Region: South Asia

Country : Sri Lanka

1. Geography

Sri Lanka lies on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic

plate that was formerly part of the Indo-Australian Plate. It is
in the Indian Ocean southwest of the Bay of Bengal, between
latitudes 5° and 10°° N, and longitudes 79° and 82°° E. Sri
Lanka is separated from the mainland portion of the Indian
subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait. According
to Hindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indian
mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of
limestone shoals remaining above sea level. Legends claim
that it was passable on foot up to 1480 CE,
until cyclones deepened the channel. Portions are still as
shallow as 1 metre (3 ft), hindering navigation. The island
consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with
mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest
point is Pidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft)
above sea level.
Topographic map of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the Mahaweli River, extending 335
kilometres (208 mi). These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of 10 metres
(33 ft) or more. The highest is Bambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 metres
(863 ft). Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585 km (985 mi) long. Sri Lanka claims an exclusive
economic zone extending 200 nautical miles, which is approximately 6.7 times Sri
Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine
ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs and shallow beds of coastal
and estuarine seagrasses.

Sri Lanka has 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons. Sri Lanka's mangrove ecosystem spans
over 7,000 hectares and played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in
the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The island is rich in minerals such
as ilmenite, feldspar, graphite, silica, kaolin, mica and thorium. Existence
of petroleum and gas in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed, and the extraction
of recoverable quantities is underway.

2. History

Prehistoric Sri Lanka

The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back
as 500,000 years. The era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and early Iron Ages. Among
the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala (named after
the Chinese traveller monk Faxian), which dates back to 37,000
BP,Batadombalena (28,500 BP) and Belilena (12,000 BP) are the most important. In
these caves, archaeologists have found the remains
of anatomically modern humans which they have named Balangoda Man, and other
evidence suggesting that they may have engaged in agriculture and kept domestic dogs
for driving game.
 During the protohistoric period (1000-500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united
with southern India, and shared the same megalithic burials, pottery, iron technology,
farming techniques and megalithic graffiti.[45][46] This cultural complex spread from
southern India along with Dravidian clans such as the Velir, prior to the migration
of Prakrit speakers.

One of the first written references to the island is found in the

Indian epic Ramayana, which provides details of a kingdom named Lanka that was
created by the divine sculptor Vishwakarma for Kubera, the Lord of Wealth. It is said
that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor
who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city
of Wariyapola is described as Ravana's airport.

Early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people,[52] an
indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. The
19th-century Irish historian James Emerson Tennent theorised that Galle, a city in
southern Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of Tarshish from which King Solomon is
said to have drawn ivory, peacocks, and other valuables.

Ancient Sri Lanka: Pre Anuradhapura period and Anuradhapura period

Ptolemy's world map of Ceylon, first

century CE, in a 1535 publication
According to the Mahāvamsa, a Sinhalese
chronicle written in Pāḷi, the original
inhabitants of Sri Lanka are said to be
the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient
cemeteries that were used before
600 BCE and other signs of advanced
civilisation have also been discovered in
Sri Lanka.[53] Sinhalese history
traditionally starts in 543 BCE with the
arrival of Prince Vijaya, a semi-legendary
Ptolemy's world map of Ceylon, first century prince who sailed with 700 followers to
CE, in a 1535 publication Sri Lanka, after being expelled from
Vanga Kingdom (present-day Bengal). He
established the Kingdom of Tambapanni, near modern-day Mannar. Vijaya (Singha) is
the first of the approximately 189 monarchs of Sri Lanka described in chronicles such as
the Dipavamsa, Mahāvaṃsa, Cūḷavaṃsa, and Rājāvaliya.

The Avukana Buddha statue, a 12-metre-tall

(39 ft) standing Buddha statue from the reign
of Dhatusena of Anuradhapura, 5th century
The Anuradhapura period (377 BCE – 1017 CE)
began with the establishment of the Anuradhapura
Kingdom in 380 BCE during the reign
of Pandukabhaya. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served
as the capital city of the country for nearly 1,400
years.[56] Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building
certain types of structures such
as tanks, dagobas and palaces. Society underwent a
major transformation during the reign The Avukana Buddha statue, a 12-metre-tall
(39 ft) standing Buddha statue from the reign
of Dhatusena of Anuradhapura, 5th century
of Devanampiya Tissa, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BCE, Mahinda,
a bhikkhu and the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka arrived in Mihintale carrying the
message of Buddhism. His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and
propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population.

Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka

would maintain many Buddhist schools and
monasteries and support the propagation
of Buddhism into other countries
in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus
studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist
University of Nalanda, which was
destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji. It is probable
that many of the scriptures from Nalanda
are preserved in Sri Lanka's many
monasteries and that the written form of
the Tripiṭaka, including Sinhalese Buddhist
The Sigiriya rock fortress literature, were part of the University of
Nalanda. In 245
BCE, bhikkhuni Sanghamitta arrived with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is
considered to be a sapling from the historical Bodhi Tree under which Gautama
Buddha became enlightened. It is considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a
continuous historical record) in the world. (Bodhivamsa) Sri Lanka experienced the first
of many foreign invasions during the reign of Suratissa, who was defeated by two horse
traders named Sena and Guttika from South India. The next invasion came immediately
in 205 BCE by a Chola named Elara, who overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44
years. Dutugamunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan Tissa,
defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura. During its two and a half millennia of
existence, the Sinhala Kingdom was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South
Indian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, Chera, and Pallava. These invaders were all
subsequently driven back.[64] There also were incursions by the kingdoms
of Kalinga (modern Odisha) and from the Malay Peninsula as well.

The Fourth Buddhist Council of Theravada Buddhism was held at the Anuradhapura
Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka under the patronage of Valagamba of Anuradhapura in 25
BCE. The council was held in response to a year in which the harvests in Sri Lanka were
particularly poor and many Buddhist monks subsequently died of starvation. Because
the Pāli Canon was at that time oral literature maintained in several recensions
by dhammabhāṇakas (dharma reciters), the surviving monks recognised the danger of
not writing it down so that even if some of the monks whose duty it was to study and
remember parts of the Canon for later generations died, the teachings would not be
lost.[65] After the council, palm-leaf manuscripts containing the completed Canon were
taken to other countries such as Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.

Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler: Anula of
Anuradhapura (r. 47–42 BCE). Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable
construction projects such as Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", built during
the reign of Kashyapa I of Anuradhapura, who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya
rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this
protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other structures.

In 993 CE, the invasion of Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the then Sinhalese
ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this
situation, Rajendra I, son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V was
captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of Anuradhapura causing the
fall of Anuradhapura Kingdom. Subsequently, they moved the capital to Polonnaruwa.

Post-classical Sri Lanka: Polonnaruwa period and Transitional period of Sri Lanka

Following a seventeen-year-long campaign, Vijayabahu

I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070,
reuniting the country for the first time in over a
century.Upon his request, ordained monks were sent
from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism,
which had almost disappeared from the country during
the Chola reign. During the medieval period, Sri Lanka
was divided into three sub-territories, namely Ruhunu,
Pihiti and Maya.

Sri Lanka's irrigation system was extensively

expanded during the reign of Parākramabāhu the
Great (1153–1186).[74] This period is considered as a
time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power. He
built 1,470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler
in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3,910 canals, A Buddhist statue in the ancient
163 major reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs. His capital city of Polonnaruwa, 12th
most famous construction is the Parakrama century
Samudra,[78] the largest irrigation project of medieval
Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south
of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of
Ramanna (Burma) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.

After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In 1215, Kalinga Magha, an
invader with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded
and captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa. He sailed from Kalinga 690 nautical miles
on 100 large ships with a 24,000 strong army. Unlike previous invaders, he looted,
ransacked, and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa
Kingdoms beyond recovery. His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible
from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign
saw the massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka,
and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.

Sri Lanka never really recovered from the impact of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King
Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to Dambadeniya. The north,
in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom. The Jaffna kingdom never
came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450,
following the conquest led by king Parâkramabâhu VI's adopted son, Prince Sapumal. He
ruled the North from 1450 to 1467 CE.

The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically
shifting collections of capitals in south and central Sri Lanka, including
Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte, Sitawaka, and finally, Kandy.
Chinese admiral Zheng He and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in
1409 and got into battle with the local king Vira Alakesvara of Gampola. Zheng He
captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him. Zheng He erected the Galle
 Trilingual Inscription, a stone tablet at Galle written in three languages (Chinese, Tamil,
and Persian), to commemorate his visit. The stele was discovered by S. H. Thomlin at
Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in the Colombo National Museum.

Early Modern Sri Lanka: Kandyan period

The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins

with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and
explorer Lourenço de Almeida, the son
of Francisco de Almeida, in 1505. In 1517, the
Portuguese built a fort at the port city
of Colombo and gradually extended their
control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after
decades of intermittent warfare with the
Portuguese, Vimaladharmasuriya I moved his
kingdom to the inland city of Kandy, a location
A 17th-century engraving of Dutch he thought more secure from attack. In 1619,
explorer Joris van Spilbergen meeting with
King Vimaladharmasuriya in 1602
succumbing to attacks by the Portuguese, the independent
existence of the Jaffna kingdom came to an end.

During the reign of the Rajasinha II, Dutch explorers arrived on the island. In 1638,
the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East India Company to get rid of the Portuguese
who ruled most of the coastal areas. The following Dutch–Portuguese War resulted in a
Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in
the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638.
The Burgher people, a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of intermingling
between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period.

The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka. In 1595,
Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred Tooth Relic – the traditional symbol of royal
and religious authority amongst the Sinhalese – to Kandy, and built the Temple of the
Tooth. In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived.
Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon king Vira Narendrasinha's death in
1739. He was married to a Telugu-speaking Nayakkar princess from South India
(Madurai) and was childless by her.

Eventually, with the support of bhikku Weliwita Sarankara,

the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's
princesses, overlooking the right of "Unambuwe Bandara",
Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese concubine.The new
king was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of
the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch
controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.

During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of

the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, Great
Britain occupied the coastal areas of the island (which
they called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796. Two years later,
in 1798, Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha, third of the four Nayakkar kings
of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of
Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was Sri Vikrama Rajasinha of
Kandy, the last ruling Sri
Lankan monarch
crowned. The young king, now named Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, faced a British invasion in
1803 but successfully retaliated. The First Kandyan War ended in a stalemate.

By then the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company as a result
of the Treaty of Amiens. On 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British in
the second Kandyan War, ending Sri Lanka's independence. Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the
last native monarch of Sri Lanka, was exiled to India. The Kandyan Convention formally
ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to
undermine British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were thwarted
by Governor Robert Brownrigg.

The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by

the Colebrooke-Cameron reforms of 1833. They introduced
a utilitarian and liberal political culture to the country based on the rule of law and
amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of
government. An executive council and a legislative council were established, later
becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. By this time, experiments
with coffee plantations were largely successful.

Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee
prices as a result of the depression of 1847 stalled economic development and
prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc.,
and to reintroduce a form of rajakariya, requiring six days free labour on roads or
payment of a cash equivalent. These harsh measures antagonised the locals, and another
rebellion broke out in 1848. A devastating leaf disease, Hemileia vastatrix, struck the
coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years.The
British quickly found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea
instead. Tea production in Sri Lanka thrived in the following decades. Large-scale
rubber plantations began in the early 20th century.

By the end of the 19th century, a

new educated social
class transcending race
and caste arose through British
attempts to staff the Ceylon Civil
Service and the legal, educational,
engineering, and medical
professions with natives.New
leaders represented the various
British appointed Kandyan chiefs, 1905 ethnic groups of the population in
the Ceylon Legislative Council on a
communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalism reacted against Christian
missionary activities. The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique
harmony among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which has since been lost.

In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the
Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam, pressing
colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support,
and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a
"Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost
momentum towards the mid-1920s.
 The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and
introduced universal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms).
This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they
would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon, which
succeeded the legislative council.[114][115] In 1937, Tamil leader G. G.
Ponnambalam demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for
other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by
the Soulbury reforms of 1944–45.

Contemporary Sri Lanka: History of Sri Lanka (1948–present)

The Soulbury constitution ushered

in dominion status, with
independence proclaimed on 4
February 1948. D. S.
Senanayake became the first Prime
Minister of
Ceylon. Prominent Tamil leaders
including Ponnambalam
and Arunachalam Mahadeva joined
his cabinet. The British Royal
Navy remained stationed
at Trincomalee until 1956. A
countrywide popular
The formal ceremony marking the start of self-rule, demonstration against withdrawal of
with the opening of the first parliament the rice rations resulted in the
at Independence Square resignation of prime minister Dudley
Senanayake.

S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule

had a profound impact through his self-proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged
Sinhalese culture".[120] He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act,
recognising Sinhala as the only official language of the government. Although partially
reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which
perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.

The Federal Party (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance (satyagraha)

against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement
(Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the FP, to
resolve the looming ethnic conflict. The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing
protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various
government colonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political rancour
between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders. Bandaranaike was assassinated by an
extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.

Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister

in 1960, and withstood an attempted coup d'état in 1962. During her second term as
prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening ties
with the Soviet Union and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971,
Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the
country became a republic named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged
minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign
weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the
north during the 1970s. The policy of standardisation by the Sirimavo government to
rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence an affirmative
action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary
education, resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and
acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy. The assassination
of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil
Eelam (LTTE) marked a crisis point.

The government of J. R. Jayawardene swept to power in 1977, defeating the largely

unpopular United Front government. Jayawardene introduced a new constitution,
together with a free-market economy and a powerful executive presidency modelled
after that of France. It made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalise its
economy. Beginning in 1983, ethnic tensions were manifested in an on-and-off
insurgency against the government by the LTTE. An LTTE attack on 13 soldiers resulted
in the anti-Tamil race riots in July 1983, allegedly backed by Sinhalese
hard-line ministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing the
island, seeking asylum in other countries.

Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing

arms and training. In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed and the Indian Peace
Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by
neutralising the LTTE. The same year, the JVP launched its second insurrection in
Southern Sri Lanka,[141] necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in 1990.[142] In
October 1990, the LTTE expelled Sri Lankan Moors (Muslims by religion) from northern
Sri Lanka. In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated
ceasefire agreement.

The 2004 Asian tsunami killed over 35,000 in Sri Lanka. From 1985 to 2006, the Sri
Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks without
success. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government
officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008. In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda
Rajapaksa, the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE and re-established control of
the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government. Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000
people were killed during the 26 years of conflict.

3. Forms of Government

Sri Lanka is a democratic republic and a unitary state which is governed by

a semi-presidential system, with a mixture of a presidential system and a parliamentary
system. Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia. Most provisions of the constitution
can be amended by a two-thirds majority in parliament. The amendment of certain basic
features such as the clauses on language, religion, and reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary
state require both a two-thirds majority and approval in a nationwide referendum.

In common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches:

Executive: The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state; the commander in chief of the
armed forces; head of government, and is popularly elected for a five-year term. The
president heads the cabinet and appoints ministers from elected members of
parliament. The president is immune from legal proceedings while in office with respect
to any acts done or omitted to be done by him or her in either an official or private
capacity. Following passage of the 19th amendment to the constitution in 2015, the
president has two terms, which previously stood at no term limit.
Legislative: The Parliament of Sri Lanka is a unicameral 225-member legislature with
196 members elected in multi-seat constituencies and 29 elected by proportional
representation. Members are elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term. The
president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament
any time after four and a half years. The parliament reserves the power to make all
laws. The president's deputy, the prime minister, leads the ruling party in parliament
and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.

Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court – the highest and final
superior court of record, a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate
courts. The highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences. Criminal law
is based almost entirely on British law. Basic civil law derives from Roman
law and Dutch law. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance
are communal. Because of ancient customary practices and/or religion, the Sinhala
customary law (Kandyan law), the Thesavalamai, and Sharia law are followed in special
cases. The president appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the
High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the chief justice and two
Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.

4. Capital City
Capital: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (legislative)
Colombo (executive and judicial)
6°56′N 79°52′E

5. People and Culture (composition of different nationalities living within the country
and their culture)

Sri Lanka has roughly 21,670,000 people and an annual population growth rate of
1.14%. The birth rate is 17.6 births per 1,000 people, and the death rate is 6.2 deaths
per 1,000 people. Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and
around the capital. Sinhalese constitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with
74.8% of the total population. Sri Lankan Tamils are the second major ethnic group in
the island, with a percentage of 11.2%. Moors comprise 9.2%. There are also small
ethnic groups such as the Burghers (of mixed European descent) and Malays from
Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population of Vedda people who are believed
to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.

The culture of Sri Lanka is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism. Sri
Lanka is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in Kandy and
Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in Jaffna). Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese
people since then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost
physically indistinct. Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius in hydraulic
engineering and architecture. The British colonial culture has also influenced the locals.
The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's
long life expectancy, advanced health standards and high literacy rate.
Food and festivals

Dishes include rice and curry, pittu, kiribath,

wholemeal roti, string hoppers, wattalapam (a rich
pudding of Malay origin made with coconut milk, jaggery,
cashews, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and
nutmeg), kottu, and appam. Jackfruit may sometimes
replace rice. Traditionally food is served on a plantain leaf
or lotus leaf. Middle Eastern influences and practices are
found in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Sri Lankan rice and curry
Portuguese influences are found with the island's
Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such
as lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), breudher (Dutch holiday
biscuit), and bolo fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).

In April, Sri Lankans celebrate the Buddhist and Hindu new year festivals. Esala
Perahera is a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and decorated elephants
held in Kandy in July and August. Fire dances, whip dances, Kandian dances and various
other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Christians celebrate Christmas on
25 December to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and Easter to celebrate the
resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrate Thai Pongal and Maha Shivaratri, and Muslims
celebrate Hajj and Ramadan.

Visual, literary and performing arts: Cinema of Sri Lanka, Music of Sri Lanka, Dances
of Sri Lanka, Theatre of Sri Lanka, and Sri Lankan literature

The movie Kadawunu Poronduwa (The Broken

Promise), produced by S. M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala
Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema
in 1947. Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of Treasures)
marked the transition cinema from black-and-white to
colour. In recent years, movies have featured subjects
such as family melodrama, social transformation and
the years of conflict between the military and the
LTTE. The Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar
to Bollywood movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose Female dancers in traditional Kandyan dress
to an all-time high, but has been in steady decline since
then.

An influential filmmaker is Lester James Peiris,

who has directed a number of movies which led to
global acclaim, including Rekava (Line of Destiny,
1956), Gamperaliya (The Changing Village,
1964), Nidhanaya (The Treasure, 1970) and Golu
Hadawatha (Cold Heart, 1968). Sri Lankan-Canadian poet Rienzi Crusz, is the subject of
a documentary on his life in Sri Lanka. His work is The Nelum Pokuna Mahinda Rajapaksa
published in Sinhala and English. Naturalised Theatre was constructed as a major venue
Canadian Michael Ondaatje is well known for his for the performing arts
English-language novels and three films.
The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such
as Kolam, Sokari and Nadagam. Traditional music instruments such
as Béra, Thammátama, Daŭla and Răbān were performed at these dramas. The first
music album, Nurthi, recorded in 1903, was released through Radio Ceylon. Songwriters
like Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon and musicians such as W. D.
Amaradeva, Victor Ratnayake, Nanda Malini and Clarence Wijewardene have
contributed much towards the progression of Sri Lankan music. Baila originated
among Kaffirs or the Afro-Sinhalese community.

There are three main styles of Sri Lankan

classical dance. They are, the Kandyan dances,
low country dances and Sabaragamuwa dances.
Of these, the Kandyan style is most prominent.
It is a sophisticated form of dance that consists
of five sub-categories: Ves dance, Naiyandi
dance, Udekki dance, Pantheru dance and 18
Vannam. An elaborate headdress is worn by the
male dancers, and a drum called Geta Béraya is
A Low Country drummer playing the used to assist the dancers to keep on rhythm.
traditional Yak Béra
The history of Sri Lankan painting and
sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BCE. The earliest
mention about the art of painting on Mahāvaṃsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth
using cinnabar in the 2nd century BCE. The chronicles have description of various
paintings in relic-chambers of Buddhist stupas and in monastic residence.

Theatre came to the country when a Parsi theatre company

from Mumbai introduced Nurti, a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions
to the Colombo audience in the 19th century. The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and
theatre began with the staging of Maname, a play written by Ediriweera
Sarachchandra in 1956. It was followed by a series of popular dramas
like Sinhabāhu, Pabāvatī, Mahāsāra, Muudu Puththu and Subha saha Yasa.

Sri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia and is heir to the Aryan literary
tradition as embodied in the hymns of the Rigveda. The Pāli Canon, the standard
collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri
Lanka during the Fourth Buddhist council, at the Alulena cave temple, Kegalle, as early
as 29 BCE. Chronicles such as the Mahāvaṃsa, written in the 6th century, provide vivid
descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties. According to the German philosopher Wilhelm
Geiger, the chronicles are based on Sinhala Atthakatha (commentary). The oldest
surviving prose work is the Dhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya, compiled in the 9th century
CE. The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka include Sandesha Kāvya (poetic
messages) such as Girā Sandeshaya (parrot message), Hansa Sandeshaya (swan message)
and Salalihini Sandeshaya (myna message). Poetry
including Kavsilumina, Kavya-Sekharaya (Diadem of Poetry) and proses such
as Saddharma-Ratnāvaliya, Amāvatura (Flood of Nectar) and Pujāvaliya are also notable
works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan
literature. The first modern-day novel, Meena by Simon de Silva appeared in 1905 and
was followed by several revolutionary literary works. Martin Wickramasinghe, the
author of Madol Doova is considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature.

Sports
 While the national sport is volleyball, by far the most popular sport in the country
is cricket. Rugby union also enjoys extensive popularity, as do association
football, netball and tennis. Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming,
kitesurfing and scuba diving attract many Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are
two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka: Cheena di and Angampora.

6. Climate

The climate is tropical and warm,

because of moderating effects of ocean
winds. Mean temperatures range from
17 °C (62.6 °F) in the central highlands,
where frost may occur for several days in
the winter, to a maximum of 33 °C (91.4 °F)
in other low-altitude areas. Average yearly
temperatures range from 28 °C (82.4 °F) to
nearly 31 °C (87.8 °F). Day and night
temperatures may vary by 14 °C (25.2 °F)
to 18 °C (32.4 °F).

The rainfall pattern is influenced

Sri Lanka map of Köppen climate
byclassification
monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The "wet zone" and some
of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in)
of rain each year, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain.
Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of Sri Lanka comprise the "dry zone",
which receives between 1,200 and 1,900 mm (47 and 75 in) of rain annually.

The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain at 800 to
1,200 mm (31 to 47 in) per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical
cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of
the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and
depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall. An increase in average rainfall coupled with
heavier rainfall events has resulted in recurrent flooding and related damages to
infrastructure, utility supply and the urban economy.

Flora and fauna

Sri Lanka contains four terrestrial

ecoregions: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests, Sri
Lanka montane rain forests, Sri Lanka
dry-zone dry evergreen forests, and Deccan
thorn scrub forests. The country had a
2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean
score of 5.83/10, ranking it 94th globally out
of 172 countries.
The Sri Lankan elephant is one of three
recognised subspecies of the Asian elephant. The
Western Ghats of India and Sri Lanka 2011 elephant census estimated a population of
5,879.
were included among the first 18
global biodiversity hotspots due to high levels of species endemism. The number of
biodiversity hotspots has now increased to 34. Sri Lanka has the highest biodiversity per
unit area among Asian countries for flowering plants and all vertebrate groups except
birds.[170] A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27%
of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals, are endemic. Sri Lanka supports
a rich avifauna of that stands at 453 species and this include 240 species of birds that
are known to bread in the country. 33 species are accepted by some ornithologists as
endemic while some ornithologists consider only 27 are endemic and the remaining six
are considered as proposed endemics. Sri Lanka's protected areas are administrated by
two government bodies; The Department of Forest Conservation and the Department of
Wildlife Conservation. Department of Wildlife Conservation administrates 61 wildlife
sanctuaries, 22 national parks, four nature reserves, three strict nature reserves, and
one jungle corridor while Department of Forest Conservation oversees 65 conservation
forests and one national heritage wilderness area. 26.5% of the country's land area is
legally protected. This is a higher percentage of protected areas when compared to the
rest of Asia.

Flowering acacias flourish on the arid Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the
dry-land forests are valuable species such
as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. The wet zone is a tropical
evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and
creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish
in the higher altitudes.

Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks.
The Wilpattu National Park in the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the
habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has
four biosphere reserves: Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve,
the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja.

Sinharaja is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the

elusive red-faced malkoha, the green-billed coucal and the Sri Lanka blue magpie. The
untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and
lianas within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The total vegetation density,
including trees, shrubs, herbs, and seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000 individuals
per hectare. The Minneriya National Park borders the Minneriya Tank, which is an
important source of water for elephants inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed
"The Gathering", the congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank-bed in the late
dry season (August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear.
The park also encompasses a range of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone
tropical monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures
(patanas), and grasslands (talawas).

Maha rath mala (Rhododendron

arboreum ssp. zeylanicum) is a rare sub-species
of Rhododendron arboreum found in Central
Highlands of Sri Lanka.
During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and
1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set
aside four areas of land totalling
1,900 km2 (730 sq mi) as national parks.
Maha rath mala (Rhododendron Statistics of Sri Lanka's forest cover show rapid
arboreum ssp. zeylanicum) is a rare deforestation from 1956 to 2010. In 1956, 44.2
sub-species of Rhododendron
arboreum found in Central Highlands of
Sri Lanka.
percent of the country's land area had forest cover. Forest cover depleted rapidly in
recent decades; 29.6 percent in 1999, 28.7 percent in 2010.

7. Religion/s

Buddhism is the largest and is considered as an "Official religion" of Sri Lanka. "The
Republic of Sri Lanka shall give to Buddhism the foremost place and accordingly it shall
be the duty of the State to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana". Buddhism is practiced
by 70.2% of the Sri Lankan's population with most being predominantly
from Theravada school of thought. Most Buddhists are of the Sinhalese ethnic group
with minority Tamils. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by
venerable Mahinda Maurya. A sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which the
Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. The Pāli
Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first
committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE. Sri Lanka has the longest continuous
history of Buddhism of any predominantly Buddhist nation. During periods of decline,
the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and
Burma. Hinduism was the dominant religion in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Buddhism
in the 3rd century BCE. Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of
the Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa.[263] The Sinhalese
embraced Buddhism and Tamils remain Hindus in Sri Lanka. However it was activity
from across the Palk Strait that truly set the scene for Hinduism's survival in Sri
Lanka. Shaivism (devotional worship of Lord Shiva) was the dominant branch practiced
by the Tamil peoples, thus most of the traditional Hindu temple
architecture and philosophy of Sri Lanka drew heavily from this particular strand
of Hinduism. Thirugnanasambanthar mentioned the names of a number of Sri Lankan
Hindu temples in his works.

Hinduism is the second most prevalent religion and predates Buddhism. Today,
Hinduism is dominant in Northern, Eastern and Central Sri Lanka. Islam is the third
most prevalent religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab
traders over the course of many centuries, starting around the 7th century CE. Most
Muslims are Sunni who follow the Shafi'i school. Most followers today are believed to be
descendants of those Arab traders and the local women they
married.Christianity reached the country through Western colonists in the early 16th
century. Around 7.4% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians, of whom 82%
are Roman Catholics who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. Tamil
Catholics attribute their religious heritage to St. Francis Xavier as well as Portuguese
missionaries. The remaining Christians are evenly split between the Anglican Church of
Ceylon and other Protestant denominations. There is also a small population
of Zoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of
British rule,[270] but this community has steadily dwindled in recent years.
Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans.
The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days each month according to the Lunar calendar,
and Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. In a 2008 Gallup poll, Sri
Lanka was ranked the third most religious country in the world, with 99% of Sri
Lankans saying religion was an important part of their daily life.

8. Literacy rate

With a literacy rate of 92.5%, Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations
amongst developing nations. Its youth literacy rate stands at 98%,computer literacy rate
at 35%, and primary school enrollment rate at over 99%. An education system which
dictates 9 years of compulsory schooling for every child is in place.

The free education system established in 1945 is a result of the initiative of C. W. W.

Kannangara and A. Ratnayake. It is one of the few countries in the world that provide
universal free education from primary to tertiary stage. Kannangara led the
establishment of the Madhya Vidyalayas (central schools) in different parts of the
country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children. In 1942, a special
education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality
education system for the people. However, in the 1980s changes to this system
separated the administration of schools between the central government and the
provincial government. Thus the elite national schools are controlled directly by
the ministry of education and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri
Lanka has approximately 9,675 government schools and 817 private schools
and pirivenas.

Sri Lanka has 15 public universities. A lack of responsiveness of the education

system to labour market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of
an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges
for the education sector. A number of private, degree awarding institutions have
emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps, yet the participation at tertiary level
education remains at 5.1%.

9. Places of interest
Sri Lanka was famously described by Marco Polo as one of the finest islands in the world,
and it has a history that dates back thousands of years. Although it’s small, there is so
much history, nature, and beauty to see in this country. Explore the beaches, jungles, tea
plantations, temples, and much more from our list of the most beautiful spots in Sri
Lanka.

Also known as Lion’s Rock, Sigiriya is a rock fortress

and palace situated in the Matale district. Visitors can
climb up to the ancient ruins, which are surrounded by
gardens, ponds, and magnificent frescoes. The UNESCO
World Heritage Site is one of the best ancient sites in the
country. Head to the top of Sigiriya to see wonderful,
dramatic views of the rolling hills in the jungle below.

The historical Sigiriya rock fortress

Located in a diverse biological site, Adam’s

Peak is a tall, pointed mountain in central Sri
Lanka. The 2,243-meter ascent is a common
pilgrimage route in the Buddhist religion, as it
is said there is an impression of Buddha’s own
footprint near the summit. Aim to arrive at the
top of the mountain around dawn to see an
unforgettable sunrise.

Great Adam's Peak

Galle

The well-preserved colonial city Galle for

a relaxing city break. The town is full of
charming Dutch-era villas and delightful
seaside views. Visit the Galle Fort, a
Dutch-built fort that is now a World Heritage
Site and the largest remaining sea fort in Asia
built by European occupiers. Other good stops
include the natural harbor, St. Mary’s
Cathedral, and Galle International Stadium,
which is widely regarded as the most
picturesque cricket ground.

Yala National Park is the place to go

to see big cats in Sri Lanka. The park
is home to the highest concentration
of leopards in the world, and it is also
an important sanctuary for Sri
Lankan elephants and aquatic birds.
Monkeys, crocodiles, and other
critters run around the park’s grassy
plains and forest areas. The park is
located on the southeast coast of the
island.

Polonnaruwa

Fine examples of ancient Sinhalese art and architecture in Polonnaruwa. Numerous

well-preserved ruins of tombs, temples, statues and other archaeological sites are
located in the town. Hundreds of years ago, Polonnaruwa was a capital of the island as
well as a busy commercial and religious hub. Don’t miss the historical treasures this
World Heritage Site has to offer.
Bentota

This coastal town has magnificent beaches, luxury hotels, and untouched beauty. Spend
a day soaking in the sun at Bentota Beach, visit the nearby Kosgoda Turtle Hatchery, or
find peace in the Galapatha Raja Maha Vihara Buddhist temple. Bentota is a tourist hot
spot, so you’ll also be able to partake in activities like helicopter rides and water sports,
too.

Kandy
This large city is located on a plateau that is surrounded by the central highland
mountains. Kandy, a World Heritage Site, is the place to go to get a taste of Sinhalese
culture, especially if you can visit during the Esala Perahera festival in the summer. Visit
the Temple of the Tooth, which was built in the 4th century and holds a very sacred
relic—Buddha’s tooth.
Nuwara Eliya
Another plateau town surrounded by mountains is Nuwara Eliya, also known as
Little England for its old British colonial buildings like the Queen’s Cottage and
the General’s House. The area holds many natural beauties, like waterfalls, hills,
tea plantations, and the towering Pidurutalagala, the tallest mountain in Sri
Lanka. Nuwara Eliya is one of many tea plantation areas in Sri Lanka, but it is
regarded as the most important spot for tea production in the country. Don’t
forget to try a cup while you’re visiting.

Arugam Bay

Arugam Bay is located on the southeast coast of Sri Lanka, and the remote town
attracts surfers from around the world. The beach is the perfect place to spend a
relaxing day or catching quality surf breaks—the best place to surf is Main Point,
located on the south side of the bay. When you need a break from the sun and sea
air, visit the town’s historic temples or the nearby Kumana National Park.
Dambulla
This large town houses the largest and best-preserved cave temple complex in all
of Sri Lanka, holding five cave temples containing a huge collection of Sri Lankan
Buddhist artwork, including statues, shrines, and murals. The paintings and
statues tell stories from Buddha’s life—there are a whopping 153 Buddha
statues throughout the complex. Other statue subjects include Sri Lankan kings,
gods, and goddesses. The amazingly crafted murals cover a total area of 2,100
square meters.

Mirissa
Lie back in a hammock under the sun or float in the clear, turquoise water of this
small, beachside village. Beautiful hideaway beaches and a thriving nightlife
scene make Mirissa a hot spot for tourists, but because tourism didn’t take off
until the mid-1990s, the area is still quite down to earth. Mirissa is also world
renowned for its fantastic areas for whale and dolphin watching.