrative costs
associated with M&As
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Strategic alliances
Strategic alliances (SAs) are formed when two or more businesses join forces to
benefit from growth without any fundamental changes to their own long-term
strategies.
Unlike joint ventures, the formation of a strategic alliance does not create a
new organization.
Examples include the SA between Starbucks and Barnes & Noble (coffee
shop chain and bookstore) which started in 1993. Apple has partnered with
Sony, Motorola, Phillips, and AT&T. The Star Alliance consists of 27 airlines,
forming the world’s largest global SA in the airline industry.
Table 1.24 Advantages and disadvantages of strategic alliances

Advantages of strategic alliances Disadvantages of strategic alliances
Like JVs, firms in a strategic alliance can benefit by sharing Unlike joint ventures, strategic alliances are easier to enter and
expertise and resources with other firms in the SA exit so can be less stable
Businesses in the SA remain separate legal entities, without the Strategic alliances are sometimes only short term, temporary
relatively high costs of forming a new company agreements
Synergies and economies of scale can be gained by the partner It can make a business vulnerable to mistakes or malpractice
firms in the SA made by partner firms in the SA
Franchising
Franchising refers to an agreement between a
business (the franchisor) giving the legal rights to
other organizations (the franchisees) to sell products
under the franchisor’s brand name.
Examples of multinational companies that use
franchising include: McDonald’s, Subway, Starbucks,
Pizza Hut, KFC and Holiday Inn.
Figure 1.8 McDonald’s is a multinational company that uses

franchising
Table 1.25 Advantages and disadvantages of franchising

Advantages of franchising Disadvantages of franchising
The franchisor can expand the business without the need to raise Not all businesses have the expertise to properly manage the
finance and invest their own funds to make the business grow franchising model in terms of quality control and marketing
(as the franchisee pays for the expansion); hence it is a cheaper activities
method of expansion than organic growth It can be very expensive for the franchisee in terms of start-up
The franchisor receives royalties based on a predetermined costs and running costs as it has to pay a percentage of its
percentage of the franchisee’s sales revenues sales revenues to the franchisor
It is a relatively fast method of external growth which can The franchisee is also usually charged an annual fee by the
strengthen the brand name quickly franchisor, so this can substantially cut the franchisee’s profit
The franchisor does not need to closely monitor or control the margin
day-to-day operations of the franchisee (whereas monitoring and The franchisee lacks flexibility in decision making as it needs
control must take place with directly-owned stores) to follow the corporate rules and policies of the franchisor,
The franchising model is usually a tried and tested one, so the including what it can and cannot sell, and the marketing used
success rate is high; hence, there can be large profits made for the to promote the firm’s goods and services
franchisee and franchisor Diseconomies of scale can arise, even with franchises, especially
Economies of scale, such as purchasing economies of scale, can be if the franchise over expands in too short a time scale
gained and passed onto franchisees when buying products to be sold Incompetent, substandard or dishonest franchisees can easily
The franchisee receives ongoing support from the franchisor, e.g. damage the corporate image and reputation of the franchisor’s
marketing, market research, staff training, and distribution networks brand
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Expert tip
Buying a franchise is not an easy thing to do. Franchisors use a thorough vetting
process to assess the limited number of franchisees granted a licence each
year. For the franchisor, their brand name and reputation are at risk, and legally
removing an incompetent franchisee is difficult and costly.
The role and impact of globalization on the growth

and evolution of businesses (AO3)
Globalization is the growing degree of integration and interdependence of the
world’s economies. Decisions and actions taken in one part of the world have a
direct impact on those in other parts of the world.
A major contributing factor to globalization is the growth and expansion of
multinational companies (MNCs). There is increasing pressure for MNCs to
market their brands to a worldwide audience.
Cultural exports, such as Hollywood movies or American fast food, have led to
increased globalization. This creates business opportunities for firms looking to
grow and evolve.
Globalization has both positive and negative effects on businesses, e.g. it
stimulates competition as there are more foreign firms and products competing
in the domestic market.
A lack of international business etiquette can cause offence to others. Habits,
fashions and tastes may differ in overseas countries so different customs may
need to be considered.
The deregulation of trade restrictions around the world has allowed domestic
businesses to enter overseas markets, thereby enabling these firms to benefit
from economies of scale and a larger customer base.
Internet technologies have also contributed to globalization, with social media
making it increasingly easier for people and businesses around the world to
connect. E-commerce (see Unit 4.8) has improved consumer access to a huge
range of markets.
Advocates of globalization argue that it has increased job opportunities around
the world, so has significantly reduced the number of people living in poverty.
Reasons for the growth of multinational companies

(MNCs) (AO3)
Reasons for the growth of MNCs include:
MNCs benefit from access to larger markets in foreign countries. Keyword definition
They usually benefit from economies of scale. A multinational company (MNC)
is an organization that operates,
They spread risks by operating in other markets, not just within their own owns, or controls production and/
country. or service facilities in two or more
MNCs often operate on a large, global scale with powerful brand names. countries.
MNCs expand overseas as a market development strategy (see Ansoff’s Matrix,

Expert tip
Unit 1.3), when other markets are saturated.
MNCs are not without their
They can exploit the potential growth opportunities in certain overseas complications and limitations. They are,
markets that are still untapped. for example, exposed to additional risks
Cost-saving benefits of operating in overseas countries, e.g. cheaper labour, when operating in overseas markets,
e.g. cultural differences in business
lower tax rates, access to cheaper raw materials and components, or being
practices, legal differences, political
closer to global customers. risks and volatility with fluctuating
foreign exchange rates.
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The impact of MNCs on the host countries (AO3)

Positive impacts of MNCs on the host countries include the following:
MNCs provide a significant number of employment opportunities, helping to
raise the quality of the labour force in the host country.
MNCs are likely to buy local raw materials and components, thus providing
extra revenue for local suppliers and supporting local industries (such as
packaging and distribution).
Consumers in the host country do not have to rely only on local suppliers as
they have more choice from MNCs, thus helping to raise standards of living.
Similarly, increased competition from MNCs can force local firms to improve
their operational efficiency, quality, customer care and prices.
The transfer of technical knowledge and benchmarking practices (see Unit 5.3)
from MNCs can also benefit local firms.
Profitable MNCs will be taxed by the host government, thus providing added
tax revenue to benefit the host economy.
Negative impacts of MNCs on the host countries include the following:
Local businesses may lose customers, market share and profit to foreign MNCs.
Foreign companies may not be socially responsible, especially if rules and
regulations are more relaxed in overseas markets, which might result in
employees being exploited, scarce resources being depleted or increasing
pollution levels.
The existence of large and powerful MNCs can destroy local competitors as CUEGIS CONCEPTS
they do not have the resources to compete. Investigate how globalization
has impacted on the growth and
Not all local people and businesses will welcome the presence of foreign evolution for a business of your
companies, especially if it results in a cultural shift in the way of life, and may choice.
result in social tension.
EXAM PRACTICE
4 In 2015 Kraft Foods Group Inc., merged with H.J. Heinz Co. to form the
world’s fifth-largest food and beverage company. Heinz is a global brand,
famous for its tomato ketchup, sauces, soups, beans, pasta and infant
foods. Kraft is one of North America’s largest consumer packaged food and
beverage companies, with annual sales revenues of more than $18 billion
and over 22 000 employees in the USA.
a Define the term merger. [2]
b Examine the possible reasons for the merger between Kraft
and Heinz. [6]
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1.7 Organizational planning tools

(HL only)
Planning tools (AO2, AO4) and their value to an
organization (AO3)
Planning is an essential element of business management. There are a number
of planning tools available to help managers in the process. Strategic planning
is about the direction of the business and is fundamental to the setting of goals,
targets and objectives (see Unit 1.3).
Fishbone diagram
The fishbone diagram (also known as the Cause and Effect model) is a visual
decision-making tool devised by the Japanese guru on quality, Professor Kaoru
Ishikawa.
It is used to identify the root causes (shown as bones) of a problem or issue
(shown as the ‘head’ of the fish).
A business might face a problem, for example, of high labour turnover (i.e. the
proportion of its workforce that leaves the organization during the year). An
example is shown in Figure 1.9.
Career advancement Remuneration
Limited
Low pay
opportunities
Few training Poor
opportunities benefits
High labour
turnover
Lack of challenge Lack of support
Lack of recognition
Long hours
Poor relationships
Stressful work No direction
Job itself Management

Figure 1.9 Fishbone diagram
Table 1.26 Advantages and disadvantages of the fishbone diagram

Advantages of the fishbone diagram Disadvantages of the fishbone diagram
It shows a variety of probable causes of a given problem in a Causes and effects are not always interrelated, making the
succinct way construction of the fishbone more difficult and less meaningful
As a visual tool, it is easy to follow in order to determine the As a qualitative decision-making tool, it does not include any
root causes and consequences of a problem or issue quantifiable data so it is difficult to ascertain how much each factor
It organizes the causes of a problem by themes, such as actually contributes to the problem
communication issues or motivation problems, thus aiding the Similarly, it does not show which decisions or actions need to be
decision-making process prioritized
Decision trees
A decision tree is a quantitative and systematic decision-making tool that
allows managers to visualize possible options and their probable outcomes.
In a decision tree, a circle represents a chance node. A square represents a
choice or decision.
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Probabilities of the various outcomes are shown, e.g. 0.35 means there is a
35% chance (likelihood) of the outcome actually materializing. Probabilities
for each chance node must add up to 1.0, i.e. 100% likelihood.
Figure 1.10 illustrates the decision of a firm to pursue either Project Chicago
(which costs $55 m) or Project Delhi (which costs $51 m). The following can
be seen from the decision tree:
There is a 65% chance of success if the firm chooses Project Chicago,
which would gain the firm $70 m in sales revenue. Thus, the likely outcome
is $70 m × 0.65 = $45.5 m.
There is a 35% chance of failure for Project Chicago, with expected revenues
of only $45 m. Hence, the probable outcome is $45 m × 0.35 = $15.75 m.
Therefore, the combined outcome for Project Chicago is $45.5 m + $15.75 m
= $61.25 m. After the costs of the project are accounted for, the likely yield
(return) of Project Chicago is $61.25 m – $55 m = $6.25 m.
For Project Delhi, there is a 55% chance of success in earning $80 m.
Hence, the likely outcome is $80 m × 0.55 = $44 m.
If the project fails, the likely outcome of earning $35m in sales revenue is
$35 m × 0.45 = $15.75 m.
Hence, the combined likely outcome is $44 m + $15.75 m = $59.75 m. The
likely profit is therefore $59.75 m – $51 m = $8.75 m.
Two parallel lines that cross through a branch represent the options that are
rejected based on quantitative grounds.
Examining the decision tree in Figure 1.10 shows that Project Delhi should
be pursued. Despite the relatively higher risk of failure, the investment cost is
lower and the likely yield is an extra $2.5 m ($8.75 m return for Project Delhi
compared to $6.25 m for Project Chicago).
Success (+$70m)
$45.5m
0.65
Project $61.25m – $55m = $6.25m
Chicago Failure (+$45m)
B $15.75m
$55m 0.35
Project Expert tip

Delhi Success (+$80m)
C $44m
$51m 0.55 Remember when constructing a
$59.75m – $51m = $8.75m decision tree that squares are used
Failure (+$35m) for decisions whilst circles are chance
$15.75m
0.45 nodes for which probabilities are
Figure 1.10 Example of a decision tree assigned.
Table 1.27 Advantages and disadvantages of decision trees

Advantages of decision trees Disadvantages of decision trees
Formalizes the decision-making process and makes it more Qualitative factors affecting decision making are ignored, e.g.
impartial as outcomes can be compared objectively business objectives and stakeholder views
Offers a visual and logical representation of various Data on likely outcomes are only forecasts so actual outcomes can be
decisions with quantifiable outcomes, thus making things quite different
easier to follow Data can become out of date by the time a decision is actually taken
Management is forced to consider the risks of different External factors and non-financial information are ignored in the
options diagram
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EXAM PRACTICE
5 Kingmans Educational Resources (KER) is considering expanding into one
of three locations. The expected costs and revenues are shown in the table
below. KER only has the resources to pursue one of these growth options.
Using the data in the table, construct a decision tree showing which
project is best on financial grounds. Show all your workings and include
an appropriate key in your diagram. [6]
Project Probability (%) Cost ($m) Revenue ($m)

Ashtown 100
Success 50 215
Failure 50 80
Brigcity 80
Success 65 180
Failure 35 75
Centrapolis 90
Success 60 175
Failure 40 90
Force field analysis

Force field analysis (FFA) was devised by German-American psychologist Kurt
Lewin as a planning and decision-making framework for examining the factors
for and against change.
The factors (or forces) that support change towards a goal are called driving
forces, whereas those that block or hinder change are called restraining forces.
These forces are numerically weighted in order to calculate the relative
strengths of driving and restraining forces, thereby aiding decision making in
an objective and quantifiable way.
In Figure 1.11, the weights range from 1 to 5, with 5 being of most significance
to the business. In the example, as the driving forces outweigh the restraining
forces, the objective decision is to relocate the business.
Driving forces Restraining forces

(Forces for change) (Forces against change)
Resistance from staff = 3

Cheaper rent = 4
Decision: Staff training costs (new

Overseas location) = 3
relocation
Improved
competitiveness = 4
Staff redundancies (current
location) = 3
Access to overseas
markets = 4 Cultural adjustments = 2
Total: 12 Total: 11
Figure 1.11 Force field analysis for overseas relocation
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Table 1.28 Advantages and disadvantages of force field analysis

Advantages of FFA Disadvantages of FFA
As a quantitative planning tool, it makes the decision-making Qualitative factors affecting decision making are ignored and/or
process more objective and logical difficult to quantify
It offers a simple visual representation of the forces for and The omission of certain driving or restraining forces can alter the
against change outcome quite drastically
Weighting (numerical values) the forces makes managers The weighting of the forces is subjective, leaving room for
consider the relative importance of factors affecting the decision potential bias
Expert tip
HL students who choose to use force field analysis in their Internal Assessment
are reminded to consult the management of the organization to weight the
driving and restraining forces. There is no significance in students assigning the
weights as this adds no value to management.
Gantt chart
A Gantt chart, devised by American engineer Henry L. Gantt, is a visual
planning tool that illustrates the sequencing and schedule of a particular project.
Links established between dependent tasks allow managers to sequence the
various activities (tasks) of a particular project, i.e. it shows what must be
completed before the next task(s) can begin.
The required time and resources can then be linked to each of the tasks in the
project.
Ultimately, a Gantt chart helps project managers to determine how long a
project should take to complete.
An example of a Gantt chart using the data in Table 1.29 is shown in
Figure 1.12.
Table 1.29 Activities for Project X
Activity Preceded by Duration (days)
A – 3
B – 3
C – 3
D A 2
E B 4
F C 3
G D, E and F 7
Gantt chart for Project X (days)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Figure 1.12 Example of a Gantt chart
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Table 1.30 Advantages and disadvantages of Gantt charts

Advantages of Gantt charts Disadvantages of Gantt charts
Show the dependencies between different activities in order to The length of time (each bar) does not necessarily correlate with
minimize the time needed to complete a project the amount of work or resources involved for each activity
There are wide applications, e.g. scheduling production Need to be monitored and may need regular updating
processes, employee work rosters, and holiday schedules Complex projects may be difficult to display on a one-page
Help managers to set realistic deadlines for the various activities Gantt chart
of a project Its simplicity means that a Gantt chart may not provide enough
Simple to interpret and understand detail or information for complex projects
Allow managers to monitor progress and take corrective measures Based on and reliant on the estimates of the timings of each task
Expert tip
HL students can produce a Gantt chart for the Action Plan of their Internal
Assessment. Not only can this provide a neat and succinct visual of the intended
activities for the IA, it also helps with the 500-word limit for the Research
Proposal and Action Plan.
EXAM PRACTICE
6 Construct a Gantt chart from the data given in the table below
for Project A. [4] Expert tip
Activity Order Duration (weeks) Whilst quantitative techniques such
as force field analysis, decision trees
A – 3
and Gantt charts provide quantifiable
B A 2 answers to complex decisions, it
C A 1 is important to remember that
managers also consider qualitative
D B 3
factors in the process, e.g. the impact
E C 2 of decisions on the workforce and
F D&E 5 whether the decision is in line with
organizational objectives.
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Unit 2 Human resource management
2.1 Functions and evolution of human

resource management
Human resource planning (workforce planning) (AO1)
Workforce planning involves analysing and forecasting the numbers of workers
and the skills of those workers that will be needed by the organization, e.g. new Keyword definition
recruits are needed as a business expands or because current employees leave.
Human resource planning is
Human resource (HR) planning aims for the effective management of an the management process of
organization’s workforce in order to achieve its objectives. anticipating and meeting an
Human resource planning functions include recruitment, induction (of new organization’s current and future
staff), retention, dismissal, redundancies, training and performance appraisals. staffing needs.
It also involves monitoring and maintaining professional relations between
employees and employers.
Workforce planning involves an analysis of historical data relating to the size
of the workforce, the workload and mobility (flexibility) of employees, labour
turnover rates, and demographic trends in society.
HR planning is also needed to deal with instances of absenteeism. This
refers to the number of staff away from work as a percentage of the firm’s total
workforce, per time period.
Successful workforce planning helps a firm to develop a competitive advantage
by matching human resource needs to the organization’s strategic direction.
It enables workers to be properly trained and highly motivated so that they
perform at their best.
Labour turnover (AO2)

Labour turnover is calculated using the formula:
Number of staff leaving per year Keyword definition
× 100
Average number of staff Labour turnover measures the
It is inevitable in an organization as some employees leave for personal or rate of change of human resources
professional reasons, e.g. to have a baby or spend more time with their young within an organization, per period
children, to retire or to pursue a promotional post in another organization. of time.
Retaining staff in the organization is important as there are significant costs
to recruiting new staff, training them and getting them acclimatized to the
organizational culture.
Causes of high labour turnover include:
Better pay and working conditions offered by rival firms.
An unhappy and discontented workforce.
Staff being inadequately trained so feel incompetent and demotivated.
Businesses try to avoid having a high labour turnover rate because this would
lead to higher costs of recruitment (and retention). It also uses up a large EXAM PRACTICE
amount of management time. 1 Duffy & Wong Ltd hire 86
Having a large number of new workers also means there is greater down-time people. Thirteen of the
when employees are less productive simply because they have yet to acclimatize employees resign within the
to their new working environment, policies, procedures and processes. year. Calculate the firm’s
labour turnover rate. [2]
High labour turnover also raises concerns about stability and continuity in the
business.
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Internal and external factors that influence

human resource planning (AO3)
Demographic change
Demographic change refers to developments and trends in the population that
influence workforce planning, e.g. the average age of the population, gender
distribution, educational attainment levels and average household income.
In some countries, such as France and Britain, the official retirement age has
been raised due to the longer life expectancy of workers.
The combination of lower birth rates, falling death rates and increased life
expectancy in many economically developed countries has led to an ageing
population (an increase in the average age of the population). This has several
implications on workforce planning:
reduced labour mobility
lower labour productivity levels
changing consumption patterns.
In many countries, there has been an increased number of women in the
workforce. More females are choosing to have children at a later stage in
their lives, opting instead to participate in the workforce and pursue their
professional aspirations.
Change in labour mobility

Occupational mobility refers to the ease and flexibility of workers in moving
from one job to another due to their ability and willingness to switch.
By contrast, occupational immobility is the inability of workers to move from
one job to another, due to a lack of skills, expertise or qualifications.
Geographical mobility refers to the extent to which workers are able and
willing to relocate to another area for employment purposes.
Geographical immobility is the reluctance of workers to move to another
location. This might be due to personal reasons (such as family ties) or
financial factors (such as relocation costs, property prices, or the higher costs
of living in new locations).
International labour mobility is even more difficult to achieve. Expatriate
workers are often highly remunerated as an incentive for them to relocate
overseas.
Labour mobility can be improved by the business offering training and
development programmes to its employees.
New communications technologies

New communications technologies make it easier for larger businesses to
recruit globally through their websites and video-conferencing facilities,
resulting in reduced costs of online advertising, recruitment and interviews.
Improved computer and mobile technologies also mean that flexitime,
homeworking and teleworking become more attractive and accessible to workers.
The technologies make it possible to train and develop employees in a more
efficient manner, e.g. online training courses or webinars. A large number of
employees can be trained very quickly at the same time.
The use of computerized testing programs helps firms to assess the
understanding and progress of trainees.
New communications technologies reduce the costs of business meetings and
seminars due to the growing use of high-quality video-conferencing.
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38 Unit 2 Human resource management
Common steps in the process of recruitment (AO2)

Job analysis is the process of identifying what a particular job entails, e.g.
the tasks, roles, responsibilities and skills required. From the analysis, the job
description and person specification can be created.
A job description is a document that provides details of a particular job, e.g.
the job title, roles, duties and responsibilities.
The person specification is a document that gives the profile of the ideal
candidate for a job, e.g. a description of the qualifications, skills, experience,
knowledge and other attributes. This is used as part of the selection process
for shortlisting candidates for interview.
Job advertisements are typically released after the job analysis has been
completed and the job description and person specification produced.
Candidates usually have to complete an application form for the job. They
may also need to include a curriculum vitae (or résumé) – a document
which outlines the applicant’s educational achievements, professional
qualifications, employment history, skills, accomplishments, hobbies and
interests.
Shortlisting is the systematic process of identifying and selecting the
few most suitable candidates from all the applicants for an interview,
because they best fit the profiles in the job description and person
specification. Shortlisting eliminates unsuitable candidates from the
recruitment process.
Shortlisted candidates are then invited for interviews and (in some cases)
testing in order to select the most suitable candidate for the job.
Testing is used for some jobs to ensure the best candidate is recruited.
Examples include:
Aptitude testing: a method of assessing the skills and ability of a candidate
to do a particular job, e.g. typing speed for a receptionist or driving ability
for a driving instructor.
Identify the vacancy that
Psychometric tests: used to assess the attitudes and personality traits of needs filling
candidates, e.g. their level of drive (or motivation) and their ability to deal
with stressful situations. These are used to ensure the chosen candidate is a
Create a job description
good match with the organizational culture. and person specification
Trade tests: industry-specific assessments used to examine the candidate’s
skills and expertise in a specific profession.
Advertise the post
Intelligence tests: used to assess a candidate’s skills of numeracy, literacy to attract candidates
and general knowledge.
Background checks are made with referees (one of whom is likely to be the Review applications and
current or last employer) to ensure information declared by the applicant draw up a shortlist
is truthful and to get a character reference so the business can assess the
suitability of the candidate.
Make the selection using
A job offer is made to the most suitable candidate prior to issuing a contract appropriate methods
of employment.
Internal recruitment Satisfy any conditions and

sign contracts; inform those
Internal recruitment is the hiring of people from within the organization to fill unsuccessful
a job vacancy.
Figure 2.1 The recruitment process
It is commonly used for targeting suitable employees for supervisory or
management positions. Source: Business Review, February 2013
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Table 2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of internal recruitment

Advantages of internal recruitment Disadvantages of internal recruitment
Lower risks as the employer already knows the strengths and ‘Dead wood’ (outdated practices) might exist in the organization
suitability of the existing worker so an external candidate could bring in new ideas
Relatively lower costs of recruitment compared to external Similarly, external candidates may be more skilled or better
recruitment qualified
It is generally faster than external recruitment A lower number of applicants can mean the employer has fewer
It strengthens the loyalty of employees as there are career candidates to choose from
development opportunities within the organization It can create unnecessary internal competition and conflict
It reduces or eliminates the need for induction as existing between existing workers who apply for a particular job
workers are already familiar with the practices and Hiring someone internally means there is a vacancy created, so
organizational culture another person still has to be recruited
External recruitment
External recruitment is the hiring of people from outside of the organization.
It requires placing job advertisements using a range of media to attract
potential applicants, e.g. newspapers, websites and trade magazines.
Interviews are the main method of selection for both internal and external
recruitment.
In some cases, specialist recruitment agencies in a particular industry take
responsibility for advertising, interviewing, selecting and hiring suitable
people. In return, they charge a fee for their services.
The advantages and disadvantages of external recruitment are the opposite
to those of internal recruitment (see Table 2.1), e.g. it can be difficult to
determine the suitability of an external candidate to fit into the culture of
the organization.
Types of training (AO2)

Training is the process of teaching a particular new skill or knowledge in order
to develop a person’s competence in the workplace. The purpose is to match
the skills of employees with the needs of the organization.
It is important as it improves the productivity of workers, boosts motivation
and reduces labour turnover. Training can also help to improve customer
service and customer relations.
A business that invests in its people can benefit from an improved reputation,
which helps to attract good quality candidates in the recruitment process.
The main types of training are on the job, off the job, cognitive and
behavioural.
On the job (including induction and mentoring)

Keyword definition
Induction – This type of training is intended for employees who are new to
the organization. It aims to support new staff in getting acquainted with the On-the-job training is training
people, plans, policies and processes of the firm. conducted within the workplace
whilst the employee is working.
It can help new workers to avoid costly mistakes by familiarizing
themselves with standard procedures, formalities and codes of conduct.
Induction training can be costly as it uses up valuable management time to
set up and run the training for new staff.
Mentoring – This is the process of an adviser or trainer (the mentor) providing
support to less experienced colleagues (the mentees) in various aspects of
their job role, e.g. a head of department providing advice and training to new
employees.
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Table 2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of on-the-job training

Advantages of on-the-job training Disadvantages of on-the-job training
Cheapest form of training if the firm uses in-house specialists to Trainees may pick up bad working habits from the trainer
provide the training Internal staff may lack the necessary skills, confidence and
Training is relevant as it is targeted at specific issues related to experience to deliver the training
the firm’s needs Internal trainers cannot get their own work done whilst planning
Fewer disruptions to daily operations as the trainee is still at or delivering the training
work
Can help to build better relationships at work due to team
working
Off the job

Day release – Employees take time off work to attend training at a Keyword definition
local college, training centre or conference centre, e.g. IB teachers Off-the-job training is training
attend three-day workshops as part of their professional reflection and conducted by specialists away from
development. the workplace.
Distance learning – Employees undertake self-study courses to improve their
skills and qualifications, perhaps by attending evening classes or following an
online training course.
Seminars – Staff attend a lecture or meeting as part of their professional
learning and training.
Table 2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of off-the-job training
Advantages of off-the-job training Disadvantages of off-the-job training
A wider range of skills and qualifications can be obtained It is more expensive than on-the-job training, e.g. training
Staff can learn from outside specialists or experts who may not course fees
exist within the organization Lost productivity during time when staff attend the training
Employees are not distracted from the daily operations in the Employees gaining new skills and qualifications may decide to
workplace leave the firm for better jobs elsewhere
Cognitive training
Cognitive training refers to exercising and developing the mental skills of
employees so as to improve their performance and productivity.
Cognition is the brain’s ability to learn and think, so cognitive thinking helps
to develop the learning and thinking skills of employees.
It focuses on improving memory, attention, perception, reasoning, judgement
and general learning skills.
Research has shown that cognitive training can lead to improvements in the
self-esteem, self-confidence and emotional stability of employees.
Behavioural training
Behavioural training seeks to change or improve the patterns of behaviour at
work based on the desired outcomes.
Examples of such behaviours include: team building, conflict
resolution training, anger management, stress management, leadership
training, mindfulness, emotional intelligence courses, or health and
safety training.
An important aspect of behavioural training is to identify the functional
issues that could be hindering performance. Case studies and role plays are
often used to facilitate this.
Essentially, behavioural training strives to improve both personal and
professional effectiveness.
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Types of appraisal (AO2)

Appraisals are conducted for several reasons, including:
assessing an employee’s performance against pre-agreed targets Keyword definition
identify training needs of the individual employee Appraisal refers to the formal
helping the management to reward high achieving employees. assessment of an employee’s
performance with reference to the
Target setting is an integral part of appraisals. Targets should be SMART: roles and responsibilities set out in
specific, measureable, achievable, realistic and time bound. the job description.
If an employee’s performance is deemed to be less than satisfactory, it should
be followed by providing relevant training or counselling. Such appraisals
do not necessarily result in severe or demotivating measures such as warning
letters or dismissal.
Different organizations use different appraisal systems, such as: formative,
summative, 360-degree feedback, and self-appraisal.
Formative appraisal
Formative appraisal takes place on an on-going basis to enable employees to
improve their job performance.
It helps to identify an employee’s strengths and weaknesses in a specific role or
the progress made in a particular task or project.
It helps the organization to identify the training needs of an individual
employee.
Summative appraisal
Summative appraisals take place periodically, such as quarterly or annually,
conducted by the line manager who summarizes the personal performance and
achievements of the appraisee.
The appraisee is held accountable for the outcome of his or her work,
including identifying any areas for improvement.
360-degree feedback
360-degree feedback is an appraisal system that involves getting comments,
opinions and information about an appraisee from the various groups of people
who work with that person, e.g. peers, line managers and subordinates.
360-degree feedback is usually obtained using questionnaires, surveys,
observations or interviews.
In some cultures, such an approach to appraisal (where a senior member of
staff is appraised by a junior colleague) would be deemed inappropriate and
might not produce open and truthful discussions.
Self-appraisal
Self-appraisal involves employees evaluating themselves against a
predetermined set of criteria. The appraisee reflects on their strengths and
weaknesses in order to set new targets for themselves.
To avoid potential bias and any inconsistencies, self-appraisals are often used
in conjunction with an appraisal conducted by the line manager.
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Common steps in the processes of dismissal

and redundancy (AO1)
Dismissal is fair if an employee loses his/her job due to incompetence or
gross misconduct in the workplace, e.g. theft, fraud, drunkenness, violence or
sleeping on the job. Keyword definitions
Dismissal refers to the termination
Managers have to handle dismissals very carefully. There needs to be very of a worker’s employment due to
definitive and comprehensive reasons for dismissing a worker to prevent any their incompetence or breach of
legal challenges being made in a court of law. employment contract.
In most cases, dismissal based on race, religion, age, gender, or sexual Redundancy occurs when a
preferences is regarded as unfair dismissal. business can no longer afford to
In general, dismissals go through a three-stage process: issuing the staff hire a certain number or group of
member an initial verbal warning, followed by a formal written warning, and workers or because the job ceases
finally termination of contract if the employee fails to meet the agreed targets. to exist, perhaps due to seasonal or
technological factors.
Redundancy occurs when a firm can no longer afford to employ a worker,
when a job ceases to exist due to the completion of a project, or a lack of
available work.
Redundancies can be voluntary or compulsory. Voluntary redundancies
are often associated with generous compensation packages (severance pay).
Involuntary redundancies happen as a last resort, often causing low staff
morale and instability in the organization.
It can be difficult for a business to decide which workers to make involuntarily
redundant. This needs to be done objectively, e.g. based on a last-in-first-out
system (number of years of service with the organization).
How work patterns, practices and preferences change

and how they affect the employer and employees (AO2)
Teleworking
Teleworking refers to employees working away from the office by using
electronic forms of communication, e.g. telephone, the internet or mobile
technologies.
Homeworking is an example of teleworking, where staff work from home.
Advancements in telecommunications and internet technologies, as well as
rising office rents, have increased the number of businesses choosing to use
teleworking.
Teleworkers can benefit from autonomy in decision making and the absence of
strict company policies, such as dress codes.
However, productivity can be an issue due to the distractions at home or the
lack of control when working outside of an office environment.
Flexitime
Flexitime is a variable work schedule requiring employees to work a set number
of hours but giving employees the right to choose when they work. There is
normally a core (peak) period during the day when employees must be at work.
This is common in the tech industry.
Flexitime and part-time workers have led to a fall in the numbers of full-time
workers in several industries, e.g. supermarkets and fast food.
Such practices help to improve employee morale and productivity by
improving the way they operate.
Flexitime has cost implications for the business as managers need to supervise
and monitor the hours actually worked by all flexitime employees.
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Migration for work

Migrants usually move to other countries in search of employment
opportunities.
Recruiting more immigrant and temporary workers can help employers to fill
short-term gaps such as during seasonal or peak trading periods.
Highly skilled workers are more likely to be able and willing to migrate as they
have a greater chance of securing well-paid jobs overseas.
The migration of skilled workers has increased due to globalization (such
as the widespread growth of multinational corporations) and internet
technologies enabling better flows of information to workers looking for job
opportunities overseas.
Part time
Part time is an employment practice that hires workers for fewer hours per
week than those with a full-time job.
Part-time staff work in shifts but may remain on call (standby) while off duty
to cover for full-time staff who might be off sick, attending a training course or
on annual holiday leave.
Part-time and shift workers give employers greater flexibility in their
operational hours.
Whilst part-time work might suit some people (such as mothers with young
children or full-time students in higher education), they do not qualify for the
same employment perks (benefits) as those on full-time contracts.
Outsourcing, offshoring and re-shoring as

human resource strategies (AO3)
Outsourcing is the use of external providers for certain non-core business
activities, e.g. cleaning, catering and security.
Many businesses outsource their non-core activities to third party firms to
reduce costs and to focus on their main business functions in which they
have core competencies.
The outsourced firm provides specialist services on a contract basis and at
highly competitive prices. They are also used due to the improved quality
standards provided.
Offshoring is the practice of relocating business functions or activities abroad.
It is pursued mainly because of lower production costs by using cheaper
labour in less economically developed countries.
Cost savings also arise due to lower operational costs, e.g. fewer fringe
benefits and lower training costs.
Countries such as India, Vietnam and the Philippines have seen a sharp
rise in multinational firms choosing to offshore their operations, e.g.
customer service call centres, accountancy services and computer software
development.
Re-shoring is the transfer and relocation of a firm’s overseas operations back
to its country of origin due to cost or competitive advantages (see Unit 5.4).
There has been a surge in re-shoring in countries such as the UK and
USA due to incentives offered by domestic governments for relocating
production back to the home country.
It also occurs when offshoring no longer offers cost savings, e.g. increased
wage costs in countries such as China and Mexico have driven some
multinational companies to re-shore their operations.
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Unethical labour practices in many off-shored countries (such as the

exploitation of female workers and child labour) have given firms a reason
to re-shore.
The increasing cases of product recalls and low quality output from
offshored production units has damaged the reputation of multinational
companies, thus forcing them to pull out of their overseas operations.
How innovation, ethical considerations and cultural

differences may influence human resource practices
and strategies in an organization (AO3)
Examples of how the concepts of innovation, ethics and culture may influence
human resource practices and strategies are outlined below.
Innovation
Human resource managers are increasingly relying on the use of
information communications technologies (ICT) in workforce planning,
e.g. the use of company websites to advertise job vacancies or video-
conferencing facilities to conduct job interviews around the world.
Social media and networks such as LinkedIn and Facebook are also used as
part of the recruitment process.
Ethics
The use of part-time and flexitime workers has raised some concerns about
employers who take advantage of these employees yet gain from having
lower operational costs.
The unethical treatment of people in the workplace has huge
consequences, e.g. lower staff morale, negative corporate image and costs of
possible lawsuits.
Unethical business practices of some offshored firms, such as the use of
child labour, mean that more businesses are choosing to re-shore their
operations.
Culture
Firms with high rates of labour turnover may suffer from poor human
resource management and a weak or fragmented corporate culture.
The culture of some firms is such that human resources are viewed as a
long-term investment so training and development become integral to CUEGIS CONCEPTS
their business strategy.
Investigate how innovation, culture
Although 360-degree feedback is used in some countries, the act of and ethics have impacted on
subordinates appraising their senior colleagues in an organization is human resource planning for an
unacceptable in other countries. organization of your choice.
Figure 2.2 Culture impacts on how appraisals are conducted
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2.2 Organizational structure

Terminology to facilitate understanding of different
types of organizational structures (AO1)
Small businesses are often characterized by informal organizational structures
while larger businesses need to adopt more formal structures due to the larger
numbers of staff involved.
As a business grows, it needs to organize staff into formal organizational
structures to ensure effective communications, increased efficiency, and clear
expectations of accountability and responsibility.
The following terms help to facilitate understanding of different types of
organizational structures: delegation, span of control, levels of hierarchy, chain
of command, bureaucracy, centralization, decentralization, and de-layering.
Delegation
As a business grows, it becomes inevitable that managers need to relinquish
some of their roles and responsibilities. This is known as delegation. Keyword definition
Delegation is the process of
It involves passing on control and authority by the line manager while still
entrusting and empowering
holding the subordinate accountable for his or her actions. The overall
a subordinate to successfully
responsibility still remains with the line manager.
complete a task, project or job role.
Delegation makes people accountable for their actions. Accountability is the
extent to which a particular individual is held responsible for the success or
failure of a job role or activity.
Decision making can be delegated but responsibility remains with the
executive directors as they are ultimately responsible for the organization’s
strategy.
It can be a motivational tool for employees as it recognizes their talent, ability
and potential. Staff who are empowered may feel inspired to perform well.
They feel a sense of achievement and pride in their work. Morale is high as Expert tip
they feel trusted and valued by management. Whilst delegation empowers a
worker with decision-making rights
Delegation can, but does not always, come with extra financial rewards, e.g. and authority, responsibility cannot
pay rises. be delegated – the line manager
Successful delegation frees up managers to attend to other important tasks remains responsible for the work or
such as strategic decision making. tasks delegated to others.
Span of control
The span of control is inversely proportional to the number of hierarchical
layers in an organization. Keyword definition
The span of control describes the
Having a narrow span of control can improve communication and control of
number of subordinates who are
the team.
directly accountable to a manager.
A wide span of control means a manager is responsible for many subordinates,
while a narrow span of control indicates fewer workers who directly report to
the line manager.
The wider the span of control, the greater the need for strong leadership and
clear lines of communication.
A wider span of control makes the organization flatter.
Organizations with wider spans of control require fewer managers, which
lowers their costs.
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Levels of hierarchy
Hierarchical structures show where each person within an organization fits
and hence his or her roles and responsibilities. Keyword definition
Hierarchical structures can be tall, with a narrow span of control but many Levels of hierarchy refer to the
levels in the hierarchy. management structure of an
organization based on the number
Alternatively, organizations can be flat, with wider spans of control but with of layers of formal authority,
fewer levels in the hierarchical structure. usually presented in a diagram or
chart.
Chain of command
The chain of command in an organizational structure is usually shown as a
vertical line of authority indicating how decisions and responsibility are passed Keyword definition
down the hierarchical layers. The chain of command is the
Instructions and commands flow downward along the chain of command formal line of authority through
whilst accountability flows upward in the organizational structure. which orders and decisions
are passed down from senior
The clearer the chain of command, the more effective the decision making management at the top to
tends to be. operational workers at the bottom
A clear and established chain of command improves the efficiency of of the hierarchy.
communications in the workplace.
Businesses with fewer levels in the hierarchy (flat structures) have a shorter
chain of command.
Bureaucracy
Bureaucratic organizational structures have a number of layers of management,
with decisions passed down from senior executives to regional managers, Keyword definition
departmental managers, supervisors and operative workers. Bureaucracy refers to the
In bureaucratic organizations, authority and decision making are generally administrative systems of a
centralized. Hence, strategic decisions can be made faster as fewer people are business, such as the set of rules and
involved in decision making. procedures and formal hierarchical
structures in an organization.
Bureaucracy often leads to excessive administration, paperwork and other
formalities.
It encourages a culture focused on rules and standards, where daily operations
are rigidly controlled with close supervision and accountability.
Rigidity means that bureaucratic organizations are often slow to react to changes
in the external environment. It also discourages creativity and innovation.
This reduces flexibility and discourages progress in the organization, and thus
leads to inefficiencies and slower decision making.
Centralization
In centralized organizations, the importance of subordinates is reduced whilst
the importance of senior executives is increased. Keyword definition
Centralized structures were favoured by management theorists such as Centralization refers to
F.W. Taylor and H. Fayol due to faster decision making and better control. organizational structures where
the majority of decision making
It is associated with a paternalistic or autocratic style of leadership is in the hands of a very small
(see Unit 2.3). number of people at the top of the
Rapid decision making can result in fewer conflicts due to consistent policies hierarchical structure.
coming from the top few highly experienced managers.
Costs are also reduced as there is less of a need for hiring more specialists or
departmental managers.
However, centralized structures are highly inflexible, put added pressure on
senior managers and can be demotivating for employees.
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Decentralization
Decentralization involves passing responsibility and authority away from the
Board of Directors and senior executives to individual departments. Keyword definition
Decentralization refers to
In decentralized structures, there is shared decision-making authority and
organizational structures which
responsibilities.
include the delegation of decision-
Decentralization is associated with fewer tiers (flatter structures) in an making authority throughout an
organizational structure and wider spans of control. organization, away from a central
authority.
Unlike centralized structures which have a ‘top-down’ approach to
management and decision making, decentralized structures are seen as
‘bottom-up’ and democratic.
The larger the business, the more decentralized its organizational structure
tends to be.
Expert tip
Decentralized structures are often found in organizations with an informal
Evaluation skills require candidates to
corporate culture.
demonstrate ‘thinking’ skills. Make sure
Delegation and empowerment, vital aspects of decentralization, can result in you apply your understanding to the
better motivation for employees. context of the business in question, e.g.
bureaucracy is not suitable for creative
It also results in quicker and more flexible decision making. industries that require autonomy. By
However, decentralized structures can result in poor decision making due to contrast, the emergency services (fire,
police and ambulance services) would
the lack of experience and expertise of less senior staff.
require centralized structures and strict
The decision to have a more centralized or decentralized organizational chains of command to ensure that
structure is influenced by several factors, such as the corporate culture, the size the services are carried out properly
of the organization, and the nature of the decisions to be made (whether they without endangering the safety of the
are strategic or routine decisions). general public.
De-layering
De-layering results in flatter structures and managers having wider spans
of control. Keyword definition
De-layering is the process of
Reasons for de-layering include improving communications in the
removing one or more layers in the
organization, having shorter chains of command, and cutting costs as there are
organizational hierarchy to make
fewer levels of management.
the structure flatter.
The biggest disadvantage of de-layering is the potential stress and anxiety
of subordinates due to the added workload.
Firms may choose to downsize or de-layer because it improves or speeds
up communication and is cheaper due to fewer layers of management.
The move towards flexible working practices (see Unit 2.1) means less of
a need for traditional hierarchical structures.
Types of organization charts (AO2, AO4)

Flat/horizontal
A flat (or horizontal) organization has few layers of management
(see Figure 2.3).
Line managers have a wide span of control in flat hierarchical
structures. This gives the manager a lot of authority over decision
making but also places added pressure on his or her level of
responsibility.
Organizations with flat structures are suitable when employees are
multi-skilled and can organize their own work effectively. Figure 2.3 A flat organizational chart
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Flatter structures have shorter chains of command, which improves

communication in the organization.
The culture of relationships in flat structures is often open and informal. This is
partly because there is minimal control over individual employees, which allows
employees to take responsibility for their own work.
With a large and wide span of control in horizontal structures, it can prove
difficult to have tight control and close supervision of workers. This is because
managers in a flat organizational structure with a wide span of control directly
supervise a large number of people.
Tall/vertical
There are many layers in a tall (or vertical) hierarchical organizational
structure (see Figure 2.4). Roles, responsibilities and departments tend to be
highly specialized.
Generally, taller hierarchical structures are characterized by a narrow span of
control, with each manager being responsible for fewer subordinates.
Vertical structures are hierarchical, with clear chains of command. Rules,
policies and procedures are written and formalized. This reduces the chances
of making mistakes.
Such structures can be motivational for junior staff as there are prospects for
promotion and moving up the hierarchical structure.
A drawback of vertical structures is the potential for miscommunication
problems due to the large number of layers in the organization. Decision Figure 2.4 A tall organizational
making can be slow due to formal, inflexible and bureaucratic structures. structure
Hierarchical
Hierarchical structures are tall with many levels of responsibility. Such
structures place people within an organization in terms of their rank.
They are suitable when job roles are straightforward and routine as output can be
easily measured and checked and because there are clear lines of accountability.
The person directly above an employee on the next hierarchical level is
known as the line manager. The line manager supervises and manages the
subordinates on a day-to-day basis.
Hierarchical structures are rigid and bureaucratic so responding to changes in
the internal or external business environment (see Unit 1.5) can be slow.
They tend to be overly administrative and bureaucratic so employees feel
rather distanced due to the impersonal nature of the hierarchical structure.
Organization by product
Organization by product is suitable for large businesses that have a broad
product line of goods or services as this requires specialized expertise in Keyword definition
marketing and operations. Organization by product occurs
Each product group has its own internal structure related specifically to that when an organization groups its
particular product line (see Figure 2.5). human resources based on the
distinct goods or services it sells.
For example, the Volkswagen Group would have different executives responsible
for different divisions of its product range, e.g. Volkswagen, Audi, Porsche and
Bugatti. Each executive would be responsible for all products under that division.
The main advantage of this type of organizational structure is that products
created using completely different and separate processes are better managed
and controlled.
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Maker
Foods Drinks Sauces
Cheeses Fruit juices Tomato
Frozen foods Coffee

BBQ
Chocolates
Soy
Canned foods
Figure 2.5 Example of a product organizational chart for Food Maker PLC
Organization by function
Functional organizational structures arrange individuals by specific functions
performed, e.g. human resources, finance, operations management and Keyword definition
marketing (see Figure 2.6). Organization by function involves
It is the most common form of organizational structure. establishing the organizational
structure according to business
Managers of different functional areas report to the respective director or vice functions such as marketing,
president who holds overall responsibility for the department or division, e.g. production, and finance.
marketing managers must report to the marketing director.
The advantage of this type of structure is that functions are separated by
expertise but the challenges come when different functional areas turn into
silos that focus only on their area of responsibility and don’t support the
function of other departments.
Board of Directors
Managing Director
Personnel Finance Marketing Production
Figure 2.6 Organization by function
Organization by region
Organization by region is suitable for businesses that are located in several
different geographic regions within a country or around the world (see Figure 2.7). Keyword definition
Typically, operations are managed and overseen by a regional director. Organization by region refers to
establishing the organizational
There are efficiency gains and operational benefits of organizing people by structure according to different
different regions, e.g. to better support and meet the needs of customers in geographical areas.
different locations.
It can support logistical demands and differences in different geographical
locations.
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CEO
Europe USA Asia
Texas California Montana
Consumer Consumer Consumer

goods goods goods
Industrial Industrial Industrial

goods goods goods
Figure 2.7 Organization by region
Changes in organizational structures (AO2)

In reality, organizational structures are not static. Changes in the internal and
external business environments mean that organizational structures need to be
more flexible and adaptable. Examples include: project-based organization and the
Shamrock organization.
Project-based organization
Using flexible project teams involves the temporary use of the most suitable
employees from different departments for a particular project. Keyword definition
Often referred to as a matrix structure, such a flexible organizational structure Project-based organization refers
is conducive to a democratic leadership style (see Unit 2.3) as it encourages the to the organization of human
generation of new and creative ideas from team members. resources around specific projects
that need to be completed.
Matrix structures are a popular way of organizing highly skilled and
experienced staff. They help to utilize the synergies created from interactions
amongst staff in the matrix.
Project-based organization can create problems for the business because staff
may have some uncertainties about prioritizing tasks when they have more
than one line manager.
Similarly, there can be difficulties in controlling team members from various
departments in the project who have conflicting interests and priorities.
Project-based organizational structures create opportunities for job
enlargement and job enrichment (see Unit 2.4), thus boost morale and
motivation. However, they can cause some staff to become demoralized due to
the added workload and pressures of working on different projects.
Additional resources and finance will be needed to facilitate the running of
the projects.
Handy’s Shamrock Organization

Irish scholar Charles Handy’s Shamrock Organization theory (1991) suggests
that organizations face continual change so need to adapt accordingly.
The changing organization comprises of three ‘leafs’ (types) of workers: core
workers, peripheral workers and outsourced workers (see Figure 2.8).
The professional core consists of full-time, experienced and essential staff
needed for the organization’s operations and survival. With improvements
in technology and the trend for downsizing and delayering, there is less of a
need for so many core staff in an organization.
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The contingent workforce refers to peripheral workers, i.e. the temporary,

portfolio and flexitime workers employed by organizations on a short-term
basis. However, this often causes job insecurity and low staff morale.
Outsourced vendors are individuals or businesses hired on a contract basis
to do specific tasks such as an advertising campaign. They are specialists in
their field so can be expensive to employ.
Outsourced
vendors
Professional Contingent
core workforce
Figure 2.8 The Shamrock Organization
The model emphasizes the growing practice of outsourcing non-essential

activities as well as the recognition of flexible working practices (see Unit 2.1).
The model presents cost savings and greater flexibility for organizations, e.g.
labour costs are cheaper because only the core staff receive full employment
perks (benefits), whereas peripheral and outsourced workers do not.
Handy’s academic work on organizational structures has shaped the thinking
behind present day organizational structures in many business organizations
around the world.
How cultural differences and innovation in

communications technologies may impact on
communication in an organization (AO3)
Communication is the transfer of information from one party to another.
Managers spend a significant proportion of their time communicating Expert tip
with internal and external stakeholders. Effective communications enable
Whilst this section of the syllabus
managers and workers to have a better understanding and control of what
looks at the formal organizational
they do. structures, it is important for
Cultural differences can have a large impact on communications in an managers to be aware of and
organization. Cultural ignorance can cause offence to others and can cause understand the informal structures
marketing messages to be misinterpreted or misunderstood by the wider that are likely to exist. Informal
structures can help to promote a
community.
sense of belonging in the workplace.
For multinational companies, an understanding of local cultures and Knowledge and skills are unevenly
traditions is a major competitive advantage when communicating with their spread out in an organization so
target markets. informal networks can help to
identify and exploit different sources
Innovations in communications technologies also impact on of knowledge and skills.
communications in organizations, e.g. internet technologies have reduced
the costs of internal and external communication, both domestically and
internationally. CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Social networks and social media have become popular means of Investigate how change and
communication for many businesses around the globe. culture have impacted on the
organizational structure for an
However, innovations in mobile technologies have led to information overload organization of your choice.
from the overexposure of online marketing.
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2.3 Leadership and management
The key functions of management (AO2)

According to French engineer and management theoretician, Henri Fayol,
management is about: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating
and controlling. These management activities are task-oriented, rather than
people-oriented.
According to Irish management guru, Professor Charles Handy, management is
about addressing and solving problems, in the same way as a general practitioner
(doctor) would do. Managers identify the problems (symptoms), investigate the
causes, decide on a course of action and then implement the plan.
According to American management consultant and author, Peter F. Drucker,
management is about setting strategic objectives in order to manage the
organization and its people to establish the future direction of the business.
Other functions of management include developing and motivating employees,
measuring and evaluating performance against organizational objectives,
establishing personal contacts and nurturing professional networks.
Essentially, the functions of management concern the effective and efficient
use of an organization’s resources.
Management versus leadership (AO2)

Table 2.4 Management versus leadership
Management Leadership
Follow the culture of the organization Set the culture of the organization
Manage others Inspire others
Planning, organizing, controlling, commanding, coordinating, Cope with and promote change, with a more emotional dimension
and setting objectives to inspire and align people
Work within the parameters of organizational policies and Focus on the future
procedures Instigators of change, setting the strategic direction of the
Focus on the present organization
Focus on operational objectives Focus on vision and mission statements
Mainly concerned with processes Mainly concerned with people
Tactical decision making Strategic decision making
Deal with individual needs of staff Focus on common needs
Policy makers and decision makers Risk-takers and decision makers
More involved with administrative aspects of the organization Are optimistic, innovative, inspirational, entrepreneurial and creative
Confirmative capacity (learning to do) Adaptive capacity (learning to learn)
Leadership styles (AO3)

Leadership style refers to the way in which managers and leaders provide
direction, implement organizational plans, and motivate people.
Expert tip
Autocratic
Although distinctions are made
Autocratic leaders are authoritative, i.e. there are formal systems of command
between management and leadership,
and control. in reality, the terms are often used
They avoid discussions as employees are not involved in decision making. interchangeably and a distinction is
somewhat unimportant as there are
Delegation and consultation are non-existent. clear overlaps. A good leader has
Communication is top-down and one way, i.e. managers order and instruct the capacity to manage and a good
manager has the capacity to lead.
their subordinates.
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It is most likely to be used when employees are unskilled, inexperienced, lack

initiative and/or cannot be trusted.
An autocratic approach may also be suitable or necessary when critical
decisions must be made, e.g. the emergency services (police, fire and
ambulance services) or in the military and navy.
The success of the organization very much relies on the ability of the leader.
Table 2.5 Advantages and disadvantages of autocratic leadership

Advantages of autocratic leadership Disadvantages of autocratic leadership
Ensures there is control and close oversight within the Stifles initiative and creativity as employees are not involved in
organization decision making
Quick decision making takes place Demotivates workers as their ideas are not valued
Employees have a clear sense of direction Does not nurture future leaders among employees so can damage
Effective when deadlines are imminent or major decisions competitiveness in the long term
need to be made Subordinates are usually ineffective if the leader is absent from work
Paternalistic
Paternalistic leaders see the workforce as an extension of the family so make
decisions that they perceive to be in the interest of their employees.
It is often effective in family-run businesses.
It is used in organizations where the leader is highly experienced and
genuinely values the workers.
There is close supervision of employees and their work (comparable to a
parent’s traditional control over their children).
Table 2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of paternalistic leadership

Advantages of paternalistic leadership Disadvantages of paternalistic leadership
A softer form of autocratic leadership which often results in Employees can become dissatisfied as their viewpoints are often
improved staff motivation and lower staff turnover ignored (decisions are made by top management) so it does not
Feedback is invited, so this can improve relationships at work as help to develop their careers
employees’ social needs are emphasized Communication is mostly downward
There is often commitment and loyalty to leaders who workers Paternalistic leaders can become too dictatorial and make poor
perceive will take care of their well-being decisions (does the parent or leader always know what is best?)
Democratic
Democratic leaders involve workers in the decision-making process, i.e.
consultation and collaboration are considered to be important to the
organization.
Leaders encourage discussion and employee participation, although they
have the final say.
Leaders delegate authority and empower their staff.
It is likely to be effective when used with skilled, experienced and creative
employees.
Table 2.7 Advantages and disadvantages of democratic leadership
Advantages of democratic leadership Disadvantages of democratic leadership
Can be motivational as workers feel their opinions Decision making is slower as employees have greater involvement in
and input are valued, thus creating a greater sense of the process
belonging and staff loyalty Reaching a consensus over decisions can be time consuming and costly
The collaborative environment often results in better The possibility of disagreement among internal stakeholders during the
informed solutions to challenges and problems discussion process can negatively affect day-to-day operations
There is two-way communication, so this encourages the Inappropriate for urgent decisions needed during challenging times
sharing of ideas in the workplace faced by the business
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Laissez-faire
Laissez-faire leaders delegate responsibility and authority to their staff,
enabling them to complete tasks in their own way (although the leader sets
broad goals and clear parameters within which the employees must operate). Expert tip
At polar opposite to autocratic leaders, the success of laissez-faire leadership It is common in IB exams for students
primarily depends upon the aptitude and attitude of the employees. to claim that democratic leaders
are better than autocratic ones,
Staff are given the freedom to work without supervision from the stating that the former are ‘nicer’
management as there is a deliberate attempt to delegate power and authority. than the latter. This suggests a
lack of critical thinking as the most
It is suitable for mundane and routine tasks which do not require managerial
effective leadership style depends
supervision. on the context of the organization,
It is also suitable when staff can be trusted, are highly talented and self- its workers and the task at hand.
motivated, and are willing and able to take on responsibility, e.g. Google and Leaders do not exist to be popular,
Facebook. but to get things done.
Table 2.8 Advantages and disadvantages of laissez-faire leadership

Advantages of laissez-faire leadership Disadvantages of laissez-faire leadership
The freedom given to employees can allow them to excel in Individual goal setting could conflict with organizational
what they do best, without any constraints imposed by the objectives, especially as there is an absence of management
management control
Provides opportunities for staff with vision and intrapreneurial Often criticized for the poor definition of the role/purpose of
skills (see Unit 1.1) management
Autonomy in decision making can have positive impacts on staff As management take a ‘hands-off’ approach, monitoring and
motivation, productivity and staff retention levels. control of the organization’s operations become very challenging.
Situational leadership
Situational leaders adapt their style of leadership according to differences in
circumstances.
It is assumed that there is no single best leadership style but rather different
styles are suitable depending on the context or situation.
Relationships at work have a key role in the success of situational leadership.
It relies on the skills and level of experience of the leader.
Table 2.9 Advantages and disadvantages of situational leadership Expert tip

Advantages of situational Disadvantages of situational Several factors affect the leadership
leadership leadership style adopted in an organization,
It recognizes the need for leaders Most managers and leaders have a including the:
to be flexible in their style, given preferred or natural style, so expecting them
• nature of the task, e.g. whether it
the dynamic nature of business to change their style according to different
is routine or strategic
management situations can be difficult
• time and cost required to complete
It is practical and applies across a Employees may have grown accustomed
the task
range of industries and business to a particular leadership style in the
problems workplace, so staff may become disoriented • type of labour, e.g. skilled or
and unsettled were the leader to change inexperienced
Workers can benefit from the mix
of support from leaders when his/her style • personality and preference (natural
appropriate, and directive activities The inconsistent approach can mean the style) of the leader
at other times leader loses credibility with the employees. • organizational culture.
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How ethical considerations and cultural

differences may influence leadership and
management styles in an organization (AO3)
Leadership is generally vital to the operational success of a business. It has
implications across all areas of the organization and shapes its culture.
Whilst leadership is important, a business can succeed in the absence of
effective leadership if the staff are highly talented and self-driven.
Management guru, Warren Bennis, claims that the success of an
organization is 15% due to leadership, so other factors must make up
the remaining 85%, e.g. the organizational culture.
Irrespective of cultural differences, it is important that those who run
organizations have leadership ability in order to inspire their staff towards a
shared vision.
Ethical considerations can have a large impact on leadership style, e.g. it
might be innate for a dominant individual to lead in an autocratic way. For
others, who naturally prefer to listen to the opinions of their staff, ethical
considerations might lead to a more democratic style.
Whilst charisma is important to inspire others, ethical leadership might be
perceived to be more honest so is more likely to be accepted by employees.
Organizational cultural differences also shape the leadership style adopted,
e.g. a paternalistic style might be preferred in smaller, family-run businesses
whereas a more democratic style may be preferred in larger organizations. CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Although the leader shapes the organizational culture, the way in which Investigate how ethical
a business functions and the context in which it operates can also affect considerations and cultural
the leadership style, e.g. Chinese workers in the manufacturing sector are differences may have influenced
the leadership style in an
more receptive of autocratic leadership than their European counterparts,
where labour laws and trade union activity are more prominent.
Figure 2.9 Ethical leadership has a large impact on staff morale
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2.4 Motivation
Motivation theories (AO3)
An important role of management is to motivate the workforce to ensure that
they are efficient and productive. Motivation exists when people do something
because they want to do it, not because they have to do it. Motivation is
therefore the desire to achieve something. It influences people to behave in a
certain way and has a direct impact on the outcomes of that behaviour.
Taylor
Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856–1917) was an American engineer and
management consultant who sought to improve efficiency and productivity. Expert tip
In his book, The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Taylor argued One of the difficulties with this topic
that, ‘We do not want any initiative. All we want of them [workers] is to is the sheer number of key terms that
obey the orders we give them, do what we say, and do it quick.’ His approach you will come across. Use revision
to management was based on three factors: strategies that will help you to
remember the definitions of the key
measurement of what can be done better and how terms in this unit, e.g. the use of flash
cards, crosswords, glossaries and
monitoring to ensure targets are met, and
online tools such as Quizlet.
control by using rigorous analysis of the firm’s inputs, outputs and costs.
He argued that people work for only one reason: money. By motivating
workers to become more efficient and productive, the business would
generate more profit, thus enabling employees to be paid higher wages.
Taylor advocated payment systems that reward those who meet or exceed
output targets, and penalize those who don’t. Such a payment scheme Keyword definition
became known as piece rate. Taylor claimed that, ‘what the workmen want Piece rate is a payment system,
from employers beyond anything else is higher wages’. advocated by F. W. Taylor, which
He introduced rest breaks to the working day so that workers could recover rewards workers based on their
from tiredness and hence a loss of productivity. level of output (productivity), e.g.
$1 per batch produced or 5% per
Taylor argued that employers must reward the behaviour they seek and product sold. Piece rate is used to
punish the behaviour they discourage in order to raise productivity. motivate and reward workers who
Henry Ford (founder of Ford Motor Company) used Taylor’s theory by are more productive.
introducing scientific management in his factories, e.g. the division of
labour and use of purpose-built machinery, such as conveyor belts for mass
production, to increase efficiency and productivity. Today, many firms offer
‘zero-hours contracts’, i.e. no work equals no pay.
Despite being criticized for being authoritarian and treating people
as though they were robots or machines, Taylor believed his scientific
management of human resources was in the best interest of his staff.
Limitations of Taylor’s theory include the following:
Not all workers today are motivated in the same way and the most
efficient way of working for one person can be inefficient for another.
Taylor’s approach does not acknowledge the complications of human
behaviour, such as personal preferences and interpersonal difficulties.
Working harder due to scientific management practices can still mean
staff are dissatisfied with the work environment.
Maslow
Abraham Maslow (1908–70) was an American social psychologist who wrote
about a hierarchy of needs, i.e. people are motivated by a series of needs (see
Figure 2.10 and Table 2.10).
Physiological needs (also known as basic needs for human survival) are those
thought to be the most important, so must be met first e.g. food and shelter.
Safety needs are vital to a person’s well-being. They refer to the factors that
make people feel secure, e.g. personal and financial security.
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2.4 Motivation 57
Love and belonging needs are about being accepted by others. Hence, this
refers to the social needs of people.
Self-
Esteem needs are about people feeling respected and having self-respect. actualization
Self-esteem exists when a person feels good about himself/herself and
Esteem
feels valued by others.
In his book, Motivation and Personality (1954), Maslow defined self- Love/belonging
actualization needs as ‘to become everything that one is capable of becoming’ Safety
and ‘what a man can be, he must be’. The highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy
Physiological
of needs refers to the realization of a person’s full potential.
Figure 2.10 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Table 2.10 Examples and business implications of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Levels of human needs Examples Business implications
Physiological needs (basic needs) Food, clothing, water, warmth and shelter Pay award systems and decent working conditions
Safety needs Physical security, financial security, economic Job security, grievance procedures, insurance
stability, health and well-being policies and clear job description
Love and belonging needs Friendship, intimacy, social contact and social Team working, co-workers, mentors and social
acceptance facilities
Esteem needs Status, recognition, competence, self-respect and Status (job titles), power, trust, and recognition of
independence achievements
Self-actualization Self-fulfilment, mastery, and life accomplishment Job opportunities to develop new skills and meet
new challenges
Maslow argued that it is important for employers to understand that when

one level of need is satisfied then it no longer motivates. Hence, they need to
devise strategies to satisfy the higher level needs of their staff.
Lower order needs consist of physiological, security and love and belonging
needs. Higher order needs consist of self-esteem and self-actualization.
Nevertheless, Maslow argued that the different levels in the hierarchy are
interrelated rather than separated.
However, criticisms of Maslow’s theory include:
Debate about whether all humans have the same needs.
People place different levels of importance on different needs, e.g. not
everyone is motivated by job promotional opportunities.
It is not realistic for most workers to reach self-actualization, i.e. can
people’s motivational needs be fully satisfied?
Herzberg (motivation–hygiene theory)

Frederick Herzberg (1923–2000) was an American psychologist and highly
influential person in the field of business management.
Professor Herzberg defined motivation as, ‘the will to work due to enjoyment of
the work itself’.
In his book, Work and Nature of Man (1966), Herzberg argued that removing
factors that cause dissatisfaction in the workplace was a pre-requisite to
positively increasing motivation.
Contrary to the findings of F. W. Taylor, Herzberg found that employee
satisfaction did not stem from extrinsic factors (such as salary) as these are
easily forgotten and become an expectation.
Influenced by the work of Maslow, Herzberg suggested that humans have
two levels of needs, which employers should seek to satisfy at work:
Lower level needs, to meet people’s physical needs in order to avoid pain
and deprivation. Herzberg called these needs hygiene factors.
Higher level needs, to meet people’s psychological needs and to enable
them to grow psychologically. Herzberg called these needs motivators.
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Table 2.11 Herzberg’s two factor theory

Hygiene factors Motivators
Keyword definitions
Hygiene factors are aspects of
Company policy Advancement
a job that can lead to workers
Conditions of employment Nature of the job being dissatisfied. These factors
Inability to develop Opportunities to improve need to be addressed in order to
Pay (wages and salaries) Personal growth prevent dissatisfaction, but do not
Relationship with colleagues Promotional opportunities motivate.
Relationship with management Recognition (of achievement) Motivators are factors which help
Treatment at work Responsibility staff to gain job satisfaction, e.g.
recognition and opportunities
Herzberg suggested that as people work better due to the work being for personal advancement. These
intrinsically interesting, the work provides the workers with opportunities for factors satisfy the psychological
psychological growth. needs of employees. Herzberg’s
motivators correspond to Maslow’s
Herzberg introduced the concepts of job enrichment, job enlargement and higher level of needs and to the
job rotation to improve employee performance (see section below on types of nature of the job or work itself.
financial rewards).
Critics are doubtful about the role of wages and salaries being a hygiene Expert tip
factor, which could perhaps appear to be in both sets of needs. Indeed, many
people seek promotional opportunities due to the higher financial rewards. Remember that according to
Herzberg argued that pay is only a short-term, not a long-term, motivator. Professor Herzberg, motivation is
enhanced by improving motivators
(or growth factors), e.g. recognition,
Adams (equity theory) responsibility and opportunities
John Stacey Adams, a behavioural psychologist, put forward the equity for advancement. By contrast,
theory (1963). improving hygiene factors simply
prevents dissatisfaction but does not
Adams suggested that people seek a fair balance between their inputs boost morale or motivation in the
(effort put into a job) and output (what they get out of it). Equity suggests workplace.
people place emphasis on what is perceived to be fair and reasonable, e.g.
demotivated students may not think it is worth putting in the effort to study
if they believe the output (grades) will be low.
Examples of inputs include employee effort, loyalty, adaptability and
commitment.
Examples of outputs include financial remuneration, recognition, praise,
credibility (reputation) and promotional opportunities.
Equity theory helps to explain why wages and salaries alone do not
determine motivation as workers compare their input to output ratio
with that of others in order to establish their own interpretation of equity
(fairness) in the workplace.
If workers feel that their inputs are fairly and adequately rewarded by outputs,
then motivation will be high. By contrast, if workers perceive their inputs
outweigh the outputs, then demotivation occurs. Adams argued that the
extent of demotivation is generally proportional to the perceived inequity.
Critics of the model argue that perceptions of equity are highly subjective,
i.e. equity is a matter of opinion. Measuring equity in the workplace is
therefore a fruitless, and perhaps pointless, task.
Pink
Daniel H. Pink (1964–) is an American author who challenges twentieth
century thinking about the effectiveness of traditional rewards to motivate
people in the twenty-first century. Pink argues that such traditional rewards
hinder the essential skill of creativity, required from today’s workforce.
In his book, Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us (2009), Pink
argues that human motivation is largely intrinsic. He argues that extrinsic
factors no longer work because humans are not the same as horses, so you can’t
get people to move ‘by dangling a crunchier carrot or wielding a sharper stick’.
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2.4 Motivation 59
His theory is based on three intrinsic factors that drive (or motivate) people
at work, school and in their personal lives: autonomy, mastery and purpose
(see Figure 2.11). In his words: ‘Carrots (rewards) and Sticks (punishments) are
so last century. Drive says for twenty-first century work, we need to upgrade to
autonomy, mastery and purpose’.
Intrinsic motivation comes from within a person, i.e. personal satisfaction
from self-initiated achievement of a task. By contrast, extrinsic motivation
involves engaging in an activity in order to earn external rewards or avoid
an adverse outcome, such as punishments. Purpose
Autonomy enables people to have control over their work but it does not
mean abandoning accountability; employees must still be held accountable
for their work, e.g. flexitime, portfolio working, and freelance work.
Autonomy Mastery
Mastery allows people to become better skilled at something that matters
to them as individuals, whether they are athletes, authors or astronomers.
It is important because people generally want to improve at their work as it
makes them feel better. Figure 2.11 Pink’s intrinsic motivators
Purpose gives context to autonomy and mastery. Students often become
demotivated when they don’t understand the purpose – they may ask, ‘Why
do I need to learn this?’ Pink argues that employees who understand how
their individual roles contribute to the purpose (vision) of their organization Expert tip
are far more likely to be satisfied in their work.
It is important that you remember
Critics of Pink’s theory are not convinced it applies across professions, the names of the five motivational
national borders and cultures, e.g. do top professional footballers (soccer theorists and their theories from the
players) switch clubs (employers) primarily because of intrinsic values such IB syllabus:
as being able to play for a more prestigious club or to play in the first team
• Taylor – Scientific management
each week (as Pink would argue) or mainly because of the financial rewards
• Maslow – Hierarchy of needs
offered by the larger football clubs?
• Herzberg – Two-factor theory
Nevertheless, Pink’s model does span across people’s lives, not just in the (hygiene and motivators)
workplace, including friendship groups, schooling and life itself. Put simply,
• Adams – Equity theory
motivation occurs when people strive to have more autonomy, mastery and
purpose in their lives. • Pink – Drive (intrinsic motivators)
EXAM PRACTICE
2 Sir Richard Branson, founder of Virgin Group, announced in 2015 that his
staff would receive parental leave on full pay for up to one year after the
birth or adoption of a child. However, the offer only applies to staff at
Virgin Management, the company’s investment and brand licensing division.
Staff must also have spent at least four years at Virgin Management to
qualify for full pay during their parental leave. Vodafone also introduced
a global policy on maternity benefits of at least 16 weeks full paid leave
for expectant mothers, even in countries where employment laws do not
require them to do so. Maternity leave rules vary significantly across the
world, e.g. 10 weeks of paid leave in Hong Kong, 12 weeks of unpaid leave
in the USA and up to 39 weeks of partial payment in the UK.
a Explain one advantage and one disadvantage of providing fringe
benefits beyond what is stipulated in employment laws. [4]
b Using appropriate motivation theory, examine the likely effects on
employee motivation of the changes to employment benefits at
Virgin Management and Vodafone. [6]
Types of financial rewards (AO2)

Financial rewards are the combination of an organization’s pay structure for its
employees. These have to be carefully designed in order to:
have the ability to recruit staff in a competitive labour market
motivate employees to improve their performance
retain workers/prevent staff from leaving for rival firms.
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Salary
A salary is an annual sum of compensation (usually paid monthly) for doing a
job, however long this might take. Salaried staff do not receive payments for
any overtime. Salaries are therefore a fixed cost for businesses. For example,
full-time teachers are paid a fixed monthly salary, irrespective of the number of
lessons they teach in a particular month or the amount of homework they have
to mark. Salaries are often part of the appraisal process (see Unit 2.1) and reflect
any changes to a worker’s job description.
Wages (time and piece rates)

Wages are a type of financial payment that rewards workers based on time or Expert tip
output. Wages can be paid using time rate or piece rate.
Do not confuse salary with wages
Time rate is a method of paying wages based on the number of hours as types of financial rewards. Wages
worked, e.g. $8 per hour at a restaurant. are a variable cost of production
(payment is higher if employees work
Piece rate is a method of paying wages based on the number of products
overtime), whilst salaries are fixed
made or items sold, e.g. $1.50 per kilo of fruits packed in a farm. costs for the business. The two terms
Wages therefore represent a variable cost for businesses. should not be used interchangeably.
Table 2.12 Advantages and disadvantages of piece rate payment systems

Advantages of piece rate Disadvantages of piece rate
Workers are paid purely on results so this should reduce slack Quality control can become an issue as employees rush their
(waste) in the workplace work
It can increase staff motivation (encourages staff to work harder) Can create unnecessary internal competition between workers
Reduces perceived inequalities – more productive staff are There is less stability for workers, often due to external factors
better rewarded beyond their control
It can improve cash flow as less wages are paid if there is a It becomes more difficult for the firm to monitor and control its
decline in sales (variable) costs
Commission
Commission is a form of financial reward paid to workers each time they sell
a good or service. It is typically paid as a percentage of the value of the good
or service sold, thereby encouraging staff to sell more products. It is a common
payment system used for sales staff, such as real estate agents. Businesses usually
pay employees a base salary plus commission.
Table 2.13 Advantages and disadvantages of commission

Advantages of commission Disadvantages of commission
Acts as an incentive for workers to produce or sell more Commission can be detrimental to team working if it encourages
Customer service (customer satisfaction) is likely to improve in internal rivalry
order to boost sales Customer service may decline if workers focus on the number of
It can help to identify staff who might need more training/skills clients served
development It can encourage a hostile culture and a lack of security, thus
During times of low demand, commission can help firms to causing high labour turnover
adjust their labour costs Commission may motivate workers in the short term, but may
not do so in the long term
EXAM PRACTICE
3 A real-estate (property) agent earns a monthly salary of $2,500 plus
0.25% commission per transaction made. Calculate her total pay is she
manages to sell $3.4m worth of real estate in a month. [2]
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2.4 Motivation 61
Profit-related pay
Profit-related pay is a financial reward system for employees based on the extent
to which staff meet profit targets within a predetermined time period. It is paid
in addition to the regular pay of employees. It can be applied to individuals, Expert tip
a team or the whole organization. Profit-related pay is common in the private
sector, such as in the finance industry. Whilst profit-related pay and
performance-related pay (PRP)
sound very similar, the firm’s profit
Performance-related pay (PRP) is very unlikely to be attributable to
Performance-related pay (PRP) is a financial reward system used to pay people an individual employee. Hence, the
whose work reaches or exceeds a required standard or target. Performance former tends to be used for rewarding
appraisals occur regularly, usually at least once per year, against agreed teams. PRP is often used as part of the
objectives and performance targets. PRP often comes in the form of cash appraisal process to reward individuals.
bonuses and/or an increase in the wage rate or salary.
Table 2.14 Advantages and disadvantages of profit-related pay and PRP
Advantages of profit-related pay and PRP Disadvantages of profit-related pay and PRP
Can motivate people to be more productive in order to reach Profit and performance targets might be set too high, so this
profit or performance targets becomes a form of demotivation
Can promote team work and team spirit to meet organizational These reward systems can create competitive rivalry between
objectives colleagues if not managed well
Can be regarded as ethical as employers redistribute some of the The pay-out from the organization’s profits may be minimal
profits to employees (insignificant)
PRP can be useful for rewarding individuals, which reflects their Can be costly for the business as it needs to distribute a
personal circumstances proportion of profits to the staff
There may be disagreements about how performance is measure
objectively
Employee share ownership schemes

An employee share ownership scheme is a financial incentive that rewards
employees with shares in the company they work for. This is usually in
recognition of their value to the company, such as their performance,
loyalty or trust. Share ownership can encourage employees to improve
their performance even more because more profit means more dividend
payments for them as shareholders. There is also the potential for capital
gain if improved profitability causes the share price to increase. However,
having more shareholders dilutes ownership in the company and can
prolong the strategic decision-making process due to the likelihood of more
disagreements emerging.
Fringe payments (perks)

Fringe benefits (or perks) are any type of remuneration awarded to employees
Keyword definition
in addition to their basic pay. Examples of common fringe benefits include: staff
discounts on purchases, health insurance, education assistance, fitness (gym) Remuneration refers to the entire
membership, cafeteria services (free food and drink for restaurant staff, for package of financial rewards
example), and pension contributions. received by an employee, e.g. basic
salary, commission, bonuses, share
Examples of fringe benefits offered by some famous companies include: options, housing allowance and
Patagonia provides employees with company bikes and has on-site volleyball other fringe benefits.
courts and yoga lessons.
Starbucks in the USA pays full tuition fees for its staff following an online
degree course from Arizona State University.
Yahoo! offers 16 weeks of paid maternity leave and $500 cash for new
parents.
In many countries, McDonald’s offers its store managers a company car.
Google offers its employees free food, drinks, gym, bowling alleys, climbing
walls, and electric scooters to get around the office.
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Table 2.15 Advantages and disadvantages of fringe benefits

Advantages of providing fringe benefits Disadvantages of providing fringe benefits
Tax benefits, e.g. some fringe benefits are exempt from Fringe benefits are essentially financial awards so represent
income tax expenses for the business
Healthcare coverage ensures that employees stay healthy Administrative fees are also incurred, e.g. administration for
Firms that offer a variety of fringe benefits can build a better health care provision
corporate image as employers Fringe benefits may not apply to all workers, e.g. maternity
leave or company cars
Types of non-financial rewards (AO2)

Non-financial rewards refer to the compensation given to employees which
does not involve cash or monetary payments. Businesses with excellent
non-financial rewards can attract, motivate and retain skilled employees. Expert tip
Examples of non-financial rewards include job enrichment, job rotation, job In today’s world, non-financial
enlargement, empowerment, purpose (the opportunity to make a difference), rewards can have an even more
and teamwork. significant impact on staff motivation
than traditional financial rewards.
Recent research from Hay Group,
Job enrichment a global management consulting
Job enrichment involves improving and developing the experiences of firm, found that people value their
employees through a wider variety of tasks, some of which carry greater work climate, career development
responsibilities and/or complexities. and recognition as key reasons for
employee satisfaction.
It enables workers to have the potential to manage their own workload and
to build their competence. Thus, it can help to create a sense of achievement
in the workplace and boost the morale of employees.
Employers benefit from having a more appreciative, motivated and loyal
workforce.
However, job enrichment usually costs the business more money to
implement, including the costs of training and professional development of
its employees.
It is not suitable for smaller businesses such as sole traders because of the
associated costs.
Job rotation
Job rotation is a management technique that assigns staff to various tasks and
departments over a period of time. It widens the range of activities of workers
who switch between different roles and assignments. This helps to increase their
level of knowledge, interest and motivation in the workplace. Job rotation offers
many advantages:
Reduces the monotony (repetitiveness or boredom) of a routine job.
Helps with succession planning so that knowledge and skills are not lost if
workers leave the organization.
Develops a wider range of expertise within the organization.
Enables workers to be more flexible (adaptable and multi-skilled).
Makes it easier to cover for absent colleagues, who may be sick or attending
off-the-job training (see Unit 2.1).
The main disadvantage of job rotation is that it can reduce labour
productivity if workers are expected to do too many tasks, especially in the
short term when they are initially unfamiliar with the new tasks. Another
disadvantage is the greater need for training, which costs money and takes
time, of course.
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2.4 Motivation 63
Job enlargement
Job enlargement involves broadening the work of employees by increasing the
number of tasks, but not the depth of the tasks, i.e. it occurs at the same hierarchical
level of responsibility and complexity. It enables workers to have a greater scope in
their jobs, thereby reducing the monotony (boredom) of repetitive job tasks.
Empowerment
Empowerment is a form of non-financial reward that involves giving
employees more responsibility and autonomy in their job.
It allows workers to make independent decisions without having to consult
their line manager. This enables employees to develop a sense of ownership
in their job roles and to take responsibility for the outcome of their work.
Empowerment shows that managers respect and trust their employees,
thereby improving their level of motivation and job satisfaction.
It is suitable for laissez-faire management (see Unit 2.3) as it gives managers
more time to concentrate on other operations of the organization and to
focus on strategic decision making.
Purpose (the opportunity to make a difference)

Purpose as a non-financial reward refers to meaningful work. Working for a good
cause can be motivating, e.g. health care workers, teachers and those in the
emergency services do not necessarily work because of the pay. Instead, purpose
reminds employees about why they are doing such a particular job, e.g. to look
after others in society, to protect people’s physical and emotional well-being, or
to educate the next generation. They are intrinsically motivated by the social
good that comes about from their efforts.
Teamwork
Teamwork is about the organization of human resources into
groups or clusters, working in specific departments or working on
a particular project.
Productivity should increase due to group dynamics, such as
the various skills and expertise of different team members. It
provides greater worker flexibility and co-operation.
Teamworking involves social interaction and support from team
members. This helps to promote a sense of belonging in the
workplace. ?
Teams are often empowered to set targets to achieve and make
their own decisions. This can have positive impacts on staff
motivation and self-esteem.
Teamwork also helps remove the drawbacks of internal rivalry
between individuals because the performance of the team is
more important than any individual’s own accomplishments.
Nevertheless, teamworking can still create non-productive rivalry
between team members and it does not necessarily suit everyone. Figure 2.12 The benefits of teamwork
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How financial and non-financial rewards

may affect job satisfaction, motivation and
productivity in different cultures (AO2)
Whilst employees may hold the same or similar values about their well-being,
there is no universal approach to motivation in the workplace. It is important to Expert tip
acknowledge that what might motivate most people in your country might not
necessarily be the case in other countries or cultures. For example: All the motivational theorists in the
Business Management Guide (Taylor,
Empowering workers with decision-making power might help to boost Maslow, Herzberg, Adams and
motivation in some cultures where people value having more control over Pink) are from the USA. Do consider
their working environment. However, not all cultures want or value such possible alternative perspectives, i.e.
autonomy and prefer to be directed by senior management. what motivates people in one part
of the world does not necessarily
Praise and recognition can be highly motivating for some people in some motivate those in other regions.
cultures where celebrating success is the norm. However, in other cultures,
people prefer to be more reserved and humble so public praise may be more
humiliating than motivating. CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Perceptions of fairness or equity differ throughout the world. In some Investigate the following for an
organization of your choice:
cultures, it is the norm for workers to leave before their boss (after all, s/he
is paid more so should work harder), whilst in other cultures it is regarded ● Change – How has change
as rude and unprofessional to leave before the boss (after all, there is much affected staff motivation?
work to be done). ● Culture – How does
organizational culture impact on
Similarly, in some cultures people work very hard and long hours, driven
the level of staff motivation?
by the need for promotion and to get improved pay and benefits (so they
● Ethics – To what extent can the
perhaps ‘live to work’). In other cultures, people are less entrepreneurial as
organization’s rewards system
they prefer more leisure time with their family and friends (so they ‘work to be regarded as ethical?
live’). Average working hours in New Zealand, Hong Kong and Japan are
● Strategy – Does strategy drive
higher than those in Spain, France and the UK.
motivation or does motivation
Organizational culture (see Unit 2.5) also has an impact on what motivates drive strategy?
workers. In some cultures, autocratic leaders (see Unit 2.3) motivate workers
to get jobs done efficiently, whereas democratic or paternalistic leaders are
better suited in other organizations.
Within an organization there can be different sub-cultures (see Unit 2.5).
This means that not everyone within the same business organization is
motivated by the same things.
Figure 2.13 Praise is not welcome in some cultures
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2.5 Organizational (corporate) culture (HL only) 65
2.5 Organizational (corporate) culture (HL only)
Organizational culture (AO1)

The term ‘corporate culture’ was coined by T. Deal and A. Kennedy (1982),
referring to the set of values, attitudes, norms and beliefs in an organization.
It is influenced by the size of the organization, personalities and behaviour
of senior managers, traditions in the organization, management attitudes
towards risk-taking and societal cultural norms.
An organization’s culture is formed over many years. However, external
shocks such as a hostile takeover can change the organizational culture in a
relatively short period of time.
Organizational culture underpins all operations and systems in the
workplace, such as communication channels, organizational structures,
reward systems, and workforce planning.
A strong and cohesive corporate culture creates a sense of belonging for both
management and employees. It also minimizes potential misunderstandings
and miscommunications in the workplace.
Similarly, corporate culture is directly associated with the corporate or
brand image. Hence a positive corporate culture (e.g. Google) can create
competitive advantages, thereby attracting customers and prospective
employees.
Elements of organizational culture (AO2)

The cultural norm of an organization is the dominant culture that exists
within the organization.
Cultural quotient (CQ) refers to the ability and willingness of workers to
understand other cultures in order to avoid cultural misunderstandings and
close culture gaps.
A culture gap exists when there is a difference between the desired culture
of an organization and the actual culture that exists.
Team norms are established by the people that make up the team and the
leader or manager. Members of the team interact with one another based on
the established cultural norm.
Irish academic and author Charles Handy (see Unit 2.2) suggests that there
is a direct link between a firm’s organizational structure and its corporate
culture, e.g. tall structures tend to be more bureaucratic, whereas flatter
structures are generally more democratic.
Types of organizational culture (AO2)

Charles Handy’s model of organizational culture (1999) shows four types of
corporate cultures: power, role, task and person.
A power culture exists in centralized decision-making organizations
(see Unit 2.2) where authority is concentrated in the hands of a few
senior managers.
It features centralized decision making from the senior leaders, with
decisions made swiftly, without slow bureaucratic processes.
A potential negative impact is the impact on staff esteem as they have no
influence on decision making in the organization.
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Organizations with a role culture are based on rules and regulations.

Employees have clearly defined roles and operate within set rules and
guidelines.
Official positions of responsibility and formal company policies are core
to decision making.
This culture best suits bureaucratic organizations with tall hierarchical
structures (see Unit 2.2), such as typical public sector organizations.
A task culture exists when teams of individuals with a particular skills set
and expertise are set up to tackle specific problems.
Individuals focus on achieving specific problems or projects.
Management need to ensure the team consists of the right mix of skills,
personalities and leadership, often forming a matrix organizational
structure (see Unit 2.2). This is important to ensure the team is
productive in completing the set tasks or projects.
A person culture exists when people see themselves or their skills being
more important than the organization.
In such cultures, the organization only exists in order for people to work.
It is a collection of individuals with similar qualifications, training and
expertise, all working in the same organization, e.g. accountants, lawyers
and private doctors in a health clinic.
An entrepreneurial culture is one that focuses on new product development
and radical new ideas, which can turn into commercial successes. Staff are
encouraged to take calculated risks and to pursue new business ventures.
J. Kotter and J. Heskett (1992) suggested that organizations with an inert Expert tip
culture face resistance to change as workers hold negative perceptions about
Do not assume that only one type
organizational change. of corporate culture exists in an
By contrast, an adaptive culture entails a coherent and open-minded team organization. Sub-cultures are likely
with a high level of CQ. This helps to reduce the likelihood of culture clash, to exist in different departments or
conflict and miscommunications. areas of the organization.
The reasons for, and consequences of, cultural

clashes within organizations when they grow,
merge and when leadership styles change (AO3)
Culture clash might exist if the beliefs and values of employees differ from
those of senior leaders. Keyword definition
It often happens when there is a merger or takeover, resulting in a new senior Culture clash exists when there
management team or board of directors. is a difference between the values
An understanding and awareness of organizational culture is vital to and beliefs of individuals within
managing change as a business grows and evolves. an organization.
Different leadership styles within the organization can cause inconsistencies

and confusion. Similarly, weak leadership is a cause of culture clash as
workers lack direction and purpose.
Radical change such as mergers and acquisitions (M&As) are likely to
disrupt existing corporate cultures, creating uncertainties and causing
anxiety for employees.
Culture clashes are a major reason why many M&As fail.
Miscommunications in the workplace are more likely to happen as a firm
grows in size. Different languages being used by workers can create sub-
cultures and cause further barriers to effective communication.
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As firms grow or evolve, a new vision and mission statement may be created
but could be met with resistance to change from the workforce.
Consequences of culture clashes include: lower staff morale, lower productivity,
conflict in the workplace, higher labour turnover, and reduced profitability.
How individuals influence organizational culture and

how organizational culture influences individuals (AO3)
As corporate culture is linked to the nature of organizational structures
adopted in the firm, it has a direct impact on individuals.
Organizational culture directly influences individuals, e.g. in a power
culture, workers are suppressed because senior managers exercise strict
command and control and hold all decision-making power. By contrast,
firms with an innovative or person culture allow individuals to shape the
culture of the organization.
A strong and innovative culture can enable individuals to satisfy their
higher order needs (see Unit 2.4), which influences their level of motivation
and productivity. By contrast, a risk-averse culture results in individuals
being less creative and innovative.
The cultural norms influence individual behaviour, e.g. if the senior
management team adopts an autocratic leadership style, then newly
appointed managers who do not naturally use this approach may feel
pressurized to adapt to the culture.
Organizational cultures can and do change over time. As a firm grows or
evolves, or as the external business environment changes, markets become
more competitive which may necessitate managers to change the way in
which things are done. To survive, it may be necessary to introduce new CUEGIS CONCEPTS
ideas and practices, ensuring people are able to adapt. Investigate how a particular
entrepreneur has changed or
Charles Handy argued that organizations with a person culture have influenced the corporate culture
individuals who see themselves as unique and superior to the organization. for an organization of your choice.
Such people can therefore exert major influence on organizational culture.
2.6 Industrial/employee relations (HL only)

The role and responsibility of employee
and employer representatives (AO2)
Employee representatives are individuals or organizations (such as a trade
union) who act as the collective voice of the workforce. They are usually
elected by their colleagues (fellow employees).
Employee representatives are used as it is not practical for most businesses
to negotiate with all their employees.
They have a duty to make the views of employees known to the
management, e.g. training and development needs, better terms and
conditions of employment, and improved pay.
They strive to build trust and improve relationships with employers.
They represent employees during times of legal disputes and conflict, e.g.
cases of unfair dismissal or large-scale redundancies.
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Employers can benefit from recognizing employee representatives due to

the inclusive style of management, which may improve the commitment
and performance of the employees.
Employer representatives are the individuals or organizations that represent
the senior management team in the collective bargaining process. They
negotiate on behalf of the employers in the process.
In some situations, the employer is legally obliged to consult or inform
employees about developments in the business, e.g. relocation decisions,
redundancies (job losses) or the threat of a hostile takeover from a rival
firm.
Employers may typically use members of their senior management team
in the process, although some may choose to use specialist management
consultancy firms to represent their interests.
The outcome of the negotiation and collective bargaining process depends
on the methods used and the relative bargaining strengths of the employee
and employer representatives.
Methods used by employees (AO3)

Industrial action refers to the methods taken by employees to achieve their
objectives. It is often associated with conflict between the interests of the
employer and employees.
Examples of such actions include: collective bargaining, slow-downs/go-slows,
work-to-rule, overtime bans and strike action.
Collective bargaining
Collective bargaining is the process by which employers’ and employees’
representatives negotiate on the terms and conditions of employment.
Negotiations usually involve discussions regarding pay (wages and salaries),
hours of work, and working conditions.
Collective bargaining is important to individual workers as they have little,
if any, negotiation power on an individual basis.
Negotiations and collective bargaining allow employees to put some pressure
on senior management to listen to their requests.
The purpose of collective bargaining is to achieve a mutually beneficial
outcome, thereby preventing conflicts from escalating beyond control.
Slow-downs/go-slows
Go-slows are the act of working at the minimum allowable pace (under the
rules of the workers’ employment contract) in order to reduce productivity
yet without the worker being sanctioned for breaching the terms and
conditions of employment.
Employees deliberately perform their duties with reduced efficiency and
productivity, taking longer to complete each and every task.
It is often used as an alternative to strike action which is a more extreme
form of industrial action. Slow-downs mean that employees are still paid
as they are at work, and are less risky and costly to workers and trade
unions.
Work-to-rule
Work-to-rule occurs when workers adhere to every single rule, policy and
procedure of the organization with the intention of purposely disrupting
production and reducing output.
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Employees strictly observe the rules and clauses of their employment

contract, such as following all health and safety regulations very precisely.
The intention is to get the employer to renegotiate rather than to serve the
purpose of the rules and regulations of the organization.
Workers withdraw any goodwill by refraining from tasks and activities which
might be customary but not required by rule or in their job description, e.g.
answering the telephone during a lunch break or leaving work slightly later
than contracted in order to complete a task.
Overtime bans
An overtime ban is a directive (command or order) from the employee
representatives (such as a trade union) instructing its members to refuse
working beyond their contracted hours.
For most employees, overtime work is not part of an employee’s employment
contract.
As workers do not engage in any extra work (overtime), this can limit the
firm’s productivity and profitability.
Strike action
Strike action is an extreme method of industrial action as it involves
employees refusing to work, which temporarily prevents the organization
from continuing to operate.
It is usually used as a last resort when the other methods of negotiation between
employee representatives and employers have failed to resolve a conflict.
However, those involved in strike action are not paid (as they refuse to work).
Hence, strike action is usually only a temporary method used by employees.
In many countries, there are legal issues surrounding the use of strike action,
e.g. trade unions having to give advance warning to employers prior to
taking such measures.
Strike action is a potential cause of a crisis for businesses (see Unit 5.7).
Methods used by employers (AO3)

Collective bargaining
Collective bargaining is the process by which pay and conditions of
employment are settled by negotiations between representatives of employees
and their employers.
Negotiations and collective bargaining are important for the employer
because they can help to prevent disruptive industrial action such as slow-
downs or strikes.
Industrial action would be detrimental for employers who would face lower
staff goodwill and loyalty, lower productivity and reduced profitability.
Threat of redundancies
In some circumstances, employer representatives might pressure or threaten
employees with redundancies if industrial action continues.
However, this does not mean that employers can simply abuse their power
by dismissing their workers if they do not agree to the employer’s demands.
Workers are protected by employment laws that prevent such exploitation.
The threat of redundancies, due to the loss of profits caused by industrial
unrest, can be a legitimate reason for encouraging employees to renegotiate
in order to prevent job losses.
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Changes of contract
As the threat of redundancies can cause negative media attention, employers
may choose to change employment contracts for employees who cause
industrial unrest.
This needs to be completed legally, e.g. changing employment contracts
when the time comes to renew contracts, such as changes to the terms and
conditions of pay and working conditions.
In extreme cases, the employer has the legal right not to renew the employment
contracts of employees deemed to be counterproductive to the organization.
Closure and lock-outs

Closure is an extreme method used by employers to deal with workers taking
industrial action by stopping all business operations. This means there is no
work for the staff, forcing them to renegotiate.
Closure means that workers do not receive any pay. It can also result in job
losses. Both consequences can weaken the bargaining strength of employees,
driving them to compromise in the negotiation process.
Lock-outs occur when the employer temporarily prevents employees from
working during an industrial dispute. Typically, security guards are hired or
locks are changed to prevent employees from entering the premises.
Lock-outs eventually put financial pressure on workers as they are not paid
during the period of being prevented from working.
However, closures and lock-outs can be disadvantageous to the industry as such
hostile actions can damage the organization’s corporate image (see Unit 2.5).
Sources of conflict in the workplace (AO2)

Conflict occurs when the needs and wants of employees are ignored or not met.
Incompatible values within the organization (different perspectives or points
of view) are a major source of conflict as this causes disagreements between
different stakeholders.
Miscommunications, misunderstandings and internal politics cause poor
working conditions, lowering staff morale and productivity.
Demoralized staff are likely to become less productive.
Grievance exists when workers have a cause for complaint or conflict in the
workplace, especially regarding unfair treatment. It is a perceived injustice
which causes conflict.
Unmanaged conflict can become a problem for businesses, resulting in lower
morale, higher staff absenteeism, higher labour turnover, and industrial unrest.
Conflict is not necessarily a negative thing as it raises and addresses real
problems in the organization. Conflict itself is not necessarily the problem,
but the way in which it arises and how it is managed can create problems.
Approaches to conflict resolution (AO3)

Conflict not only damages working relationships but also the reputation of
the organization. It acts as a barrier to effective communications and hinders
productivity.
Reducing or minimizing conflict in the workplace is in the best interests of
all stakeholders in an organization.
Methods of conflict resolution include: conciliation and arbitration, employee
participation and industrial democracy, no-strike agreement and single-union
agreement.
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Conciliation and arbitration

Conciliation involves two parties in a dispute, such as employee and
employer representatives, agreeing to use the services of an independent
mediator (called the conciliator) to help in the negotiation process to help
resolve their differences.
Arbitration goes one step further as it involves an independent arbitrator
deciding on an appropriate outcome. Both parties agree to be legally bound
by the final decision of the autonomous arbitrator.
During conciliation and arbitration, both parties are kept separate to avoid
the tense moments which can further intensify conflict. The conciliator
communicates back and forth between the two sides and steers the
discussions towards a settlement that both parties can agree on.
Conciliation avoids high legal fees as it can prevent the case being taken to
court. It is a simpler process than arbitration. Indeed, the threat of high legal
fees of a court trial means conciliation and arbitration have a high success rate.
If one of the parties does not agree to the terms and conditions advised by
the conciliator, it can take the case to arbitration.
Both conciliation and arbitration can take up a lot of management time and
financial resources.
Employee participation and industrial democracy

Industrial democracy is the practice of involving and empowering people
in the workplace. This includes giving employees opportunities to share
responsibilities and empowering them with decision-making authority.
Industrial democracy occurs through employee participation, i.e. workers are
involved in the decision-making process and are given responsibilities and
autonomy to complete their jobs.
Examples of employee participation include:
Works council – Employer and employee representatives that meet
to discuss company-wide issues, e.g. health and safety at work or
organizational change. Pay negotiations are left to trade unions, not
works councils.
Teamworking opportunities – People tend to respond positively to
working with others as this helps to satisfy their social needs or belonging
needs (see Unit 2.4).
Employee share ownership schemes – Awarding employees with shares
in the company is a common way to develop their sense of purpose and
motivation.
Motivation theorists such as Maslow and Herzberg (see Unit 2.4) argue that
industrial democracy helps to increase productivity because workers are more
involved, so feel valued.
Employers also benefit from a more participative culture so are less likely
to experience industrial unrest. Employers benefit from lower rates of
absenteeism and labour turnover.
No-strike agreement
A no-strike agreement is a contractual agreement whereby a trade union
pledges not to use strike action as a form of industrial action, provided the
employer keeps to their obligations in the agreement.
If workers choose to strike during the period of the agreement, employers
have the legal right to fire (dismiss) the employees.
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Single-union agreement
A trade union (or labour union) is established to protect the interests of its
members, e.g. to negotiate with employers for improved pay and conditions at
work. The unions are financed by the membership fees.
Workers can belong to more than one trade union. Not all workers in the
same organization have to belong to the same labour union.
A single-union agreement means employers negotiate with just one labour
union which represents all employees in the organization. This helps to
simplify the collective bargaining process and to speed up decision making.
Reasons for resistance to change in the workplace (AO2)

Self-interest – The pursuit of self-interest often takes priority over
organizational objectives. Workers are often more interested in or concerned
with the implications of change for themselves rather than how it might
benefit the organization. Hence, they may feel that change is unnecessary
and requires too much effort unless it directly benefits them.
Low tolerance – The lack of open-mindedness for change often happens
because people fear or dislike disruptions and uncertainties. They might also
fear failure in adapting to change, so naturally resist it.
Misinformation – Lack of understanding causes resistance to change when
the purpose of change has not been communicated effectively. Employees
often feel that change is not necessary, especially when things are going well
for the organization.
Interpretation of circumstances – Management and employees may disagree
on the purpose and benefits of change. Different interpretations of a particular
situation can cause conflict and hence resistance to change.
Human resource strategies for reducing the impact

of change and resistance to change (AO3)
Getting agreement/ownership – Allowing workers to be involved in the
decision-making process and giving them ownership of their work can help to
prevent misunderstandings and misinterpretations of the purpose of change.
Planning and timing the change – Rapid change is often poorly communicated
and executed. Effective change management needs careful planning, including
considerations regarding the timing of change. Training needs should be
considered to facilitate the impact of change in the organization.
Communicating the change – Effective communication of the purpose and
rationale of change is vital to get support from staff. This helps to educate
employees about the need for and benefits of change.
How innovation, ethical considerations and

cultural differences may influence employer–
employee relations in an organization (AO3)
Innovation
The extent to which innovation is part of the organizational culture impacts
on employer–employee relations. Firms that allow employees to share ideas and
pursue their interests can benefit from improved employer–employee relations.
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Innovations can bring about improved communications, thereby improving

relationships in the workplace.
Advances in technology can make it easier for firms to operate with a
smaller workforce. This can have a large impact on industrial relations, at
least in the short term.
Innovation and change can increase stress levels of employees so this needs
to be managed carefully.
Ethical considerations
Unethical practices result in poor employer–employee relations, e.g. ignoring
health and safety issues at work. By contrast, working for an ethical company
that considers its social responsibilities can help to improve relationships at
work.
Staff morale is higher when working for an ethical organization; people tend
to be more cooperative and productive when their needs are met, so intrinsic
motivation is improved.
Having a clear and agreed code of ethical conduct reduces the likelihood of
conflict in the workplace.
Cultural differences
The organizational culture shapes the behavioural norms in the workplace.
This can either improve or hinder working relations, e.g. an open, blame-free
culture can help to promote creativity and innovation.
Cultural differences of multicultural employees mean that workers are CUEGIS CONCEPTS
motivated by different rewards, be they financial, non-financial, extrinsic or Investigate how the concepts of
intrinsic. ethics, innovation and culture
have impacted on the employer–
Sub-cultures within an organization (see Unit 2.5) can cause culture clashes employee relations for an
and conflict. Similarly, new employees might have some difficulties adjusting organization of your choice.
to the cultural norms when joining an organization.
Figure 2.14 Cultural differences can shape behavioural norms
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Unit 3 Finance and accounts
3.1 Sources of finance
Role of finance for businesses (AO2)
Finance is needed for starting up a new business or to fund an existing firm’s
expansion, e.g. the purchase or rent of premises, machinery, capital equipment
and vehicles. Keyword definitions
Capital expenditure is the
Businesses need to finance on-going costs, e.g. the purchase of raw materials, spending on fixed assets and capital
components and stock (inventory). They need to pay wages to their employees equipment of a business. Examples
and utility bills such as water, gas, telephone and electricity. include expenditure on buildings,
Established businesses may seek additional sources of finance to grow. equipment, tools and vehicles.
The need for finance can be categorized as capital expenditure and revenue Capital expenditure is commonly
expenditure. known as investment expenditure.
Revenue expenditure refers to
the need for businesses to finance
their daily and routine operations.
Examples include finance to
pay for the purchase of raw
materials, paying utility bills and
remunerating employees.
Internal sources of finance (AO2)

The term ‘sources of finance’ refers to where a business gets its money from.
Internal sources of finance come from within the business using its own
resources, e.g. personal funds, retained profit and the sale of assets.
Personal funds (for sole traders)

Sole traders and partners are likely to have their own personal funds from
their savings in order to fund the start-up of their business.
Sole traders and partners who do not invest (or risk) any of their personal
funds are highly unlikely to secure finance from banks and other financiers.
Retained profit
Retained profit refers to the surplus funds reinvested in the business rather
than being distributed to shareholders in the form of dividends. This is shown
at the bottom of the firm’s profit and loss account (see Unit 3.4).
It acts as an internal source of finance for the business as the funds belong to
the owners of the organization.
It is recorded on a firm’s balance sheet as part of its equity (see Unit 3.4).
Sale of assets
Businesses can sell some of their fixed assets to raise finance.
It provides the business with an opportunity to dispose of fixed assets that are
no longer needed (perhaps because they are old or obsolete), e.g. a supermarket
chain might sell its fleet of old delivery vehicles in order to purchase newer ones.
However, the sale of assets can compromise the firm’s ability to raise working
capital (see Unit 3.7) if there are insufficient resources for production.
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External sources of finance (AO2)

External finance comes from outside of the organization, i.e. via external
stakeholders (see Unit 1.4).
It is used when a business is unable to generate sufficient finance from its
internal sources (the cheaper of the two categories of sources of finance).
There are two main kinds of external sources of finance: share capital and
loan capital.
Share capital
Share capital is a long-term, external source of finance for a limited liability
company (see Unit 1.2) obtained by selling shares of the company to
individual and institutional investors.
An initial public offer (IPO) occurs when shares in a limited liability
company are sold for the very first time.
The value of share capital is based on the value of the shares when they were
first sold, not the current market price of the shares.
As an alternative to loan capital (which involves debt and incurs interest
repayments), a limited liability company can raise finance by selling additional Keyword definition
share capital. This does, however, dilute ownership and control for existing A stock market (or stock
shareholders. exchange) is a place for buying
If shares are sold, this is done via a stock exchange without the company being and selling shares in public limited
directly involved – the original share capital is not affected; only the share companies. It oversees the IPO of
ownership changes hand between the seller of the shares and the buyer (the new companies and subsequent
new share owner). share issues of existing companies.
It is also the marketplace for buying
Only public limited companies (see Unit 1.2) are allowed to trade their shares and selling second-hand shares.
on a stock exchange.
Figure 3.1 The New York Stock Exchange
Loan capital
Loan capital refers to borrowing funds from a financier (lender) such as a
commercial bank.
Examples include mortgages, bank loans and overdrafts (see below).
A loan agreement is set for a period of time, such as one, five or twenty
years. It is usually repaid in instalments over time or at the end of the loan
agreement period.
The lender charges interest on the loan amount. The interest rate can be fixed
or variable.
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76 Unit 3 Finance and accounts
A mortgage is a long-term source of loan capital which involves the financier Expert tip
demanding the borrower has collateral (a fixed asset such as property that
provides financial security in case the borrower fails to repay the loan). Make sure you can differentiate
between debentures and share
A debenture (or corporate bond) is a source of long-term loan capital, secured capital. Shares represent permanent
against a specific asset. Debenture holders do not have any ownership rights capital and shareholders have
but usually get some interest on their investment and are paid dividends (if ownership (voting) rights. Debentures
awarded) before shareholders receive any dividends. represent loan capital (long-term
liabilities) to a firm and debenture
holders do not have any voting rights.
Overdrafts
An overdraft is a financial service that enables a business to withdraw more
money than exists in its bank account. It is, essentially, a type of short-term loan.
The loan period is negotiable, but tends to be short-term because the interest
charges on overdrafts are usually very high.
Overdrafts enable a business to have emergency access to finance during times
of short-term liquidity problems (see Unit 3.7) when cash flow is poor.
It is a very common type of borrowing for small businesses.
Trade credit
Trade credit is a very common source of external finance that enables a
business to obtain goods or services from a supplier without having to pay for
these immediately.
The usual trade credit period is between one and two months. Some suppliers
offer a price discount for customers who pay their invoices earlier.
Examples of trade credit include the use of credit card and store cards which
provide interest-free credit if the outstanding balance (the amount owed) is
paid on time.
Hire purchase is another example. This involves paying for fixed assets
(such as vehicles and expensive equipment) in regular instalments over a
predetermined period. The finance company (lender) retains ownership of
the fixed asset until the business pays the final instalment, thereby legally
becoming the owner of the asset.
Figure 3.2 The use of credit and store cards is a popular form of trade credit
Grants
Grants are a form of financial assistance from the government, given to
qualifying businesses to aid their operations, e.g. business start-ups and R&D
(research and development).
Grants are often provided to reduce production costs for businesses and/or to
encourage employment opportunities in less economically prosperous regions.
Grants are not widely available as a source of finance and are often only
available to small businesses.
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Subsidies Expert tip

Subsidies are provided in order to encourage output, e.g. public transport Students often confuse grants
operators are subsidized in many countries to reduce their operational costs with subsidies. Whilst both serve a
and hence prices. This helps to encourage people not to drive private vehicles. common purpose, they are different.
Grants are awarded for a specific
They help to stimulate investment that would otherwise be too expensive for
purpose or project and can help to
businesses to pursue.
finance expenditure entirely, e.g.
Large businesses can qualify for subsidies, and this can cause controversy. For grants to fund higher education or
example, farmers and film (cinema) producers are subsidized in China and to purchase computer equipment.
France to help these industries compete with foreign rivals. Subsidies help to partially pay for
the cost of something in order to
encourage production (output).
Debt factoring
A business might struggle to get payment from its debtors (individuals and
firms that owe the business money). A debt factor is a business, such as a bank,
that takes over the debtors of a business. Debtors are customers who have
bought on credit.
The debt factoring service provider will usually charge around 20% of the
value of debtors as their fee.
The provider takes its commission, before passing on the remaining amount
to the business. This gives the business most of the value of debtors to improve
its cash flow position without having to personally chase the payment from its
customers.
Leasing
Expert tip
Leasing is a common way for businesses to finance fixed assets without the
necessary capital expenditure. Make sure you can explain the
difference between hire purchase
A leasing contract commits the business to pay a monthly fee for a fixed period (HP) and leasing. With HP, ownership
of time. of the asset is transferred to the
business after its final instalment is
The fixed asset is not the property of the business, and it is the leasing paid at the end of the credit period.
company that takes responsibility to maintain it. With leasing (or hiring), ownership is
For example, schools might lease computers and laptops for teachers and not transferred throughout the entire
students instead of buying them outright (which would be very expensive). leasing contract.
Venture capital
Venture capital comes from external firms that invest in business start-ups
and/or expanding small businesses with significant growth potential.
Venture capital represents a combination of loans and share capital.
To compensate for the high risks, venture capitalists often require rights to
partial ownership and control of the company. Therefore, this dilutes the
owner’s control but does bring in much needed knowledge, experience and
expertise.
Venture capital can be useful for businesses that are unable to raise finance
through the stock market or bank loans.
Expert tip
Business angels Students often incorrectly use
Business angels are wealthy individuals who invest in high-risk business ‘business angels’ and ‘venture
projects with high profit potential. capitalist’ interchangeably. Business
angels are wealthy individuals who
Business angels take huge risks because they invest their own personal funds, risk their own personal money in
so if the project fails, they lose every dollar invested. a project. Venture capitalists are
They can provide a vital source of finance for small businesses that do not institutional investors and risk the
have access to conventional providers of finance such as banks. money of the investing organization.
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Short-, medium- and long-term finance (AO1)

Businesses need sufficient access to sources of finance to meet current and
future needs. Definitions of short-, medium- and long-term finance vary from
country to country, but generally:
short term means up to one year, e.g. overdrafts, trade credit and debtors
medium term means up to five years, e.g. bank loans, subsidies and leasing
long term means more than five years, e.g. shareholders’ funds, mortgages
and debentures.
The important thing for businesses is to match the type of finance to its use,
e.g. short-term finance such as overdrafts should be used to provide finance for
daily operations and to cope with fluctuations in cash flow (see Unit 3.7). By
contrast, long-term finance is used to fund growth and expansion.
The appropriateness, advantages and disadvantages

of sources of finance for a given situation (AO3)
The appropriateness of different sources of finance depends on the situation faced
by a business. For example:
The sale of assets would be appropriate if a business is upgrading obsolete
(outdated) fixed assets or if it is facing a major liquidity issue.
The sale of shares is only available (suitable) for limited liability companies, i.e.
it is not appropriate for sole traders and partnerships.
If the owners of a business are unwilling to allow others to have a significant
stake in their business, then venture capital and business angels are not
appropriate.
Loan capital is less appropriate for businesses with liquidity problems or with
a very high gearing ratio (see Unit 3.6), i.e. firms that are already heavily
indebted with external sources of finance.
Debt factoring is suitable if the business needs quick access to cash and/or feels
it is no longer able to secure the money owed by its debtors.
Table 3.1 Summary of the advantages and disadvantages of internal sources of finance
Source of finance Advantages Disadvantages
Personal funds There are no interest or administrative charges These are unlikely to be sufficient to fund business
imposed operations
Retained profit It can be used to pay for goods outright, without the There is unlikely to be sufficient funds to allow the
need to borrow business to grow sufficiently
Unlike bank loans, retained profits do not have to be Shareholders might demand higher dividend pay-
repaid outs
Sale of assets Gets rid of outdated fixed assets May not fetch much money due to assets being
Can provide much needed finance during liquidity second hand
crises The business may still need to replace the fixed
assets
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Table 3.2 Summary of the advantages and disadvantages of external sources of finance
Source of finance Advantages Disadvantages
Share capital Share capital reduces or removes the need to Converting to a limited liability company can be
pay high interest on loans (debt) complex, time consuming and costly
A large amount of finance can be raised by Dilution of ownership exposes a business to
selling shares takeover bids
Loan capital Helps to fund the purchase of fixed assets All forms of loan capital incur interest charges
Accessible to most businesses Increases debts of the business
Overdraft Quick and common source for dealing with Very high interest rates are charged on the debts
liquidity problems
Trade credit Enables firms to buy now and pay later Giving trade credit can increase the chances of bad debts
It is usually offered interest-free It can encourage overtrading, causing high inventory costs
Grants Grants do not have to be repaid Not easily accessible for most businesses
Subsidies Subsidies do not have to be repaid Most businesses do not qualify for financial assistance,
There are tax breaks (benefits) for subsidized so subsidies are difficult to secure
businesses
Debt factoring Gets immediate access to cash without The debt factor charges a large commission (fee) for its
having to chase debtors services
Leasing Gives access to fixed assets without capital Leasing is more expensive in the long term
expenditure The lessor can impose quantitative limits, e.g. a limit on
The lessor is responsible for maintenance costs the mileage for leased vehicles
Upgrades are easily arranged
Venture capital and Useful for smaller firms that cannot raise Often involves dilution of control and ownership of the
business angels finance via the stock market or bank loans business
Gain the expertise and advice of the investors Not easily accessible funds for many businesses
CUEGIS CONCEPTS Keyword definition

Investigate the sources of finance for an organization of your choice and Overtrading exists when a
examine how these have impacted on its business strategy. business expands too quickly
without sufficient sources of
finance to sustain its operations.
3.2 Costs and revenues

Types of costs (AO2)
Costs, or costs of production, refer to the payments that a business must make
as part of its operations.
Examples include: rent for hiring premises, wages to employees, the purchase
Costs ($)
of raw materials, and utility bills for gas, electricity and telephone charges.
The section below examines the different types of business costs. 10 000 TFC
Fixed costs
Fixed costs are costs of production that do not change with the level of output, Output (units)
i.e. costs that have to be paid even if there is no output.
Figure 3.3 Fixed costs of $10 000 for
Examples include rent on land, leasing costs of equipment and machinery and a business
salaries to managers.
Expert tip
Diagrammatically, total fixed costs (TFC) are drawn as a horizontal line, It is incorrect to assume that fixed
starting on the y-axis at the value of fixed costs (see Figure 3.3). costs do not change. For example,
advertising costs can and do change
over time, but not because of the
organization’s level of output.
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Variable costs
TVC
Variable costs are costs of production that do change according to the level of
Costs ($)
output, i.e. costs that increase when there is a greater level of output or production.
Examples include the costs of purchasing raw materials and the wages for
employees.
Diagrammatically, total variable costs (TVC) are drawn as an upwards
Output (units)
sloping line, starting at the origin because no output means no variable
costs to pay. (see Figure 3.4) Figure 3.4 Variable costs of a business
Expert tip Expert tip

What might be a variable cost for one business might not necessarily be so The total cost of production (TC) is
for another, e.g. the cost of fuel is a variable cost for taxi firms but not for a made up of total fixed costs (TFC)
restaurant or cinema. It is important to consider costs in the context of the and total variable costs (TVC), i.e.
business being studied. TC = TFC + TVC.
EXAM PRACTICE
1 Calculate the following costs to two decimal places (where appropriate)
from the data in the table below:
a fixed costs of production. [2]
b average fixed costs at 10 units and 15 units of output. [2]
c average variable costs at 10 units and 15 units of output. [2]
d average costs at 10 units and 15 units of output. [2]
Output Variable cost $ Total costs $

10 2000 4545
15 2850 5395
Semi-variable costs
Semi-variable costs have characteristics of both fixed and variable costs.
For example, telecommunications service providers (for telephone and internet
services) charge a minimum fixed monthly fee. This has to be paid irrespective
of whether the service is used. However, the more the service is used the
greater the cost becomes.
Another example is electricity service providers. They might charge, for
example, a minimum rate of $100 per month (the fixed component of the cost)
and $0.15 per kilowatt hour (the variable component).
Direct costs
Direct costs are costs that can be clearly and specifically identified with the
output of a certain product or project. For Higher Level students, direct costs
can be allocated to a particular cost or profit centre (see Unit 3.9).
Direct costs can therefore include variable costs of production, such as raw
materials costs.
However, direct costs can also include fixed costs, such as the cost of motor
insurance for taxi drivers.
Indirect/overhead costs
Indirect costs (or overheads) are recurring costs that cannot be clearly
identified with the production or sale of a particular good or service. For
Higher Level students, indirect costs cannot be easily or objectively allocated
to a particular cost or profit centre (see Unit 3.9).
Examples include: rent, legal fees, salaries of administrative staff, accounting
fees, telephone bills, insurance and electricity costs, which can be linked to all
departments within a business.
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Total revenue and revenue streams (AO2)

Total revenue
Sales revenue or sales turnover refers to the income from the sale of goods
and services.
Total revenue (TR) is calculated by multiplying the quantity sold by the unit price. Expert tip
Total sales revenue = Price × Quantity sold Do not confuse revenue with profit.
Profit is the positive difference
or between total revenue and total
costs, i.e. Profit = TR − TC. Only after
TR = P × Q
all costs of production have been paid
Hence, if a cinema sells 1200 tickets for a movie, at an average price of $11, then from a firm’s revenues can it declare a
its total revenue is $11 × 1200 = $13 200. profit or loss.
Revenue streams
Most businesses have more than one source of revenue. These various sources of
income are known as revenue streams. Table 3.3 below shows examples of various
revenue streams for different businesses.
Table 3.3 Examples of revenue streams for selected businesses

McDonald’s Apple Virgin Group
Fast food sales Computers Virgin Atlantic (airline carrier) CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Franchise license fees Computer accessories Virgin Money (finance)
Examine how change has impacted
Royalties from franchisees Smartphones Virgin Megastores (retail) on the costs and revenues for an
Rents paid by franchisees iTunes Virgin Radio (entertainment) organization of your choice.
EXAM PRACTICE
2 Complete the cost, revenue and profit data in the table below. All figures
are in US dollars ($). [4]
October November December January

Sales revenue 5800 6000 8800
Variable costs 3480 5280 2580
Fixed costs 1500 1500 1500
Total costs 5100 6780
Profit 220
3 The table below refers to the costs and revenues of YT Toys Ltd when
operating at 5 000 units of output per month:
Item Cost/Revenue
Price $20
Raw materials per unit $8
Rent $7000
Salaries $8000
a Calculate the total cost of producing 5000 units. [2]

b Calculate the profit made by YT Toys Ltd if all its output is sold. [2]
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3.3 Break-even analysis
Total contribution versus contribution

per unit (AO2, AO4)
Break-even exists when a business sells enough goods and/or services in order
to cover all its costs of production, i.e. the output level where the business does
not make a profit or a loss.
■ For example, suppose an entrepreneur sells hot dogs and we are given the
following information: Keyword definitions
The price of each hot dog is $6. Contribution per unit refers to the
amount of money a business earns
The variable costs of each hot dog are $2.
from selling each unit of output.
The rent is $400 per week.
Contribution per unit = P − AVC
If he only sells one hot dog, he earns $4 after paying his direct costs, i.e.
The surplus is used to contribute
$6 − $2 = $4. This is not profit, but contribution per unit. After all, he has to
towards the payment of fixed costs.
pay fixed costs (his rent on the hot dog stall) before declaring any profit. As
fixed costs are $400, it means he has to sell 100 hot dogs to break even, i.e. Total contribution is used to work
$4 × 100 hot dogs = $400. out profit or loss. It is calculated by
multiplying the unit contribution
■ Hence, to work out the break-even quantity (BEQ), the following formula is
by the quantity sold.
used:
Fixed costs Total contribution = (P − AVC) × Q
Break even =
(Selling price − variable cost per unit) Profit or loss can then be worked
■ This means that a firm breaks even when its total contribution equals its total out by taking away fixed costs from
fixed costs. total contribution.
■ By contrast, contribution per unit only considers the difference between the
sales price of one unit and the variable costs needed to make that unit of
production.
Aspects of break-even analysis (A02, A04)

The following points refer to Figure 3.5.
■ Costs and revenues are measured on the y-axis, expressed in a TR
given currency.
Costs and revenues ($)
■ The level of sales or output is shown on the x-axis, with an

appropriate unit of measurement.
Profit TC
■ The total fixed costs (TFC) line is drawn as a horizontal line BEP
because the costs do not change when the level of output or
sales changes. 400 TFC
Loss
■ The break-even point (BEP) occurs where total sales revenue Margin of safety
(TR) equals total costs of production (TC).
■ The break-even quantity (BEQ) is labelled on the x-axis 100 280
indicating the sales volume needed for the business to BEQ Sales volume
break even. Sales quantity (hot dogs)
■ Similarly, the break-even revenue is shown on the y-axis, Figure 3.5 Break-even chart
representing the value of the output needed to break even.
When the firm sells less than the BEQ, it makes a loss. When it sells more
than the BEQ, the business earns profit.
■ The difference between the firm’s sales volume and the BEQ is called the
margin of safety (MOS). So, if the firm sells 280 hot dogs in a week but only
needs to sell 100 to break even, its MOS is 180 hot dogs.
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Break-even quantity/point Expert tip

The y-axis should be correctly labelled
Keyword definitions
as ‘Costs and revenue ($)’, i.e. it should
The break-even point (BEP) is where the total costs of production equal the include an appropriate currency. The
total revenue. The break-even quantity (BEQ) refers to the quantity of sales x-axis should be appropriately labelled
or output required to break even. too, and include the correct unit of
measurement (such as tonnes, kilos,
number of customers, or even hot
Profit or loss dogs, depending on the context of
the question). This is a common area
Keyword definitions for error that students often lose
marks on.
Profit is the positive difference between a firm’s total sales revenue (TR) and
its total costs (TC). It is the reward for successful risk-taking in a business.
Profit can be calculated in two ways:
Expert tip
Profit = TR − TC
The margin of safety (MOS)
Profit = Total contribution − TFC is measured along the x-axis.
This means the correct unit of
A loss occurs if total costs exceed total revenues.
measurement for the MOS is the
units of output. Too often, students
EXAM PRACTICE incorrectly express the MOS using the
y-axis in terms of a currency.
4 BHS Cupcakes has variable costs of $0.25 per cupcake and sells these for
$1.50 each. Its fixed costs are $10 000 per month. It sells an average of
9 500 cupcakes per month.
a Calculate the contribution per unit for BHS Cupcakes. [2]
b Calculate how many cupcakes BHS Cupcakes must sell each month
in order to break even. [2]
c Calculate the margin of safety for BHS Cupcakes. [2]
d Illustrate the above answers on an accurately plotted break-
even chart. [5]
Target profit output
Keyword definition
Target profit output (or target profit quantity) refers to the sales volume
(quantity) needed in order to reach the target profit.
Fixed cost + Target profit
Target profit quantity =
Price − Variable cost per unit
Target profit
Keyword definition
Target profit is the desired or expected profit from a business, i.e. how much
profit it aims to earn. It can be easily determined from a break-even chart by
comparing the total cost and total revenue curves at each level of output.
Target price
Keyword definition
Target price is the amount charged to customers in order to reach break-
even (or any desired target profit). The target price for break-even is found
using the formula:
Target price = Average Fixed Cost + Average Variable Cost
or
Target price = (Total Fixed Cost ÷ Output) + Average Variable Cost
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EXAM PRACTICE
5 Calculate the total contribution required for Anson Miu & Co. based
on the following data: Fixed costs = $10 000 per month and target
profit = $35 000 per month. [2]
6 Suppose Li & Tse Jewellers has a target profit of $200 000 per year,
earns a unit contribution of $500, and incurs fixed costs of $50 000.
Calculate the target profit output for the firm. [2]
7 Suppose Bhardwaj Watches has fixed costs of $3500 per month,
direct costs of $120 per watch, a sales target of 60 watches per
month and a target profit of $2500. Calculate the target price for
Bhardwaj Watches. [2]
8 Paine & Nguyen Consultancy charge $500 per person for their
training courses, with unit variable costs of $420. Their fixed costs
are $12 000 per month.
a Calculate how many people must pay for training with the firm
each month in order for the firm to break even. [2]
b If the firm has a target profit of $20 000, calculate how many
people are required to pay for training courses each month. [2]
The effects of changes in price or cost on the break-

even quantity, profit and margin of safety, using
graphical and quantitative methods (AO2, AO4)
A higher price will reduce the break-even quantity. Diagrammatically, the
total revenue (TR) line will be steeper due to the higher price, so break-even
occurs at a lower level of output. The opposite is true for a reduction in price,
i.e. the firm would have to sell more in order to break even.
This means that a higher price will reduce the margin of safety (because the
firm breaks even earlier). However, this assumes that the sales volume does
not fall following the increase in price.
Higher costs of production (fixed and/or variable costs) will increase the
break-even quantity. Diagrammatically, the total cost line would be steeper
if only variable costs increase or shift upwards if there is an increase in
fixed costs.
EXAM PRACTICE
9 Study the data below for Alyssa Stephen’s Hot Dog Stall and answer the
questions that follow.
• The price of each hot dog is $6.
• The variable costs of each hot dog is $2.
• Her rent is $400 per week.
• Sales quantity = 280 hot dogs per week.
a Suppose Alyssa Stephen’s Hot Dog Stall raises its price to $7.
Construct a fully labelled diagram to show the old and new
break-even following the firm’s decision to raise its price. [6]
b Assuming there is no change in the demand for hot dogs at
Alyssa Stephen’s Hot Dog Stall, calculate the new margin
of safety. [2]
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The benefits of break-even analysis (AO3)

It is a visual tool which enables managers to easily interpret the relationship
between fixed costs, variable costs, price, revenues and profits.
It is a strategic decision-making tool, e.g. if the analysis shows a very high BEQ
with a very low MOS, the decision might be to refrain from implementing
such a high-risk decision.
The model works well for the analysis of single-product firms.
It is useful for analysing and predicting the impacts of changes in the price on
the profitability of the business.
Similarly, it is useful for predicting the effects on profitability if the business
changes its costs.
The limitations of break-even analysis (AO3)

The model assumes that costs and revenues are static, i.e. it assumes
unchanging conditions in the market. In reality, variables such as inflation
and interest rates (see Unit 1.5) will affect the forecasts.
Prices and costs are assumed to be constant, so the TR and TC lines are
linear. In reality, firms are likely to experience economies of scale (or
diseconomies of scale) as their output levels increase. Businesses are also likely
to offer price discounts to people who buy in bulk.
It is not always easy to classify certain costs as being only fixed or only
variable, e.g. electricity charges might be considered as semi-variable costs (see
Unit 3.2). Hence, this can prove problematic for the construction of break-
even charts.
As most businesses sell a range of products, this might require fixed costs
to be allocated to different cost and profit centres (see Unit 3.9). Therefore,
break-even analysis might not be suitable for multi-product businesses.
The effectiveness of the model depends on the accuracy of the data used.
Prices and costs are only estimates (forecasts) which the business might not
have computed accurately, thus limiting the usefulness of the predictions.
The model also assumes that only one product is produced and sold by the
CUEGIS CONCEPTS
business. For example, hotels have different prices for different types of rooms, Examine the extent to which
as well as other related services such as laundry and catering services. break-even analysis is a useful
management tool for an
As a quantitative tool, break-even analysis ignores qualitative issues in decision organization of your choice.
making, e.g. the impact of working at higher levels of output may cause huge Consider the concepts of change
amounts of stress and demotivation for the workforce. and strategy in your answer.
Figure 3.6 The Burj Al Arab Hotel in Dubai charges a

range of prices for different types of accomodation
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3.4 Final accounts (some HL only)

The purpose of accounts to different
stakeholders (AO3)
Final accounts comprise of the profit and loss account, the balance sheet, and
cash flow statements (see Unit 3.7).
They are important because they show directors, owners (or shareholders) and
other stakeholder groups the financial performance of the business during the
accounting period.
The final accounts enable managers to have the necessary quantitative data to
support decision making.
For external stakeholders, the purpose of accounts is to help them to make
rational judgements about the business, e.g. banks and other lenders can assess
the extent to which the business can afford debt (borrowing).
It is important for shareholders to hold directors accountable for their use of
the company’s funds and to assess how safe their investment is, e.g. the final
accounts indicate the firm’s ability to survive in the short term.
Potential shareholders and investors will be interested in a firm’s final accounts
as this may affect their willingness to invest in the company, e.g. they will use
the accounts to measure the firm’s liquidity position.
The principles and ethics of accounting

practice (AO3)
Integrity – Accountants need to be open and honest in all aspects of their
professional conduct, e.g. final accounts should be reported accurately and
truthfully with the tax authorities and all other interested stakeholders.
Objectivity – The reporting of final accounts should not contain bias or
undue influence of other parties. Accounting practices should be free from any
conflict of interest between the business and its various stakeholder groups.
Professional competence and due care – This means accountants have a
professional duty to continue their professional knowledge and act diligently.
They should stay up to date with developments in the industry, including
changes in legislation and accounting practices.
Confidentiality – Accountants must respect the confidentiality of financial
data and information acquired as a result of their profession. They must not
disclose any of this to third parties unless there is a legal or professional duty to
do so. The data must not be used for personal gain of the accountant or third
parties. This is both a legal and ethical obligation.
Professional behaviour – Accountants must avoid any action that could bring
their profession into disrepute, e.g. they must comply with relevant laws and
regulations regarding accounting practices.
Final accounts (AO2, AO4)

Profit and loss account
The profit and loss account shows the net profit (or loss) after all costs have
been deducted from the organization’s revenues, per time period (see Figure 3.7).
Sales revenue refers to the money a business earns from selling its goods and
services.
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Cost of goods sold (COGS) refers to the direct costs of production.

COGS can include raw materials, components, packaging and direct
labour costs.
The formula is COGS = Opening stock + Purchases − Closing stock.
Gross profit is the amount of profit from ordinary trading activities. It is
calculated by taking away the value of COGS from the sales revenue.
Expenses are the indirect costs of production, such as rent, insurance and
management salaries. Interest and tax are not included in this section because
they are expenses that are beyond the control of the business, making
historical benchmarking difficult or meaningless.
Net profit before interest and tax shows the value of profit before
deducting interest repayments on loans (the rate being determined by the
central bank) and taxation on profits (the rate being determined by the
central government).
Net profit after interest and tax shows the actual amount of profit the
business has at its disposal after all costs are deducted (including interest
and tax payments). The net profit can then be distributed between the
shareholders and/or retained in the business.
Dividends are the payments that a company pays to its shareholders from its Expert tip
net profit after interest and tax. The amount distributed to shareholders is
Dividends do not have to be paid
determined by the board of directors.
out to shareholders every year if the
Retained profit is the amount of net profit remaining after all costs are paid company declares a profit. Instead,
and shareholders have been compensated. It is an important internal source the directors may choose to use the
of finance (see Unit 3.1) that can be used for maintenance, investments, funds (retained profits) as an internal
financing growth or kept as reserve finance. source of finance.
Profit and loss account for (Company name), for the year ended (Date)
$m
Sales revenue 700

Minus Cost of goods sold 350
Gross profit 350
Minus Expenses 200

Net profit before interest and tax 150
Minus Interest 10
Net profit before tax 140
Minus Tax 25
Net profit after interest and tax 115
Dividends 35
Retained profit 80
Figure 3.7 Format of the profit and loss account
Source: IB Diploma Business Management Guide
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EXAM PRACTICE
10 Malanow Ski Company has an opening stock of $45 000, a closing stock
of $35 000, and has purchased stock during the year costing $65 000.
Calculate the firm’s cost of goods sold (COGS). [2]
11 Construct the profit and loss account from the data for Axner Insurance
Company for the year ending March 2016. [4]
$
Cost of goods sold 430 000
Dividends 65 000
Expenses 80 000
Gross profit 270 000
Interest and tax 55 000
Net profit 190 000
Net profit after interest
135 000
and tax
Retained profit 70 000
Sales turnover 700 000
Balance sheet
The balance sheet shows the value of an organization’s assets and liabilities at
a particular point in time (see Figure 3.8). Assets are the items of value that
a business owns, e.g. buildings, equipment, stock and cash. Liabilities are the
debts the business owes to others, e.g. money owed to banks or suppliers.
Fixed assets are long-term assets (lasting more than 12 months) used to Expert tip
produce goods and services, e.g. land, buildings, vehicles, equipment, tools, and
machinery. The value of most fixed assets depreciates over time (their value SL students do not need to calculate
drops) so deducting accumulated depreciation gives the net value of fixed assets. depreciation but may need to
include the figure for accumulated
Current assets are short-term, liquid assets of the business that are intended to depreciation when constructing a
be used up within the year, i.e. cash, debtors and stock: balance sheet in the final exams.
Cash – This is the money a business has at its premises and in bank
accounts, making it easily accessible.
Debtors – These are customers who have received goods or services, but
have yet to pay for them. The typical credit period given to customers is
between 30 and 60 days.
Stock – Inventory of goods for sale within a short period of time.
Current liabilities are short-term debts that need to be repaid within 12 months
of the balance sheet date, i.e. overdrafts, creditors and short-term loans:
Overdrafts – An overdraft is a banking service that enables customers to
overdraw on their bank account, i.e. to take out more money than exists
in the account. They are used for very short-term purposes and typically
repaid within a few months in order to avoid high interest charges.
Creditors – Suppliers may give trade credit (the option to buy now but pay
later), which needs to be repaid, typically within 30 to 60 days.
Short-term loans – Advances (loans) from a financial lender, such as a
bank, that need to be repaid within 12 months.
Working capital is the amount of money available for the day-to-day running
of a business. It is needed to fund business activity and trade, e.g. to pay for
wages, raw materials, and utility bills. It is calculated by the difference between
current assets and current liabilities. Hence, working capital is also known as
net current assets.
Net assets are the overall value of a firm’s assets after all liabilities are
accounted for. Hence, net assets = Total assets − Total liabilities.
The value of net assets on a balance sheet must balance with the value of
equity. This is the firm’s internal sources of finance, made up of share capital
and retained profit.
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Share capital is the value of equity in a company funded by shareholders.

The value can increase over time if the business issues (sells) more shares as a
source of finance.
Retained profit is the amount of money remaining after all costs have been
paid (including interest and tax) and allocating a proportion of the profits to
shareholders (in the form of dividends). It is recorded in both the profit and
loss account and the balance sheet (as a source of equity).
Balance sheet for (Company name) as of (Date)
$m $m
Fixed assets
Fixed assets 500
Minus Accumulated depreciation 20
Net fixed assets 480
Current assets
Cash 10
Debtors 12
Stocks 35
Total current assets 57
Current liabilities
Overdraft 5
Creditors 15
Short-term loans 22
Total current liabilities 42
Net current assets (working capital) 15
Total assets less current liabilities 495
Minus Long-term liabilities (debt) 300
Net assets 195
Financed by:
Share capital 110
Retained profit 85
Equity 195
Figure 3.8 Format of the balance sheet

Source: IB Diploma Business Management Guide
EXAM PRACTICE
12 Construct a balance sheet for Lietz Watch Company from the data below
presented on 31 March 2016. [4]
$
Retained profits 100 000
Net current assets 150 000
Long-term liabilities 200 000
Share capital 300 000
Net assets 400 000
Fixed assets 450 000
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Different types of intangible assets (AO1)

An intangible asset is a non-physical asset that adds value to an organization,
e.g. customer goodwill and intellectual property rights (patents, copyrights and
trademarks).
Goodwill refers to the established reputation and networks of a business,
enabling it to be worth more than the market value of its quantifiable assets. It
helps to attract and retain workers and to establish new investors. The value of
goodwill is only realized when the business is actually sold.
A patent is the exclusive right granted to an organization by the government
to make use of an invention or process for a particular period of time. It gives
the inventor an incentive to invest time and money to conduct research and
development. Patents give the business a unique selling point (USP) for a
given time period.
Copyright as a form of intellectual property right gives the owner legal
rights to a creative piece of work, e.g. book, music or movie. It provides legal
protection against competitors using its published works.
Trademarks are the legal protection for an organization’s registered
symbol (logo), word (brand), or phrase (slogan). Some large multinational
companies such as Apple, Coca-Cola and Toyota have brand values worth
billions of dollars.
Expert tip
It will prove useful to learn and understand the formulae used to construct the
final accounts:
Key term Formula

Cost of goods sold (COGS) Opening stock + Purchases − Closing stock
Depreciation: straight line method (Purchase cost − residual value) ÷ Lifespan
(per year) of asset
Depreciation: reducing balance method
Purchase cost × Depreciation rate
(per year)
Expenses Net profit − Gross profit
Gross profit Sales revenue − Cost of goods sold
Fixed assets + Working capital − long-
Net assets
term liabilities
Net profit Gross profit − Expenses
Equity (or Owners’ equity) Total assets − Total liabilities
Net profit after interest and tax −
Retained profit
Dividends
Methods of depreciation (AO2, AO4) and the strengths

and weaknesses of each method (AO2) (HL only)
Although depreciation reduces the value of fixed assets, there is no actual cash
outflow from the business. Instead, it is recorded on the profit and loss account
as an expense, thereby reducing profit for the year.
It is important to calculate depreciation as managers, shareholders, lenders, the
government and potential investors all want to know how much the business Keyword definition
is actually worth. If it is not considered, profits become overstated until the Depreciation is the decline in the
time comes for the fixed assets to be replaced. value of a fixed asset over time,
mainly due to usage (wear and
Wear and tear is the major cause of the fall in the value of fixed assets, such as
tear) and newer models or better
vehicles and machinery. As the asset is continually used, it does not perform as
technologies being available.
well. Used items fetch a lower market value.
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In many cases, the asset has a residual value (or scrap value) when being Expert tip
replaced. However, the scrap value at the end of the asset’s useful life is
difficult to forecast accurately. As depreciation is only an estimated
figure, there can be a difference
Fixed assets can also become obsolete (outdated) as newer models and better between the value of a fixed asset
technologies become available over time. In such cases, the scrap value of the recorded in the final accounts and
asset could be zero. its actual market value. The book
value is the value of the fixed asset as
calculated in the balance sheet, but
Straight line method the market value is the actual value of
The straight line method of calculating depreciation reduces the value of fixed the fixed asset when it is sold.
assets by equal amounts each year (see Figure 3.9).
It is calculated using the formula:
Annual depreciation = Purchase cost − Residual value
Book value ($)

Lifespan
The main advantage of straight line depreciation is the simplicity of the
method to calculate depreciation.
The main weakness is that most fixed assets, such as vehicles or computer
hardware, depreciate significantly more in the early part of their life. Writing
off the same amount of money each year can create misleading figures for the Time
book value of the fixed assets. Figure 3.9 The straight line
depreciation method
EXAM PRACTICE
13 Tse and Li Solicitors recently purchased a new computer system for $120 000.
It has an estimated useful life of four years with an estimated residual value
of $20 000. Calculate the amount of annual depreciation for the firm. [2]
Book value ($)
Reducing/declining balance method

The declining balance method of depreciation reduces the value of a fixed asset
by a predetermined percentage each year. This results in a larger amount of
depreciation during the earlier stages of the asset’s useful life (see Figure 3.10).
For each year, the depreciation is calculated using the formula:
Time
Net book value × Depreciation rate
Figure 3.10 The reducing
Thus, the firm’s tax liability will be lower in the earlier years compared with balance depreciation method
the straight line method. However, the value of the firm’s net assets will also
be lower.
CUEGIS CONCEPTS
The main advantage of the declining balance method of calculating
Explore the role of ethics and
depreciation is that it is more realistic (accurate) in measuring the market
organizational culture in the
value of fixed assets compared to using the straight line method.
reporting of final accounts for an
However, the main drawback is that it is more difficult (time consuming) to organization of your choice.
calculate.
EXAM PRACTICE
14 Harlow and Wang Stationers purchase a printing machine for $100 000
with an expected useful life of five years. The firm uses a depreciation
rate of 30%. Calculate the residual value of the asset after five years. [3]
15 Marc Morris purchases a manufacturing machine for $20 000. It has a
useful life of five years and a residual value at the end of this period of
$3000. He estimates a depreciation rate of 25% if the reducing balance
method is used. Calculate and compare the results of the straight line
and reducing balance methods. [6]
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3.5 Profitability and liquidity ratio analysis

Profitability and efficiency ratios (AO2, AO4) and
possible strategies to improve these ratios (AO3)
Ratio analysis is a financial management tool for analysing and judging the
performance of a business.
It allows for historical comparisons of a business in different time periods.
Profitability ratios look at the level and value of a firm’s profits and enable
stakeholders to measure the return on their investments.
Profitability ratios express profits as a percentage of sales revenue. They can be
calculated using the gross profit margin or net profit margin.
Gross profit margin

Keyword definition
Gross profit is the difference between a firm’s sales revenue and its cost of
goods sold (COGS). Gross profit margin (GPM) is
a profitability ratio that shows a
The formula for calculating the gross profit margin is: firm’s gross profit expressed as a
percentage of its sales revenue.
Gross profit margin = Gross profit × 100
Sales revenue
So, if sales revenue equals $10 million, COGS equals $6 m, the
gross profit = $10 m − $6 m = $4 m. Hence, GPM = $4 m ÷ $10 m = 40%.
The higher the GPM, the more profitable the firm has been.
Methods a business can use to improve its GPM include:
using improved promotional strategies to persuade more customers to buy
its products
introducing new products with higher gross profit margins
cutting prices of products sold in highly competitive markets in order to
attract more customers
sourcing suppliers with cheaper raw material prices, resulting in lower
COGS.
Net profit margin

Keyword definition
Net profit is the surplus remaining after all production costs, including
expenses, have been fully paid. Net profit margin (NPM)
measures a firm’s overall profit
The net profit margin (NPM) shows the percentage of sales revenue that is (after all costs have been
turned into net profit. It is calculated using the formula: deducted) as a percentage of its
Net profit before interest and tax sales revenue.
Net profit margin = × 100
Sales revenue
So, if sales revenue equals $10 million, COGS equal $6 million and expenses
equal $3 million, then net profit = $10 m – $6 m – $3 m = $1 m. Hence, the
NPM = $1 m ÷ $10 m = 10%.
The higher the NPM, the greater the financial return as a percentage of
the firm’s sales revenue. It also indicates greater efficiency in managing the
firm’s expenses.
To improve the NPM, managers can strive to reduce excessive and
unnecessary day-to-day expenses. In the long run, it could even consider
relocating to areas with lower rent charges.
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3.5 Profitability and liquidity ratio analysis 93
EXAM PRACTICE
16 Joe Heaton’s Kitchen has a gross profit of $3.5 million, sales revenue of
$5.5 million and expenses of $1.5 million. Calculate the firm’s gross profit
margin and net profit margin. [4]
ROCE
Keyword definition
Capital employed is the sum of all assets less current liabilities, i.e. fixed assets
The return on capital employed
+ working capital. On the balance sheet, it is also found by the formula:
(ROCE) ratio measures a firm’s
Equity + Long-term liabilities.
efficiency and profitability in
ROCE is an important ratio that measures the financial performance of an relation to its size (as measured by
organization compared to the amount of capital invested in the business. the firm’s capital employed).
Net profit before interest and tax
Return on capital employed (ROCE) = Capital employed × 100
The ROCE ratio can be improved by using strategies that:
Increase the level of a firm’s sales revenues, e.g. promotional offers, reduced
prices to entice customers, wider distribution networks or improved products.
Reduce costs of production, e.g. better stock control systems (see Unit 5.5),
improved quality management systems (see Unit 5.3), or taking greater
advantage of economies of scale (see Unit 1.6).
Expert tip
Sell unproductive assets in order to have better liquidity. A reduction in Many students seem to think that
such assets results in a better cash position for the firm. profitability ratios are used to see
how much profit a business earns.
EXAM PRACTICE This can be done simply by looking
at a profit and loss account. Ratios
17 Andre Pannu and Partners have a gross profit of $100 m, expenses of require the comparison of two
$10 m and capital employed of $300 m. Calculate the firm’s return on numbers, such as comparing net
capital employed. [2] profit against sales revenues.
Liquidity ratios (AO2, AO4) and possible

strategies to improve these ratios (AO3)
Liquidity ratios calculate the extent to which a business can pay off its short-
term debts with its current assets.
Keyword definition
Managing liquidity is important to prevent a liquidity crisis (when a business is
Liquidity ratios are the financial
unable to pay its short-term debts).
ratios that look at a firm’s ability to
The two categories of liquidity ratios are the current ratio and the acid test ratio. pay its debts.
Current ratio
The current ratio measures the value of a firm’s liquid assets (cash, stocks and
debtors) compared to its short-term liabilities (overdrafts, creditors and short- Keyword definition
term loans). The current ratio is a short-term
liquidity ratio which calculates
the ability of a business to meet its
Current ratio = Current assets debts within the next 12 months.
Current liabilities
So, if a firm’s current assets equal $15.6 million and current liabilities
equal $11.2 million, then its current ratio = $15.6 million ÷ $11.2 million
= 1.39:1. This figure means that for every $1 of current liabilities, the firm
has $1.39 in liquid assets.
As an absolute minimum, the current ratio must be 1:1, i.e. the firm has
enough liquid assets to pay off its short-term liabilities. Ideally, the ratio should
be around 2:1 for most industries.
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To improve the current ratio, a business can: Expert tip

attract more customers and encourage them to pay by cash A higher current ratio is not always
a good thing. A business can have
deposit cash that is not being used imminently into higher interest accounts
too much stock, which ties up
use its cash balance to pay off short-term debts working capital. It can hold too much
cash, which should be used to fund
negotiate with suppliers for an extended credit period to improve its liquidity business activity instead. It might also
fund short-term debt with long-term liabilities, which allows the firm to have too many debtors, which again
harms working capital.
repay debts over a longer period of time.
EXAM PRACTICE
18 Claire Hao Accessories has the following financial data: cash = $150 000,
debtors = $65 000, overdrafts = $55 000, short-term loans = $25 000,
stocks = $145 000, and trade creditors = $80 000. Calculate the firm’s
current ratio using this information. [3]
Acid test/quick ratio

The acid test ratio (or quick ratio) is similar to the current ratio except that
stock (inventory) is excluded from the calculation of current assets. Keyword definition
The acid test ratio is a liquidity
It is a suitable measure of liquidity for businesses with stocks that are not
ratio that measures a firm’s ability
always easily converted into cash or for products that have a long working
to meet its short-term debts.
capital cycle (see Unit 3.7).
It ignores stock because some
The quick ratio is calculated using the formula: inventories are difficult to turn
into cash in a short time frame.
Acid test (quick) ratio = Current asset − stock
Current liabilities
So, if current assets equal $15.6 million, current liabilities equal $11.2 million
and stock equals $1.8 million, the acid test ratio = ($15.6 million − $1.8 million)
÷ $11.2 million = 1.23:1. This figure means the business has $1.23 of liquid assets
(without having to sell any of its stock) for every $1 of current liabilities it incurs.
An acid test ratio of less than 1:1 means the firm has a liquidity problem as
there are insufficient funds from its current assets to pay off short-term debts.
CUEGIS CONCEPTS
To improve the acid test ratio, a business can:
Discuss the role of final accounts
Use the same methods that improve the current ratio. and ratio analysis in formulating
Improve its stock control management system (see Unit 5.5); when the the corporate strategy for an
value of a firm’s stocks (inventories) falls, the acid test ratio increases.
3.6 Efficiency ratio analysis (HL only)

Efficiency ratios (AO2, AO4) and possible
strategies to improve these ratios (AO3)
Efficiency ratios are used to measure how well an organization uses its
resources and available capital to generate income.
Examples of efficiency ratios include: the stock turnover (or inventory turnover),
debtor days, creditor days and gearing ratios.
The ratios are used by management to help improve the organization, e.g.
reducing the time taken to collect cash from customers or speeding up the
time to convert stock into cash.
There is a positive correlation between efficiency ratios and profitability ratios
(see Unit 3.5), i.e. when businesses are efficient with their resources, they tend
to be more profitable.
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3.6 Efficiency ratio analysis (HL only) 95
Inventory/stock turnover
The stock turnover ratio is used to calculate how many times a firm’s inventory
needs to be replaced in a given time period (typically a year) or how quickly its Keyword definition
stock is sold and replaced. The stock turnover ratio measures
the number of days it takes a
It is calculated using one of two formulae:
business to sell its stock or the
Cost of goods sold number of times the business
Stock turnover (number of times) =
Average stock replenishes its stock during a given
or period of time.
Stock turnover (number of days) = Average stock × 365
Cost of goods sold
Hence, a business with $10 000 of average inventory and total cost of goods
sold of $100 000 has effectively sold its stock 10 times over. Alternatively, it
takes an average of 36.5 days for the firm to sell its average inventory holding.
The average stock value is found by the formula: (Opening stock + Closing
stock) ÷ 2.
Stock turnover varies for businesses operating in different industries, e.g.
supermarkets will have a higher inventory turnover rate than high-end
jewellers or manufacturers of luxury cars.
Businesses that sell perishable products rely on a short working capital cycle
so need to have a high stock turnover rate. By contrast, those selling products
that are durable and with a large profit margin can afford for the stock
turnover to be lower.
Stock turnover is a less relevant financial ratio to service providers such as
tuition colleges, insurance firms, tour operators and hairdressers because they
hold few, if any, tangible products for sale.
Methods to improve the stock turnover ratio include:
Disposing of obsolete stock to reduce the firm’s level of stock.
Offering a narrower range of products so there is better stock control and
less stockpiling.
Adopting a just-in-time stock control system (see Unit 5.5) as stocks of raw
materials and components are ordered only when needed, i.e. there is no
need to hold any amount of inventory.
EXAM PRACTICE
19 Wenger Co. has cost of goods sold (COGS) valued at $525 000. It
started the year with stock worth $250 000 and at the end of the
year has closing stock valued at $50 000. Calculate the company’s
stock turnover ratio. [2]
Debtor days
Keyword definition
The debtor days ratio calculates the average debt collection period of a
The debtor days ratio measures
business, i.e. the time taken to collect money from its customers who have
the average number of days a
bought goods and services on credit.
business takes to collect debts from
It assesses how efficient an organization is at managing its credit control its customers who have bought
systems. goods and services on trade credit.
Debtors
Debtor days ratio (number of days) = × 365
Total sales revenue
In general, the lower the debtor days ratio the better it is for the business.
A higher ratio suggests that sales revenue has grown faster than cash receipts
from customers, i.e. a higher proportion of customers pay using trade credit.
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Methods to improve the debtor days ratio include:

encouraging customers to pay by cash, e.g. offering a cash discount
reducing the credit period offered to clients
tighter credit control, i.e. offering credit only to customers with a good
track record of paying their invoices on time.
EXAM PRACTICE
20 Skarkey Ltd sells 100 000 units of output at a price of $15 each. It has
debtors to the value of $300 000. Calculate the firm’s debtor days ratio. [2]
Creditor days
The creditor days ratio calculates the length of time taken, on average, for a
business to pay back its suppliers. Keyword definition
Creditors Creditor days ratio measures the
Creditor days ratio (number of days) = × 365 average number of days a business
Cost of goods sold
takes to repay its creditors.
In general, a business that delays paying its bills and short-term debts can
maximize its cash flow (assuming there are no interest charges for late
payment or loss of goodwill from suppliers).
When the value of creditors rises, the ratio also rises. This suggests that more
is being bought on trade credit or the timing of payments to suppliers has
been delayed, i.e. it takes longer to pay creditors.
For a business, the debt collection period (as calculated by the debtor days
ratio) should ideally be shorter than the creditor payment period (creditor
days ratio).
Trade credit is typically offered for 30 to 45 days, so a creditor days ratio in this
region is generally acceptable. However, this varies between industries and
countries.
Methods to improve the creditor days ratio include:
negotiate extended credit periods with suppliers
seek alternative suppliers that offer better trade credit terms and conditions
pay for stocks and other items of expenditure with cash, rather than using
trade credit.
EXAM PRACTICE
21 Harrington Inc. has sold stock valued at a cost of $202 000. It owes
$24 900 to trade creditors. Calculate the firm’s creditor days ratio. [2]
Gearing ratio
The gearing ratio is a measure of efficiency and financial risk to help managers
interpret the extent to which the firm’s capital employed has been financed by Keyword definition
borrowed funds. The gearing ratio reveals the
degree to which a business is
Gearing involves the use of loans and other external sources of finance (such
financed by loan capital by
as debentures and trade credit) to fund business activity and expansion.
comparing loan capital and the
The gearing ratio is calculated using the formula: total capital employed.
Loan capital
Gearing ratio = × 100
Capital employed
A highly geared firm is generally vulnerable to increases in the interest rate as
the repayment on existing loans intensifies. It is also at greater risk during a
recession as revenues decline rapidly yet repayment of its loans still exists.
Firms with a high gearing ratio are highly dependent on borrowing and long-
term debt, so are seen as being risky investments.
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3.7 Cash flow 97
Conversely, firms with a lower gearing ratio have greater dependency on

internal funding so are less exposed to fluctuations in interest rates. A low
gearing ratio suggests that the firm is financially stable so there is a low risk of
it facing liquidity issues.
Methods to reduce a firm’s gearing ratio include:
paying off some long-term liabilities (loan capital), such as the repayment
of a mortgage or debentures (see Unit 3.1)
improving working capital (such as improved inventory control or faster
collection of payment from debtors) to produce cash which can be used to
pay off debts
using more internal sources of finance, such as retained profits or share
capital, to fund business growth and expansion.
Expert tip
High gearing does not necessarily mean unaffordable gearing, especially if
interest rates are low and there is high market growth potential. A firm might
have a high, but affordable, gearing ratio with the loans being used to fund its
expansion. Hence, it can actually lead to long-term profits.
Expert tip
EXAM PRACTICE Make sure you revise Unit 3.4 when
revising the units on ratio analysis
22 Delgado Ltd has an existing bank loan of $10 million. It has share capital (Units 3.5 and 3.6). Quite often in
of $15 m and retained profit of $5 m. Calculate the firm’s gearing ratio. [3] the exams, students are asked to
23 Calculate the gearing ratio for the two firms below from the limited data. calculate ratios from the balance
Outline which company represents higher risk for potential investors. [4] sheet and profit and loss accounts.
Ho Bakery Ltd Chang Bakery Ltd
CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Capital employed $250 000 $260 000
Discuss how organizational culture
Long-term liabilities $80 000 $90 000 and innovation impact on the
Mortgage $35 000 $27 000 efficiency for an organization that
you have studied.
3.7 Cash flow

The difference between profit and cash flow (AO2)
Net cash flow is the difference between cash inflow (cash received from the
sale of goods and services) and cash outflow (used to pay for the operational
costs of the business).
Net cash flow is an indication of how a business is doing in terms of whether it
is able to pay its bills and other costs.
Profit is the revenue remaining from the sale of goods and services after all
costs are paid.
Profit is usually earned when a sale in made, e.g. a business earns $460
profit from the sale of a product sold at $1000 for which the costs were $540.
However, the cash is not necessarily received immediately as some customers
might pay by trade credit (see Unit 3.1).
It is possible for cash flow to be negative when a business earns a profit, whilst
cash flow can be positive even if a business makes a loss.
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A profitable business can still go bankrupt if it has negative cash flow,

i.e. it does not have the cash to pay for its operational costs. Cash flow is
therefore of more importance for smaller businesses to focus on than profit.
Businesses often borrow money (such as bank overdrafts and loans) to survive
until sufficient cash flows in.
In the short term, a business must have sufficient cash to run its operations
whether it is profitable or not. In the long term, a business must be profitable
whilst managing its cash flow.
The working capital cycle (AO2)

Working capital is the money that a business has available for its operational
activities, e.g. to buy raw materials, settle invoices, pay for its marketing or to
pay wages to workers. Cash in
Without working capital (or circulating capital), the business is unable to

operate or trade.
It is shown on a firm’s balance sheet (see Unit 3.4) as net current assets, i.e. the
Payments to
difference between current assets and current liabilities. Goods suppliers/
sold employees
The working capital cycle refers to the time lag between a firm paying for its
operational and production costs of a good or service and it actually receiving
the cash from the sale of the product (see Figure 3.11).
Businesses that receive cash regularly from the sale of goods and services have
short working capital cycles, e.g. supermarkets and barbers. Those with long Goods
produced
production schedules for which customers pay in instalments and/or by credit
have longer working capital cycles. Figure 3.11 The working capital cycle
Cash flow forecasts (AO2, AO4)

Cash flow is the movement of money in and out of an organization, based on
actual movements of cash or based on forecasts.
Monitoring a firm’s cash flow is important to avoid liquidity problems
(periods when there are cash shortages), so the business has enough money to
continue its daily operations.
Cash inflow mainly comes from the sale of goods and services.
Cash outflow occurs when a business pays for its items of expenditure, e.g. raw
materials, staff wages, utility bills, insurance and rent.
Net cash flow is the difference between cash inflows and cash outflows.
Net cash flow = Cash inflow − Cash outflow
There is positive cash flow if the inflows exceed the outflows for a given time
period. Negative net cash flow means outflows exceed the inflows.
Cash flow problems can arise due to internal reasons (poor cash flow
management) or external factors (such as seasonal demand).
Being able to predict how cash will flow in and out of the business can help its
financial management and decision making.
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3.7 Cash flow 99
Calculating cash flow forecasts

Cash flow forecasting refers to the prediction of cash coming in and
moving out of a business over a given period of time, e.g. the next six or
twelve months.
The closing balance is the amount of cash at the end of a trading period,
usually one month. This figure becomes the ‘opening balance’ in the
subsequent time period.
The opening balance is the amount of cash at the beginning of a trading
period, usually each month. It is equal to the value of the closing balance in
the previous time period.
EXAM PRACTICE
24 Menelao Computers has the following financial information: opening
balance = $70 000, cash outflows = $80 000, and cash inflows
= $120 000. Calculate the closing balance for the firm. [2]
25 Shield Sports Equipment has produced a cash flow forecast which predicts
a closing year-end balance of $150 000. The company later discovers that
payment of $17 000 was not processed from the sales figure and that an
invoice for $13 000 is yet to be paid. Calculate the closing balance for the
firm. [2]
26 Study the following financial information and answer the questions that
Key formulae
follow. Cash flow forecasting formulae:
Kaergaard & Co. cash flow statement (excerpts): Net cash flow = Cash inflow −
Opening balance: $35 500 Cash outflow
Cash inflow: $195 000 Closing balance = Opening
Cash outflow: $150 000 balance + Net cash flow
a Calculate the net cash flow for Kaergaard & Co. [2] Opening balance = Closing
b Calculate the closing balance for Kaergaard & Co. [2] balance in preceding month
The relationship between investment, profit and

cash flow (AO2)
Investment refers to the capital expenditure (see Unit 3.1) of a business, e.g.
the spending on fixed assets such as premises, equipment and machinery.
Investment decisions are made on the assumption that profit will be generated
in the future.
However, investment expenditure clearly leads to cash outflow, at least in the
short term.
The benefits of an investment project are likely to be reaped over several years
(see Unit 3.8).
Assets purchased for the investment project may be sold at the end of their
useful life, minus their depreciated value (see Unit 3.4). This can generate
much-needed cash inflow.
Survival and sustainability mean that entrepreneurs must invest in their
business for their longer-term profitability. The lack of investment and
inability to adapt to change has forced many businesses to collapse,
e.g. HMV, Blockbuster and Kodak.
By contrast, successful investments lead to improved cash flow and
profitability.
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Strategies for dealing with cash flow problems (AO3)

The strategies used to deal with cash flow problems depend on the causes of
the problems, such as:
sales revenue are lower than expected
costs of production are higher than budgeted
unexpected costs arise
customers who buy on credit (see Unit 3.1) are slow to pay
some customers who buy on credit fail to pay (bad debts)
overstocking of items that do not sell well.
Hence, to solve cash flow problems, a business can reduce its cash outflow,
improve its cash inflow and/or look for additional finance.
Reducing cash outflow

The business could seek to improve trade credit from its suppliers (see
Unit 3.1), e.g. paying on credit rather than paying cash in advance.
It could reduce the duration of credit offered to its customers (although this
might reduce demand from some customers).
Offer price discounts to customers who make early payment of invoices.
Reduce delivery costs by negotiating a bulk-buying deal with suppliers
(although this could lead to higher costs of stock control).
Lease rather than buy assets such as equipment, machinery and buildings, e.g.
the firm might sell its head office, but immediately lease it back on a long-term
basis.
Holding lower levels of stock (inventory).
Renegotiate rents or even consider relocation to cheaper premises.
Negotiate with suppliers for longer trade credit periods or look for cheaper
local suppliers.
Improving cash inflows

The business could strive to improve its marketing in order to increase brand
awareness, sales and customer loyalty.
It could consider raising the prices of products that have a high degree of
brand loyalty.
Alternatively, it could lower the prices of products that face fierce
competition.
It could improve its product portfolio management (see Unit 4.5) by stocking
more of the best-selling products and reducing or removing stocks of products
that don’t sell well.
Looking for additional finance

Use a bank overdraft or bank loan (see Unit 3.1) during times of negative Expert tip
cash flow or when the closing balance is negative. However, this would incur When tackling cash flow forecasts,
interest repayments. be sure to look out for negative cash
flow figures and/or negative closing
Seek growth opportunities, e.g. a sole trader might form a partnership
balances. Business management is
to benefit from an additional source of finance and shared skills and
about decision making and problem
responsibilities with the partner(s). solving – if there aren’t any problems
Selling fixed assets to raise income, e.g. unused or obsolete equipment, for the business in question, then
furniture and machinery. In extreme cases of liquidity crises, the business cash flow forecasts wouldn’t be
required.
might even sell vehicles, premises or subsidiary companies.
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EXAM PRACTICE
27 a Complete the three-month cash flow forecast for Axner & Co. [4]
b Explain two causes of cash flow problems. [4]
c Explain two ways that Axner & Co. might resolve its cash flow problems. [4]
July ($) August ($) September ($)
Sales revenue 1500 1900

Bank overdraft 0 100
Cash inflow 1700 1900
Materials 350 400 450

Wages 200 200
Rent 900 900 900
Utility bills 100 150 200
Cash outflow 1870
CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Net cash flow Investigate the impact of change
Opening balance 0 –50 0 and ethics on the management of
cash for an organization of your
Closing balance –50
choice.
3.8 Investment appraisal (some HL only)

Investment opportunities using payback period
(AO3, AO4)
Investment is business expenditure on fixed assets with the potential to
generate future financial benefits, e.g. the purchase of a new building or
upgrading of computer systems.
Investment appraisal is a quantitative decision-making tool used to assess
and justify the capital expenditure of a firm in terms of whether it will be
financially worthwhile.
The payback period (PBP) method of investment appraisal measures the time
it takes for an investment project to earn enough profit to recover the initial
cost of the investment.
The PBP allows a firm to see whether it will recover the cost of a fixed asset
(such as a commercial vehicle, photocopier machine or computer) before it Keyword definition
needs to be replaced. The payback period (PBP) is
the amount of time it takes for a
Where annual net cash flows from the investment project are known, the
business to recover the initial cost
formula used to calculate the payback period is:
of an investment project.
Cost of the investment
Payback period =
Annual net eash flow
The larger the annual contribution (or annual net cash flow), the faster the
payback period.
An investment project is generally accepted or considered desirable if the PBP
is relatively short (which depends on industry norms and the management’s
maximum desired PBP).
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The PBP method is suitable for firms that:

focus on time as a priority for investment decisions
regard liquidity to be of more importance than profitability
pursue a quick return on their investment.
Table 3.4 Advantages and disadvantages of payback period

Advantages of payback period Disadvantages of payback period
It is the simplest and quickest method of investment It ignores the timing of the net cash flows, despite the future value of
appraisal to calculate cash being lower
It is easy for managers to understand the results It is not generally suitable for long-term projects, i.e. those with a
The depreciation of fixed assets do not directly affect the long PBP
PBP but can be easily included in the calculation Time, rather than profitability, is the focus of attention, which could
Helps managers choose projects with a short PBP to reduce be unrealistic for most private firms
investment risks It does not consider the useful life of the asset after its payback period
EXAM PRACTICE
28 Nimes Construction Co. is considering investing €1 155 000 in new
machinery. The annual net cash flows arising from the investment are
€330 000. Calculate the project’s payback period. [2]
29 Brownsword Books is considering an investment of $220 000 in new
printing equipment that is expected to generate the following cash flows
over the next five years:
Year Net cash flow
1 $30 000
2 $40 000
3 $60 000
4 $70 000
5 $60 000
The management at Brownsword Books wants a quick recovery of the
investment expenditure due to the competitive nature of the industry.
a Define the term payback period. [2]
b Calculate the payback period for Brownsword Books and comment
on your findings. [4]
Investment opportunities using average rate of

return (ARR)
The average rate of return (ARR) measures the predicted annual profit
generated from an investment project expressed as a percentage of the
investment cost. Keyword definition
The average rate of return
The ARR is compared to the firm’s desired rate of return to determine
(ARR) is an investment appraisal
whether to accept or reject an investment proposal. This is often based on the
technique that calculates the
prevailing interest rate in banks and/or the predicted ARR for other proposed
average annual profit of an
investment projects.
investment project expressed as a
It is calculated using the formula: percentage of the initial amount
Average annual profit invested in the project.
ARR =
Initial investment
The higher the value of the ARR, the more financially attractive an
investment project tends to be.
The higher the interest rate, the less attractive the ARR tends to be as it is safer
to just leave cash in the bank instead of being burdened with risks, especially for
firms that need to borrow money to fund their investment projects.
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Table 3.5 Advantages and disadvantages of average rate of return

Advantages of ARR Disadvantages of ARR
The ARR is simple to understand and straightforward to calculate Unlike the net present value method, the ARR ignores the
Unlike the payback period, the ARR focuses on profitability rather timings of cash flow
than time Unlike the PBP, the ARR focuses on profits rather than cash
The firm can use the ARR to evaluate its performance flow in order to break even quickly and to generate cash to
invest in other projects
As the ARR is expressed as a percentage, it can be useful to compare
the attractiveness of a range of different investment projects The figures are predictions only, so tend to be less accurate
the longer the investment project is under consideration
EXAM PRACTICE
30 The management at Chandelier World is investigating the feasibility of
replacing its old precision-cutting machinery. The new machinery would
cost $460 000. It would increase the firm’s annual revenue by $150 000 but
raise operational costs by $60 000 a year. The estimated useful life of the
new machinery is 12 years with no scrap (second-hand) value.
The management wants an average rate of return (ARR) of 15% on
all its capital investments.
a Calculate the average rate of return (ARR) of the new machinery for
Chandelier World. [2]
b Comment on whether Chandelier World should purchase the new
machinery. [2]
31 Villano Watch Company is deciding whether to upgrade its computerized
invoicing system for $155 000. The expected gains (or total contributions)
from doing so over the system’s expected useful life cycle of five years is
shown below.
Year Total contribution
1 $30 000
2 $40 000
3 $50 000
4 $40 000
5 $30 000
Calculate the average rate of return and comment on whether Villano
Watch Company should invest in the computerized invoicing system. [4]
Investment opportunities using net present value

(NPV) (AO3, AO4) (HL only)
Net present value (NPV) is the difference between the total present values of
future net cash flow and the initial cost of the investment project.
It is calculated by taking away the cost of the investment project from the sum
of the present values for the duration of the project.
If the interest rate is 10% per annum, then the present value of receiving $1000
in one year’s time is $909.10. This means $909.10 invested today, earning 10%
would be valued at $1000 in a year’s time. The discount rate is therefore 0.9091.
The NPV shows the monetary value of the total financial return on an
investment project expressed in today’s value.
The NPV looks at the opportunity cost of money as cash received in the
future is worth less than it is worth presently.
In general, the higher the interest rate, the lower the present (current) value of
money that is received in the future.
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Keyword definitions
Net present value (NPV) is an investment appraisal technique that
calculates the real value of an investment project by discounting the value of
future cash flows. Once the initial cost of the investment project is deducted
from the total discounted cash flow, the NPV is found.
A discount rate is a number used to reduce the value of a sum of money
received in the future in order to determine its present value.
If the NPV figure is positive, then the investment project is feasible on financial
grounds. The higher the NPV, the more attractive the investment project.
The longer the investment project under consideration, the longer it takes for Expert tip
net cash flows to materialize, so the lower the future value (net worth) of the Discount tables will be provided
project tends to be. to HL students in the final exams
The higher the discount rate, the lower the NPV because of the higher when required – see page 89 of the
opportunity cost of receiving cash in the distant future. Business Management Guide.
Table 3.6 Advantages and disadvantages of net present value

Advantages of NPV Disadvantages of NPV
It considers future net cash flows (earnings) expressed in today’s It is difficult to forecast net cash flows in the distant future
value, making the calculations more realistic The NPV can be tedious to calculate, especially as so many
It is more accurate than the ARR as the NPV discounts the future variables can alter the final net cash flow figures
values of net cash flows (money is worth less in the future) It can be difficult to decide on an accurate discount rate if the
Managers can compare the effects of different discount rates on inflation and interest rate fluctuate considerably
their investments
EXAM PRACTICE
32 Kucharek Parlour is considering the purchase of five industrial massage
chairs for a total purchase price of $65 000. The estimated net cash flows Expert tip
during the useful life cycle of five years from the investment are shown
This unit only considers some of the
below, along with the discount rates at 4% for the duration of
quantitative tools used in investment
the investment.
appraisal. In reality, non-quantitative
Year Net cash flow Discount rate techniques should also be used to
1 $15 000 0.9615 judge whether an investment project
2 $20 000 0.9246 is worthwhile, e.g. whether the
investment decision is well suited
3 $30 000 0.8890
to the organization’s aims and
4 $20 000 0.8548 objectives, its corporate culture and
5 $20 000 0.8219 external factors such as the state of
a Calculate the payback period of the investment project. [2] the economy.
b Calculate the average rate of return from the investment project. [2]
c Explain why the net present value method of investment appraisal CUEGIS CONCEPTS
discounts future net cash flows. [2]
Investigate how globalization
d Calculate the net present value of the investment project. [3] and strategy have impacted on
e Explain whether the purchase of the industrial massage chairs the investment decisions for an
represents a feasible investment for Kucharek Parlour. [4] organization of your choice.
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3.9 Budgets (HL only)

The importance of budgets for organizations (AO2)
A budget is a plan of the costs and revenues with the purpose of achieving the
objectives of a business in a given time period, usually one year. A budget usually
includes all the activities of a business and its predicted level of sales revenue.
Budgets are important to organizations for several reasons:
Planning – The budgeting process helps decision makers to plan their
operations based on the amount of money they have been allocated in the
budget per time period.
Cash flow forecasting – Helps to plan the timing of business expenditure
based on the planned revenue streams.
Prioritizing – Forces budget holders to prioritize their activities, e.g. which
members of staff to send on training and which courses to send them on.
Controlling – Enables managers to identify and analyse differences in planned
and actual revenues and expenditure. This helps them to better understand
possible financial problems and to devise corrective actions.
Target setting – Budgets help departments within a business to set financial
goals, thereby preventing costs spiralling out of control.
Accountability – Budgets make people accountable for their actions and
spending. Formally monitoring this through budgetary control is important,
especially in organizations with an informal management style (see Unit 2.3).
Benchmarking – Budgets provide a basis for measuring the degree of success
or failure (see section on variance analysis below). Managers can see if cost
and/or revenue targets are met and to take corrective action if need be.
Motivating – Empowering budget holders can act as a form of motivation (see
Unit 2.4), especially if there are financial rewards linked to the attainment of
financial targets such as sales revenue.
However, there are some limitations of budgets:
Preparing, setting and updating budgets may be expensive and time-
consuming.
If budgets are inflexible and unrealistic, regardless of changes in
circumstances, staff may become highly demotivated.
Similarly, setting realistic budgets may be difficult in a dynamic business
CUEGIS CONCEPTS
exposed to the constant forces of change. Hence, budgets could be a waste
of time and resources. The budgeting process may be
detrimental to organizational
The culture of many organizations is that budgets are often related more to culture. It may limit cooperation
power and status, than to the needs of the business. Department budget holders and cohesion between
may exaggerate budgets to elevate their position in the organization. departments as they compete to
improve their own budgets (to
Budgeting is only based on forecast costs and revenues, so may turn out to
enhance their own status and
be rather inaccurate. protect their own self-interest) at
In organizations that do not allow budgets to be carried over to the next the expense of other departments.
financial year (to prevent overspending), budget holders may feel the need Therefore, such an internally
competitive culture is harmful to
to spend towards the end of the financial year rather than having the money
the overall success of the business.
taken away by the master budget holder.
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The difference between cost and profit

centres (AO1)
A cost centre is a department or division within an organization that is
responsible and held accountable for its own costs. The cost centre does not
generate any direct revenue but adds to the cost of running the business.
Examples include the following departments: personnel (human resources),
research and development (R&D), marketing, technical support, and
customer service.
A profit centre is a department or division within an organization that is
responsible and held accountable for both its own costs and revenues, and
hence the resulting profits.
An example is multiple chain businesses, with each branch or store of the
organization responsible for its own profits or losses.
The roles of cost and profit centres (AO2)

Monitoring and control – Cost and profit centres help businesses to control
each aspect of their operations. This is particularly the case for large and
expanding businesses. Thus it becomes easier and more accurate to monitor
the organization’s performance by using variance analysis of each centre.
Enhancing decision making – The speed and the quality of decision making
improves because managers of cost and profit centres are empowered to make
autonomous decisions.
Motivational – Empowering, entrusting and delegation of responsibility to cost
and profit centres can be highly motivating for employees.
Accountability – Using cost and profit centres helps to make managers
accountable for their specific responsibilities, including the ability to control
costs and/or revenues.
However, there are some limitations of establishing cost and profit centres:
Centres can create unhealthy and destructive competition between the various
departments, hindering the organization’s ability to reach its targets.
Distributing the firm’s fixed costs to cost and profit centres is a somewhat
subjective and arbitrary task, and so can lead to arguments between employees.
For example, how should rents and utility bills be split between the various centres?
Variances (AO2, AO4)

A variance exists when the actual outcome differs from the budgeted figure,
e.g. a variance would occur if sales were planned to be 5000 units but actual
sales were only 4500 units.
Keyword definitions
A favourable variance exists when
Variances are usually measured each month, by comparing the actual result the difference between the actual
with the budgeted figure. and budgeted figure is beneficial to
Variances are classified as either favourable variances (if they cause higher the business, i.e. sales revenues are
than expected profits) or adverse variances (if they result in a fall in profits). higher than planned and/or costs
are lower than planned.
Table 3.7 Examples of variances for Joyce Tong Garments Co.
Variable Budget Actual Variance An adverse variance exists
when the difference between
Sales of product A (units) 1 000 1 110 110 units favourable
the actual and budgeted figure is
Sales of product B (kgs) 50 000 45 000 5 000 kgs adverse disadvantageous to the business,
Raw material costs ($) 45 000 51 000 $6 000 adverse e.g. actual sales revenues are lower
Wages ($) 110 000 107 000 $3 000 favourable than planned or wages are higher
than budgeted.
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Regular variance analysis helps to provide an early warning sign to managers.

For example, if sales for a particular product are below budget, managers can
respond by reducing output or increasing marketing expenditure in an attempt
to boost sales.
Budgetary control is important but variance analysis also allows businesses
to examine whether budgets and targets are being adhered to. Hence,
variance analysis acts as an additional control mechanism.
The budgeting process and variance analysis help to ensure that no
department or individual budget holder spends more than the business
expects, thus preventing unpleasant surprises.
EXAM PRACTICE
33 Calculate the variance for the following items for Anita Mata Caterers:
a Cost of materials: budgeted = $10 000 but actual = $11 500 [1]
b Cost of labour: budgeted = $3700 but actual = $3200 [1]
c Sales of cakes: budgeted = $26 000 but actual = $24 800 [1]
34 Stefan Hagan runs a successful hair salon business. His latest monthly
Expert tip
budget is shown in the table below.
a Explain why Stefan Hagan uses budgeting. [2] Budgets are used widely in almost
all organizations, irrespective of their
b Complete the missing figures for Stefan Hagan Hair Salon. [4]
size or which sector they operate in.
c Explain why a favourable variance might be investigated by Stefan Hagan. [2] However, they may be inappropriate
or inapplicable for some businesses.
Variable Budgeted ($) Actual outcome ($) Variance ($) For example, theme parks such as
Wages 4 400 400 adverse Disneyland set budgets for their
sales, from admissions, catering (in
Salaries 6 500 6 500 0 their food outlets) and retail shops.
Stock 1 700 1 800 However, external influences such
as adverse weather or economic
Revenue 16 550 340 favourable recession make budgeted targets very
Direct costs 3 600 3 450 difficult to stick to. In some cases,
budgets become rather futile.
The role of budgets and variances in strategic

planning (AO2)
Budgets are vital in strategic planning because they ensure that the financial
implications of business decisions are fully considered. Expert tip
By empowering budget holders, such as heads of departments, budgets allow Budgets and variance analysis
senior management to concentrate on core business issues (strategic planning) do not, on their own, ensure
and only to get involved if significant variances occur. successful strategic planning and
implementation. Although they
Budgets enable a business to turn its strategy into practice. This is because all
are useful management tools for
business operations need to be funded by the money available from various monitoring business operations,
budgets of the organization. they are based on assumptions
The process helps to provide a benchmark against which a manager’s success and predictions that may prove
(or lack of) can be measured and rewarded, e.g. a sales manager who exceeds to be inaccurate. There are many
external influences that can cause
an agreed sales budget might receive an annual bonus or qualify for the
a divergence between actual and
company’s share ownership scheme (see Unit 2.4).
planned outcomes.
The effectiveness and appropriateness of leadership becomes questionable if
budgets are ignored or not adhered to. CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Budgets and variance analysis enable senior managers and other key Investigate how organizational
stakeholders to measure the degree of success or failure of the firm’s business culture impacts on the budgeting
strategy. process for an organization of
your choice.
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Unit 4 Marketing
4.1 The role of marketing

Marketing and its relationship with other business
functions (AO1)
Marketing is the process of anticipating, identifying and satisfying the needs
and desires of customers in a profitable way.
The marketing department of an organization aims to provide the right
products, suitably priced, distributed conveniently for customers to purchase,
and promoted effectively to attract customers.
The marketing department of a business has close ties with the production
department, as sales forecasts (see Unit 4.3) produced by marketers help in
preparing production schedules.
It also has links with the human resources department as market research can
help to predict the level of customer demand, thus determining the number of
workers needed.
Marketing is also connected to the financial function of businesses. For
example, marketing helps the finance and accounts department to set
appropriate budgets for research and development, or promotion and
advertising. The finance department will also work with the marketers to
determine suitable prices for the various goods and services being sold.
The differences between marketing of goods and

marketing of services (AO2)
Services are unique from goods in four ways:
Intangible – Unlike goods, services are not physical in their nature.
Inseparable – The service received is attached to the people who deliver
the service.
Perishable – Services do not last but are usually consumed at the time of
purchase.
Variable – services are heterogeneous, i.e. each customer experience is
unique.
Hence, the marketing of services is characterized by the emphasis on product
differentiation due to the unique experiences that customers have.
The marketing of services builds upon the marketing of products so includes
the same elements (the 4Ps in the marketing mix): product, price, promotion
and place.
The marketing of services includes three additional elements (called the
extended marketing mix): people, process and physical evidence (see Unit 4.6):
People refers to the customer service element of a service.
Process refers to the way a service is provided, e.g. waiting times, payment
methods, after-sales care and delivery methods.
Physical evidence refers to visible and tangible aspects of a service, e.g. staff
uniform, lighting and ambience, and the cleanliness of the building.
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Due to the difficulties in ensuring a consistent standard of output, the

marketing of a service is generally more challenging than the marketing of a
tangible product.
Market orientation versus product

orientation (AO2)
Product orientation
Product orientation is an inward-looking marketing approach that focuses on
making products that a business knows how to make or has been making for a
long time, rather than focusing on needs and wants of potential customers.
It is the approach used by technologically advanced and highly innovative
manufacturers of high-tech goods.
Product-oriented businesses invent and innovate, which can give them a
unique selling proposition.
Product-oriented businesses are more focused on issues relating to internal
production. This can lead to a business losing its market if competitors are
instead highly focused on customer needs, e.g. Apple missed out on two years
of sales in the large smartphones (phablets) market due to its product-oriented
approach, allowing Samsung to dominate the market.
Product orientation can succeed when businesses have a strong market
reputation, such as Google or Apple, or where the pace of change is very slow.
Market orientation
By contrast, market orientation is an outward-looking marketing approach
that focuses on meeting the specific wants and needs of customers and
potential customers, i.e. firms focus on marketing products they can sell rather
than what they can make well.
Market-oriented businesses research what the customers want, then focus
their energies on making the right products, and improve these in line with
customer feedback.
Businesses that take this approach use promotions and advertising to keep
customers informed of changes and developments in the products on offer.
It forces businesses to be more flexible (by focusing on changing consumer
needs and wants), thereby lowering the risks of failure.
As market-oriented firms are able to align their products with the expectations
and demands of customers, there is a higher likelihood of success.
Whether a business opts for market or product orientation depends on several
factors:
The nature of the product, e.g. market orientation is used for mass-
produced goods but product orientation is more suitable for innovative and
high-end quality products.
Organizational culture, e.g. pioneering firms such as Apple and 3M focus
on product orientation whereas retailers such as Walmart focus on meeting
the needs and wants of their customers.
The number of competitors, e.g. an industry with few competitors means a
product-oriented approach could be suitable.
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110 Unit 4 Marketing
The difference between commercial marketing

and social marketing (AO2)
Commercial marketing focuses on the marketing of goods and services that
people want and need.
Keyword definitions
Successful commercial marketing helps businesses to increase their sales and Commercial marketing is the use
profits. of marketing strategies to meet the
It does not focus on the ethics of marketing, e.g. the marketing of alcoholic needs and wants of customers in
drinks or fast food would be considered in the same way as the marketing of a profitable way for the benefit of
any other product. the owners of the business.
It focuses on providing the right products, at the right prices and places, and Social marketing refers to
promoted to the right customers in order to maximize sales. marketing activities designed to
influence the behaviour of the
Social marketing is about influencing and changing the social behaviour general public in order to benefit
of people in order to benefit society over the long term, e.g. environmental the wider community.
protection, anti-smoking campaigns, or promoting healthy eating.
Social marketing uses commercial marketing strategies to achieve the desired
social change, e.g. anti-drink-driving campaigns.
A social marketing campaign is deemed to be successful if it achieves the
desired social change.
It is often used by not-for-profit organizations, such as charities or co-
operatives, governments or by businesses with a strong culture of being socially
responsible (see Unit 1.3).
Social marketing can give businesses a significant competitive edge over their
rivals as it can attract customers who perceive the business as ethical and
driven by moral values.
Characteristics of the market in which an

organization operates (AO1)
A market is traditionally made up of buyers and sellers coming together to
exchange goods and services at a mutually agreed price. This can happen
physically or online (see Unit 4.8).
Marketers often conduct market research and produce market analyses in
order to better understand their customers and the markets in which they
operate, such as:
the market size – the value of sales revenue in the industry
a competitor analysis – to identify the nature and degree of intensity of
competition in the industry
the market growth potential – the probable increase in the size of the
market in the foreseeable future.
Markets can cater for private individuals (selling consumer products) or other
businesses (selling producer products).
Consumer goods can be perishable (such as fresh flowers and food products) or
durable (such as furniture, televisions, smartphones and motor vehicles).
Markets can provide homogeneous products, i.e. physically identical products
such as potatoes, oranges or oil. Firms are unable to charge premium prices
for such products unless there is some form of product differentiation
(see Unit 4.2) such as branding.
Some businesses operate in mass markets, catering for a broad range of
customers. Other products are marketed in niche markets, catering for a small
and select market segment.
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The competitiveness of a particular industry depends on the nature of barriers

to entry in the industry, e.g. aircraft manufacturing is dominated by Boeing
and Airbus due to the high costs of entry, prohibiting competition.
Market share (AO4)

Market share is a measure of a firm’s relative size. It is sales revenue of a
particular business expressed as a percentage of the total market size.
Keyword definition
Market share is calculated by using the formula:
Market share refers to a firm’s
Total sales of a particular business portion of the total value of sales
× 100
Total sales of the market revenue in a particular industry.
It allows a business to compare itself to the size of its competitors in terms of
sales revenue or sales volume.
Market share data helps to reveal the extent to which a market is competitive
by adding the market share of the largest few firms in the industry.
As a common marketing objective, businesses strive to increase their market
share.
EXAM PRACTICE
1 Kowloon Pots has a 16.4% market share of the garden pots market
in Hong Kong. The market is worth $14 million per year. Calculate the
annual sales of Kowloon Pots. [2]
The importance of market share and market

leadership (AO3)
Being able to compare the relative size of businesses enables managers to take
appropriate actions to remain competitive. Keyword definition
Having a large market share can give a business competitive advantages, e.g. Market leaders are firms with the
brand loyalty, economies of scale (due to larger scale operations) and higher largest market share in a given
profits as customers are less sensitive to higher prices being charged. industry.
Economies of scale, customer loyalty and price leadership in an industry are
all forms of competitive advantage for market leaders and so act as barriers to
entry for firms wanting to compete in the industry.
Market leaders also enjoy a good corporate reputation, which can help to
attract more investors and better quality employees. In addition, retailers and
distributors are more likely to stock the products of market leaders, further
helping to improve their sales and profits.
However, changes in the external business environment (see Unit 1.5) can
change the fortunes of a firm without much warning, including those which
are market leaders. Unit 5.7 outlines examples of crises that can threaten the
survival of even large and well established firms. Still, it is the larger firms that
have the best chance of survival in these instances.
The marketing objectives of for-profit organizations

and non-profit organizations (AO3)
Marketing objectives will differ depending on the type of organization under
consideration. A for-profit business is likely to strive for improved profitability
whereas a non-governmental organization might choose to focus on social
marketing to promote its social cause.
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The marketing objectives of a non-profit organization (NPO) focus on the

work it does or the cause it supports, rather than focusing on marketing a Keyword definition
physical product. Marketing objectives are the
specific goals of the marketing
The major difference between the marketing of for-profit organizations and
department in order to help
NPOs is the fulfilment of customer needs. The for-profit organization’s marketing
achieve the overall objectives
objectives focuses on meeting the customer’s needs for his or her own benefit. For
of the organization. They are
NPOs, the focus is about recognizing and meeting the need of others.
included in a marketing plan and
Marketing objectives provide a clear purpose and framework for a firm’s help to formulate appropriate
marketing activities. marketing strategies.
Marketing objectives tend to be SMART – specific, measurable, achievable,
realistic and time constrained, e.g. to increase market share by 2.5% by 2023.
Examples of marketing objectives include:
Increased market share – A firm strives to account for a greater proportion of
the industry’s sales revenue.
Target new customers – In an attempt to sell more goods and services,
a business may target its products at new customer markets, both
domestically and overseas.
Enhance customer relationships – Developing customer relations helps to
improve customer satisfaction and loyalty, thereby giving the business a
competitive advantage.
Improved product and brand awareness – Marketing activities aim to improve
customer recognition of the product and brand in order to increase sales
and market share.
New product development – Producing new products that appeal to new and
existing markets can help to improve a firm’s sales and competitiveness.
Brand management – This involves using marketing to remind customers
about a brand, rather than to promote a particular good or service.
Increased profitability for a business – Achieving the above marketing
objectives helps to achieve the main aim of most organizations, i.e. to
increase profits.
Increased awareness of social issues – In addition to some of the above
marketing objectives, NPOs will also aim to raise awareness of their
social cause.
How marketing strategies evolve as a response

to changes in customer preferences (AO3)
Consumer tastes change over time. Successful businesses change their
marketing strategies in response to changes in customer preferences.
The growing popularity of mobile devices and internet technologies mean that
an increasing number of organizations now rely on e-commerce (see Unit 4.8)
and social media (see Unit 4.5) as part of their marketing strategy.
Marketing objectives and strategies may need to change as a good or service
enters different phases of its product life cycle (see Unit 4.5), e.g. extension
strategies might prevent sales from declining when the industry becomes
saturated.
The growing trend and social expectations of firms behaving in a
socially responsible way directly impacts on their marketing strategies.
Indeed, having a reputation for being socially responsible can improve an
organization’s competitiveness.
Globalization has had a huge impact on altering consumer demand. Firms
need to adapt their marketing strategies to suit different local preferences and
cultural norms in overseas markets.
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How innovation, ethical considerations and cultural

differences may influence marketing practices
and strategies in an organization (AO3)
Innovation
Innovations in internet technologies have an increasingly large impact on the
marketing practices and strategies of all businesses, be they large or small, for-
profit or non-profit organizations, e.g. e-commerce (see Unit 4.8) enables firms
to promote their cause in a cost-effective way.
Information communications technology (ICT) facilitates market practices
and strategies, e.g. online subscriptions and newsletters.
E-commerce has also provided an extra channel of distribution, creating huge
marketing opportunities for firms such as e-Bay, Amazon.com and iTunes.
The growing popularity of guerrilla marketing (see Unit 4.5) has meant that
firms need to be ever-more creative in their marketing strategies in order
to grab the attention of the general public. Innovative guerrilla marketing
techniques can help a firm to stand out in a world of advertising clutter.
Ethical considerations
Marketing ethics are the moral aspects of a firm’s marketing practices and
strategies. Unethical marketing happens when moral codes of practice are
ignored or when marketing activities (such as market research or advertising
campaigns) cause offence to the public.
Marketing practices and strategies that ignore ethical considerations are likely
to result in negative consequences for a business, e.g. customer complaints,
damaged corporate image and a public relations disaster.
The use of unethical marketing, deliberate or unintentional, is a high-risk
strategy that can backfire. With the widespread use of social media and social
networks, bad publicity is not necessarily better than no publicity for a business.
Examples of unethical marketing practices and strategies include the following:
Bait and switch – Marketing methods aimed at luring customers by using
advertising deals that are just too good to be true (the bait) who become
hooked but find that the product is no longer available so end up buying a
more expensive alternative (the switch).
Ambiguous advertising claims – Using unproven or untested claims that can
mislead and deceive the public, e.g. promoting health benefits and medical
cures from the consumption of certain uncertified products.
Product misrepresentation – Giving misleading and ambiguous information
to customers in order to persuade them to pay for certain goods or services,
e.g. inaccurate product descriptions.
Pester power – Using children to pressurize their parents to buy certain
products, e.g. toys, sweets (candy), fast food, sportswear and mobile apps.
Cultural differences
Cultural differences can have a significant impact on marketing practices and
strategies, especially for multinational businesses using international marketing
techniques (see Unit 4.7).
The marketing practices and strategies of successful firms in the domestic
market do not necessarily work in international markets due to societal and
cultural differences.
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Cultural factors have a large and direct impact on the demand for certain
goods and services in different parts of the world, e.g. KFC includes rice CUEGIS CONCEPTS
products on its menu in China, whilst there are no beef products sold in Examine how the concepts of
McDonald’s restaurants in India. change and ethics have impacted
Hence, marketing is only successful if international marketers truly understand on the marketing strategies for an
and cater for differences in cultural values.
4.2 Marketing planning (including

introduction to the 4 Ps)
The elements of a marketing plan (AO1)
It is usually preceded by a marketing audit – a review may address issues such
as the intensity of competition in the market, the firm’s product portfolio as Keyword definition
well as an assessment of the effectiveness of its past marketing efforts.
A marketing plan is a document
The main components of a marketing plan typically include: the executive that outlines a firm’s marketing
summary, market research, target market(s), the product, the existing objectives and strategy for a stated
competition, marketing objectives, marketing strategies and the associated period of time.
budget(s).
The marketing plan should include a situational analysis, examining all the
internal and external aspects that may impact sales of the business.
There is likely to be a review of the firm’s current marketing mix in terms of its
strengths, opportunities, weakness and threats
Marketing strategies refer to the approaches taken by an organization to
achieve its marketing objectives.
Marketing plans and marketing strategies cannot work effectively without all
four elements of the traditional marketing mix.
The role of marketing planning (AO2)

Marketing planning is the systematic process of conducting a marketing audit,
setting marketing objectives and devising marketing strategies in terms of the
marketing mix to achieve those objectives.
The main role of marketing planning is to identify and meet the needs of
customers. Thus, the plan allows marketing managers to make more informed
decisions about their marketing strategies.
The plan allows marketers to have a sense of purpose and direction, i.e. the
marketing plan provides a written guide for a business to follow in marketing
its goods and services.
As the marketing plan is one part of the organization’s overall business plan,
managers can align marketing plans and strategies with the overall aims and
objectives of the organization.
The operations department uses these sales forecasts (see Unit 4.3) to create
a production schedule. The finance department uses the forecasts to create
budgets (see Unit 3.9). The human resources department uses sales forecasts for
workforce planning (see Unit 2.1).
It also acts as a forecasting tool because it requires managers to estimate sales
resulting from market research.
It enables the business to engage in meaningful marketing communications,
e.g. advertising, promotional, and public relations campaigns.
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The four Ps of the marketing mix (AO2)

The marketing mix is a term coined by Jerome McCarthy (1964) used to
describe the four key components of marketing: product, price, promotion and
place (see Unit 4.5).
Also known as the 4 Ps, the marketing mix is a business tool used within
a marketing plan to refer to the set of actions that an organization uses to
market its products or brands: product, price, promotion and place.
Product refers to what the business is selling. The term refers to both goods
and services.
Price refers to how much the business is selling its products for.
Promotion refers to the methods used to ensure customers know about a
firm’s products.
Place refers to the methods of distributing products to customers, e.g. using
wholesalers, retailers, e-commerce, mail order or vending machines.
An appropriate marketing mix for a particular

product or business (AO2, AO4)
The marketing mix for a particular product or business will depend on several
factors, such as:
Whether it is a good or service (see Unit 4.1).
The size of the business, e.g. sole trader or multinational company.
The size of the market, e.g. the market for horse saddles or the market for
bottled water.
The firm’s market share – businesses with larger market share have greater
customer loyalty and are able to charge higher prices.
The firm’s marketing budget (see Unit 3.9) and available sources of finance
to fund its marketing activities.
Consumer profiles, e.g. gender, age, educational attainment or income
levels.
The countries or regions where the product is sold, because culture can
have a significant impact on the marketing of certain goods or services.
Businesses often conduct market research (see Unit 4.4) to determine the
products desired by specific target markets, e.g. Tesla, the US electric vehicle
maker, targets adults with a relatively high income who would typically buy
high-end brands such as BMW, Audi, Porsche or Mercedes-Benz.
Legal and ethical aspects of marketing will also affect the marketing mix used.
For example:
The ethics of marketing should be considered when targeting children in CUEGIS CONCEPTS
the marketing of products such as toys, fast food and beauty products.
Investigate how the concepts
Promotional strategies must comply with advertising codes of conduct in of innovation and ethics have
different countries, e.g. adverts should be accurate, honest and truthful. impacted on the marketing mix
for a product, brand or business of
Legal restriction can apply to the marketing of some products, e.g. alcohol,
your choice.
cigarettes, fast food, soft drinks or medicines.
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The effectiveness of a marketing mix in achieving

marketing objectives (AO3)
An effective marketing mix enables a firm to achieve its marketing
objectives, e.g. increased market share, better product positioning and
improved consumer satisfaction.
Marketing strategies to achieve the firm’s marketing objectives include product
development, market development and diversification (see Unit 1.3).
All elements in the marketing mix must be effective in order for the firm to
succeed. An outstanding product that is not promoted well or set at the right
price or widely distributed will fail to sell well.
Many businesses use the AIDA model to judge the effectiveness of their
marketing mix, i.e. it must grab the attention of customers, get them
interested, create consumer desire and generate action (spending).
Other measures of the effectiveness of a marketing mix include the impact on
sales revenues, brand recognition, customer loyalty, market share and profits.
The difference between target markets and market

segments (AO2) and possible target markets and
market segments in a given situation (AO4)
A market segment is a sub-group within a larger market, made up of customers
with similar characteristics, e.g. age, gender, income, ethnic group, or religion.
Keyword definitions
As it can be expensive to create a different marketing mix for different market A market segment is a distinct
segments, firms often resort to targeting specific segments. group of customers with similar
Once a market is segmented, particular sub-groups can then be targeted using characteristics and similar needs
an appropriate marketing mix and strategies to achieve the firm’s marketing or wants.
objectives, e.g. Samsung’s marketing aimed at young people in their 20s will be A target market is a particular
somewhat different to their strategies targeted at older customers in their 40s market segment that a business aims
or 50s. to focus its marketing effort on.
Segmentation allows firms to gain greater knowledge about their customers.
This knowledge is likely to create more cost-effective and successful marketing.
Hence, without market segmentation, a firm’s marketing mix might be
inappropriate for its potential market.
Market segmentation can be useful in identifying new business opportunities,
e.g. finding an unfilled niche in the market.
However, market segmentation only generates a limited number of groupings,
with potential stereotyping of customers. Some customers may not fit neatly
into these categories.
Ultimately the purpose of market segmentation and targeting is to allow firms
to generate greater sales and higher profits. Being more customer focused
enables businesses to improve the cost effectiveness of their marketing whilst
increasing sales, market share and profits.
The difference between niche market and

mass market (AO2)
Niche markets are small and focused, so there are opportunities for high profit
margins because premium prices can be charged. Keyword definition
A niche market is identified as a group of customers with a distinctive set of traits Niche marketing is a corporate
who have rather unique needs or desires, e.g. organic foods, customized products, strategy based on identifying and
eco-tourism, or the market for private tutors of beginner’s Italian in Taiwan. serving a relatively small market
segment.
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It enables small firms to operate profitably as large organizations do not often

cater for these markets due to the limited opportunities to exploit economies
of scale.
There are few barriers to entry in most niche markets. However, this also
means there is a high risk of new businesses entering the industry, which
increases direct competition.
Mass markets are those which provide goods and services that appeal to an Keyword definition
extensive number of customers. Mass marketing is marketing
In mass markets, producers sell standardized products to large consumer strategy aimed at all consumers
markets, so profit margins are lower on each unit sold. in a market without trying to
differentiate them into separate
Mass marketing helps a firm to enjoy economies of scale by catering for a large market segments.
number of customers, leading to larger profits from increased sales.
How organizations target and segment their

market and create consumer profiles (AO2)
Market segmentation acknowledges the fact that customers are different, such
as demographic factors based on characteristics including religion, gender and
marital status. Hence, in any market there will be several market segments. Keyword definitions
Organizations choose to segment their market in order to create distinct Market segmentation is the
consumer profiles in several ways, based on demographic, geographic or process of splitting a market into
psychographic factors. distinct consumer groups to better
understand their needs.
Segmentation enables businesses to gain a better understanding of consumer
profiles in each segment. This is crucial to devising an effective marketing mix. Consumer profile refers to the
demographic and psychographic
Consumer profiles usually include the person’s age, gender, marital status,
characteristics of consumers in
education, occupation and income level, area of residence and spending
different markets.
patterns. Knowledge of consumer profiles is an important consideration when
devising the marketing mix. Targeting is the practice of
devising an appropriate marketing
Socio-economic segmentation seeks to classify consumers according to their
mix and marketing strategies for
income, profession or education. Businesses can then devise different
different market segments.
marketing mixes targeted at each market segment.
Psychographic segmentation focuses on personality traits, lifestyles and attitudes,
e.g. customers who like to buy organic produce.
Demographic segmentation focuses on population structures such as age, gender,
ethnicity, marital status, language, family size and religion.
Geographic segmentation is based on the physical location of the customer. This
includes consideration of the natural environment and climate of the location.
It is useful when target markets have different preferences based on where they
are located.
Market segmentation is followed by targeting. This enables an organization
to devise an appropriate marketing mix for different market segments in the
industry.
Market segmentation allows a business to target its efforts and marketing
strategy more effectively by devising an appropriate product, price, place and
promotion mix for each segment. This offers prospects of higher sales and
growth for the business.
It can also be cost-effective if targeting leads to an efficient use of the
organization’s resources in conducting successful and justified marketing
activities.
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A product position map/perception

map (AO2, AO4)
A perception map helps a business to illustrate the position of its products in a
market, relative to its rivals in the industry (see Figure 4.1).
Keyword definition
Having a clearer idea of customer perceptions helps a business to fine-tune its A product position map is a
marketing strategies to enable it to increase sales and maximize profits. visual representation of customers’
Different categories of products can be seen in a perception map that uses perception of a product, relative to its
price and quality as the benchmark variables: competitors, e.g. its price and quality.
A premium product on a perception map is perceived by customers
High price
as one that offers high quality at a high price, e.g. Cartier watches,
Porsche cars or Häagen-Dazs ice cream. Brand A
A cowboy product on a perception map is perceived as one that offers Brand B

low quality but at a high price. This strategy can maximize sales in the
short term but is unsustainable. Brand C
A bargain product is perceived as one that offers high quality but at a

Low High
low price. This short-term tactic can help to boost sales and gain brand
quality quality
awareness.
An economy brand is one that offers low quality but at a low price,
e.g. supermarket own-branded products such as toilet tissue, wines and
canned foods. Brand D
If a firm finds its position on a perception map to differ from what the firm Low price
envisaged, it needs to reposition the product or brand by appealing to a Figure 4.1 Example of a perception map
different market segment or by an improved marketing mix.
The importance of having a unique selling

point/proposition (USP) (AO2)
A unique selling proposition (or unique selling point) can be an important
source of competitive advantage for a business, e.g. Apple’s USP has been its
Keyword definition
distinctive and highly innovative products.
A unique selling point (USP) is
Businesses with a USP focus on marketing the exclusive features and attributes any aspect of a business, brand or
of the product. product that makes it distinctive
Having a USP makes a business special and differentiates it from competitors. (stand out) from those offered by
This helps to improve brand awareness (recognition) and brand loyalty, and so their competitors.
gives the business a competitive advantage over its rivals.
How organizations can differentiate themselves

and their products from competitors (AO3)
Product differentiation creates a perception amongst consumers that the
firm’s product is different or unique, and so creates better value relative to
Keyword definition
its competitors.
Differentiation is the act of making
Market research and market segmentation data enable a firm to differentiate a business or its products distinct
its products. from its rivals in the industry.
Firms try to differentiate their products by altering some or all aspects of the
marketing mix. For example:
product – adding new features, changing the colour, or introducing
different sizes
price – differentiated pricing for different market segments
place – using e-commerce for the convenience of customers
promotion – using logos, slogans and branding.
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Table 4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of differentiation

Advantages of differentiation Disadvantages of differentiation
Allows the firm to charge a higher price due to the uniqueness It can be a very expensive strategy
of the product Making products unique can mean that it is difficult to reap
Creates brand awareness, brand recognition and brand loyalty the benefits of economies of scale if the products were mass
Creates placement (or distribution) advantages as more produced
retailers will want to have the product for sale It can create confusion in the minds of consumers through
excessive differentiation and advertising clutter
4.3 Sales forecasting (HL only)

Up to four-part moving average, sales trends and
forecasting using given data (including seasonal,
cyclical and random variation)(AO4)
Sales forecasting is necessary to help an organization with its business
functions, such as:
Keyword definition
If sales are predicted to increase for the foreseeable future, the human
Sales forecasting is a quantitative
resources department may recruit more workers.
technique used to predict the level
Cash flow forecasts will also rely on sales forecasting data. Profit forecasts of sales revenue that a firm expects
will depend on the level of sales expected over a certain time period. to earn over a certain period of
Production schedules will be based on the expected level of sales. Stock time.
(inventory) management will depend on the forecasted level of sales.
Hence, sales forecasting drives many other aspects of strategic planning in
a business. Managers want to understand the trend in the market and the
underlying reasons for this.
It is an important tool that enables a business to identify opportunities and
threats in advance.
Sales forecasts are generally based on recent sales trends, market analyses
of the industry and the state of the economy (such as the expectation of a
recession or economic boom).
Forecasts are often presented in the form of time series data. This sales
forecasting technique predicts sales revenue by using the underlying trends
from a series of actual sales data recorded at regular times in the past.
The moving average technique is the simplest method of sales forecasting. It
enables managers to identify a trend from the data set, as well as changes in Keyword definition
the trend, for a given period of time. The moving average is a
There are two steps to calculating the moving average: quantitative method used to
discover the underlying trend by
Calculate a moving total, e.g. total sales for four months. levelling out variations in a data
Calculate the centred average of this data set, i.e. the average of the set. Such deviations are typically
monthly figures. caused by seasonal, cyclical and
random variations.
For example, suppose a firm’s sales figures for the last four months are:
$121 000, $123 000, $122 000 and $124 000. The firm’s four-point moving
average is $122 500 (i.e. the sum of the sales figures for the period of
$490 000 divided by four months).
It is a useful way to identify trends where there are strong seasonal influences
on sales (see Table 4.2) or when sales are irregular for no obvious reason.
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Table 4.2 Calculating the moving average using four-point averages

Month Visitors Four-point moving average
Jan 20 000
Feb 20 500
Mar 22 000 21 375
Apr 23 000 22 625
May 25 000 24 500
Jun 28 000 27 000
Jul 32 000 29 750
Aug 34 000 30 000
Sep 26 000 29 000
Oct 24 000 26 500
Nov 22 000 24 000
Dec 24 000
The data in Table 4.2 shows the monthly visitor numbers to a campsite. This
is shown diagrammatically in Figure 4.2, which suggests there are seasonal
factors affecting the level of demand.
To calculate the four-point moving averages, in order to identify a trend line
(see Figure 4.3), it is necessary to calculate the arithmetic mean of each data
set consisting of four months. So, the average visitor numbers from February to
May is 22 625 people, i.e. (20 500 + 22 000 + 23 000 + 25 000) = 22 625.
4
Visitors
40 000
35 000
30 000
25 000
20 000
15 000
10 000
5 000
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 4.2 Raw data of number of visitors to campsite
40 000
35 000
30 000
25 000
20 000
15 000
10 000
5 000
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Key
Visitors Moving average Linear (moving average)
Figure 4.3 Raw data and trend line of number of visitors to campsite
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The moving average line shows the four-point centred moving averages, which
smooths out some of the seasonal variations in the visitor numbers. Keyword definition
Extrapolation is a sales forecasting
The linear (moving average) line shows the line of best fit, i.e. the trend.
technique that makes future
Sales forecasting enables managers to extrapolate the sales trend as part of predictions of sales (in units or
their planning. Extrapolation assumes that sales patterns are stable in the near dollars) based on trends identified
future. from using past data.
It identifies the trend by determining the line of best fit and then simply
extending this line to make the predictions (see Figure 4.4).
Extrapolated
Units (000s)
EXAM PRACTICE trend
2 Calculate the three-year moving averages for Alexis Corp. from the data
below. [4] Trend in
actual sales
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
Time
Sales ($) 200 000 250 000 240 000 270 000 280 000
Figure 4.4 Extrapolation of sales
data
Seasonal variations
Seasonal variations are deviations in the values of sales data around the trend
line, repeated on a regular basis. Keyword definition
Seasonal variations are expected
These variations are caused by environmental or cultural factors which cause
periodic fluctuations in sales
different people to have different levels of demand at different times of the year.
revenues over a given time period,
To calculate the seasonal variation, managers find the numerical difference e.g. peak periods during certain
between the observed data values and the values on the trend line. The times in the year.
variations can be expressed in absolute money terms or as a percentage of the
deviation from the trend.
Calculations of seasonal variations are used to adjust the predicted sales
revenue from the trend over a one-year period in order to generate a more
accurate prediction of quarterly sales.
Many products face seasonal fluctuations in demand, e.g. umbrellas, ice cream,
Easter eggs, Christmas trees, school uniform and IB examiners.
Cyclical variations
Cyclical variations are generally attributed to fluctuations in the business
cycle (see Unit 1.5), such as a booming economy (with high rates of economic Keyword definition
growth) or a recession (when activity is low, causing mass-scale job losses in Cyclical variations refer to the
the economy). recurrent fluctuations in sales
Unlike seasonal fluctuations, which occur at predictable intervals during the revenues linked to the business
year, cyclical variations can last more than a year, e.g. many countries took cycle.
more than five years to get over the global financial crisis of 2008.
To make the predicted figures more accurate, the forecaster adjusts the sales
figures by the average of the cyclical variations along the trend line.
Random variations
Random variations are caused by irregular, accidental and unforeseen factors,
e.g. a natural disaster, prolonged periods of inclement weather, the outbreak of Keyword definition
a war, an infectious epidemic, a corporate scandal, or a public relations disaster Random variations are
following a major product recall. unpredictable and erratic
fluctuations in sales revenues,
As random variations are erratic and unpredictable, there is no specific
caused by irregular factors.
formula that can be used to isolate and identify the deviations.
Random variations can occur at any time, thus causing unusual and irregular
sales revenue figures.
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The benefits of sales forecasting (AO3)

Sales forecasting techniques such as moving averages help to identify trends by
smoothing out seasonal, cyclical or random variations in the data set.
It is a useful planning tool to help managers to reduce the uncertainties of the
future.
Identifying the trend enables the business to extrapolate or predict future sales
revenues as a basis for strategic and financial planning.
Sales forecasting enables managers to allocate various budgets for the different
functional areas of a business.
The limitations of sales forecasting (AO3)

Only sales forecasts for a short period of time are likely to be accurate so the
usefulness of the tool can be questioned.
The key assumption of sales forecasting techniques is that what happened in
the past is likely to continue in the future. This can prove to be unrealistic so
extrapolated results can be somewhat overly simplistic. It ignores the concept CUEGIS CONCEPTS
of change in the real business world. Investigate how sales forecasting
changes (or influences) the
To be of value, forecast data must be based on reliable information and data, decisions made in an organization
although these are not necessarily easy or cheap to collect. of your choice.
Sales forecasts can be accurate for predicting the sales of single items but tend
to be less accurate for firms that sell a broad range of products.
CUEGIS CONCEPTS
It is not always suitable for all types of businesses, e.g. product-oriented For a business of your choice,
industries with very dynamic customer preferences such as the fashion and discuss whether there are ethical
high-tech industries. dilemmas in the choice of data
that are used and how this affects
Qualitative factors that affect sales revenues are not incorporated in sales
the forecasts.
forecasting techniques.
4.4 Market research

Why and how organizations carry out
market research (AO2)
Reasons why businesses conduct market research include the desire to:
determine customer preferences about a product, e.g. design, colour, size, Keyword definition
smell or taste Market research is the systematic
discover the likelihood of customers buying their products process of collecting, collating,
analysing and interpreting data
assess customer sensitivity to different price levels and information about existing and
discover and learn about new market trends potential consumers, competitors
and markets. It is used by
reduce the risks of marketing activities such as new product launches and businesses to aid their marketing
pricing decisions planning and marketing strategies.
investigate various market demographics and their potentially different
reactions, preferences and behavioural variations, e.g. age, gender, religion,
marital status, location and income level
explain sales patterns and variances (see Unit 3.9).
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In general terms, organizations can carry out market research in one of two ways.
Primary research is market research that does not already exist about a good or
service. Features of primary research include the following: Keyword definition
Primary market research (or field
The collection of first-hand data for a specific purpose.
research) is the systematic process
It often represents a limited or skewed perspective. of collecting, recording, analysing
Hence, there is a need to select a sample that is representative and and interpreting new data and
statistically significant to ensure the results are reliable. information about a specific issue
of direct interest to the business,
Often provides in-depth qualitative data and information. e.g. questionnaires, interviews,
Primary sources are not always objective sources as they are often based on focus groups and observations.
people’s opinions and the judgement of the researchers.
It is relatively expensive to gather the data and information compared with
secondary market research.
Secondary research is the market research of data and information that
already exists. Features of secondary research include the following: Keyword definition
Secondary market research (or
Reusing second-hand data and information already collected by someone
desk research) is the collection,
else for a different purpose.
collation and interpretation of
Generally draws findings from large, representative samples. existing data and information
Some secondary sources involve a cost, e.g. subscription and association fees. from previously available sources,
such as market analyses, academic
The internet has revolutionized how secondary market research is journals, government publications
obtained, by offering convenience, speed and an immense range of online and media articles.
sources.
Table 4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of primary market research

Advantages of primary research Disadvantages of primary research
It provides bespoke, specialist market research data, which is Relatively higher costs of conducting primary research compared
up-to-date and unique to the requirements of the business with secondary market research
It can give businesses a competitive edge by gathering new data The monotonous task of conducting primary research such
and information about customer purchasing patterns and habits as carrying out lengthy interviews or a tedious number of
in order to anticipate changes in their spending behaviour questionnaires
It enables firms to focus on more effective and targeted The time-consuming process of collecting, collating and
marketing approaches, rather than an expensive and less interpreting primary data
effective mass marketing approach Decision making can be delayed due to the lengthy time
It can provide detailed and informative qualitative findings to involved in designing, conducting, collating and interpreting
inform a firm’s marketing and corporate strategies primary research
New technologies allow online surveys to be conducted faster, Imperfections in primary market research techniques (such as
easier and more cheaply biased questions or a statistically invalid sample size) lead to
unrepresentative and misleading research findings
Table 4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of secondary market research

Disadvantages of secondary
Expert tip
Advantages of secondary research research Organizations can use internal
Relatively faster and cheaper to collect The data and information have to be sources of secondary data, i.e. data
than primary research adapted to the firm’s particular needs previously published by the firm itself,
such as company reports, historic
Often available free of charge, e.g. The data and information can become
sales figures and profit levels. This
company websites, government statistics out of date very quickly
differs from external secondary
and online news media sources Rival firms also have access to the market research data (published by
Ease of access to data sources, especially same secondary data sources other organizations, such as market
with online sources such as Wikipedia and There may be biases in the data analyses reports and academic
online search engines such as Google and research that is not apparent to journals), which is what students tend
Allows access to a wide range of sources the user to write about.
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Methods/techniques of primary market

research (AO2)
Primary market research can be conducted using several methods, including:
surveys, interviews, focus groups and observations.
Surveys
Surveys are a method of gathering both qualitative and quantitative
information from a sample of individuals for market research purposes.
They are the most popular method of primary research.
There needs to be a large enough sample of consumers to provide statistically
valid and representative data.
They are often used to gain customer feedback from people who have recently
bought a good or service, e.g. hotel guests, restaurant diners or car drivers.
Questionnaires are used to ask consumers or potential consumers for their
opinions and preferences about a particular good or service.
A combination of closed questions (e.g. ‘Yes/No’, or ‘Male/Female’) or open-
ended questions (e.g. ‘Tell us about…’ or ‘What is your opinion concerning…’)
can be asked.
Variations include postal surveys, personal surveys, self-completed surveys,
telephone surveys and online surveys.
They can be an expensive and time-consuming method of market research.
They can suffer from selection or interviewer bias and/or poorly worded
questions, thus generating unrepresentative results.
Questions can be poorly worded, so the findings are misleading and
inaccurate.
Furthermore, many people are reluctant to fill out questionnaires or they do so
in a hurry, without giving much thought to the questions or their responses.
Interviews
Interviews are conducted by an interviewer who asks respondents
(interviewees) a series of questions. Interviews tend to be more detailed than
surveys.
They can be face-to-face (e.g. interviewers ask people on the street or in
shopping malls a series of questions) or interviews on the telephone.
Like questionnaires, they can be specifically designed to meet the needs of the
organization.
They help to determine the interviewee’s opinions and beliefs.
Questions that are difficult to understand can be explained to interviewees.
This can help to resolve the issue of cultural and linguistic bias that surveys
can suffer from.
As it involves only a small number of customers, the results might not reflect
the views of the market in which the business is interested.
There is also potential interviewer bias, which could distort the results or
analysis of answers.
Interviews are time-consuming and can be costly to conduct.
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Focus groups
Focus groups are small groups of customers and consumers who meet together
with a researcher for market research purposes.
They involve groups brought together on one or more occasions, where
consumer panels are asked to answer and discuss questions about a specific
good or service.
They enable detailed investigation of the psychology of customers, e.g. their
opinions and attitudes, and what motivates them as consumers of the product.
As part of the target market, focus groups are used to identify the wants and
needs of different market segments.
Using focus groups can be costly as participants are usually provided with
financial incentives such as gifts and free samples.
Observations
Observations involve researchers watching and recording customer behaviour,
e.g. identifying which supermarket aisles customers spend most of their time in.
Unlike surveys and interviews, observations are not dependent on the
willingness and ability of research subjects (those selected for market research)
to respond accurately.
The information collected from observations tend to be more objective and
accurate as there is no interviewer bias.
However, analysing the results from observations is very labour-intensive and
time consuming.
Methods/techniques of secondary
market research (AO2)
Secondary market research can be conducted using several methods, including:
market analyses, academic journals, government publications and media articles.
Market analyses
Market analyses refer to the collection of data and information about market
characteristics of a particular good, service or industry, e.g. market size, market
growth potential and information on competitors.
It is a quick and relatively cheap way of examining and assessing the potential
of a new good or service.
New businesses often rely on market analyses reports to prepare their business
plans.
Valuable sources for conducting market analyses include: market research
firms, annual company reports, websites of competitors and trade journals or
publications.
It is often included as part of a firm’s SWOT analysis (see Unit 1.3).
Academic journals
These are formal scholarly journals related to a specific academic discipline
such as business management, psychology, natural science or economics.
They are written by academics such as university lecturers and professors, and
the content is often peer-reviewed.
They are typically written in a standard format: abstract, methodology, results
and findings, discussion, conclusions, bibliography and appendix. Citations
and footnotes are also used.
The intended audience is the research community, e.g. professionals and
academics such as university students and professors.
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They often serve as a critique of existing market research or an introduction of Expert tip
new research presented for academic scrutiny.
Many students confuse academic
Academic journals are generally objective as they are not usually written for (or scholarly) journals with business
the benefit of any single business. magazines and other popular
business media (e.g. Bloomberg
Examples include: the Academy of Management Journal, the Cambridge Journal
Businessweek or Forbes and Fortune
of Economics, and Journal of International Management. magazines). Remember, the authors
of academic journals are academics
Government publications rather than professional journalists.
Government publications refer to official documentation and information
released by local, national, international governments or treaty organizations
(such as the European Union or United Nations).
These documents vary widely in purpose and content. Unlike academic
journals, there is no standardized format with government publications.
Governments produce a huge volume of publications on a broad variety of
issues, thus providing researchers with a rich choice of data and information.
Examples include: population statistics, unemployment figures, inflation
rates (consumer price levels), economic growth rates, the annual government
budget, and international trade data.
Government publications are a major source of information in virtually every
field of research.
Most government publications are available to the general public and are
usually accessible free of charge.
However, many researchers under-use government publications because the
documents tend to be difficult to find.
Media articles
Media articles are documents or articles that appear in print or online media.
Examples include the following:
Newspapers, both in published format and online versions, providing a vast
range of market research information, e.g. the International Herald Tribune,
the Times of India, the Wall Street Journal and USA Today.
News magazines, e.g. TIME, Businessweek, The Economist and Fortune.
Trade journals, e.g. Advertising Age (marketing), The Grocer (supermarkets),
Autocar (automobiles) and Computer Weekly (ICT).
Access to media articles is usually straightforward with plenty of non-
subscription websites available (e.g. bbc.co.uk) and the spread of news via
social media and social networks (e.g. Twitter and Facebook).
Users of media articles need to be conscious of potential bias from the authors
of the articles.
Ethical considerations of market

research (AO3)
Ethical considerations result in the expectation that market research is
conducted objectively, using honest, unbiased and reasonable techniques.
This includes the protection of research subjects (respondents) regarding the
confidentiality of their personal data.
There should be an absence of deliberate bias, stereotyping and prejudices of
market researchers. Examples include:
not telling respondents what the information collected is to be used for
manipulating data to change the results
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breaching confidentiality, i.e. unauthorized disclosure of customer

information to third parties
invasion of privacy, i.e. infringing people’s right to privacy
using market research data and information for personal gain.
Such considerations are important for firms in order to avoid a public backlash
if their market research practices are perceived as unprincipled and immoral.
Unethical behaviour can negatively impact a firm’s relationship with its key
stakeholders.
The difference between qualitative and

quantitative research (AO2)
Table 4.5 Features of qualitative and quantitative research
Qualitative research Quantitative research
Keyword definitions
Involves an in-depth investigation into Relies on a large number of responses
Qualitative research is based on
the motivations and reasons behind to get numerical results
opinions, feelings and perspectives,
consumer behaviour Uses closed questions, categorical e.g. why they prefer a certain
Based on opinions and perspectives selections and/or scaled rankings
brand. It generates in-depth, non-
Often uses primary research to find out for responses in order to gather and
calculate results easily
numerical information. The results
about consumers’ tastes, opinions and of qualitative research are usually
buying behaviour Quicker and easier to collect, collate
descriptive rather than predictive.
Can be conducted using market and interpret than qualitative responses
research techniques such as focus Tries to establish correlations, i.e. Quantitative research is based on
groups, questionnaires and interviews whether there is a relationship between facts and figures, i.e. numerical
Can provide a wealth of information two or more variables patterns, correlations and results,
despite the low number of respondents Quantitative analyses help to make such as how many people prefer
Provides far more detailed and honest decision making more objective a particular brand over its rivals.
information regarding the motivation, Quantitative analyses alone do not The results of quantitative
attitudes or habits of consumers reveal the ‘whole picture’ without research are usually predictive
qualitative input rather than descriptive.
Methods of sampling (AO2)

‘Population’ is a statistical term that refers to all potential customers of a
particular market or all the people that fulfil a chosen criterion, for a market
research exercise. Sample
‘Sampling’ is the practice of selecting a small group of customers from
the population of a certain market for the purpose of market research
(see Figure 4.5).
Sampling seeks to create a group of respondents for market research who are
regarded to have representative views of the target market.
Population
Sampling is used as it is impractical, too expensive and unnecessary to
include the entire market population for research purposes.
Sampling methods include: quota, random, stratified, cluster, snowballing and
convenience.
Figure 4.5 The difference between
sample and population
Quota sampling
A quota refers to a pre-determined allocation of specific sub-groups of the
population for sampling, e.g. 25 females and 35 males in a sample size of
60 people.
It involves selecting a certain number of people from different market
segments with shared characteristics, e.g. age, gender, religion, ethnicity or
income levels.
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The assembled quota sample has the same proportions of individuals as the entire
population (of the market for the product) regarding known characteristics.
The purpose is to gather representative data from sub-groups to get around the
issues of random sampling.
It is suitable when researchers want to investigate a trait or a characteristic of a
certain sub-group or to observe relationships between sub-groups.
Researchers need to determine in advance the specific characteristics on
which they will base the quota sample. This is vital to ensure representative
results from the research.
Quota sampling is often used with convenience sampling, so the researcher
has control of who is included in the sample.
Random sampling
This method involves selecting individuals in such a way that everyone in the
total population has an equal chance of being chosen.
Research subjects are often randomly chosen by a computer using information
stored in a database.
Hence, there is no bias in the selection of respondents for market research, so
the outcome of the research is likely to be more accurate.
Random sampling is a simple, quick and cheap method of sampling, especially
as research subjects are readily available.
However the convenience of random sampling also means there is a high
probability that the selected sample is unrepresentative of the population.
Stratified sampling
A stratified sample requires the proportions in the sample to reflect the
proportions in the population as a whole, based on common strata (divisions
or segments) such as age, gender and socio-economic status.
A number of respondents proportional to the population from each segment
is chosen randomly, e.g. if the target population consists of 40% male and
60% female, a 50-person sample would include 20 males (40%) and
30 females (60%).
However, it is more difficult to organize such samples as they require fairly
detailed knowledge of the population characteristics, so the cost of conducting
research can be high.
Stratified sampling is often used with random sampling so the researcher does
not control who is included in the sample.
EXAM PRACTICE
3 OOI Pharmaceuticals wants to sample 80 members of staff to get
feedback about its canteen facilities. The workforce consists of 75% full-time
workers and 25% part-time staff. Stratify the sample in order to calculate
the number of full- and part-time staff used for the sample. [2]
Cluster
Cluster sampling involves selecting several geographical areas and then
randomly choosing people within these areas for market research purposes.
It is suitable and cost-effective if travel costs between clusters are high.
It can suffer from bias and sampling errors because respondents are selected
from only a few areas (clusters) to make extrapolations about the population.
Increasing the number of clusters would be one way of reducing the bias and
improving the validity of the findings, but it would also increase the costs of
market research.
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Snowballing
Snowball sampling involves the use of customer referrals to reach out to their
friends, family or colleagues for market research purposes.
The method requires minimal planning and is a cheap method of selecting
subjects for sampling, especially as it can be operated through social media
networking sites.
It is useful when the researcher does not have access to a sufficient number of
people with the desired characteristics.
However, it can lead to biased samples as friends and family are often like-
minded people, with similar habits and tastes.
In addition, researchers using this sampling method have no idea of the true
distribution or sub-groups of the population. The choice of the initial contacts
is therefore of vital importance.
Convenience
Samples are created using subjects who are easily accessible to the researcher,
e.g. IB students often use other students or their teachers when conducting
research for their HL Internal Assessment in Business Management.
The selection of research subjects in convenience sampling is usually self-
selected (because the research subjects are easily accessible) or unguided, e.g.
volunteers who choose to respond.
However, the findings could be skewed and unrepresentative of the wider
population.
Generalizations and inferences are difficult to make as the researchers are
unlikely to use a sample that covers sufficient sub-groups within the population.
Results from data collection (AO2)

Keyword definitions
Sampling errors are the mistakes that arise from sampling design, e.g. the
sample size being too small, selecting an unrepresentative sample, the use of
inappropriate sampling methods or having bias built into the research.
Non-sampling errors are market research mistakes that are not attributed
to human errors, e.g. untruthful answers by respondents which distort the
findings.
Results from data collection can contain both sampling and non-sampling errors.
Results are often presented using different formats, including:
Pie charts to show percentages, e.g. the percentage of respondents who
selected a certain choice in a survey.
Line graphs to show time-series data, e.g. a firm’s profit figures over the past
five years.
CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Bar charts to show frequencies, e.g. comparative sales figures of different
companies. Businesses are increasingly
resorting to social media (e.g.
Tables are also used to present numerical data in various formats. Twitter, WhatsApp and Facebook)
Qualitative results may be simplified by presenting the main findings in a summary. and websites (e.g. SurveyMonkey
and Zoomerang) to collect and
collate data faster, more cheaply
Expert tip and more frequently. Investigate
When analysing results from data collection shown in graphs and charts, it is how a business of your choice has
important to check the data axes carefully. Don’t assume that the examiner knows used technology in an innovative
what you understand. way for market research purposes.
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4.5a The 4 Ps: Product

The product life cycle (AO4)
The product life cycle (PLC) refers to a marketing theory that
illustrates the different stages a typical product goes through from Product life cycle
its launch to its eventual withdrawal from the market.
Development
Introduction
The PLC diagram (see Figure 4.6) shows sales revenue on the
Maturity
y-axis and the timeline on the x-axis.
Growth
Decline
Sales ($)
The five typical stages of the PLC are:
Research and development – The first stage of the PLC which
involves designing and developing a product before being
launched for sale.
Introduction – When the product is launched onto the
Time
market for sale. It usually requires significant investment in
promotion and advertising to sustain sales. Figure 4.6 The product life cycle
Growth – When sales increase rapidly with the product becoming well
known to the market. CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Maturity – When sales revenue are at, or near, their maximum with Examine how changes (such as the
minimal or no more scope for growth, i.e. sales become saturated. forces of technology and fashion)
have impacted on the product life
Decline – The last stage in a product’s life cycle, when sales continually cycle in an industry of your choice.
decline. The product is eventually withdrawn from the market.
The relationship between the product

life cycle and the marketing mix (AO2)
Managing the marketing mix for a product varies according to the stage of the
product in its life cycle. Examples are shown in Table 4.6 below.
Table 4.6 PLC stage and the appropriate marketing mix

PLC stage Marketing mix
R&D Expenditure on market research to refine the product
Pricing, distribution and promotion ideas are discussed prior to launch
Introduction Marketing efforts to raise brand and product awareness, e.g. sales promotion campaigns
Advertising expenditure is high in an attempt to boost sales
Limited distribution channels so sales are generally low
Possibly high prices if there is limited competition and to recoup R&D costs, or low prices to gain market share
Investment in branding to differentiate the product from rivals
Growth Brand and product preference develop, so sales increase
Marketing efforts to build brand preference and customer loyalty
Stabilizing prices to ensure market growth and value for money
Sales promotion and other marketing campaigns to get potential customers to switch from rival brands
Maturity Marketing efforts focus on holding the market position to maximize profits
Product differentiation is vital to lengthening this stage in the PLC
Promotion is widespread
Price competition can become intense
Possible extension strategies to prolong life of product, e.g. new features and benefits, other forms of
differentiation, or entering new markets
Decline Lower prices, possibly aiming to be the lowest cost provider
Decision made either to continue with marketing efforts to sell the product (for as long as possible) or to pull it (if
losses are incurred)
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Extension strategies (AO3)

Extension strategies are marketing techniques used to prolong a product’s life
cycle (see Figure 4.7). Extension
strategies
Examples include: cutting prices, product enhancements (such as ‘special
Sales ($)
editions’), redesigning or repackaging the product, short-term promotions and
exporting the product to overseas markets.
They are used when a product is in a saturated market or as it enters the
decline stage of the product life cycle.
Time
The extent to which product extension strategies are used depends on the
relative costs and benefits (revenues) from implementing the plans. Figure 4.7 Extension strategies and
the product life cycle
The relationship between the product life cycle,

investment, profit and cash flow (AO2)
Table 4.7 The relationship between the product life cycle, investment, profit and cash flow
PLC stage Investment Profit Cash flow
R&D Very high R&D costs Loss Negative
Introduction Very high marketing costs Loss, but smaller Negative, but improving
Growth High marketing costs High Positive
Maturity Lower Profit peaks Positive
Decline Little, if any Profit falls Declines/negative
Sales
Sales and profit ($)
Profit
Introduction Growth Maturity Decline
Figure 4.8 The relationship between the PLC and profit
Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix on an

organization’s products (AO3, AO4)
The Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix is a marketing
tool used to examine an organization’s product portfolio.
For example, the Volkswagen Group’s product portfolio
High
includes: Audi, SEAT, Skoda, Bentley, Bugatti,
Lamborghini, Porsche, Ducati and Scania.
Market growth
There are two dimensions to the matrix: a product’s market

share and the market growth (see Figure 4.9).
There are four quadrants in the BCG matrix:
Question marks are products that have low market share Low $
in a high growth market. Managers try to convert these
products into stars, although this requires investment.
High Market share Low
Figure 4.9 The BCG matrix
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Stars are products with high or increasing market share in a high growth
market. They have yet to become market leaders but have the potential to
become cash cows.
Cash cows are products with high market share in a low growth (mature)
market, so are the greatest earners of cash for a business.
Dogs are products at the end of their product life cycle so operate in low
growth markets yet have low market share. Hence, dogs drain cash from
the organization.
The BCG matrix is a useful tool for managing a diverse range of products
in an organization’s portfolio, helping to provide balance to a firm’s product
portfolio.
Table 4.8 Categories of the BCG matrix

Stars Question marks
High market growth High market growth
High market share Low market share
Growth stage in the product life cycle (PLC) Introduction stage in the PLC
Invest to turn into cash cow Drain cash flow
Cash cows Dogs
Low market growth Low market growth
High market share Low market share
Maturity stage in the PLC Decline stage in the PLC
Main generators of cash Divest to prevent further losses
Table 4.9 Benefits of a product portfolio

Developing a group of products in the portfolio can help to increase brand awareness
Reduces the risks of relying on a single product
Increases the revenue streams (see Unit 3.2) of the business
Having a variety of products helps to limit the impact of seasonal fluctuations in demand
Aspects of branding (AO2)

Branding refers to a unique name or identity for a business, e.g. Apple,
McDonald’s, LEGO or Toyota.
The role of branding for a business includes:
creating a legal identity for its goods and services
acting as a source of product differentiation
building brand awareness, i.e. recognition of the brand
encouraging brand loyalty (customer loyalty)
creating a particular corporate image.
An effective brand helps to give the firm a major competitive edge.
Aspects of branding include: brand awareness, brand development, brand
loyalty, and brand value.
Awareness
Brand awareness refers to the extent to which people recognize and remember
a particular brand.
It is largely about gaining new customers and adding value for the business.
Promotional strategies such as above-the-line promotion (see page 138) and
free samples are used as part of a brand awareness strategy.
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Familiarity with a brand leads to higher sales volume of a good or service. Expert tip
Businesses often use family branding to raise brand awareness. This type of Branding can be a vital part of
branding involves selling different products under the same brand name, e.g. the marketing mix, with research
Kellogg’s and Heinz. showing that customers are largely
affected by branding and not just
Development prices. However, in some cases,
customers prefer lower prices over
Brand development is an aspect of marketing strategy about what a brand the brand. It is important to write
stands for. It is also about communicating the value of a brand to customers. your answers in the context of the
business in question.
Different people are attracted to a brand for possibly different reasons, so brand
development is concerned with establishing the relevant valuable aspects of
the brand to different consumer profiles (see Unit 4.2).
It is about delivering a consistent brand image that gives it a competitive edge
over its rivals. An example is McDonald’s use of its brand for its products, e.g.
McNuggets, McMuffin, McCafé and McFlurry.
Product endorsements and sponsorship deals are common methods of brand
development.
The market is often flooded with a large number of rival brands, thus offering
customers an array of choice. Brand development is about connecting with
customers to build lasting relationships and their loyalty.
Brand development shapes people’s perception of a brand, which ultimately
determines its success or failure.
Nevertheless, brand development can be extremely expensive and there is
no guarantee that it will succeed. Popular brands of the past include Kodak,
Compaq, Sony Ericsson and Woolworth’s.
Loyalty
Brand loyalty happens when customers repeatedly purchase their favourite
brand, rather than switching to a rival brand.
It is the result of successful brand development and marketing strategies so
that consumers prefer a particular brand.
Whilst brand awareness is generally about gaining new customers, brand
loyalty is about keeping these customers and getting them to make
repurchases.
Branding becomes relatively more important than price once loyalty is
developed.
Customers purchase their preferred brand regardless of price or convenience,
e.g. according to Coca-Cola’s website, its customers enjoy 1.7 billion servings of
its products each day.
Loyalty programmes (rewards programmes) are often used as part of a firm’s
promotional strategy to foster brand loyalty. These programmes provide
incentives for customers to make repeat purchases for additional benefits such
as price discounts.
Table 4.10 Benefits of brand loyalty

It makes customers less price sensitive, so higher prices can be charged, allowing the firm to earn higher sales revenue
It encourages repeat customers and prevents customers from switching to rival brands
Loyal customers are likely to recommend products that they like to their family and friends
It can lead to an increase in the value of the business as brands are intangible assets (see Unit 3.4)
It increases the chances of success when launching new products under the same brand name
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Value
There is no universally accepted definition or measure of brand value,
although the most commonly used considers the estimated future earnings
attributable to the brand.
In its simplest form, the term brand value refers to what a brand is worth to
the business and its shareholders.
Brand value adds to (or subtracts from) the value provided by a good
or service, e.g. customers buy a Ferrari or Porsche for more than the
functionality of driving a car.
A firm’s brand value can go up or down in value, based on a range of
factors such as its earning potential, market share, and its corporate
reputation.
Measuring the value of a brand is difficult and somewhat subjective.
Brand awareness, brand development, and brand loyalty are all dimensions of
brand value.
The importance of branding (AO3)

Branding encourages customer loyalty, i.e. repeat purchases.
It creates a unique identity for a product, enabling it to be distinguished from
other rival products on the market.
It enables businesses to charge higher prices, thereby improving their profit
margins.
Branding can enable customers to know what to expect, irrespective of where
they are in the world.
Brands add value so customers get more than just the good or service
they buy, e.g. there is an emotional value attached to purchasing certain
brands.
The importance of packaging (AO3)

Packaging is an important aspect of product differentiation, e.g. product
packaging can contain the brand name and logo.
Similarly, packaging helps customers to identify and recognize the brand
or product. Some products have a unique or distinct design to grab the
attention of buyers, e.g. Toblerone chocolate bars, Tabasco sauce, Pringle’s
potato chips, and Coca-Cola’s glass bottle.
It helps to shape customers’ perception of a brand.
Packaging has a functionality role, e.g. protection of the product (physical,
hygiene and transportation protection).
It plays an important role in promoting a product, e.g. visual appeal such as the
texture and quality of the packaging, which can alter customers’ perception of
the product or brand.
Aside from the value to a business, there are legal requirements for a product’s Figure 4.10 Packaging in important to
packaging, e.g. nutritional information. the marketing mix
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4.5b The 4 Ps: Price

The appropriateness of the following
pricing strategies (AO3)
Cost-plus (mark-up)
Cost-plus pricing (also known as mark-up pricing) involves adding a profit
element to the costs of production, i.e. the price is set above the costs by a
predetermined amount.
The mark-up (or the profit margin) is a percentage (e.g. 60% added on top of
production costs) or an absolute amount (e.g. $20 above costs).
Hence, price = cost of production + profit margin.
Table 4.11 Advantages and disadvantages of cost-plus pricing

Advantages of cost-plus pricing Disadvantages of cost-plus pricing
It is the simplest form of pricing strategy and suitable for It ignores the impact of lower prices that rival businesses may be
literally all products charging
It is very straightforward to calculate It does not focus on the potential level of demand but the
It helps to ensure the selling price covers all production costs calculated price instead
EXAM PRACTICE
4 The cost of producing one unit of output for Thornton & Greg Co. is $5.
The firm uses a mark-up of 40%. Calculate its selling price for the product. [2]
5 Thornton & Greg Co. sells a different product for $1.98 for which its
costs of production are $1.20. Calculate the percentage profit margin
(mark-up) on the product. [2]
Penetration
Penetration pricing involves setting the price low enough to enter an industry Expert tip
and gain market share from existing firms (often advertised as a ‘special
Try to avoid repeating the same point
introductory price offer’).
in the exams as you will not get
The low pricing strategy enables the firm to create brand recognition when credit for doing so. When asked to
launching a new good or service or entering a new market. explain two reasons why penetration
pricing is used by businesses, some
It is a short-term to medium-term pricing strategy as it can lead to losses or candidates have stated ‘to gain more
very low profit margins so is not sustainable. customers’ and ‘to increase market
share’. These points are not distinct.
Table 4.12 Advantages and disadvantages of penetration pricing
Advantages of penetration pricing Disadvantages of penetration pricing
Allows a business to enter a market and/or to launch a new If costs increase suddenly and/or rapidly, the firm could be
product into an existing market, acquiring market share rapidly operating at a loss
Can discourage potential new competitors from entering due Firms that set a low price might build a corporate image of low
to the low prices and low profit margins quality which it could find difficult to resolve when prices need
Lower prices can give the firm a competitive advantage over to increase
their rivals Similarly, the firm may lose some quality-conscious customers
Attractive pricing can encourage word-of-mouth Customers may come to expect low prices, making it difficult for
recommendations by customers the business to raise prices at a later date
It can force the business to focus on cutting costs, raising
productivity and/or improving its efficiency in order to be able
to charge low prices
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Skimming
Price skimming involves setting a high price when launching a new and
unique product.
It is commonly used when introducing new hi-tech products, e.g. new
smartphones.
It is used in order to maximize short-term profit margins before rival firms
enter the market.
The price is eventually lowered over time to attract customers with less
disposable income and due to new entrants competing in the market.
Table 4.13 Advantages and disadvantages of skimming pricing

Advantages of skimming pricing Disadvantages of skimming pricing
The initially high price helps to recoup the costs of research and The strategy can backfire if a close competitor launches a rival
development (R&D) prior to launching the product product at a lower price
High profit margins can be earned, especially if early adopters are The high price might put off customers, thus giving time for rival
more concerned about quality and status of owning an original firms to launch an improved product offering better value for money
and unique product rather than the price Price-savvy customers might not buy the product when it is newly
A high price is commonly associated with high quality so can launched, preferring instead to wait until prices are lowered
help firms to establish strong brands and products It is not a long term or sustainable pricing strategy
Psychological
Psychological pricing involves setting prices to make them seem at least
slightly lower, e.g. $499.95 instead of $500.00.
Its purpose is to increase sales volume by portraying better value, e.g. a product
priced at $15 might not sell as well as one sold at $16.99 as customers might
think there is not much difference in the price, perceiving there to be a $1
difference when in fact it is closer to $2.
Table 4.14 Advantages and disadvantages of psychological pricing

Advantages of psychological pricing Disadvantages of psychological pricing
It makes the price seem artificially lower so can help to gain Some people perceive psychological pricing as unethical as
higher sales, thus generating more profit it tricks people into thinking that prices are lower, which can
It can work for almost any good or service by conveying better negatively impact on the firm’s image and sales
value for money There are calculation problems when adding up sales of a range
It can encourage impulse buying (unintended purchases) due to of products sold using psychological pricing
the perceived value As it is so widely used, customers are accustomed to
psychological pricing so the strategy may not work in tricking
customers that prices are significantly lower
Loss leader
Loss leader pricing involves setting the price of a good or service below its
cost of production in order to attract customers to buy the product along with
others with higher profit margins.
For example, a bakery might sell a particular product at just $0.50 each rather
than the normal price of $2 in order to encourage customers to buy other
products at the bakery.
Essentially, the use of loss leaders is a form of sales promotion.
In order to limit its losses, the firm is likely to impose a rule on the maximum
number of purchases (per customer per visit) of the loss leader product.
It is a short-term pricing tactic for a single product. As customers get used to a
particular product being a loss leader, the firm introduces a different loss leader
every so often.
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Table 4.15 Advantages and disadvantages of loss leader pricing

Advantages of loss leader pricing Disadvantages of loss leader pricing
Using loss leaders can help to gain customer Customers may become accustomed to and expect loss leader products,
loyalty as people generally like bargains which can prove to be expensive and unsustainable for some businesses
Increased sales revenue from customers buying The firm makes a loss on these products and there is no guarantee that
other goods whilst purchasing the loss leader in customers will purchase other products in addition to the loss leaders
the retail store Firms need to ensure there are sufficient stocks of the loss leader; this creates
They are an effective way to get rid of older stock problems of stockpiling (see Unit 5.5), yet it may be necessary to prevent
or merchandise customer dissatisfaction
Price discrimination
Price discrimination occurs when a business charges different prices to
different customers for essentially the same product, e.g. adult and child
cinema tickets.
For the strategy to work, each market segment must have separate ability
and willingness to pay for the good or service, e.g. charging lower prices
to those living in rural areas but higher prices to those who live in central
business districts.
Table 4.16 Advantages and disadvantages of price discrimination
Advantages of price discrimination Disadvantages of price discrimination
Enables the firm to gain higher revenues by charging higher prices in Some consumers will end up paying higher prices so
market segments which have a greater ability and willingness to pay may be less happy
It can help to build goodwill as lower prices are charged to those with Those who pay lower prices may not be less able to
lower ability and willingness to pay, e.g. children, the elderly and students pay, e.g. adults could be unemployed yet retired people
Enables firms to manage demand and capacity, e.g. train and bus can be affluent
operators in many countries charge higher prices during peak hours to There are often administrative costs in separating the
manage congestion market segments
Price leadership
Price leadership occurs when one business (usually the dominant firm in the
industry) sets prices which are closely monitored and followed by its rivals, e.g.
Coca-Cola or Apple.
The dominant firm is known as the price maker whilst the firms that follow
are known as price takers.
Quite often, the dominant firm (the one with the largest market share in the
industry) has the lowest average costs of production, so is in a position to charge
lower prices than its competitors (see section on economies of scale in Unit 1.6).
It leaves the rivals with little choice but to follow the prices set by the market
leader, by matching these prices or setting them very close to the prices of the
dominant firm.
Alternatively, dominant firms can charge higher prices than the market
average if there is limited competition.
Collusive price leadership can occur as a result of an agreement between firms
to fix their prices. However, collusion is illegal in most countries.
Table 4.17 Advantages and disadvantages of price leadership
Advantages of price leadership Disadvantages of price leadership
Customers gain when the dominant firm sets lower prices due to its It is not in the best interest of customers if the dominant
power to exploit economies of scale from operating at a large scale firm sets higher prices due to the lack of competition in
Low prices set by the market leader can reinforce its market share and the industry
dominant position The market leader can become complacent and not
Market leaders that charge higher prices enjoy greater profit margins; monitor its cost structure effectively, allowing rival firms
higher prices can actually improve the profitability for all firms in the to increase their own market share
industry Low prices mean low profit margins, yet high prices do not
It reduces the likelihood of a price war, which is detrimental to most equal high profits if the dominant firm does not monitor
firms in the long run and control its operational costs
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Predatory
Predatory pricing involves charging a low price, even below costs of
production, in order to harm the sales of competitor firms and to restrict
competition.
It is used by a business that is threatened by the potential entry of a new CUEGIS CONCEPTS
competitor. Examine how the concept of ethics
In extreme cases, the existing firms with large market power may start a price has affected the pricing strategies
for a business organization of your
war (when firms continually reduce their prices), forcing less established firms
choice.
to leave the industry.
Table 4.18 Advantages and disadvantages of predatory pricing
Advantages of predatory pricing Disadvantages of predatory pricing
Lower prices can encourage customers to switch to buying Predatory pricing is illegal in some countries, e.g. EU competition law
the products of a business prohibits firms from selling products at a loss deliberately to force
Sales revenue will increase following the price reductions if their rivals out of business
customers are price-sensitive Lower prices can trigger quality concerns about the good or service
The low prices can act as a barrier to entry for other firms It can encourage or force competitors to retaliate, thereby sparking a
considering entering the industry price war
Predatory pricing can lead to increases in market power, which is
anti-competitive
It is unsustainable in the long run
4.5c The 4 Ps: Promotion

Aspects of promotion (AO2)
Promotion is the marketing process of raising customer awareness and interest
in a product or brand in order to generate sales.
It has a key role in creating brand loyalty.
It is the communication aspect of the marketing mix.
The objectives of promotion include:
building product and brand awareness
creating customer interest
providing product information
stimulating demand for the product
differentiating the product from rival products
reinforcing and developing the brand name.
The three key aspects of promotion are above-the-line (ATL) promotion,
below-the-line (BTL) promotion and the promotional mix.
Above-the-line promotion
Above-the-line (ATL) promotion is paid-for marketing communication via
independent media, e.g. advertising on television or in a national newspaper.
A third-party organization (such as YouTube, Google, a radio station or
cinema) has the responsibility for and control of the process.
Its key advantage is the potentially huge target audience as it has a very broad
reach and is largely untargeted. However, the main drawback is the high
expense of ATL promotion.
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Table 4.19 Advantages and disadvantages of various ATL promotions

Medium Advantages Disadvantages
Cinema Captured audience of potential customers seated The impact or message may be lost or forgotten
in the cinema after viewers have watched the movie
Targeted marketing based on the type of movie Passive audience who choose to talk or consume
being screened food and drinks during the adverts
High impact from large screen and high-end
sound system
Magazine Access to specific customer target groups, Glossy adverts in popular magazines are very
e.g. car magazines for motor enthusiasts expensive
Adverts have a longer shelf life as people don’t Planning is difficult as adverts are often placed six
tend to throw away magazines so quickly months prior to publication
High readership rate Advertising clutter can put off readers of magazines
Newspaper Most newspapers can reach a large number of Adverts compete for the attention of newspaper
people within a specific geographical area readers
Printed adverts can be referred to at a later date Has a relatively short life span as newspapers are
usually just read once
Online The opportunities for online advertising continue There are cheaper online methods, e.g. the firm’s
to grow rapidly around the world own website, blogs or social media
Reaches out to national and global audience Online advertising clutter, such as pop-up adverts,
Highly accessible to customers means online adverts can be ignored
Outdoor advertising Large billboard posters are highly visible and Many outdoor adverts (such as billboards) are
attract attention static
Constant reminders as adverts are repeatedly They can be vulnerable to vandalism or damage
seen by people, e.g. commuters and drivers from severe weather conditions
Digital displays can have more appeal due to the Messages must be brief as large images are more
use of moving images effective than lots of text
Radio People can multi-task whilst listening to the radio, No visuals, so may not be as effective as audio-
e.g. drivers visual adverts
Ability to reach specific target groups, e.g. People often regard the radio simply as
teenagers or elderly background noise
Morning and evening commuters offer huge Radio adverts have far less of a national reach
marketing opportunities than TV adverts
Television Impact of sight, sound and motion to grab Very expensive so is not suitable or affordable for
viewers’ attention smaller firms
TV adverts can connect emotionally with viewers Viewers might ‘channel hop’, i.e. skip channels
Broadcast times can target specific markets, during adverts
e.g. children Usually effective only when the advert is seen
Huge potential to reach mass-market audience several times
Limited information as adverts are generally
very short
Below-the-line promotion Expert tip

Below-the-line (BTL) promotion refers to promotional activities that the Students often use the terms
business has direct control over, e.g. direct mail and customer loyalty schemes. ‘advertising’ and ‘promotion’
BTL promotion is aimed directly at a target audience rather than a generic interchangeably. Whilst advertising
is indeed a major part of promotion,
audience, as in the case of ATL promotion.
the latter is much broader and
Hence, BTL promotion does not use the mass media. includes far more than just
advertising as outlined in this chapter.
It is suitable when the business has direct contact with customers, e.g. through
direct marketing, point-of-sale displays, newsletters and public relations.
The results and effectiveness of BTL campaigns are easier for a business to
measure.
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Table 4.20 Advantages and disadvantages of various BTL promotions

Medium Advantages Disadvantages
Direct mail Highly targeted as the business knows the target Administrative and postage costs can be high
market groups Low readership rate as a lot of direct mail through
Newsletters, letters and catalogues can help to the post is regarded as ‘junk’ mail
keep customers informed and keen Advertising clutter can make it difficult for an
Encourages customers to directly purchase from advert to stand out
the business
Public relations Develops positive relationships with the media The news media often publishes or broadcasts an
and the public edited version of the marketing message
Often perceived as a highly credible form of There is no guarantee that the news media will
promotion run a story, despite efforts to put it together
Highly cost effective when compared to the direct
costs of other forms of BTL promotion
Sponsorship Marketing advantages of being associated with Negative actions of the sponsor could compromise
the sponsoring company the firm’s integrity and reputation
Exclusive marketing exposure during sponsored Can be very expensive
events
Point of sale Encourages impulse (unintended) purchases Inventory (stock) control may be problematic
Highly visible promotion so ideal for marketing May not catch the attention of customers due to
new products so many point-of-sale displays
Easy to monitor most popular products
Email The internet provides wide opportunities for Customers might regard emails as spam
e-marketing (unsolicited messages)
Generally inexpensive Legal issues need to be considered, e.g. data
Environmentally friendly (email marketing is privacy laws
paper-free) Undelivered and/or unread emails due to spam
Opt-in email subscription lists can generate good filters
responses
Loyalty programmes Encourage brand loyalty and frequent repurchases Rewards systems, such as price discounts and free
The database of customer details can be used for gifts, can be expensive to maintain
direct marketing Administrative costs can be high
Merchandising Promotes impulse purchases The production of the firm’s own merchandise can
Selling internal merchandise with the firm’s logo be expensive
or brand further promotes brand awareness Additional running costs are incurred, e.g. stock
Provides extra revenue stream from the sale of control
merchandise Merchandise often contributes to visual clutter
Exhibitions and trade Captive audience of potential customers at the Intense competition from rival exhibitors
shows venue Limited opportunities to exhibit at trade shows
Opportunities for retail customers and consumers throughout the year
to see the product first-hand
Sales promotion A range of incentives to entice customers, It is only a short-term promotional tactic
e.g. price discounts
Keyword definitions
Point of sale refers to the marketing of goods in stores where customers CUEGIS CONCEPTS
can purchase the goods. It is based on convenience (positioned in a way so Examine the use of loyalty
they are easily accessible to customers, such as supermarket checkouts) and schemes as a strategy for a
prompting impulse buying. business of your choice. As an
example, you could consider one
Merchandising refers to the use of branded products (such as toys, cups and of the following industries: airlines,
clothing) linked to a business organization (such as a theme park, movie or supermarkets, restaurants, or
music group). coffee shops.
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Promotional mix
A promotional mix refers to the combination of different appropriate methods
of ATL and BTL promotion aimed at specific target markets.
It consists of advertising, personal selling, public relations, direct marketing
and sales promotion (see Figure 4.11).
All elements of the promotional mix share two common objectives: to inform
customers about the product and to persuade them to buy the product over
rival brands.
Advertising
Personal
Sales
selling
promotion
Promotional mix
Direct Public
marketing relations
Figure 4.11 The promotional mix
Table 4.21 The promotional mix

Advertising Objective is to promote the business and its products to
generate brand awareness, sales and customer loyalty
A range of ATL and BTL methods can be used, e.g. TV, radio,
newspapers, magazines, billboards, web pages and social
media
Personal selling Enables customers to find out more about the firm’s product
or service Keyword definition
May include free samples and gifts to entice customers Public relations is an organization’s
Can generate positive word-of-mouth (referrals from planned and sustained process of
satisfied customers) maintaining mutual understanding
Interactions with customers can be in person, via the with the general public. The
telephone or email, which can create personal relationships PR team tries to gain favourable
with clients publicity via the media and
Public relations Public relations is about getting favourable publicity into other channels, e.g. educational
the news media, thereby fostering a positive corporate programmes, news conferences,
image with the general public community activities and
It also involves a PR team being responsible for handling sponsorship.
negative attention from the media or the public
The objective is to create customer goodwill and to build a Expert tip
favourable corporate image
When advising a business on an
Direct marketing Targets specific potential customers via telemarketing
appropriate promotional mix, do
(telesales), customized letters, emails and text messages
remember to write within the context
Marketing efforts to sell products directly to the public, e.g. of the organization. Students have
mail order or telemarketing (instead of using retailers) been known to write about ‘buy one,
Sales promotion Short-term marketing activities aimed at encouraging an get one free’ deals (for the motor
increase in sales revenue car industry) and customer loyalty
Offers specific products or services for sale, e.g. price schemes (for health care providers);
discounts or BOGOF (buy one, get one free) deals and more thought and care is needed to
loyalty schemes score well in the exams!
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The impact of changing technology

on promotional strategies (AO3)
Technology has changed the way in which businesses use promotional strategies.
Examples include viral marketing, social media marketing and social networking.
Viral marketing
Viral marketing is the spread of information about a firm’s goods or services
from one internet user to another, possibly creating exponential growth in a
marketing message.
It relies on the use of online channels such as blogs, microblogs, email, video-
hosting websites and online forums.
Uses social networks to generate positive online word-of-mouth marketing to
raise product and brand awareness.
The aim is to raise product and brand awareness by creating a marketing buzz
around a product, e.g. the launch of a new movie.
As consumers are the advocates of the promotional message, viral marketing
can spread wider and faster than traditional adverts.
Viral marketing works well as the target audience is ‘automatically’ identified,
i.e. those who are interested in or attracted to the product will share the
information with other like-minded people.
It is generally suited to young customer groups and those with hand-held
mobile devices.
Social media marketing

Social media marketing is the use of online tools and websites to promote
products in a less formal way, e.g. using Google+ and Facebook.
Social media entails content to be uploaded, e.g. videos, newsletters, e-books,
blogs, podcasts.
Social media, such as companies that use Facebook, is a form of direct
marketing.
It can potentially have a global reach, enabling customers to view the business
from a different perspective, e.g. a company’s Facebook site might include
photos of staff social functions.
It can help a business to connect with its customers on a more personal and
emotional level, making their products more appealing.
Unlike social networking, social media marketing tends to rely on one-way
communication to inform and/or persuade customers to purchase the firm’s
products. It is intended to transmit information to a broad audience.
Social networking
Social networking refers to the use of internet-based tools and platforms
to create and share online content. It enables people to connect and
communicate online, e.g. through Facebook, LinkedIn, Instagram and Twitter.
Social media and networks have encouraged many people to willingly share
their opinions, ideas, feedback, photos and videos, thus providing many market
research opportunities.
Social networking facilitates viral marketing, enabling marketing messages to CUEGIS CONCEPTS
be communicated faster and cheaper. Investigate the impact of innovation
Unlike social media, social networking tends to rely on two-way (such as changing technology) on
communication, with customers contributing and responding accordingly. the promotional strategies for a
There is an act of engagement with different parties. business of your choice.
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Guerrilla marketing and its effectiveness as a

promotional method (AO3)
The term guerrilla marketing was coined by Jay Conrad Levinson (1984) as a
marketing strategy designed to promote products in a low-cost unconventional
and unexpected way that makes a large impact and lasting impression on the
general public.
It is based on a high energy and imaginative approach, along with the element
of surprise. Hence, it is also known as ambush marketing.
Examples include the use of publicity stunts, viral videos, stencil graffiti,
stickers, and flash mobs.
It is suitable for small businesses with small budgets for promotion, to combat
traditional forms of advertising and promotion. This can help to cut through
advertising clutter such as junk mail, email spam and unsolicited telephone calls.
Guerrilla marketing campaigns are often shocking, offensive, unique and
memorable in order to create a general buzz. Quite often, this can lead to viral
marketing.
For some examples, visit this website: http://goo.gl/CAKyh6 (122 must-see
guerrilla marketing examples) or watch this short YouTube video clip:
http://goo.gl/O29SyE (guerrilla marketing innovative ideas).
4.5d The 4 Ps: Place

The importance of place in the
marketing mix (AO2)
Place (or distribution), in the marketing mix, is about making the good or
service available to consumers (the end users).
An effective distribution strategy ensures consumers are able to purchase the
product easily, i.e. distributing the right product to the right consumers at the
Expert tip
right time.
A common mistake made by students
Distribution is a crucial part of the marketing mix for all businesses – there is is to confuse place with location.
little purpose in having a great product, sold at an attractive price if customers Place refers to distribution in the
are unable to find a retailer nearby that sells it. The more readily available the marketing mix (where customers can
product, the more likely it will sell well. purchase their products), whereas
location is about the physical
Place is about the location of the consumer, not the business itself. Hence, a key
position of a business organization
function of place in the marketing mix is to provide convenience to consumers. (i.e. where the business is situated).
It involves strategies the business uses to get its goods to the location of the Place is vital to all businesses, but
customers, be it regional, national or international. physical presence is not necessarily so.
The effectiveness of different types of

distribution channels (AO3)
A distribution channel refers to the process or system of getting the product to
consumers, e.g. retailers, wholesalers or vending machines.
If a manufacturer does not sell directly to the consumer, intermediaries are
used, e.g. agents or distributors (see Figure 4.12):
A zero-channel network uses no intermediaries so the manufacturer sells
directly to the customer, e.g. farmers that sell their agricultural produce
straight to consumers.
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A one-channel network involves selling to retailers.

A two-channel network involves the goods going via wholesalers and
retailers.
A three-channel network uses an agent (perhaps to sell the product
overseas) who sells the goods to wholesalers on behalf of the producer.
Zero-channel
Producer Consumer
network
One-channel
Producer Retailer Consumer
network
Two-channel
Producer Wholesaler Retailer Consumer
network
Three-channel
Producer Agent Wholesaler Retailer Consumer
network
Figure 4.12 Channels of distribution
An intermediary, such as an agent or retailer, is a third-party business that

offers distribution services between two trading parties.
Various distribution channels include direct distribution, retailers, wholesalers,
mail order and e-commerce.
Direct distribution
Direct distribution (or a zero-channel network) involves the producer selling
the good or service without using an intermediary, e.g. hair salons.
It involves the producer dealing directly with the consumers of its products.
The internet has created an alternative channel for producers to sell direct to
the consumer, e.g. Amazon, Taobao and iTunes.
Retailers
Retailers are businesses that sell direct to customers, e.g. Walmart, Home
Depot, Best Buy, 7-Eleven and Tesco.
Retailers are often multi-store outlets, offering choice and convenience for
customers.
‘People’ (see Unit 4.6) play a huge part in retailing as they can develop a
rapport with customers in order to enhance sales.
A key drawback of using retailers is that retail stores often have to pay
expensive rent (in addition to the costs of the store’s decorations, furnishings
and staff salaries and wages). The higher costs mean they end up charging
higher prices for the manufacturer’s products.
Table 4.22 Types of retailers
Chain stores Two or more outlets with the same business model and name
Department stores Multiple producers (departments) within the same retail
building
A large and wide range of goods available
Convenience shopping for customers, all under one roof
Discount stores A wide range of products available at discount prices
May include some well known branded products
Supermarkets Large retail stores with all types of goods, usually groceries Expert tip
and daily products such as health and beauty products
Students often confuse retailers
Superstores Very large retail stores located in out-of-town areas (due to with wholesalers and suppliers.
the amount of land needed) Retailers sell to consumers, whereas
Sell wider variety of products than supermarkets, e.g. wholesalers and suppliers usually sell
household electronic appliances and home furniture to other businesses.
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Wholesalers
Wholesalers buy large quantities of products direct from manufacturers and
then sell these to customers in smaller quantities (a process known as ‘breaking
bulk’).
Retailers benefit from buying smaller quantities from wholesalers rather than
significantly larger volumes if bought directly from manufacturers.
Producers benefit from wholesalers due to lower transaction costs and fewer
deliveries. Wholesalers also take care of the promotion, saving costs for the
manufacturer.
However, they may not stock the full range of a manufacturer’s products.
Wholesalers may not always be conveniently located for some retailers,
especially smaller ones.
Mail order
Mail order is the use of the postal system to distribute goods.
It traditionally relies on the use of catalogues and order forms although the
internet has reduced the reliance on hard-copy catalogues and order forms.
It is a short distributional channel so helps to cut production costs and possibly
prices for customers.
E-commerce
E-commerce is the use of the internet to conduct business transactions.
It has created an array of opportunities for both producers and retailers to sell
to customers.
It is a relatively inexpensive distribution channel, providing customers with
worldwide access, 24 hours a day from the convenience of their home or office.
With increased access to the internet and the global trend of greater use of
mobile devices (such as smartphones and tablet computers), e-commerce
creates a huge opportunity for businesses to use the internet as a distribution
channel.
Unit 4.8 outlines the various forms of e-commerce, such as business to
business (B2B), business to consumer (B2C) and consumer to consumer (B2C).
The appropriateness of different distribution

channels
When selecting a distribution channel for a particular product, the following need
to be considered:
Type of product – Whether the product is a producer good or consumer good
(e.g. aircraft or fast food), or whether the product is technical (in which case,
specialist distributors and agents may be needed to explain how the product
works). Perishable goods need to reach customers quickly and/or need to be
widely available in retail outlets so they can be sold rapidly. A customized
product made specifically for a client would be sold using direct distribution.
Frequency of purchase – Whether the product is bought in mass markets on a
daily basis (in which case, retailers such as supermarkets might be suitable) or
whether it is bought infrequently (such as mattresses).
The price of the product – An expensive product with an exclusive image,
such as Lamborghini or Rolex, will be sold in a limited number of retail
outlets. By contrast, mass-market products such as Coca-Cola are sold in a
wide range of retail outlets and other distribution channels.
Location of customers – E-commerce could be a viable distribution channel
for customers located in rural areas or in overseas markets.
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The availability of rival products – Producers will usually compete with

rivals by selling their products using the same distribution channels, thereby
competing directly for consumers.
The size of the market – Mass-produced goods would require a system of
geographically widespread distributional channels, possibly including overseas
markets.
The available finance – The better the financial position of a business, the
greater its distribution networks can be. EXAM PRACTICE
The degree of control expected – The more intermediaries used, the less 6 Explain a suitable channel of
control a producer has over the marketing of its own products. Longer distribution for the following
products:
channels can cause communication problems to be more costly, whereas
shorter channels enable prices to be lower. a Aircraft [3]
b Music albums [3]
Legal considerations – There could be certain legal limitations for the sale of
c Cinema tickets [3]
certain products, e.g. tobacco, alcohol and medication.
4.6 The extended marketing mix

(7 Ps) (HL only)
The 7 Ps model in a service-based
market (AO2)
Bernard H. Booms and Mary J. Bitner (1981) added an extra 3 Ps to the
traditional 4 Ps in the marketing mix; people, processes and physical evidence.
Product
The 7 Ps model, also known as the extended marketing mix, is applicable
to the marketing of services (see Figure 4.13), whereas the traditional 4 Ps is Physical
Price
suitable for the marketing of physical goods. evidence
Booms and Bitner argued that the marketing of services needs to be different
Marketing
to that of goods because of the unique characteristics of services: intangibility, mix
heterogeneity and perishability. Processes Place
The marketing strategy for the provision of services must be effective as
satisfied customers are the best publicity for a firm’s products.
People Promotion
Figure 4.13 The extended marketing mix (7Ps)
People: The importance of employee–customer

relationships in marketing a service and cultural
variation in these relationships (AO3)
From the perspective of customers, when a service is being delivered, the
person delivering it is not detached from the product itself, e.g. a rude waiter
will spoil even the best of meals served in an elegant restaurant.
People deliver a physical service with a visible result, e.g. assistants, stylists,
hairdressers and nail technicians in a salon.
Successful organizations focus on the service element of the marketing mix by
investing in their people (employees) by training and developing workers to
deliver good customer service.
The attitude and behaviour of an employee directly affects the experience of
the customer, be it positive or negative. This has a direct impact on whether
the customer is likely to return.
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4.6 The extended marketing mix (7 Ps) (HL only) 147
McDonald’s, for example, has its own university (called Hamburger University,
in Illinois, USA) where staff are trained in various aspects of restaurant
management and customer service, to ensure consistency across all their
branches around the world.
The development of social networks and social media has meant that the
people element of the extended marketing mix has become ever more
important. The news about poor customer care spreads much faster and wider
than previously possible.
Processes: The importance of delivery processes

in marketing a service and changes in these
processes (AO3)
Process refers to the operational aspects of a service such as the procedures,
protocols, timing and sequence of activities related to the service, e.g. queuing
systems in a large sports stadium.
Processes ensure the same level of service delivery to every customer, even
though the experience of each customer might be different, e.g. all customers
in a restaurant should be greeted politely and be accompanied to their seats.
Processes should also enable specific customer preferences to be
accommodated (within reason), thereby providing customers with a unique
experience.
Processes include: queuing systems, payment systems (e.g. the ability to pay by
credit card or online bank transfer), and after-sales care.
McDonald’s pledge to serve customers their fast food within 90 seconds (or
3.5 minutes for their drive-thru service) is an example of process in their
marketing mix.
Physical evidence: The importance of tangible

physical evidence in marketing a service (AO3)
The location and physical environment where the service is delivered is a
significant factor affecting the level of customer satisfaction, e.g. banks should
feel safe, hotels should look clean, family restaurants should appear welcoming,
and florists should appear welcoming.
Physical evidence can refer to any form of tangible representation of a service
which creates customer perceptions about a service, e.g. menus, brochures,
corporate stationery, certificates and awards displays, business cards, staff dress
code, and company reports.
Customers use physical evidence to gauge the level of comfort and
attractiveness of a service, e.g. a calm and soothing environment will help to
attract customers to a health spa.
McDonald’s restaurants, for example, are all designed to create a family- CUEGIS CONCEPTS
friendly environment. Their menus are designed and structured in the same
Investigate how the concepts of
way so customers feel more familiar with the physical environment within the change and ethics have affected
restaurants. the extended marketing mix for an
Employees are also directly affected by the physical environment, which organization of your choice, such
as a school, restaurant, airline or
impacts on their level of motivation. Therefore, people in the extended
theme park.
marketing mix can be directly influenced by physical evidence.
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4.7 International marketing (HL only)

Methods of entry into international
markets (AO2)
Exporting – This involves a firm selling its products to overseas buyers without
having to physically expand in an overseas market.
The surge in e-commerce (see Unit 4.8) has encouraged more businesses to
export their products to international markets.
It is a relatively low-risk growth option. If the export strategy is
unsuccessful, the firm can withdraw with minimal costs or losses.
However, the international price is likely to be higher due to postage or
transportation costs. The imposition of tariffs (taxes on foreign exports)
can also make exports more expensive.
The effectiveness and profitability of this option may be reduced if the
exchange rate appreciates, resulting in higher priced exports.
Direct investment – This involves setting up overseas production or
distribution facilities.
By producing overseas, the business is closer to its customers so is more
aware and able to adapt to their needs and tastes, e.g. it is easier to deal
with linguistic and cultural issues that might arise.
Direct investment allows firms to gets around the problem of exchange
rate fluctuations if they rely on export markets. By operating in overseas
countries, any uncertainty or possible loss of price advantages due to a
higher exchange rate can be overcome.
Businesses sometimes directly invest in production or distribution facilities
in foreign countries to avoid trade protectionist measures such as tariffs
and quotas (as the goods are not classified as imports if produced locally in
the foreign country).
Direct investment is a much higher risk growth strategy than exporting,
due to the amount of capital investment required, e.g. the firm may need to
raise external finance to build production facilities abroad.
External influences can negatively impact on the profits from direct
investment, e.g. the products may be incompatible with local customs and
tastes, or there could be different local rules and regulations.
Franchising – This growth strategy involves using a third-party provider
to supply the goods and services of the business in return for payment of a
licensing fee and royalty payments.
It is considerably less risky and less costly than direct investment as
franchisees fund the expansion by paying the licence fee and set-up costs of
the franchised business overseas.
In addition, franchisees may already have well established customer
connections and relations that can help the franchise to grow further.
However, franchising can result in lower quality if standards are not
monitored carefully (although this is made more difficult due to operations
taking place in foreign countries). This can create a negative impact on the
global brand image.
Strategic alliance – This growth strategy involves using foreign partners
working together on a particular business venture.
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Using a local partner in an overseas market can help the business

to overcome the potential problems of social, cultural and linguistic
differences.
It is a relatively safe method of entry to overseas markets as the agreement
can be retracted if one of the partners fails to satisfy the terms and
conditions of the agreement.
It is a relatively cheap and quick way to expand overseas (see Unit 1.6).
However, there is the risk that partners can enter or exit the alliance
relatively easily, which can jeopardize the stability of the strategic alliance.
Joint ventures (JVs) – This involves the formation of a new business with two
or more other firms using their shared resources.
JVs are a common method of growth for companies trying to enter foreign
markets.
Human and financial resources, management skills and ideas are shared,
creating synergy in the organization.
JVs with foreign partner firms reduce risks when expanding to new and
unknown overseas markets because they benefit from local knowledge,
experience and expertise.
Although they are more costly to set up than strategic alliances, JVs are
permanent legal entities so stakeholders have more commitment to ensure
the venture is successful.
However, both strategic alliances and joint ventures can fail due to
management and cultural incompatibilities.
The opportunities and threats posed by

entry into international markets (AO3)
Opportunities of entry into international markets
Profitability – Selling to overseas markets generates higher sales revenue Keyword definition
and the potential for higher profits, especially if the domestic market is Opportunities are openings or
saturated. prospects for an organization, in
Economies of scale – Firms can benefit from economies of scale (see Unit 1.6) this case as they seek to expand in
by selling their products to larger markets around the world. overseas markets.
Spread risks – Selling in overseas markets allows the business to spread

its risks (diversification), e.g. if the domestic market goes into a recession,
then sales from overseas markets can protect the firm’s working capital and
profitability.
Laws and legislation – Businesses can take advantage of the more relaxed laws
and regulations in some countries which would otherwise constrain their
operations.
Competition – There may be less competition by operating in certain countries
or regions of the world. Conversely, having an overseas presence can improve
the international competitiveness of the organization.
Production costs – Costs of production may be lower in overseas markets, e.g.
cheaper labour costs, low-priced raw material costs and lower rents.
Financial incentives – Foreign governments may offer incentives for firms
locating in their country (to encourage investment and employment), e.g. tax
allowances.
Extension strategies – Entering international markets can also help to extend a
product’s life cycle, thereby leading to higher profits.
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Threats posed by entry into international markets

Keyword definition
Social, cultural and demographic factors – Businesses might have to change their
Threats present challenges for
marketing mix in order to better suit the needs of customers overseas who
businesses as they seek to expand
may have a different social and demographic profile. Cultural differences may
internationally.
also present some challenges so necessitate a change in the firm’s marketing
strategies.
Language barriers – Marketing messages do not necessarily translate well
across international borders, so market research and local knowledge may be
required. This undoubtedly adds to the firm’s operational costs.
Legal and political barriers – Firms entering international markets need to
ensure they comply with local laws and regulations regarding consumer
protection, codes of conduct on advertising and packaging, copyrights,
trademarks and patents. The political environment can also cause challenges
for businesses operating in overseas markets.
Financial barriers – Additional working capital may be needed to expand
internationally. It will also cost more for workforce planning and to develop
new distribution channels in overseas markets.
Competitive rivalry – Businesses entering foreign markets may face strong
competition from well established firms in these markets. Domestic and
foreign firms may have already established a strong customer base and enjoy
brand loyalty.
Exchange rate fluctuations – Changes in the exchange rate (see Unit 1.5) can
alter the competitiveness of a firm’s products and prices. This directly impacts
on its sales revenue and profitability.
Additional costs – The above threats may necessitate additional market
research in new international markets. Hence, the increase in costs can offset
the potential profitability of operating in overseas markets.
The strategic and operational implications

of international marketing (AO3)
International marketing has implications on the operational and strategic
decisions of firms because simply extending current marketing practices is
unlikely to work well in overseas markets. Keyword definition
The increasing presence of multinational companies has made International marketing is the
international marketing more of an operational and strategic priority for marketing of an organization’s
many businesses. products in foreign countries.
Operational implications affect the day-to-day operations of a business,

e.g. monitoring exchange rate fluctuations in foreign markets. Strategic
implications refer to the longer-term operations of a business, e.g. the
formation of a strategic alliance or joint venture with foreign partner
firms.
Branding becomes an integral part of an organization’s international
marketing strategy. Global brands have a better chance of competing in global
markets.
Ethics and etiquette become more important issues for international marketers
to consider because what works well in one part of the world does not
necessarily succeed in other areas, where cultures, beliefs and customs can be
considerably diverse. Such an approach can increase the chances of success in
overseas markets.
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The role of cultural differences in international

marketing (AO3)
Organizations need to be aware of cultural differences when marketing their
products internationally. What works well as a marketing mix in one country
does not necessarily work well in other countries or parts of the world.
As more businesses grow internationally, they need to be aware of the cultural
sensitivities in various countries in order to avoid major damage to their
reputation, sales and credentials.
Cultural differences exist because people have different perceptions, beliefs
and values. Habits and taste also vary in different parts of the world.
Cultural differences also require firms to be fully aware of international
business etiquette (the mannerisms and customs or traditions by which
business is conducted in different countries). It also helps to prevent businesses
from making marketing blunders.
Cultural differences have provided many opportunities for businesses and
industries to exploit cultural exports, e.g. the widespread use and availability of
American products overseas, such as Coca-Cola drinks, McDonald’s fast food
and Hollywood movies.
Figure 4.14 Hollywood movies are a cultural export from the USA
The implications of globalization

on international marketing (AO3)
Globalization can be defined as the increased integration and interdependence
of economies around the world, with converging habits and tastes. CUEGIS CONCEPTS
The expansion of multinational companies around the globe has contributed Investigate how the concepts of
to the surge in international marketing. culture and globalization have
impacted on the marketing
Having access to a greater customer base creates huge international marketing
strategies for an organization of
opportunities for businesses.
your choice.
Globalization has enabled businesses to exploit global production and
marketing economies of scale. Technological transfer has led to similar
production processes around the world.
E-commerce and e-marketing (see Unit 4.8) have significantly reduced barriers
to international trade.
Nevertheless, international marketers need to consider cultural differences in
their marketing strategies by gaining a better knowledge of local cultures and
business etiquette. This approach has become known as glocalization – the
use of a differentiated international marketing mix to meet local tastes and
cultures.
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4.8 E-commerce
Features of e-commerce (AO1)
Features of e-commerce include:
E-commerce breaks time barriers – unlike traditional retailers, e-commerce
enables customers to have 24-hour accessibility, every day of the week. Keyword definitions
E-commerce is the trading of
It breaks geographical barriers – online businesses can provide customers with
goods and services using online
worldwide access and coverage.
electronic systems and computer
There are low set-up costs, thus lowering barriers to entry for new businesses. networks such as the internet.
E-commerce websites generally have interactive functionality to engage online E-tailers are businesses that
customers, e.g. search options, navigation, store finder, zoom features, product operate predominantly online,
demos and delivery options. such as Alibaba, Amazon, Google
Social media links, such as Twitter, Google+ and Facebook, facilitate and and eBay.
encourage online purchases. Consumer reviews are increasingly popular as a
means to inform customer decision making.
Unlike retailers, e-tailers do not have physical stores or outlets. Hence, it
reduces or eliminates some of the typical overheads of businesses, such as
rents and utilities.
Broad product range – unlike retailers that are constrained by physical limits on
their inventory, e-commerce enables firms to stock items targeted for different
market segments, e.g. men, women, teenagers, babies and young children.
Footloose operations – online businesses no longer have to rely on locating
in prime locations to entice customers so can avoid paying high rents in
these locations.
The empowerment of customers as they are able to compare prices very
easily and quickly. They can also instantly share reviews about a firm’s
goods or services.
Credit card payments account for the vast majority of all online purchases.
Many businesses use e-commerce as a means to reduce their supply chains
(see Unit 5.5), enabling them to get products to customers faster and more
efficiently, thereby cutting costs.
In many parts of the world, online shopping is no longer a niche market, but
aimed at and used by a mass market.
The effects of changing technology and

e-commerce on the marketing mix (AO2)
Changing technology, e-commerce and product
With e-commerce, almost any product can be sold. To do so successfully,
marketers need to clearly define the product, target it at the right audience
in the online community, and not limit the potential market to a particular
location or country.
With developments in technology and e-commerce, it is easier for a firm to
provide customers with up-to-date information about its products, e.g. product
specifications. Customers enjoy the ease and convenience of easy access to
product information.
There is no need to print out menus, catalogues and coloured brochures, or
include excessive packaging such as branded paper bags. Instead, there is more
focus on functionality, e.g. protective wrapping. This helps to reduce costs and
the firm’s impact on the environment.
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4.8 E-commerce 153
E-commerce allows for the personalization of products, e.g. personal photos on

cups, personalized messages with flowers being sent to the recipient, or printed
names on t-shirts.
E-commerce software offers customers suggestions of additional and
complementary products along with the main purchase, i.e. it encourages
impulse buying.
Changing technology, e-commerce and price

E-commerce enables customers to compare prices easily due to greater price
transparency, i.e. pricing information can be easily compared, so internet
technologies have made pricing very competitive.
It helps to lower prices due to price transparency, price competition and
reduced operational costs (due to fewer intermediaries in the supply chain).
Pricing may need to account for posting, packaging and delivery charges.
Pricing is often expressed in internationally tradeable currencies, such as US
dollars and euros to appeal to international buyers.
The pricing decision can be difficult when marketing products overseas
because different customers in different countries may be prepared to pay
different prices. The growth of online auction websites also empowers
consumers in pricing decisions.
Changing technology, e-commerce and promotion

Information about products can be provided in more detail and in a more
engaging or interactive way, e.g. the use of images and sound to promote the
product.
There is increasing use of viral marketing (see Unit 4.5), focusing on
promoting products from person to person using technologies such as email,
texting, microblogging or social networks.
There is also greater reliance on the use of social media to promote a firm’s
products, e.g. company websites, pop-ups adverts, banners, and text messages.
Direct marketing (see Unit 4.5) becomes easier as e-commerce technologies
enable firms to communicate with customers on an individual basis.
E-commerce has reduced the importance of packaging as a form of promotion
as items are delivered through the mail.
Unlike other methods of above-the-line (ATL) promotion, e-commerce can
show customers the advantages of a firm’s products in detail, with customers
taking advantage of the interactive functions of internet technologies.
Organizations can use e-marketing, such as emails and e-leaflets, to promote to Keyword definition
the potentially huge number of customers in their database, even though the
response rate is likely to be relatively low. However, e-marketing can be cost- Spam refers to unsolicited
effective for marketers. and undesired electronic
messaging systems, often
Marketers face the challenge of the increasing amount of advertising clutter referred to as electronic junk
and spam faced by customers, so e-promotions must stand out to gain the mail, e.g. unsolicited email, text
attention of the online community. messaging, instant messaging, fax
Internet technologies have reduced the overall costs of promoting to potential transmissions, and pop-up adverts.
customers.
Changing technology, e-commerce and place

E-commerce enables businesses to access large numbers of customers directly
without the use of intermediaries.
Internet technologies shorten the supply chain, hence reduce operating costs,
offering improved convenience to shoppers and content being delivered in
various languages. This helps to widen the customer base.
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As e-commerce relies on delivery and courier firms to distribute their products

to consumers, it provides limitless opportunities for companies such as DHL
and FedEx.
E-commerce provides customers with an alternative distribution channel. As
with traditional distribution methods, the challenge for online businesses is to
ensure that the right product is delivered to the right consumer at the right time.
Changing technology, e-commerce and the

extended marketing mix
People – E-commerce is impersonal so there is a reduced need for sales
staff. People, as part of the extended marketing mix, therefore become less
important. Nevertheless, there is still a need for customer service staff,
responsible for after-sales care and support.
Processes – Internet technologies make online payments quite
straightforward, although many customers are still cautious of internet fraud.
Internet technologies also make it easy to reward loyal customers for repeat
purchases. Any additional detailed information (such as instruction manuals)
and updates about the product can be placed on the firm’s website.
Physical evidence – This becomes far less of an issue for marketers as
e-commerce exists in the virtual world where customers do not care about the
physical environment of retailers; nor are they as bothered about packaging in
the marketing of a product.
The difference between the following

types of e-commerce (AO2)
Business to business (B2B)
B2B refers to e-commerce between two or more businesses, e.g. Amazon.com
sells books to other book retailers.
Trading is often based on large orders at competitive prices, often with the
option of preferential trade credit (deferred payment).
B2B offers commercial clients fast delivery times.
B2B providers compete mainly on price.
Social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter have opened up two-way
communications between different businesses operating in different industries.
E-commerce enables businesses to obtain quotations from many potential
suppliers and distributors with relative ease and lower costs.
The B2B market is the largest of the three main types of e-commerce.
To attract business customers, B2B firms often host information webinars, host
booths at trade shows, attend industry networking events, and maintain a
social media presence.
In general, wholesaling is done on a B2B basis.
Business to consumer (B2C)

B2C refers to businesses that sell directly to the general public using internet
technologies.
These businesses target their products directly at consumers (the end user), e.g.
Apple’s iTunes sells books, games, music and a range of apps to consumers.
B2C was first developed by English inventor Michael Aldrich (1979) who
connected televisions with computers and telephones to create teleshopping.
B2C is widespread and it is rather rare for large consumer-based businesses not
to sell their products online.
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4.8 E-commerce 155
It reduces or eliminates the need for intermediaries, thereby reducing the

chain of distribution. This reduces costs because businesses can sell directly to
their customers.
Support service providers, such as PayPal, offer easy payment processing for
online vendors.
Many e-tailers, such as eBay, Amazon and Alibaba.com engage in both B2C
and B2B activities.
In general, retailing is done on a B2C basis.
Consumer to consumer (C2C)

E-commerce platforms such as eBay and Taobao enable customers to sell
directly to other customers. This type of e-commerce is called C2C.
C2C hosting websites earn revenue by charging customers a fee and/or
commission for advertising their items for sale.
C2C is suitable for selling second-hand (used or previously owned) items, such
as cars, consumer electronics, toys, CDs, DVDs, clothes and furniture.
A common practice in C2C is online auctioning, which involves customers
bidding to purchase an advertised product.
Many businesses use online classified advertising websites (e.g. Gumtree, Uzgar
and Craigslist) to allow customers to advertise and sell their products.
Major online businesses such as Amazon allow customers to use their
e-commerce platform to sell products via their websites.
C2C has become increasingly popular due to increasingly secure and reputable
online payment systems being developed, such as PayPal and AliPay.
A key issue with C2C is the lack of quality control, especially with the trade in
second-hand goods, as the C2C service provider cannot guarantee the quality
of the products being sold by its customers.
The benefits of e-commerce to firms

and consumers (AO3)
Table 4.23 The benefits of e-commerce to firms and consumers
Benefits of e-commerce to firms Benefits of e-commerce to consumers
E-commerce enables firms to avoid paying high costs of rents E-commerce provides ubiquity, i.e. being present everywhere –
in prime locations with the huge and continual growth in the use of mobile devices
Internet technologies have cut the supply chain, thereby (e.g. laptops, smartphones and tablet computers), e-commerce
reducing costs and reducing the reliance on sales people and can be accessed almost anywhere and at any time
intermediaries (such as wholesalers and retailers) Consumers benefit from greater price transparency, enabling them
The firm can potentially reach a wider customer base across a to make more informed choices and decisions
global market Consumers have easy access to information from their mobile
Social media websites, such as Twitter and Facebook, are devices, e.g. address of the business, the telephone number or
perhaps the fastest way to get a firm’s product information to other contact details, and opening hours or closing times
customers Consumers benefit from a reduced supply chain as they have
As customers can shop 24/7 throughout the year, the business direct access to products and at cheaper prices
can earn significantly higher sales revenues They have the convenience and flexibility of shopping 24/7 on any
With reduced costs and the ability to be located almost day of the year from almost any location
anywhere, e-commerce firms can offer a broader product E-commerce offers customers convenient payment systems, e.g.
portfolio, thereby attracting more customers credit cards, debit cards or membership accounts
E-commerce has substantially reduced the costs of promotion, In many cases, free shipping (delivery) is offered to e-commerce
making it easier and more cost-effective to use online customers
advertising, social media, mass emails, online videos and
audio recordings
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The costs of e-commerce to firms and

consumers (AO3)
Table 4.24 The costs of e-commerce to firms and consumers
The costs of e-commerce to firms The costs of e-commerce to consumers
Traditional retailers lose their ability to charge higher prices due There are security issues as credit and debit cards may be stolen
to the presence of online providers and misused (online fraud)
Easy access to data and product information increases the Hackers can steal and abuse personal information (data theft)
possibility of goods being easily copied by competitors There is no individual interaction with customers so the service
There is a high possibility of fraudulent trade, resulting in losses is impersonal (which many customers do not like)
for the firm or compensation claims being made Customers have to wait for the delivery of the purchased
E-commerce is totally reliant on the technology working – any products and do not necessarily know the physical condition of
breakdowns will be very costly to the firm the products until they have been delivered
There are additional costs to consider, e.g. the costs from It can be expensive and time consuming for customers to return
hiring ICT specialists to maintain e-commerce systems, such as goods (perhaps because they do not match the specifications
websites, online payment systems and technical support online or have been damaged in transit)
Firms may face pressure from trade unions and other People are bombarded with unsolicited e-marketing promotional
stakeholders if e-commerce leads to mass job losses messages (online spam)
There is always the possibility that purchased items can get lost Many people do not have access to the internet nor do they feel
in the post, which further adds to the costs of the firm confident in using electronic devices to buy goods and services
Some external factors specifically hinder e-commerce firms, Other customers are put off from the intangibility of the process
e.g. false descriptions of products, dishonest advertising, poor of e-commerce, e.g. not being able to try on clothes or shoes
quality and late deliveries. Customers who shop online can often incur finance charges
It is not highly suitable for the sale of perishable goods (e.g. (interest) imposed by their credit card providers
ice cream or fresh fish) or specialty products (e.g. prescription
medicines or expensive wrist watches)
Expert tip CUEGIS CONCEPTS CUEGIS CONCEPTS

When evaluating a firm’s e-commerce Examine how globalization and Evaluate the advantages and
strategy, consider a two-sided innovation have impacted on disadvantages for a business
and balanced argument. Whilst its the e-commerce strategy for a organization of your choice of
e-commerce strategy can be judged business organization of your using an e-commerce strategy in a
by the extent to which online sales choice. changing and globalized business
and market share have increased, world.
the costs of staying up to date with
internet technologies and the threats
of data theft and cyber-security can
be very costly in the long term. Over-
reliance on technology can damage
relationships with customers who
prefer face-to-face interactions.
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Unit 5 Operations management
5.1 The role of operations management

Operations management and its relationship with
other business functions (AO1)
Operations management is about acquiring the necessary resources needed for
production in the most efficient and cost-effective way. It impacts on the other
functional areas of a business, as outlined in the examples below. Keyword definition
Marketing function Operations management refers to
the business function of combining
Physical goods or intangible services are produced based on market
inputs to produce outputs (goods
research in order to meet the needs and wants of customers.
and services) that are valued by
The good or service needs to be promoted to existing and potential consumers.
customers.
The finished product also needs to be distributed using appropriate channels.
A suitable pricing strategy is needed to ensure the products sell well on the
market.
Finance function
Costs of different production methods (see Unit 5.2), e.g. mass production,
are needed to gain economies of scale although this could also require high
set-up costs.
Funding is needed for all aspects of operations management, e.g. product
testing, research and development (see Unit 5.6) and lean production (see
Unit 5.3).
Production managers must be held accountable for their expenditure and
budgets (see Unit 3.9).
Human resources function
Production workers need to be hired and trained to work productively.
Supervisors and quality controllers may also need to be hired.
A crisis management team might need to be formed (see Unit 5.7).
Operations managers are responsible for collaborating and working with
managers from other departments to meet organizational objectives.
Operations management in organizations producing

goods and/or services (AO2)
Operations management focuses on the management process of creating goods
and services using the available resources of the organization (see Figure 5.1)
Inputs Production processes Outputs

Land, labour, capital Adding value The output of products
and enterprise (goods and services)
Figure 5.1 The role of operations management
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158 Unit 5 Operations management
Operations management involves planning, organizing, coordinating, and

controlling all the inputs needed to produce the goods and services of a
business.
Operations management must ensure that there is value added (see Unit 1.1)
in the production process. This helps to ensure firms can sell their products
and earn profit for their owners.
Operations management strategies and practices for

ecological, social (human resource) and economic
sustainability (AO3)
Business operations have an important role in ensuring sustainability by
creating a balance between the ecological, social and economic needs of
people today and those of future generations.
Businesses are increasingly reporting their triple bottom line, a term coined by
British entrepreneur John Elkington (1994), to evaluate their performance in a
broader context of sustainable business activity. This comprises of environmental
sustainability, economic sustainability and social sustainability (see Figure 5.2).
Sustainability is a concept which promotes intergenerational equity, i.e.
business activity is able to meet the needs of the current generation in such a
way that it does not jeopardize the needs of future generations.
Elkington’s pillars of sustainability are sometimes also referred to as the three
Ps of sustainability: people, planet and profit.
Sustainability
Environmental
Economic
Social
Figure 5.2 John Elkington’s pillars of sustainability
Ecological sustainability
Keyword definition
A lack of ecological sustainability means that production will deplete the
Ecological sustainability (or
earth’s natural resources for future generations, e.g. overfishing or deforestation
environmental sustainability)
are not ecologically sustainable.
refers to the capacity of the
It requires efficient and sensible use of the planet’s scarce resources so that natural environment to meet the
they do not become exhausted, e.g. a recent report in Business Insider found needs of the current generation
that China’s ban on plastic carrier bags saved the nation over 4.8 million without risking the ability of
tonnes of oil. future generations to meet their
The exponential population growth of the world’s population puts huge own needs.
pressures on the planet’s finite resources. This makes ecological sustainability a
key priority for many production managers.
Examples of ecologically sustainable business practices include:
Green technologies – Environmentally friendly innovations that consider
the long-term impact on the environment, e.g. renewable energy sources
such as solar power.
Recycling – Turning waste products, such as plastic and glass bottles, into
reusable materials.
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5.1 The role of operations management 159
Ecological footprint – The impact of resource consumption and waste

production on the natural environment, e.g. using online technologies for
business meetings rather than driving to different locations.
Conservation – Using the planet’s scarce resources more carefully by
means of renewable resources (such as trees and fish) at a sustainable rate.
Preservation – Protecting the earth’s resources by reducing the human
impact on the physical, natural and ecological environment, e.g.
rainforests.
Social sustainability
Keyword definition
Social sustainability enables society to optimize the quality of life for current
and future generations. Social sustainability examines the
ability of businesses and people
On the other hand, social hurdles prevent a community from advancing, to develop in such a way that
e.g. poverty, unemployment and social exclusion (such as racism and gender they can meet the social well-
inequalities). being needs of current and future
Elkington argued that male business leaders need to accept women as equals generations.
if there is to be social sustainability and development. Embracing social justice
can bring about many business opportunities in terms of recruitment, staff
retention and corporate reputation.
Gender discrimination represents an inefficient allocation of human resources.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) argues that gender
equality is fundamental to both economic and human development.
From a humanitarian viewpoint, removing social inequalities gives
communities a better chance of achieving sustainable development.
In addition to creating jobs and paying taxes, many countries expect
businesses to fulfil their corporate social responsibilities (CSR) (see Unit 1.3).
Ignoring CSR can attract unwanted media attention. Hence, an increasing
number of businesses apply CSR in their daily operations.
Economic sustainability Keyword definition

Economic sustainability requires businesses to use their resources (land, labour,
Economic sustainability refers
capital and enterprise) efficiently and in a maintainable way. Increased global
to development of a country
demand and consumption make it ever more difficult to sustain the output of
that meets the economic needs
goods and services over time.
of the present generation, using
Economic sustainability requires businesses to be more responsible in their use existing available resources,
of resources, e.g. using materials that are environmentally friendly, easier to without compromising the ability
recycle or that are biodegradable. of future generations to meet their
economic needs.
The overuse of scarce resources is a major threat to a country’s economic well-
being, e.g. rapid economic development in some countries, such as China and
India, has led to the rapid depletion of the world’s finite resources, especially
non-renewable resources.
With the continuous rise in the world’s population, the question for business
leaders is whether economic growth, and its associated impact on the natural
environment, is sustainable.
However, in their endeavour to maximize profits for shareholders and due
to the potentially higher costs of operating in a sustainable way, not many
businesses make efficient use of available resources. CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Resistance to change or to embrace the ethos of sustainability creates further For an organization of your choice,
obstacles for economic sustainability. examine how the concepts of
change and culture have impacted
Nevertheless, economic sustainability as a business strategy can help firms to
on its sustainable business
survive, thrive, and contribute to the economic well-being of others via the
operations.
creation of jobs and wealth.
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5.2 Production methods

Production methods and the most appropriate method
of production for a given situation (AO2)
Production refers to the manufacture or output of a physical good or intangible
service. There are four main production methods: job, batch, mass and cellular.
Job/customized production
Job production is the production of a special or customized good or service
suited to the specific requirements of an individual customer.
Examples of job production include: bridges, movies, private tuition, wedding
dresses, wedding cakes, bespoke suits and portrait painters.
Each order is a one-off, unique good or service.
It is the most labour intensive method of production as it is reliant on skilled
workers.
It is also the most expensive production method, although clients pay relatively
high prices for the uniqueness of the product.
Table 5.1 Advantages and disadvantages of job production

Advantages of job production Disadvantages of job production
It is the most flexible method of production as orders are made High labour costs due to the need for highly skilled and
specifically for a customer experienced workers
Due to its uniqueness, the output is likely to be of outstanding High production costs due to the large absence of economies
quality of scale
A high mark-up price can be charged because of the product’s Production is time consuming because specific requirements
exclusivity and high quality need to be catered for
The skilled workers tend to be motivated by the variety and
challenge of the job
Batch production
Batch production is a production method that involves identical goods being
made in groups (batches) rather than in a continuous flow.
Examples of batch production include the output of: casual clothing, cookies
(biscuits), bread, shoes and furniture.
Goods are produced in consignments (batches), undergoing the production
process at the same time, before manufacturing the next batch with different
specifications, e.g. 100 medium-sized red t-shirts followed by 65 small-sized blue
t-shirts.
It does not involve a system of continuous production.
Workers are likely to be semi-skilled and output is far more capital intensive
than job production.
Table 5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of batch production

Advantages of batch production Disadvantages of batch production
Average (unit) costs of production are lower compared with job Less flexibility as customers have to select from a range of
production due to there being some economies of scale standardized output
There is some flexibility to meet a variety of demands, thereby There is a greater need for stocks (inventories), especially raw
providing some choice to customers materials
It is useful for small businesses that cannot afford to operate There is ‘downtime’ between batches as machinery might need
continuous production lines and/or demand for the product is cleaning and/or changing prior to the manufacture of the next
insufficient to justify mass production batch
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5.2 Production methods 161
Mass/flow/process production Keyword definition

Mass production is used by businesses that focus on large-scale production
Flow production is the continuous
techniques for mass market goods.
and automated production process
It is suitable for the large-scale production of homogeneous (identical or that uses capital intensive production
standardized) products such as oil, bottled water, canned soft drinks, motor methods to maximize output by
vehicles, televisions, light bulbs, ball bearings and toys. minimizing production time. It is
associated with large production runs
Lower prices are charged due to the standardization of output.
of standardized products.
There is a high degree of automation as mass production is capital intensive.
The workforce can be unskilled or semi-skilled; the workers can be highly
Expert tip
specialized.
Although there are some technical
Marketing support is essential to increase demand as mass production differences between mass, flow and
generates large-scale output. process production methods, the
It is based on specialization and the division of labour. differences are subtle so the terms
are often used interchangeably.
Whilst job production is about quality, mass production is about quantity.
Table 5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of mass production

Advantages of mass production Disadvantages of mass production
Costs per unit of production are lower due to economies of scale Lower profit margins are earned due to the low prices and
Capital intensive so manufacturing can take place for longer standardized output
periods Limited, if any, flexibility as large quantities of identical products
Automation means a low level of manpower is required in the are created
production process, thus lowering labour costs Requires an efficient system of stock control as stockpiling of
Relatively easy and cheap to hire labour for mass production manufactured goods can be very expensive
Capital-intensive production means there is likely to be efficient There are likely to be very high start-up costs due to the
use of machinery and equipment investment in capital equipment, machinery and production
systems
As mass production is capital intensive, it is comparatively easy
to expand production should the level of demand for the product All stages of production are interdependent, so if a problem
increase occurs in one part of the assembly line, production as a whole
comes to a halt
Workers can quickly become demotivated due to the boring and
repetitive nature of the tasks
Cellular manufacturing Expert tip

Cellular production (also known as cell production) involves teams working In reality, many products are produced
on certain parts of the production line. The production processes are broken using more than one production
down into units based around these teams working on a complete unit of method. For example, the engines of a
output. Ferrari or Porsche are hand-made using
job production. However, the leather
It is used by businesses that focus on mass-production techniques. is bought in batches of different hides,
textures and colours. The tyres are
Each team (or cell) has complete responsibility for quality assurance.
bought in bulk from mass producers
such as Michelin and Pirelli.
Table 5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of cell production
Advantages of cell production Disadvantages of cell production
As cells are responsible for quality assurance (see Unit 5.3), it High set-up costs, e.g. machinery, equipment and stock-ordering
should lead to less wastage and a lower rejection rate systems
It enables workers to operate in teams with greater autonomy, Machinery is not used as intensively as with flow or mass
thus boosting morale, motivation and productivity production
Workers are involved in the production process from the Costs of recruiting and training suitable staff to work in cells
beginning to the end, so this creates a sense of ownership and
achievement
As teams are multi-skilled, they are more adaptive to changes
in the business environment and the future needs of the
organization
Team working can also create new ideas, processes and
products
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Expert tip CUEGIS CONCEPTS

Exam questions often ask candidates to compare production methods for a Consider how the concepts of
particular product. Be sure to consider the advantages and disadvantages of the culture and innovation have
various production methods in your answers. impacted on the production
methods used by a business
EXAM PRACTICE organization of your choice.
1 Menelao Clothing Co. designs and manufactures fashionable clothing for

children in a variety of designs, colours and sizes.
a Identify the production method that is most likely to be used by
Menelao Clothing Co. [1]
b Explain two benefits of this production method to Menelao
Clothing Co. [4]
5.3 Lean production and quality

management (HL only)
Features of lean production (AO1)
Less waste
Lean production, which originated in Japan, involves streamlining operations
in order to reduce all forms of waste and to achieve greater efficiency. Keyword definition
Lean production is a philosophy
Lean production is about getting things right first time and using fewer
built into the culture of
resources, both of which help to reduce wastage of resources.
organizations that focus on less
The seven sources of waste (or ‘muda’ in Japanese) are: defective wastage and greater efficiency.
products, overproduction, stockpiling (excessive inventories), unnecessary
transportation, over-processing (over-complex or over-complicated), waiting
time and excess movement by workers.
Methods of waste minimization include: total quality management (TQM),
cradle-to-cradle manufacturing and just-in-time (JIT) production.
Greater efficiency
Efficiency is about using resources more effectively to generate output, e.g.
using less capital or labour to produce the same amount of output.
Efficiency is measured by the productivity rate of resources (see Unit 5.5). For
example, labour productivity can be measured by sales per person or output per
worker.
All members of the organization need to be involved for lean production to
work effectively.
Greater efficiency can be gained in several ways, including:
staff training and development
higher levels of staff motivation
using improved (technologically advanced) capital.
Methods of lean production (AO2)

Continuous improvement (kaizen)
Kaizen is a philosophy embedded in the culture of an organization.
It is a method of lean production and a source of competitive advantage that
involves all workers committing to improving quality standards.
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It involves making small, incremental progress (rather than infrequent radical

changes) to improve productivity and efficiency.
As people tend to be resistant to change, workers might be more receptive to
small, incremental changes which are less disruptive and risky than large one-
off changes.
It involves empowering workers to make their own decisions for continuous
improvements.
Kaizen can help to reduce costs in the long run by preventing mistakes and
outputs of sub-standard quality. Keyword definition
Kaizen is the Japanese philosophy
It can help to achieve greater efficiency through exploring ways to improve the
of continuous improvement and
productivity and efficiency of the organization’s processes and operations.
changing for the better.
However, the implementation of kaizen tends to be costly and time consuming.
It requires the effort and commitment of all members of the workforce to
eliminate waste and to make productivity gains.
Striving for continuous improvement usually causes increased workloads, so
can lead to demotivation in the workplace.
Just-in-time (JIT)
A JIT stock control system removes the need to have buffer stocks (large
quantities of stock on site held as back-up inventory). Keyword definition
Just-in-time (JIT) is a lean stock
Deliveries of stocks such as raw materials and components are made a few control system that relies on stocks
hours prior to their use by the purchaser. (inventories) being delivered only
Although JIT can reduce waste, there is always the risk of not having any when they are needed in the
stock if required urgently. Hence, JIT can be inflexible and expose the firm to production process.
greater risks.
Table 5.11 (page 170) outlines the advantages and disadvantages of a JIT stock
control system.
Kanban
Kanban is a method of lean production that relies on using a card system to
ensure that stock usage is based on actual demand from customers.
In Japanese, it means signboard or billboard.
It helps to prevent underproduction (which results in productive inefficiency)
or overproduction (which creates waste).
Andon
Andon is a method of lean production that relies on using a visual traffic light
warning system to achieve greater productive efficiency.
It uses visual displays, including digital displays, to communicate the status of
production in the manufacturing process.
The traffic light system acts as a quick visual warning for workers to help them
monitor the progress of various tasks, thus achieving greater efficiency.
Features of cradle-to-cradle design and

manufacturing (AO2)
Cradle-to-cradle (C2C) involves production techniques that are waste-free and
can be efficiently recycled, e.g. recyclable plastic water bottles, plastic computer
keyboards or biodegradable bamboo t-shirts.
The term was coined by Swiss architect Walter R. Stahel in the 1970s when
examining production techniques that are both efficient and waste-free.
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All material inputs in C2C must be either technical (recyclable or reusable

with no loss of quality) or biological (consumable or compostable in an Keyword definition
ecologically friendly way). Cradle-to-cradle (C2C) is a
production philosophy with
Although C2C can be time consuming and expensive to implement
the view that sustainable
effectively, it can provide competitive advantages by differentiating the brand,
production involves designing and
thereby attracting and retaining customers. C2C also provides sustainable
manufacturing goods so that they
manufacturing over the long term.
can be recycled to produce the
In addition, C2C can generate a positive corporate image to some specific product again.
stakeholders, such as employees and environmental protection groups.
Features of quality control and quality

assurance (AO1)
Keyword definitions
Quality control (QC) refers to the traditional approach to Quality assurance (QA) is an approach to quality
quality management by inspecting a sample of products. management that involves the prevention of mistakes in
It involves quality controllers checking or examining a the production process, e.g. defective output, poor customer
sample of products in a systematic way, e.g. once every 15 service or delays in distributing goods to customers. It
minutes on the production line, every 500th unit of output involves agreeing and meeting quality standards at all
or 10% of the amount produced. stages of production to ensure customer satisfaction.
Table 5.5 Features of quality control and quality assurance

Features of quality control Features of quality assurance
Traditional approach of using quality controllers to check the QA uses workers, rather than inspectors, to check the quality
quality of output of output
QC is mainly about inspecting and detecting substandard output All staff are responsible for quality so QA can therefore be
(defects) rather than preventing it considered as a form of job enrichment (see Unit 2.4)
Quality controllers randomly or systematically do the inspecting Firms have various codes of practice that notify customers of
or checking quality procedures and specifications
It strives to ensure that products meet the quality standards set QA strives to achieve greater efficiency and less wastage
by the organization The aim is zero defects, i.e. the reject rate is zero
Firms set an acceptable level of wastage or defects (reject rate) QA is process-oriented rather than product-oriented
QC is product-oriented rather than process-oriented QA is proactive rather than reactive
QC is reactive rather than proactive, with quality checks done
retrospectively
Methods of managing quality (AO2)

Quality circle
US government statistician Professor W. Edwards Deming (1900–93) noted
that American management had typically given managers about 85% of the
Keyword definition
responsibility for quality control, with only 15% allocated to employees. He A quality circle is a small group
argued that this should be reversed. of employees who voluntarily meet
regularly to identify, examine and
The emphasis of quality circles is preventing defects from arising in the first solve problems related to their
place, rather than quality control during post-production checks. work in order to improve the
Deming’s ideas were originally developed by Japanese management and quality of output.
manufacturing techniques, with an emphasis on employees working in similar
job roles being encouraged to investigate and suggest practices to improve quality.
For quality circles to work, members must receive appropriate training in
problem solving. In addition, senior management must be supportive and fund
these teams appropriately, even when requests may seem trivial or budgets are
limited.
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Kaizen usually involves the implementation of quality circles. Expert tip

A limitation of quality circles for employees is that senior management have a Do not confuse quality circles with
clear target for blame if there are quality issues or problems. cellular manufacturing (see Unit 5.2).
Cell production involves small teams
Almost any type of organization can set up quality circles. For example, Po producing a complete unit of work.
Leung Kuk School in Hong Kong has five quality circles set up to promote a The focus is output, even though
broad, balanced approach to learning (http://goo.gl/TzZajy). cell workers take responsibility for
the quality of their work. However,
members of quality circles form
Benchmarking voluntarily to discuss ways to improve
Benchmarking involves making internal and external comparisons of quality. There is no emphasis on actual
predetermined criteria (industry standards) with the aim of meeting or output in a quality circle. Instead, it is
a participative management technique
exceeding the benchmarks.
that involves the input of workers in
Internal benchmarking involves comparing business practices within the same managing quality.
organization. Best practice is then spread throughout the organization.
External benchmarking involves comparing business practices outside the Keyword definition
organizations with other firms considered to be the best in the industry. This
Benchmarking is the systematic
approach can take up significant time and resources to collect, collate and
process of comparing a business
interpret the data and information.
or its products to its competitors,
The ultimate aim of benchmarking is to improve performance. This helps a using a set of standards (called
business to maintain or develop its competitiveness. ‘benchmarks’), such as sales
revenue, profits, labour turnover or
As a strategic management tool, it enables managers to compare the firm’s
brand loyalty.
performance, its processes and its products with the best of other companies
within the same industry.
It is usually conducted at regular intervals, e.g. profits per quarter or market
share per year.
Benchmarks are typically quantifiable, e.g. star ratings for the hotel industry.
For benchmarking to be meaningful, comparisons should be made as
objectively as possible. However, there is scope for subjective comparisons, e.g.
customer perceptions and feedback. Importantly, it includes examining the
competition from the point of view of customers.
Total quality management (TQM)

Keyword definition
Total quality management (TQM) is a philosophy about embedding
awareness of quality in all organizational processes, i.e. it forms a culture Total quality management
of quality by empowering all workers within the organization to take (TQM) is a quality management
responsibility for quality issues. approach that aims to involve
every employee in the quality
An essential feature of TQM is zero defects, i.e. lean production that is assurance process. It involves
efficient and without any wastage. organization-wide approaches to
TQM as a form of lean production commits the organization to continuous quality improvements in products,
improvement (kaizen) and benchmarking of all operations relating to the processes, people and philosophy
quality of the product. Quality circles can also be a feature of TQM. (organizational culture).
Table 5.6 Advantages and disadvantages of TQM

Advantages of TQM Disadvantages of TQM
Motivational impact on employees who feel more involved in It requires a change in attitudes and commitment from all staff,
decision making which can be difficult to achieve
Competitive advantages as it puts customers’ needs at the Staff training, including management training, and development
centre of the production process costs can be high yet must be properly funded
Cost-effectiveness as TQM eliminates the need for inspections Not all workers are motivated by or are suitable for job
and the costs of reworking mistakes and defective output enrichment and empowerment (see Unit 2.4)
In the long term, quality is higher while costs should be reduced Accreditation fees paid to awarding bodies such as the
Brand reputation of emphasis on high quality and consistency International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
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Expert tip
Students often write that TQM systems remove complaints about quality. Whilst
TQM strives for zero defects, it does not and cannot guarantee the output will
be faultless. For example, toy manufacturer Mattel uses a TQM philosophy but
has had to recall faulty products in the market.
The impact of lean production and TQM

on an organization (AO3)
The objective of lean production and TQM is to improve the quality
of a firm’s goods and services. Quality is a key source of global
competitiveness.
A quality product needs to be fit for purpose, i.e. the product fulfils its
intended purpose and function, e.g. a pen should enable the user to write
with it.
Quality is important for an organization for several reasons, such as:
satisfying the needs and wants of customers
raising consumer confidence regarding a business and its products
improving the motivation of employees
gaining a competitive advantage over its rivals
lowering production costs, and hence increasing profitability.
Poor quality output will result in higher costs for the business due to customers
seeking compensation for substandard products. Examples of poor quality
include:
the product breaking down unexpectedly
the product being delivered late
a lack of instructions or directions for use.
Ultimately, lean production and a culture of TQM give an organization
competitive advantages over its rivals. Attracting customers and retaining
their loyalty becomes easier as consumers trust reputable businesses and
their brands.
The importance of national and

international quality standards (AO2)
National and international quality standards are a form of benchmark. A good
or service must meet a set of predetermined criteria of quality in order to be
awarded certification of quality standards recognized within the country or
throughout the world.
ISO 9000 is the international quality standard awarded to organizations that
ensure their goods and services consistently meet quality standards to meet the
needs of customers.
It is an internationally recognized quality accolade, awarded by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
To be certified for ISO 9000, organizations must ensure there is evidence that
quality is consistently improved.
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5.4 Location 167
Table 5.7 Advantages and disadvantages of meeting national and international quality standards
Advantages of meeting quality standards Disadvantages of meeting quality standards
Quality awards can provide the firm with major marketing advantages Operational costs of meeting national or international quality
It can help to differentiate the organization from its rivals, thus standards can be very high, e.g. funding staff training or
minimizing potential competition buying the necessary technology
It provides opportunities to build brand loyalty and to charge Inspection costs must be paid to outside agencies such as the ISO
higher prices There are on-going costs of obtaining certification, licences or
Motivational impacts on workers who feel proud working for a awards
business recognized for its quality Some customers may be put off by the higher prices
CUEGIS CONCEPTS
For an organization of your choice, investigate the impacts of change and
culture on its quality management.
5.4 Location
The reasons for a specific location of
production (AO2)
To access cheaper and/or better quality resources, such as land, labour or raw
materials.
To be closer to customers domestically or in overseas markets to gain competitive
advantages, e.g. easier access to customers and reduced transportation costs.
To avoid trade protectionist policies (when foreign governments impose trade
restrictions on imported goods) by locating in these overseas countries.
To benefit from the local infrastructure (the essential physical and
organizational structures in an economy necessary for it to function), e.g.
transportation and communications networks.
Government incentives for locating in a specific place, e.g. subsidies, grants,
tax concessions or interest-free loans. Such incentives are provided to firms
that locate in assisted areas (locations in need of regeneration, perhaps due to
particularly high rates of unemployment, as identified by the government).
Due to industrial inertia – when a business continues to stay in the same
location even when there are no financial advantages for doing so, e.g. due to
well established relationships with suppliers and locally-based employees.
To benefit from clustering – when a business locates near to other
organizations that function in similar or complementary markets, e.g. shoe
stores and clothes retailers.
Firms in bulk-reducing industries locate near the source of raw materials in
order to reduce transportation costs, e.g. production plants are located near
copper ore mines to reduce the weight (or bulk) and hence the transportation
costs involved in making copper.
Figure 5.3 Shanghai is a popular location for firms operating in China
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Firms in bulk-gaining industries locate near their customers because the

finished product is bulkier (heavier) than the raw materials used to make it,
e.g. carbonated soft drinks.
Qualitative factors also affect the location decision, e.g. the nature of the local
infrastructure and management preferences about a particular location.
A footloose organization is one that does not have any advantage being located
in any particular area, e.g. e-commerce businesses or computer-chip makers.
By contrast, traditional retailers such as restaurants and clothes stores need to
be located near their customers.
Ways of re-organizing production, both

nationally and internationally (AO3)
Outsourcing/Subcontracting
Keyword definition
The outsourced firms (known as subcontractors) carry out these activities
Outsourcing is the practice of
more effectively and cost-effectively, e.g. security firms, school and hospital
subcontracting non-core activities
caterers, office cleaners and ICT technical support.
of an organization to a third-party
Outsourced business activities are those deemed to be non-essential tasks that provider (an external organization)
can be passed on to an external provider in order to cut costs and gain from in order to improve operational
their expertise. efficiency and reduce costs.
Subcontractors are the people or organizations that carry out outsourced work
more cost-effectively than the business itself, without compromising the quality.
Table 5.8 Advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing
Advantages of outsourcing Disadvantages of outsourcing
Using an outsourced provider means the business can Potential conflict with external parties such as subcontractors
concentrate on its core activities and competitive strategy can arise
The firm benefits from the specialized services of the outsourced There could be quality issues with subcontractors
partner The firm may have to deal with staff redundancies due to the
Improved customer service from subcontractors can attract new use of outsourced providers
potential customers and strengthen brand loyalty There are costs of monitoring and maintaining relationships with
It helps the firm to streamline its business operations, thereby the subcontractor
cutting costs and improving its profitability
Offshoring
Keyword definition
Examples of offshored functions include: manufacturing, telesales, call centres,
Offshoring is the practice of
research and development (R&D), and accounting services.
relocating part of or all of a firm’s
Offshoring can but does not necessarily involve third-party providers. business functions and processes
The relocation decision requires the firm to consider both the risks and overseas. These functions can remain
uncertainties of moving to unfamiliar territories and weigh these up against within the business (operating in
the potential rewards. overseas markets) or outsourced to
an overseas organization.
Table 5.9 Advantages and disadvantages of offshoring
Advantages of offshoring Disadvantages of offshoring
As with outsourcing, offshoring means the firm can concentrate It is often associated with unethical practices, e.g. the
on and develop its core business activity exploitation of child labour in low-income countries
Labour laws may be more relaxed overseas, making it easier to There could be cultural issues and concerns about transferring
hire and fire staff functions to an external party
Employee costs may be lower, resulting in lower prices for It would involve making some employees redundant, which has
consumers and a boost in sales to be handled with care and can be costly
Relationships with local customers can be improved as the Overseas operations may lead to greater difficulties in
workforce is accustomed to cultural issues and differences in the conducting quality control
offshored country The firm could lose some control over workers as they are based
Lower operational costs can lead to higher profit margins overseas
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Insourcing
Insourcing involves the retention of a task, function or project within the
organization. Keyword definition
Insourcing is the use of a firm’s
It is often delegated to internal stakeholders who have the expertise (such as
own resources to fulfil a certain
ICT, accounting or consultancy skills) rather than outsourcing the function to
role, function or task which would
an external third-party provider.
otherwise have been outsourced.
Insourcing happens because it can sometimes be cheaper and more productive
to have the work done in-house.
It has become popular with businesses that have been dissatisfied or unsuccessful
with outsourcing, e.g. substandard quality or supply chain disruptions.
It is most suitable when the function, task or project is only temporary or when
there is no significant capital investment involved.
It is also suitable for smaller businesses and start-ups with little or no
experience with outsourcing.
Table 5.10 Advantages and disadvantages of insourcing

Advantages of insourcing Disadvantages of insourcing
Using existing employees and resources can be cheaper than Internal staff might not have the necessary skills or experience
outsourcing (external specialists may be more effective and productive)
It enables a business to have better control of what it would Multinationals that want to establish or maintain their
have otherwise outsourced international presence cannot rely on insourcing
It helps to develop a team of skilled and experienced workers Implementation costs are likely to be high, affecting profits at
There is job creation in the local, domestic economy least in the short term
CUEGIS CONCEPTS
Examine how the concepts of ethics and change have impacted the
international location decisions of a business you have studied.
5.5 Production planning (HL only)

The supply chain process (AO2)
The supply chain process is the management process of overseeing the logistics
from the manufacturing stage to the finished product being delivered to the
consumer.
It includes managing the storage and movement of raw materials, semi-
finished goods and finished goods from the raw material phase to the point of
consumption.
A long supply chain and/or ineffective supply chain management can be costly
as it increases the chances of things going wrong for the business.
Manufacturer Wholesaler Distribution Retailer Consumers
Figure 5.4 The supply chain (an example)
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The difference between JIT and just-in-case

(JIC) (AO2)
A just-in-time (JIT) stock control system is designed to eliminate the costs of
holding stock, e.g. storage, maintenance and security costs.
JIT enables a business to get hold of raw materials and components only when Keyword definitions
the need arises. Just-in-time (JIT) is a stock control
system that avoids the use of
Having access to local and reliable suppliers is essential for JIT as the system
holding stocks (inventory). Instead,
relies on an efficient stock ordering and delivery arrangement so that the
stocks are supplied and delivered
inventory is ordered and arrives for the start of the operation.
only when needed for production.
It allows businesses to avoid the costs of storage, maintenance, theft and
Just-in-case (JIC) is a stock control
wastage.
system that relies on having spare
Table 5.11 Advantages and disadvantages of just-in-time stocks (inventory) so that output
can be raised immediately in the
Advantages of just-in-time Disadvantages of just-in-time
event of a sudden or unexpected
There is no need for buffer stocks, thus There is complete reliance on third- increase in demand.
cost of stock management is reduced party suppliers
There is no need for stockpiling, thus Administrative and implementation
improving cash flow and working capital costs of JIT are high
JIT fosters lean production and There is the inability to meet
productive efficiency unexpected changes in demand
A just-in-case (JIC) stock control system is designed to have a reserve (buffer)

stock level.
Other costs associated with JIC can include insurance and maintenance and/
or security to prevent damage or theft.
It ensures the firm has sufficient amounts of inventory to meet the demands of
customers whenever required.
JIC is suitable for stocks that are not perishable, such as cotton, rubber, ball
bearings or wine. It is less suitable for perishables, such as fresh flowers or
fresh meat.
It is not suitable for industries where customer trends and preferences are
always changing, e.g. the fashion and high-tech industries.
Table 5.12 Advantages and disadvantages of just-in-case

Advantages of just-in-case Disadvantages of just-in-case
There is flexibility to meet a sudden and unexpected rise in Suppliers can charge premium prices for urgent deliveries of
consumer demand stocks
It enables production to continue if there is a delay in deliveries Higher costs, e.g. storage, maintenance, security and insurance
from suppliers costs associated with a JIC stock control system
Customer satisfaction is maintained as they do not have to wait There is also the risk of large stocks of obsolete and unsold
for stocks to arrive products
Prevents loss of potential customers compared to if a JIC system Stocks are subject to damage or theft
is used There could be liquidity issues because JIC ties up valuable
Firms can benefit from purchasing economies of scale (bulk buying) working capital
EXAM PRACTICE
2 Explain the difference between just-in-case (JIC) and just-in-time (JIT)
stock control systems. [4]
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Stock control charts (AO2, AO4)
50 000 Maximum
stock
Stock level (units)
Re-order
30 000
quantity
Buffer
10 000
stock
0 4 6 8 10
Time (weeks)
Figure 5.5 Stock control chart
The lead time refers to the length of time it takes between a firm ordering new
stock and the firm receiving the stock for production. In Figure 5.5, the lead
time is one week.
The longer the lead time, the earlier the re-order needs to be and/or the larger
the re-order quantity needs to be.
Buffer stock is the minimum stock level held by a firm in case of late
deliveries from suppliers, damaged stock or a sudden and expected increase in
demand. In Figure 5.5, the buffer stock is 10 000 units.
The re-order quantity is the volume of the order. In Figure 5.5, the re-order
quantity is 40 000 units (i.e. 50 000 − 10 000 units).
The re-order level refers to the stock level at the time when the firm places its
re-order of stock. In Figure 5.5, this occurs when the firm’s stock level reaches
30 000 units.
The usage rate refers to the speed at which stocks (inventories) are depleted
in the production process. The usage rate increases during peak periods, but
drops during recessions and off-peak periods. In Figure 5.5, the usage rate is
40 000 units per two weeks.
A stock-out occurs when a firm has no more stock for production or sale, i.e.
it is out of stock. This creates problems for the firm as production also comes
to a stop. To prevent a stock-out, some businesses buy extra stock prior to peak
trading periods.
By contrast, stockpiling means that a business builds up excessive levels of
inventory. However, holding too much stock results in working capital being
tied up.
EXAM PRACTICE
3 Study the stock control diagram (Figure 5.6) for
Beyond Bakeries in order to determine the following:
a the lead time [1] 6000
Stocks (kgs)
b the buffer stock [1]

c the re-order quantity. [1] 4000
2000
0 2 4 6 8
Time (weeks)
Figure 5.6 Beyond Bakeries stock control chart
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Capacity utilization rate (AO2, AO4)

Capacity utilization measures the extent to which a firm is operating at its
maximum potential level.
Keyword definition
It can be calculated by using the following formula:
The capacity utilization rate
Actual output per period expresses a firm’s actual output
Capacity utilization = Full capacity output per period × 100
as a percentage of its maximum
A firm that has a 100% capacity utilization rate is operating at full capacity, potential output, at a particular
with all its resources used. point in time.
Capacity utilization for a business operating at full capacity or experiencing
high growth rates could be improved by subcontracting work (see Unit 5.4).
Table 5.13 Advantages and disadvantages of full capacity utilization

Advantages of full capacity utilization Disadvantages of full capacity utilization
Average (unit) costs of production are likely to be at their Employees can become overworked and stressed due to working
lowest so the business is operating efficiently at full capacity
Lower costs per unit (economies of scale) will likely lead to Machinery and equipment are likely to deteriorate at a faster
higher profits for the firm pace, thus increasing maintenance and replacement costs
EXAM PRACTICE
4 a Calculate the capacity utilization rate for Meiji Milk Company that
can produce 200 000 pints of milk in its factory each day but has an
output level of 180 000 pints per day. [2]
b Calculate BF Sausage Company’s capacity utilization rate if it
produces 2800 kilos per month but has a maximum productive
capacity of 3500 kilos per month. [2]
5 Suppose Darho Foods has fixed costs of $10 000 and a productive capacity
of 5000 units per month. Calculate the change in its average fixed costs if
the firm operates at only 80% capacity compared to operating at full
capacity. [4]
Figure 5.7 Mass production is only cost effective if firms operate at a high capacity
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Productivity rate (AO2, AO4)

Productivity is a measure of the efficiency of production. The productivity rate
measures the amount of output generated per unit of input.
Labour productivity, for example, is a measure of the efficiency of workers in
an organization. The most common measure of labour productivity uses the
following formula to calculate output per worker:
Total output per period (units)
Number of employees at work
Labour productivity can also be measured by sales revenue per worker or the
volume produced per labour hour. Labour-intensive firms prefer to use this
measure of productivity.
Labour productivity matters because labour costs are usually a significant part Expert tip
of a firm’s total costs. Whilst productivity is important,
it can be difficult to measure the
Similarly, capital productivity measures how efficiently a firm’s fixed assets
output in some professions, e.g.
generate output for the business. Capital-intensive firms prefer to use this public sector workers such as
measure of productivity. teachers, nurses and doctors. For
The higher the productivity rate, the more efficient the firm is. This is these jobs, the quality of service is
important as there is a positive correlation between a firm’s efficiency level regarded as more important than
output or profits.
and its profitability and competitiveness.
EXAM PRACTICE
6 Suppose STC produces $500 000 worth of output in one week in a total
of 1000 labour-hours. Calculate the firm’s labour productivity rate. [2]
7 Suppose the 25 sales staff at WIS manage to sell $120 000 worth of
goods in one week. Calculate the firm’s labour productivity rate. [2]
Cost to buy (CTB) and cost to make

(CTM) (AO2, AO4)
A make or buy decision requires managers to compare the cost to make
(CTM) with the cost to buy (CTB).
If the CTM is greater than the CTB, then it makes financial sense for the Keyword definition
business to buy the product instead of producing it, and vice versa. A make or buy decision is a
management decision which
The CTB a product from a supplier is calculated by the formula:
involves choosing whether to
CTB = Price × Quantity.
manufacture a product (make)
The CTM a product is calculated by the formula: or to purchase it (buy) from an
CTM = Fixed costs + Variable costs. external supplier. Essentially, it is a
Quantitative methods that can be used to help with decisions about the CTM decision about whether to insource
and CTB include break-even analysis (see Unit 3.3) and investment appraisal or outsource production.
(see Unit 3.8).
Non-quantitative factors are also considered (although these are difficult
to quantify), e.g. quality control, reliability of suppliers, the impact on the
workforce, experience and expertise.
EXAM PRACTICE
8 Organix Fruit Bars can purchase equipment for in-house production
costing $25 000 and manufacture the goods for $1 each. Alternatively,
a local supplier can produce these for $1.50 each. Demand for the goods
is forecast to be 45 000 customers. Calculate whether it is better for
Organix Fruit Bars to make or buy. [3]
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5.6 Research and development (HL only)

The importance of research and development
for a business (AO3)
Research focuses on creating new knowledge and new products. It is a
prerequisite to development.
Development is about adapting existing ideas and products to create Keyword definition
commercially viable products. Its primary function is to improve new Research and development
commercially viable products, helping to increase the firm’s future earning (R&D) is the systematic process of
potential. discovering new knowledge about
products, processes and markets,
R&D is important for the longevity and competitiveness of a business,
and then applying the knowledge
irrespective of the sector in which it operates (primary, secondary, tertiary or
to make new and improved
quaternary).
products, processes and services to
R&D is an essential part of innovation (the commercialization of a business fulfil market needs.
idea that appeals to consumers).
Competitive rivalry in an industry can drive firms to spend more on R&D in Expert tip
order to survive in the long term. Although the terms ‘research’ and
‘development’ are usually used
Market leaders often use R&D expenditure as a barrier to entry so that they
together, make sure you are able
can continue to dominate the industry, e.g. airline manufacturers such as to distinguish the meanings of the
Airbus and Boeing. two terms. Answers in the exam can
be enhanced by using real-world
examples of innovations.
Table 5.14 Advantages and disadvantages of R&D

Advantages of R&D Disadvantages of R&D
It can improve a firm’s productivity rate (see Unit 5.5) There is an opportunity cost of spending large sums of money
It can enhance a firm’s corporate image, e.g. brand perception on R&D
as an innovator There is no guarantee that the R&D expenditure will be
It can help to gain a first-mover advantage or achieve a recouped due to the high failure rate of product launches
competitive advantage R&D can be very time consuming in some industries, e.g.
Premium prices can be charged pharmaceuticals
R&D expenditure can prolong a product’s life cycle (see Unit 4.5) Rivals might spend more money on R&D, thus wiping out any
advantages of the firm
R&D does not necessarily lead to higher prices, as the discovery
of more efficient production methods can help to cut prices R&D is not always applicable for all firms, such as those that make
budget laptops, as R&D can result in higher costs and prices
The importance of developing goods and services

that address customers’ unmet needs (AO2)
Many product ideas fail to get commercialized because:
There are legal and administrative barriers which discourage R&D
expenditure.
The amount of money needed to fund successful R&D is often unaffordable.
The market for the product might be too small to justify the amount of
R&D expenditure.
The product does not meet the needs or desires of the market, perhaps due
to a lack of market research (see Unit 4.4).
Market research enabled Samsung, for example, to become the market leader in
the smartphone industry as the company developed phones with larger screen
sizes (something that Apple failed to recognize as an unmet customer need).
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5.6 Research and development (HL only) 175
R&D addresses the fact that not all unmet needs are known by the customers.
Steve Jobs famously said that Apple would create a product that everyone
would want despite no one knowing they would want it (the iPod, which went
on to revolutionize the whole music industry).
To test whether a new product addresses the unmet needs of customers,
businesses often develop a prototype. This refers to trial products prior to final
development of a product for launching on the market.
Types of innovation (AO2)

The types of innovation are often referred to as the 4 Ps of innovation: product,
process, positioning and paradigm.
Product innovation is about research and development that focuses on Keyword definition
creating new products or improving existing ones. Innovation is the successful
commercial creation of a new
Process innovation is about R&D that focuses on new or significantly
business idea, which adds value to
improved methods of production or work practices. It refers to changes in the
the organization. It strives to create
way that production takes place, i.e. how production takes place.
or fulfil existing needs and desires
Position innovation is about R&D that focuses on changing customer that are not currently being satisfied.
perceptions of an existing product, e.g. Nissan’s GT-R sports car offers supercar
performance at a premium price, changing customer perceptions that Nissan
only produces mass-market cars.
Paradigm innovation refers to a change in the concept of a product, so is an
extreme form of innovation, e.g. the smartphone revolutionized the use of
mobile phones due to its multi-functionality such as being a camera, gaming
device and multi-media player. Paradigm innovation is associated with radical
and extensive innovations that involve high risks to the business.
The difference between adaptive creativity

and innovative creativity (AO2)
Adaptive creativity is about adjusting and improving something that already
exists. This takes place incrementally, e.g. Apple’s iPad Mini was developed Expert tip
from the original, larger sized iPad.
Whilst innovative creativity can create
Innovative creativity is about creating a new product or process, e.g. Apple’s huge competitive advantages for
iTunes Store changed the way consumers around the world buy their music, a business, radical changes do not
movies and games. It can occur radically. always work better than incremental
changes, especially if such changes
The underlying difference between adaptive creativity and innovative creativity cause huge disruptions, anxieties and
is the pace and degree of change involved in the innovation process. uncertainty for employees.
How pace of change in an industry, organizational

culture and ethical considerations may influence
research and development practices and
strategies in an organization (AO3)
Change in an industry can influence R&D practices. For example:
It can create demand for new products, e.g. hybrid or electric fuelled cars.
Customers might turn away from rival brands if the firm is highly
innovative and sells products that are more appealing to buyers.
The life cycle of many products is short, so innovation through R&D
can ensure the business embraces change and survives the impacts of the
external environment.
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Organizational culture determines the degree of risk that a business is willing

to take in R&D. It also regulates business practices, e.g. a firm that pursues its
corporate social responsibilities is likely to focus on innovations that benefit a
greater number of stakeholders.
Unethical business practices mean that governments need to protect the
intellectual property rights of inventors and innovators. For example:
A patent gives exclusive rights to the registered owner to use an invention
for a finite period of time.
Copyrights protect the published works of artists, composers, musicians,
photographers, authors and movie directors by creating legal rights to these
creations. Copyrighted materials carry the © symbol.
A registered trademark is a sign or symbol that enables a firm to
distinguish its products from those of other traders, e.g. brands and logos.
Once registered, these trademarks are the exclusive property of the
trademark holder for a finite period of time. CUEGIS CONCEPTS
As the pace of change quickens in many hi-tech industries, questions about Investigate how the innovative
the ethics of R&D have been raised. Product recalls (see Units 5.7 and culture of an organization such as
5.3) and over-consumption are just two examples of the issues arising from Google or Apple has shaped its
corporate strategy.
innovation in the business world.
5.7 Crisis management and contingency

planning (HL only)
The difference between crisis management
and contingency planning (AO2)
Crisis management is about how a business responds to a crisis, especially one
that threatens its survival.
Contingency planning involves formulating risk assessments in order to be Keyword definitions
better prepared for crises, should they ever occur. Contingency planning is the
development of predetermined
Examples of crises include: financial crises, economic recession, severe weather
strategies to deal with a crisis
conditions, power failure, major product recalls, the outbreak of infectious
should it occur.
diseases, a fire, employees on strike, and natural disasters.
Crisis management is the response
Crisis management is about dealing with actual threats and disasters a business
taken by a business in the event of
faces.
an actual crisis occurring.
Crisis management is about the way in which an organization responds during
a crisis situation.
Contingency planning helps to prepare a business to deal with crises if they Expert tip
occur. This differs from crisis management, which is about responding to a
Be sure to know the link between
real crisis.
crises and contingency plans.
Contingency planning is about scenario planning, i.e. examining ‘what if’ Although contingency plans can
scenarios and developing business continuity plans to minimize the impact of help a business to deal with a crisis,
a crisis if it occurs. the crisis itself is unpredictable
so is disruptive and costly to the
Contingency planning involves formulating management actions to minimize organization (otherwise it would not
the negative impacts of potential crises. be classed as a crisis).
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5.7 Crisis management and contingency planning (HL only) 177
Factors that affect effective crisis

management (AO2)
The fundamental factors affecting the effectiveness of crisis management include:
transparency, communication, speed and control.
Transparency
Transparency is about the ethical obligation of businesses to be honest and to
inform their stakeholders of the truth during a crisis.
Most risks in business are quantifiable, e.g. the costs of theft or fire damage to
a factory. However, not all risks are easily quantifiable, e.g. the costs following
the outbreak of an infectious disease. This is because non-quantifiable risks are
prohibitively expensive to calculate and highly unlikely to happen.
Transparency about the truth can help a business to maintain its integrity,
reputation and public perception, especially if the crisis was beyond the firm’s
control.
Employees, the general public and the media are far more forgiving if a
business owns up to its mistakes and responds with transparency and honesty.
Communication
During and after a crisis, public relations (PR) plays an important role in
communicating with and reassuring all stakeholders.
Prompt and effective communication with stakeholders is vital in a crisis, e.g.
contacting the emergency services, informing employees, notifying insurers
and communicating appropriately with the media.
Speedy and honest communication is important to prevent a possible loss of
goodwill and a public relations crisis.
Within the organization, a specialist media or PR team is often used to
communicate with the general public, politicians and the mass media.
Communicating corporate social responsibility (see Unit 1.3) is an important
part of crisis management. It might not always be necessary to communicate
with the general public, although all responses and actions must be
implemented in a socially responsible way.
Speed
A speedy response is essential to contain the crisis and to ensure it is not
prolonged or worsened by causing collateral damage.
A swift strategy applied with common sense can prevent huge expenses
resulting from a crisis, e.g. BP was too slow in responding to an oil spillage
in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, resulting in the company losing 3.19 million
barrels of oil and being fined a record $14 billion.
Speed is far less of an issue if the organization has adequate preparation and
simulation through its contingency planning.
Speed also means the business acts quickly before a biased or untruthful
version of the issue gets reported by others in the media, which could
potentially lead to even greater problems that the organization has less
control over.
Speed also helps to pre-empt or prevent a crisis from actually occurring.
A speedy response, backed by honest actions, helps to return the business to
normality.
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Control Keyword definition

Crises can be preventable. For example, contingency planning not only helps
Quantifiable risks are financially
a business to be better prepared in the event of a real fire, but to prevent fires
measurable threats that can
from actually occurring.
jeopardize the survival of an
Quantifiable risks are measurable risks, e.g. the damage or theft of commercial organization, e.g. there is a
property. These risks mean that control is a vital factor that affects the statistically low chance of a fire
effectiveness of crisis management. breaking out in a hospital, but a
much higher likelihood of taxi
To ensure effective control, it is important for the business to select a suitable
drivers being involved in a motor
team to handle a crisis.
accident.
Control of the situation is vital, especially as bad news will spread extremely
quickly via social networks and social media (see Unit 4.8).
Advantages and disadvantages of contingency

planning for a given organization or
situation (AO2)
Table 5.15 Advantages and disadvantages of contingency planning
Factor Advantages Disadvantages
Cost Business continuity becomes top priority during a crisis, The costs of dealing with a crisis can be huge
not costs It uses up valuable management time and resources
Contingency funds and emergency financial aid can help Having insurance does not necessarily cover
to deal with the costs of a crisis unquantifiable risks associated with crises
Effective planning can help to minimize losses incurred
Time A properly prepared contingency plan is essential for The incident planned for might never happen, so planning
being prepared to manage a crisis can be a waste of time and money
Risks Enables businesses to be better prepared to deal with The plans cannot fully prepare firms for the actual impacts
setbacks should a crisis ever occur of natural disasters
Planning helps to reduce the risks arising from a crisis It is not realistic for businesses to account for all possible
risks
Safety Contingency planning can ensure the safety of employees There are opportunity costs involved to ensure
in the event of a crisis contingency plans cover all aspects of a crisis
It also helps to protect and reassure customers Implementation costs of ensuring safety in the workplace
EXAM PRACTICE CUEGIS CONCEPTS

9 In 2015, global car giant Toyota recalled 181 000 of its vehicles in Australia, Investigate the role of ethics
equipped with faulty airbags supplied by Takata. The recall was announced to and organizational culture in
prevent increasing the risk of injury to drivers and passengers. Toyota acted contingency planning and crisis
quickly to reassure customers that the faulty airbags would be replaced free management for a business of
of charge, with the process taking about 90 minutes per vehicle. your choice.
a Identify two stakeholder groups from the case study. [2]
b Explain what is meant by a product recall and why it is an example
of a crisis. [3]
c Explain why crisis management and contingency planning are
important to global multinational companies such as Toyota. [4]
868429_05_IB_BusMan_RG_157-178.indd 178 19/01/2016 07:46

Glossary
Above-the-line (ATL) promotion is paid-for marketing Buffer stock is the minimum stock level held by a firm in
communication via independent media. case of late deliveries from suppliers, damaged stock or a
The acid test ratio is a liquidity ratio that measures a sudden and expected increase in demand.
firm’s ability to meet its short-term debts. It ignores stock Bureaucracy refers to the administrative systems of a
because some inventories are difficult to turn into cash business, such as the set of rules and procedures and
in a short time frame. formal hierarchical structures in an organization.
Adaptive creativity is about adjusting and improving Business angels are wealthy individuals who invest in
something that already exists. high-risk business projects with high profit potential.
An adverse variance exists when the difference between A business plan is a formal document that details how an
the actual and budgeted figure is disadvantageous to the organization intends to meet its objectives.
business. The capacity utilization rate expresses a firm’s actual
Aims are long-term goals of an organization, formulated by output as a percentage of its maximum potential output.
the senior management team. Capital expenditure is the spending on fixed assets and
Andon is a method of lean production that relies on using capital equipment of a business.
a visual traffic light warning system to achieve greater Cash flow is the movement of money in and out of an
productive efficiency. organization.
Appraisal refers to the formal assessment of an Cell production involves teams working on production
employee’s performance with reference to the roles and processes that are broken down into units based around
responsibilities set out in the job description. the teams working on a complete unit of output.
Arbitration involves an independent arbitrator deciding Centralization refers to organizational structures where the
on an appropriate outcome. majority of decision making is in the hands of a very small
The average rate of return (ARR) is an investment number of people at the top of the hierarchical structure.
appraisal technique that calculates the average annual The chain of command is the formal line of authority
profit of an investment project expressed as a percentage through which orders and decisions are passed down
of the initial amount invested in the project. from senior management at the top to operational
The balance sheet shows the value of an organization’s workers at the bottom of the hierarchy.
assets and liabilities at a particular point in time. Charities are not-for-profit organizations that operate in
Batch production is a production method that involves an altruistic way with the objectives of promoting a
identical goods being made in groups (batches) rather worthwhile cause.
than in a continuous flow. Closure is an extreme method used by employers to deal
Below-the-line (BTL) promotion refers to promotional with workers taking industrial action by stopping all
activities that the business has direct control over. business operations.
Benchmarking is the systematic process of comparing a Collective bargaining is the process by which employers’
business or its products to its competitors, using a set of and employees’ representatives negotiate on the terms
standards (called ‘benchmarks’), such as sales revenue, and conditions of employment.
profits, labour turnover or brand loyalty. Commercial marketing is the use of marketing strategies
The Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix is a to meet the needs and wants of customers in a profitable
marketing tool used to examine an organization’s way for the benefit of the owners of the business.
product portfolio. Companies (or corporations) are commercial business
Brand awareness refers to the extent to which people with limited liability and owned by their shareholders.
recognize and remember a particular brand. Conciliation involves two parties in a dispute, such as
Brand development is an aspect of marketing strategy employee and employer representatives, agreeing to use
about what a brand stands for. It is also about the services of an independent mediator to help resolve
communicating the value of a brand to customers. their differences.
Brand loyalty happens when customers repeatedly Consumer profile refers to the demographic and
purchase their favourite brand, rather than switching to psychographic characteristics of consumers in different
a rival brand. markets.
Brand value refers to the estimated future earnings Consumers are the people who use a good or service.
attributable to a particular brand. Contingency planning is the development of
Break-even exists when a business sells enough goods and/ predetermined strategies to deal with a crisis should it
or services in order to cover all its costs of production. occur.
The break-even point (BEP) is where the total costs of Contribution per unit refers to the amount of money a
production equal the total revenue. business earns from selling each unit of output.
A budget is a plan of the costs and revenues with the Cooperatives are for-profit social enterprises owned and
purpose of achieving the objectives of a business in a run by their members, such as employees, managers and
given time period, usually one year. customers.
868429_Gloss_IB_BusMan_RG_179-184.indd 179 19/01/2016 07:44

180 Glossary
Copyright as a form of intellectual property right gives the A discount rate is a number used to reduce the value
owner legal rights to a creative piece of work. of a sum of money received in the future in order to
Corporate culture is the set of values, attitudes, norms determine its present value.
and beliefs in an organization. Diseconomies of scale arise when unit costs increase due
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to an to the organization being too large, e.g. problems with
organization’s duties to its internal and external communication and coordination.
stakeholders by behaving in a way that positively Dismissal refers to the termination of a worker’s
impacts society as a whole. employment due to their incompetence or breach of
A cost centre is a department or division within an employment contract.
organization that is responsible and held accountable for A distribution channel refers to the process or system
its own costs. of getting the product to consumers, e.g. retailers,
Cost-plus pricing (also known as mark-up pricing) wholesalers or vending machines.
involves adding a profit element to the costs of Dividends are the payments that a company pays to its
production. shareholders from its net profit after interest and tax.
Cost of goods sold (COGS) refer to the direct costs E-commerce is the trading of goods and services using
of production. COGS can include raw materials, online electronic systems and computer networks such as
components, packaging and direct labour costs. the internet.
Cradle to cradle involves production techniques that are Economies of scale are the cost-saving benefits of
waste-free and can be efficiently recycled. operating on a large scale, i.e. the reduction in unit costs
Creditors are the suppliers that have given trade credit so of production as an organization grows.
need to be repaid in the near future. Employee representatives are individuals or organizations
Creditor days ratio measures the average number of days a (such as a trade union) who act as the collective voice of
business takes to repay its creditors. the workforce.
Crisis management is the response taken by a business in Employer representatives are the individuals or
the event of an actual crisis occurring. organizations that represent the senior management
Culture clash exists when there is a difference between team in the collective bargaining process.
the values and beliefs of individuals within an An entrepreneur is someone who is willing to take
organization. financial risks by investing in a business idea.
Current assets are short-term, liquid assets of the business Expenses are the indirect costs of production, such as rent,
that are intended to be used up within the year, i.e. insurance and management salaries.
cash, debtors and stock. Extension strategies are marketing techniques used to
Current liabilities are short-term debts that need to be prolong a product’s life cycle.
repaid within 12 months of the balance sheet date, i.e. External economies of scale refer to the fall in unit
overdrafts, creditors and short-term loans. costs of production for all organizations as the industry
The current ratio is a short-term liquidity ratio which experiences growth.
calculates the ability of a business to meet its debts External growth (also known as inorganic growth) occurs
within the next 12 months. when a business relies on third-party organizations for
Customers are the buyers of a good or service. Buyers and growth, e.g. mergers, acquisitions, and franchising.
users are not necessarily the same. Extrapolation is a sales forecasting technique that makes
Cyclical variations refer to the recurrent fluctuations in future predictions of sales based on trends identified
sales revenues linked to the business cycle cause. from using past data.
Debtors are customers who have received goods or A favourable variance exists when the difference between
services, but have yet to pay for them. the actual and budgeted figure is beneficial to the
The debtor days ratio measures the average number of business.
days a business takes to collect debts from its customers A flat (or horizontal) organization has few layers of
who have bought goods and services on trade credit. management.
Decentralization refers to organizational structures which Flow production is the continuous and automated
include the delegation of decision-making authority production process that uses capital intensive production
throughout an organization, away from a central methods to maximize output by minimizing production
authority. time.
De-layering is the process of removing one or more layers Fixed assets are long-term assets (lasting more than 12
in the organizational hierarchy to make the structure months) used to produce goods and services, e.g. land,
flatter. buildings, vehicles, equipment, tools, and machinery.
Delegation is the process of entrusting and empowering Franchising refers to an agreement between a business
a subordinate to successfully complete a task, project or (the franchisor) giving the legal rights to other
job role. organizations (the franchisees) to sell products under the
Depreciation is the decline in the value of a fixed asset franchisor’s brand name.
over time, mainly due to usage (wear and tear) and Franchising is a growth strategy that involves using a
newer models or better technologies being available. third-party provider to supply the goods and services of
Differentiation is the act of making a business or its the business in return for payment of a licensing fee and
products distinct from its rivals in the industry. royalty payments.

Glossary 181
Fringe benefits (or perks) are any type of remuneration Investment appraisal is a quantitative decision-making
awarded to employees in addition to their basic pay. tool used to assess and justify the capital expenditure
The gearing ratio reveals the degree to which a business is of a firm in terms of whether it will be financially
financed by loan capital by comparing loan capital and worthwhile.
the total capital employed. Job production is the production of a special or customized
Globalization can be defined as the increased integration good or service suited to the specific requirements of an
and interdependence of economies around the world, individual customer.
with converging habits and tastes. A joint venture (JV) is an arrangement between two or
Goodwill refers to the established reputation and networks more separate parties to pool their resources together to
of a business, enabling it to be worth more than the form a new legal entity.
market value of its quantifiable assets. Just-in-case (JIC) is a stock control system that relies
Go-slows involve staff working at the minimum allowable on having spare stocks (inventory) so that output can
pace without the workers being sanctioned for breaching be raised immediately in the event of a sudden or
their employment contract. unexpected increase in demand.
Gross profit is the amount of profit from ordinary trading Just-in-time (JIT) is a lean stock control system that relies
activities. It is calculated by taking away the value of on stocks (inventories) being delivered only when they
COGS from the sales revenue. are needed in the production process.
Gross profit margin (GPM) is a profitability ratio that Kaizen is the Japanese philosophy of continuous
shows a firm’s gross profit expressed as a percentage of its improvement and changing for the better.
sales revenue. Kanban is a method of lean production that relies on
Guerrilla marketing is a marketing strategy designed to using a card system to ensure that stock usage is based
promote products in a low-cost unconventional and on actual demand from customers.
unexpected way that makes a large impact and lasting Labour turnover measures the rate of change of human
impression on the general public. resources within an organization, per period of time.
Hierarchical structures refer to the management structure The lead time refers to the length of time it takes between
of an organization based on the number of layers of a firm ordering new stock and the firm receiving the
formal authority, usually presented in a diagram or chart. stock for production.
Human resource planning is the management process of Lean production is a philosophy built into the culture
anticipating and meeting an organization’s current and of organizations that focus on less wastage and greater
future staffing needs. efficiency.
Hygiene factors are aspects of a job that can lead to Liquidity ratios are the financial ratios that look at a
workers being dissatisfied. These factors need to be firm’s ability to pay its debts.
addressed in order to prevent dissatisfaction, but do not Lock-outs occur when the employer temporarily prevents
motivate. employees from working during an industrial dispute.
Industrial democracy is the practice of involving and Loss leader pricing involves setting the price of a good or
empowering people in the workplace. service below its cost of production in order to attract
Innovation is the successful commercial creation of a new customers to buy the product along with others with
business idea, which adds value to the organization. higher profit margins.
Innovative creativity is about creating a new product or A make or buy decision is a management decision
process. which involves choosing whether to manufacture
An intangible asset is a non-physical asset that adds a product (make) or to purchase it (buy) from an
value to an organization, e.g. patents, copyrights and external supplier.
trademarks. Marketing is the process of anticipating, identifying
An intermediary is a third-party business that offers and satisfying the needs and desires of customers in a
distribution services between two trading parties. profitable way.
Internal economies of scale refer to the fall in unit costs The marketing mix is a business tool used within a
of production for a single organization as it experiences marketing plan referring to the set of actions that an
growth, e.g. managerial and financial economies of scale. organization uses to market its goods, services or brands:
Internal growth (also known as organic growth) occurs product, price, promotion and place.
when an organization expands using its own resources, Marketing objectives are the specific goals of the
without involving other organizations. marketing department in order to help achieve the
Internal sources of finance come from within the overall objectives of the organization.
business using its own resources. A marketing plan is a document that outlines a firm’s
International marketing is the marketing of an marketing objectives and strategy for a stated period of
organization’s products in foreign countries. time.
Insourcing is the use of a firm’s own resources to fulfil a Marketing planning is the systematic process of
certain role, function or task which would otherwise conducting a marketing audit, setting marketing
have been outsourced. objectives, and devising marketing strategies in terms of
Investment refers to the capital expenditure of a business, the marketing mix to achieve those objectives.
e.g. the spending on fixed assets such as premises, Market leaders are firms with the largest market share in
equipment and machinery. a given industry.

182 Glossary
Market orientation is an outward-looking marketing Operations management refers to the business function
approach that focuses on meeting the specific wants and of combining inputs to produce outputs (goods and
needs of customers. services) that are valued by consumers.
Market research is the systematic process of collecting, Outsourcing is the practice of subcontracting non-core
collating, analysing and interpreting data and activities of an organization to a third-party provider (an
information about existing and potential consumers, external organization) in order to improve operational
competitors and markets. efficiency and reduce costs.
A market segment is a distinct group of customers with An overtime ban is a directive to workers from the
similar characteristics and similar needs or wants. employees’ representative in a trade dispute to refuse
Market segmentation is the process of splitting a market working beyond their contracted hours.
into distinct consumer groups to better understand their A partnership is a commercial business organization
needs. owned by two or more people.
Market share refers to a firm’s portion of the total value of A patent is the exclusive right granted to an organization
sales revenue in a particular industry. by the government to make use of an invention or
Mass marketing is marketing strategy aimed at all process for a particular period of time.
consumers in a market without trying to differentiate The payback period (PBP) is the amount of time it takes
them into separate market segments. for a business to recover the initial cost of an investment
Microfinance providers are a type of banking service project.
provided to unemployed or low-income earners who Penetration pricing involves setting the price low enough
would otherwise struggle to gain external finance. to enter an industry and gain market share from existing
A mission statement is a clear and concise declaration of firms.
an organization’s fundamental purpose, i.e. a succinct Piece rate is a payment system, which rewards workers
description of what the organization does, in order to based on their level of output.
become what it want to be. Place (or distribution), in the marketing mix, is about
Motivators are factors which help staff to gain job making the good or service available to consumers (the
satisfaction, e.g. recognition and opportunities for end users).
personal advancement. Point of sale refers to the marketing of goods in stores
The moving average is a quantitative method used to where customers can purchase the goods.
discover the underlying trend by levelling out variations Predatory pricing involves charging a low price, even
in a data set. below costs of production, in order to harm the sales of
A multinational company (MNC) is an organization that competitor firms and to restrict competition.
operates, owns, or controls production and/or service Price discrimination occurs when a business charges
facilities in two or more countries. different prices to different customers for essentially the
Net assets are the overall value of a firm’s assets after all same product, e.g. adult and child cinema tickets.
liabilities are accounted for. Price leadership occurs when one business (usually the
Net present value (NPV) is an investment appraisal dominant firm in the industry) sets prices which are
technique that calculates the real value of an investment closely monitored and followed by its rivals.
project by discounting the value of future cash flows. Price skimming involves setting a high price when
Net profit margin (NPM) measures a firm’s overall profit launching a new and unique product.
(after all costs have been deducted) as a percentage of its Primary market research (or field research) is the
sales revenue. systematic process of collecting, recording, analysing and
Niche marketing is a corporate strategy based on interpreting new data and information about a specific
identifying and serving a relatively small market issue of direct interest to the business.
segment. The productivity rate measures the amount of output
A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a type of generated per unit of input.
non-profit social enterprise that is neither a part of a The product life cycle (PLC) refers to a marketing theory
government nor a traditional for-profit business but run that illustrates the different stages a typical product goes
by voluntary groups. through from its launch to its eventual withdrawal from
Non-sampling errors are market research mistakes that the market.
are not attributed to human errors. Product orientation is an inward-looking marketing
A no-strike agreement is a contractual agreement approach that focuses on making products that a
whereby a trade union pledges not to use strike action as business knows how to make rather than focusing on the
a form of industrial action. needs and wants of potential customers.
Objectives are the targets an organization is trying to A product position map is a visual representation of
achieve, e.g. to maximize shareholder value. customers’ perception of a product, relative to its
Offshoring is the practice of relocating part of or all of a competitors, e.g. its price and quality.
firm’s business functions and processes overseas. It can Profit is the positive difference between a firm’s total sales
but does not necessarily involve third-party providers. revenue (TR) and its total costs (TC). It is the reward
Off-the-job training is training conducted by specialists for successful risk-taking in a business.
away from the workplace. The profit and loss account shows the net profit (or
On-the-job training is training conducted within the loss) after all costs have been deducted from the
workplace while the employee is working. organization’s revenues.

Glossary 183
A profit centre is a department or division within an Revenue expenditure refers to the need for businesses to
organization that is responsible and held accountable for finance their daily and routine operations.
both its own costs and revenues. Revenue streams refer to the various sources of income
Project-based organization refers to the organization of for a business, e.g. sales revenue, royalties and rental
human resources around specific projects that need to be income.
completed. Sales forecasting is a quantitative technique used to
Promotion is the marketing process of raising customer predict the level of sales revenue that a firm expects to
awareness and interest in a product or brand in order to earn over a certain period of time.
generate sales. Sales revenue or sales turnover refers to the income from
A promotional mix refers to the combination of different the sales of goods and services.
appropriate methods of ATL and BTL promotion aimed Sampling is the practice of selecting a small group of
at specific target markets. customers from the population of a certain market for
Psychological pricing involves setting prices to make them the purpose of market research.
seem at least slightly lower, e.g. $499 instead of $500. Sampling errors are the mistakes that arise from sampling
Public–private partnerships (PPP) are organizations design.
jointly established by the government and at least one Seasonal variations are expected periodic fluctuations in
private sector organization. sales revenues over a given time period.
Public relations is an organization’s planned and sustained Secondary market research (or desk research) is the
process of maintaining mutual understanding with the collection, collation and interpretation of existing data
general public. and information from previously available sources
Qualitative research is based on opinions, feelings and Share capital is the value of equity in a company funded
perspectives. It generates in-depth, non-numerical by shareholders.
information. A social enterprise is an organization that uses
Quantitative research is based on facts and figures, i.e. commercial business practices to improve communities,
numerical patterns, correlations and results, such as how the environment and human well-being rather than
many people prefer a particular brand over its rivals. The focusing on profits for external shareholders.
results of quantitative research are usually predictive Social marketing refers to marketing activities designed to
rather than descriptive. influence the behaviour of the general public in order to
Quality assurance (QA) is an approach to quality benefit the wider community.
management that involves the prevention of mistakes in Social media marketing is the use of online tools and
the production process. websites to promote products in a less formal way, e.g.
A quality circle is a small group of employees who using Google+ and Facebook.
voluntarily meet regularly to identify, examine and solve Social networking refers to the use of internet-based tools
problems related to their work in order to improve the and platforms to create and share online content.
quality of output. The span of control describes the number of subordinates
Quality control (QC) refers to the traditional approach to who are directly accountable to a manager.
quality management by inspecting a sample of products. Stakeholders are individuals, organizations or groups with
It involves quality controllers checking or examining a a direct interest in the operations and performance of a
sample of products in a systematic way. particular business or organization.
Quantifiable risks are financially measurable threats that A STEEPLE analysis examines the influences in the
can jeopardize the survival of an organization, external environment in which a business operates, i.e.
Random variations are unpredictable and erratic social, technological, economic, ethical, political, legal,
fluctuations in sales revenues, caused by irregular factors. and environmental factors.
Redundancy occurs when a business can no longer afford A stock exchange (or stock market) is the marketplace
to hire a certain number or group of workers or because where people and businesses buy and sell second-hand
the job ceases to exist, perhaps due to seasonal or company stocks and shares, and a place for buying and
technological factors. selling shares in public limited companies.
The re-order level refers to the stock level at the time A stock-out occurs when a firm has no more stock for
when the firm places its re-order of stock. production or sale, i.e. it is out of stock.
The re-order quantity is the volume of an order in a just- Stockpiling means that a business builds up excessive
in-case stock control system. levels of inventory.
Retained profit is the amount of net profit remaining The stock turnover ratio measures the number of days it
after all costs are paid and shareholders have been takes a business to sell its stock or the number of times
compensated. It is an important internal source of the business replenishes its stock during a given period
finance. of time.
The return on capital employed (ROCE) ratio measures a Strategic alliances (SAs) are formed when two or more
firm’s efficiency and profitability in relation to its size (as businesses join forces to benefit from growth without
measured by the firm’s capital employed). any fundamental changes to their own long-term
Research and development (R&D) is the systematic strategies.
process of discovering new knowledge about products, Strike action involves employees refusing to work, thereby
processes and markets in order to fulfil market needs. preventing the organization from continuing to operate.

184 Glossary
The supply chain process is the management process of A trade union (or labour union) is established to protect
overseeing the logistics from the manufacturing stage to the interests of its members, e.g. to negotiate with
the finished product being delivered to the consumer. employers for improved pay and conditions at work.
Sustainability is business activity that meets the needs of Triple bottom line refers to John Elkington’s framework
the current generation without jeopardizing the needs of used to evaluate a firm’s performance in the context
future generations. of sustainable business activity. It comprises of
A takeover is a form of external growth that occurs when environmental, economic and social sustainability.
one company buys a controlling interest in another A unique selling point (USP) is any aspect of a business,
company. brand or a product that makes it distinctive (stand out)
A tall (or vertical) hierarchical organizational structure has from those offered by their competitors.
many levels of management, with narrow spans of control. Unlimited liability means that the owner (or owners) of a
Targeting is the practice of devising of an appropriate business is personally liable for all of its debts.
marketing mix and marketing strategies for different The usage rate refers to the speed at which stocks
market segments. (inventories) are depleted in the production process.
A target market is a particular market segment that a Value added is the process of creating a product that
business aims to focus its marketing effort on. is worth more than the cost of the inputs used to
Target price is the amount charged to customers in order produce it.
to reach break-even (or any desired target profit). Venture capital comes from external firms that invest
Target profit is the desired or expected profit from a in business start-ups and/or expanding small businesses
business, i.e. how much profit it aims to earn. with significant growth potential.
Target profit output (or target profit quantity) refers to Viral marketing is the spread of information about a firm’s
the sales volume (quantity) needed in order to reach the goods or services from one internet user to another,
target profit. possibly creating exponential growth in a marketing
Total quality management (TQM) is a quality message.
management approach that aims to involve every A vision statement is an optimistic and inspiring
employee in the quality assurance process. declaration that defines the purpose and values of an
Trademarks are the legal protection for an organization’s organization and where it wants to be in the future.
registered symbol (logo), word (brand), or phrase Working capital (or net current assets) is the amount of
(slogan). money available for the day-to-day running of a business.
Training is the process of teaching a particular new skill Work-to-rule involves workers complying with every single
or knowledge in order to develop a person’s competence rule, policy and procedure of the organization in order to
in the workplace. purposely disrupt output.

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Public–private partnerships (PPPs)

Table 1.12 Advantages and disadvantages of public–private partnerships (PPPs)

Types of non-profit social enterprises (AO3)

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