SCHEME OF WORK

CHEMICAL COMBINATION WEEKS (1-2)

KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER WEEKS (3-7)

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS (WEEKS 8-10)

STATES OF MATTER

Matter is made up of very tiny particles such as atoms, molecules and ions. Matter exists in three physical states namely; solid, liquid and gas.
Matter has mass and occupies space.

States of Matter

(i) Solid: The tiny particles in solid are packed very closely together hence they cannot move about. The presence of forces of attraction among
the tiny particles of solid made them to be very closely packed together and allowing only vibration among them instead of moving about. This
is what makes the solid to have a fixed shape and volume with high density. However, at high temperature, the molecules gain more energy and
break the forces of attraction among the particles thereby causing the particles to move faster. As the temperature increases more and more, the
solid melts and turns to liquid. Therefore, solid have fixed shape and volume, incompressible and very dense with the least kinetic energy when
compared with those of liquid and gasses.

(ii) Liquid: The particles in the liquid are slightly further apart than those in a solid and there exist among them weaker forces of attraction
(weaker force of cohesion); thus allowing them to vibrate rotate and move about. Liquid have fixed volume and a fixed shape but takes the shape
of its container. When the liquid is heated, its temperature increases, the forces of cohesion / attraction becomes progressively weaker.
Eventually, a stage is reached when the molecules acquire enough energy to escape as a gas. The temperature at which this occurs is called the
boiling point of the liquid. Therefore, the liquid have fixed volume, no fixed shape, less dense and incompressible with kinetic energy relatively
higher than those of solid state.

(iii) Gas: The particles in the gaseous state are very freely with large distances between them. The particles of gases have no fixed volume and
shape, compressible and least dense with the highest kinetic energy when compared with particles of other states of matter.

EVALUATION

1. Define the term matter.

2. Enumerate the three main state of matter.
3. Explain each of the states.

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

EXPLANATION OF KINETIC THEORY

The kinetic theory of matter postulates that the tiny Particles of matter are continually moving and so possess kinetic energy. An increase in
temperature causes an increase in the average kinetic energy of the particle.

Dalton’s experimental evidence shows that chemical compounds consists of molecules, which are groups of atoms of various elements. The gas
laws which explained the physical behaviour of gases can be explained by kinetic theory of gases. This theory describes the behaviour of an
ideal or perfect gas. This is to say that the kinetic theory of gases explains quantitatively the properties of gas molecules and in so doing put up
the following assumptions.

1. A gas consists of very tiny particles (usually molecules and atoms).

 2. The cohesive forces of the gas molecules are negligible.
3. These particles are in constant random and rapid motion in straight lines.
4. As a result of these movements, collisions occur between the molecules and also with the walls of the container, hence the molecules
exert pressure. No energy is lost when collision occupy. This means that the collisions are perfectly elastic.
5. The space between the molecules is very large compared to the size of the molecules. The molecules therefore have negligible (almost
zero) volume compared to the volume of the container.
6. The average kinetic energy per molecule is the same for all gas samples at any given temperature. The absolute temperature of the gas
is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the gas particles.

EVALUATION

1. The kinetic theory of matter postulates ……………………..

2. When the temperature of the particles of the molecules increases, what happens to kinetic energy?
3. Enumerate the six assumptions if the kinetic theory of matter.

THE APPLICATION OF KINETIC THEORY

The kinetic theory is useful in several respects and such aspects includes;

1. It provides reasonable explanations for the behaviour of gas.

2. It accounts for the gas laws
3. It explains important phenomenon such as diffusion
4. It provides a fundamental equation for gases.

EVALUATION

1. Mention four applications of kinetic theory of matter.

PHENOMENA TO ILLUSTRATE THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

The following phenomena illustrate the kinetic theory of matter

1. Dispersion
2. Evaporation
3. Diffusion:
4. Brownian motion
5. Osmosis
6. Tyndall effect
7. Effusion

EVALUATION

1. Define the term matter.

2. State the three state of matter.
3. Explain two out of the three main sate of matter.
4. List four importance of kinetic theory.
5. Give assumptions of kinetic theory of matter.

BOYLE’S LAW

The relationship between volume and pressure of a gas was first started by Robert Boyle in 1662.

Boyle’s law states that the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure, provided that the temperature remains
constant.

According to Boyle’s law, volume of a gas increases as the pressure decreases and vice versa.

This relationship is independent of the nature of the gas and it can be expressed mathematically as:

V∝1P∴V=kp
or PV=k
Where V = Volume at pressure P

K = A mathematical constant

For a given mass of a gas, the product of its pressure and its volume is always a constant. If the pressure of a given mass of gas increases, its
volume will decrease by a similar proportion and vice versa, as long as the temperature remain constant. This relationship can also be expressed
mathematically as:

P1V1=P2V2
Where V1 = Volume at pressure P1
V2 = Volume at pressure P2

Boyle’s law can still be re-stated as: ‘The pressure of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume, provided the temperature
remains constant. Boyle’s law can further be illustrated with the diagram below, showing that when P is increasing, V is decreasing and when P
is decreasing, V is increasing.

P1 = Initial pressure

P2 = Final pressure

V1 =Initial volume

V2 = final volume

Graphical representation of Boyle’s law

Graphical Representation of Boyles Law

Worked examples

1. 375cm3 of a gas has a pressure of 770mmHg. Find its volume if the pressure is reduced to 750mmHg.

P1V1=P2V2 (Boyle’s law)
P1 = 770mmHg

P2 = 750mmHg

V1= 375cm3

V2 = ?  (new volume of gas)

P1V1=P2V2V2=P1V1P2=770×375750=385cm3
The new volume will be 385cm3

100cm3 of a gas has pressure of 1 atmosphere. Determine the volume of the gas at 5 atmospheres keeping the temperature constant.

Solution: since T is constant, we are to use Boyle’s law.

P1  Initial pressure = l atmosphere

P1 Final pressure = 5

V1  Initial volume = 100cm3

V2 (required quantity)
Recall: V2=P1V1=P2V2
V2=P1V1P2=100×15=20cm3
EVALUATION:

1. A given quantity of gas occupies a volume of 228cm 3 at a pressure of 750mmHg. What will be its at atmospheric pressure if
temperature is kept constant?
2. A given mass of gas at 55 0C has a pressure of 3.6 x 10 4Nm-2 and occupies a volume of 1.8dm3. What volume will it occupy if its
pressure is increased to 4.8 x 104Nm-2 if the temperature is kept constant?

CHARLES’ LAW

The effect of temperature changes on the volume of a given mass of a gas at a constant pressure is described by Charles. Charles’ law states
that the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its temperature in Kelvin, provided that pressure remains constant.

The volume of the gas decreases as the temperature decreases, and increases as the temperature increases.

Mathematically, the law can be expressed as:

V∝T∴V=kT
or VT=k
Where V = volume

T = Kelvin Temperature

K = mathematical constant

A Representation of Charles’s law

For a direct relationship, when the temperature increases, the volume will also increase at the same rate and vice versa, at constant pressure .The
diagram above shows that when V is decreasing, T is also decreasing and when V is increasing, T is also increasing thus, making the quotient
constant.

Charles’s law can be represented graphically has shown below.

If we divide the varying gas volumes by the corresponding temperature in Kelvin, the result would always be a constant. This relationship can
also be expressed in another form.

V1T1=V2T2∴V2=T2V1T1
Where V1 is the volume at temperature T1

V2 is the volume at temperature T2

ABSOLUTE ZERO

This is the temperature at which the volume of a gas is theoretically zero..At this temperature there is no motiom of any form and all gases have
been liquefied or solidified. The value of the temperature is -273 0C.

TEMPERATURE CONVERSION

1. To convert from Celsius scale to Kelvin scale, add 273 i.e. T = 0C + 273. This is because O0C = 273K.
2. To convert from Kelvin scale to Celsius scale, subtract 273. i.e 0C = T − 273.

Where T = Temperature in Kevin

0
C = Temperature in Celsius.

Examples:

1. Convert the following Celsius temperature to Kelvin temperature.

(a) 1000C (b) 00C (c) -570C

Solution

Recall: T = 0C + 273

(a) 1000C = (100 + 273) = 373k

0C =(0 + 273) = (0 + 273) = 373k

(b) −570c = (−57 + 273)k = (273 − 57) = 216k

2. Convert the following Kelvin temperatures to Celsius temperature.

(a) 298k (b) 405k (b) 285k (d) 0k

Solution

Recall 00c = k – 273

298k = (298 – 273)0C = 250C

405k = (405 – 273)0C = 120C

0k = (0 – 273)0C = − 2730C

Worked examples on Charles’s law

1. A gas occupies a volume of 20.0dm3 at 373k. Its volume at 746k at that pressure will be?

Here pressure is constant. Charles’s law will apply.

V1 = 20.0dm3

T1 = 273k

T2 = 746

Recall Charles’s law V1T1=V2T2V2=T2V1T1V2=20×746273=40.0dm3

EVALUATION:

1. State Charles’s law

2. Express the two laws mathematically
3. Draw two graphs to illustrate Charles’ law.

PERIOD 3: GENERAL GAS LAW

From the gas laws, we know that the volume of a gas depends on both its temperature and pressure. The relationship between the three variable;
i.e. volume,, temperature and pressure can be summarized up as follows:

If V∝1P (Boyle’s law at constant temperature) and V∝T (Charle’s law at constant pressure)

V∝1P×T(both temperature and pressure may vary) or PVT=K (a mathematical constant for a fixed mass of gas)
PVT=K is often known as the general gas equation.
GENERAL GAS EQUATION

General gas equation states that for fixed mass of a gas under any set of conditions of V, P and T, the value of PVT  must remain constant. If
for a fixed mass of gas V1 is the volume at pressure
P1 and absolute temperature T1 and V2 is the volume at pressure P2 and absolute temperature T2 it follows that.

P1V1T=P2V2T2
The general gas equation can be used to find the volume of a gas when both its pressure and temperature change. Thus;

V2=P1V1T2P2V2
The standard temperature and pressure

The value of gases are sometimes given in standard temperature and pressure (S. T. P). These values are standard temperature= 273k and
standard pressure = 760mmHg. The S.I unit of standard pressure when used is 1.01 × 10 3Nm-2

Examples

1. At S. T. P a certain mass of gas occupies a volume of 790cm 3, find the temperature at which the gas occupies 1000cm3 and has a presence of
720mmHg

P1V1T1=P2V2T2
P1 = 760mmHg (at stp),     V1= 790cm3

T1 = 273k (at stp),  = 1000cm3

P2 = 726mmHg

T2 = New Temperature

∴T2=P2V2T1P1V1=720×1000×273760×790=330.1k
2. A given mass of gas occupies 850cm3at 320k and 0.92 × 103Nm-2 of pressure. Calculate the volume of the gas at S.T.P.

P1V1T1=P2V2T2
P1 = 0.92 × 103Nm-2          T1 = 320k

V1 = 850cm3             P2 = SP + 1.01 × 103Nm-2

T2 = 273k (at stp)

V2 = new volume of gas.

∴V2=P1V1T2P2T1=0.92×850×2731.01×103×320=660.5cm3
EVALUATION

1. Explain the general gas equation.

2. If the volume of a given mass of a gas at 298k and a pressure of 205.2 × is 2.12 . What is the volume of the gas S.T.P (standard
pressure= 1013 105Nm-2, standard temperature = 273)

IDEAL GAS LAW

The ideal gas: This is a gas sample whose properties correspond, within experimental error, to the relationship PV =RT. An ideal gas must obey
all the rules guiding Boyle’s and Charles’s laws. Ideal gas conforms to the kinetic theory of gases. Four quantities’ are important in all
experimental work, measurements or calculations involving gases. They are:

1. volume
2. pressure
3. temperature and
4. numbers of moles

Ideal gas equation is given by PV=nRT

The value of R for one mole of a gas at 273K, 1atm and volume 22.4dm3 is 0.0821atmdm3K-1mol-1 or 8.314JK-1mol-1

Examples:

1. Calculate the volume occupied by 2.5moles of an ideal gas at -23 oC and 4.0atm. (R = 0.0821atmdm3K-1mol-1)

Solution:

Using PV = nRT

where P = 4.0atm

n = 2.5 mole

T = −23 + 273 = 250K

Hence, V=nRTP=2.5×0.0821×2504=12.8dm3
NOTE:  Pressure can also be measured in other units. 760mmHg = 1atm = 101325Nm-2

Ideal gases only exist at experimental conditions of high pressure and low temperature. Basically all gases are real

REASONS WHY REAL GASES DEVIATE FROM IDEAL GAS BEHAVIOUR

1. The forces of attraction in real gases are not negligible.

2. The volume of real gases are not negligible. Hence, real gases have their own volume called excluded volume.
3. Real gases undergo inelastic collision

EVALUATION:

1. What is an ideal gas?

2. Write down the ideal gas equation for n-mole of a gas.

GAY- LUSSAC’S LAW AND AVOGADRO’S LAW

Gay- Lussac’s law describes the combining volumes of gases that react together. In his experiment, all temperatures and pressures were kept
constant:

A. STEAM: Gay- Lussac’s observed that two volumes of hydrogen reacted with one volume of oxygen to yield two volumes of steam

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

Volume 2  : 1 2

Ratio 2  : 1 2
B. HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS: One volume of hydrogen combined with one volume of chloride to yield two volumes of hydrogen.
Hydrogen + Chlorine → Hydrogen Chloride

i.e H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)

Volume 1 : 1 2

Ratio 1 : 1 2

C.
Oxyge
Carbon (II) oxide + → Carbon (IV) Oxide
n

2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)

Ratio 2  : 1 2

Gay- Lussac’s noticed that the combining volumes as well as the volumes of the products, if gaseous, were related by simple ratios of whole
numbers. He proposed the law of combining volume or gaseous volumes.
Hence; Gay- Lussac’s law combining volumes states that when gases react, they do so in volumes which are in simple ratios to one another
and to the volumes of the products, if gaseous provide that the temperature and the pressure remain constant.

EXAMPLES

1. What is the volume of oxygen required to burn completely 45 of methane (CH4)?

Equation of reaction

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2HO2(g)

Volume 1 : 2 1 2

Ratio 1 : 2 1 2

By Gay- Lussac’s Law:

1 volume of methane required 2 volumes of oxygen i.e.

1cm3 of methane requires 2cm3 of oxygen

∴ 45cm3 of methane require 90cm3 of oxygen

2. 20cm3 of carbon (I) oxide are sparked with 20cm 3 of oxygen. If all the volumes of gases are measured at S.T.P, calculate the volume of the
residual gases after sparking.

Equation of reaction 2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)

Combining volume 2 : 1 : 2

Volumes before sparking 20cm3 10cm3 20cm3

Volumes after sparking -10 20

Residual gases = un-reacted oxygen + Carbon (IV) oxide formed

Volume of residual gas = 10cm3 + 20cm3 = 30cm3

 

AVOGADRO’S LAW

Avogadro’s Law states that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.
This law means that for all of gases e.g. oxygen, hydrogen, Chlorine etc if their volumes are the same, they will have the same number of
molecules.

Avogadro’s Law is easily applied to convert volume of gases to the number of molecules. Avogadro’s Law can be used to solve problem under
Gay –Lussac’s law of combining volumes.

The formation of steam from reaction of Hydrogen and Oxygen is given below:

Reaction Hydrogen + Oxygen → Steam

Volume 2 1 2

Gay-Lussac's: 2 : 1 : 2

Avogadro's Law 2 : 1 : 2

This agrees with the equation below:

2H2(g) + O2(s)  →   2H2O(s)

i.e 2 molecules of hydrogen combine with 1 molecule of oxygen to produce 2 molecules of steam

Example:

1. 60of hydrogen are sparked with 20 of oxygen at 1000C and 1 atmosphere. What is the volume of the steam produced?

Solution

2H2  + O2   →   2H2O

From the equation, 2 molecules of hydrogen react with 1 molecule of oxygen to produce 2 molecules of steam.

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

2vols 1vol → 2vols (combining volumes)

i.e. 2cm3 1cm3 2cm3

From the above information, when 2cm3(2 vol) of H2 react, 1cm3(1 vol) of O2 will react i.e. half of H2vol, to give 2cm3(2 vol) of H2O.

Thus, 10cm3 of H2 will react with 5cm3 of O2 to produce10cm3 of H2O and so on.

From the question, we have 60cm3 of H2 and 20cm3 of O2, thus, when all the 20cm3 of O2 react, only 40cm3 of H2 will react to give 40cm3 of H2O,
because the volume of H2 is the same as that of H2O i.e.

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

2vols 1vol → 2vols

2cm3 1cm3 2cm3

40cm3 20cm3 40cm3

Thus, the volume of steam (H2O) formed is 40

 

2. What volume of propane is left unreacted when 80 of oxygen and 20 of propane react according to the equation below?

C3H8(g)   + 5O2(g)   →     3CO2(g) + 4H2O

C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O

1vol 5vols

1cm3 5cm3

4cm3 20cm3
Volume of the propane before the reaction = 20cm3
The volume that reacted = 4cm3

Volume that did not react = volume before reaction – volume that reacted i.e. 20 – 4 = 16cm 3

EVALUATION

1. State Gay–Lussac’s law

2. State Avogadro’s law.

3. 50cm3 of methane were burnt completely in oxygen according to the equation below.

CH4 + 2O2    →    Co2 + 2H2O

Calculate: (a) volume of oxygen used (b) volume of carbon(Iv) oxide produced (c) volume of steam produced.

GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION.

This law states that, at constant temperature and pressure, the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its
relative molecular mass or square root of its vapour density.                  

Mathematically, Graham’s law of diffusion can be represented as: R1R2∝P2P1−−√

Where R1 and R2 are the rates of diffusion and P1 and P2, the densities of the two gases.

The density is directly proportional to its molecular mass.

EXAMPLES

1. 100cm3 of oxygen diffuse through an office in 60 seconds while it takes120 seconds for the same office. Calculate the molecular mass of the
unknown gas [0 = 16]

Solution

RRxO2=MxMO2
Since the rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the time taken:

RRxO2=txtO2=MxMO2−−−−√(txtO2)=MxMO2Mx=MO2×(txtO2)2=32×(12060)2=32×22Mx=32×4=128g
200cm3 of hydrogen diffused through a porous pot in 40 seconds. How long will it take 300cm 3 of chlorine to diffuse through the same pot?

Solution

200cm3 of hydrogen diffused in 40secs

∴ 300cm3 of chlorine will diffuse in

300cm3200cm3×40(3×20)=60seconds
Now, using the equation,

t1t2=M1M2−−−√
Where  t = 60s,

M1 = molecular mass of hydrogen

i.e H2=(2×1)=2
M2 = molecular mass of chlorine  =cl2=2×35.5=71
T2=t1M1M2−−−√=60712−−√=6035.5−−−−√=60×5.96=357.5sec
Time of diffusion of chlorine = 358s.

How many times the rate of diffusion of hydrogen is faster than that of oxygen and what law do you use to get the answer? [vapour density] of
[H=1, O=16]

Solution

Rate (R+) of diffusion of H2

=Density of O2Density of H2−−−−−−−−−√R1R2=161−−√=41

∴ Hydrogen diffuses four times faster. The law used is Graham’s law of diffusion.

The vapour density of a gas or vapour is the number of times a given volume of gas (or vapour) is heavier than the same volume of hydrogen
measured and weighed under the same temperature and pressure.

Vapour density =mass of 1 vol of a gas or vapourmass of equal volume of hydrogen

Applying Avogadro’s law, it is possible to show that the vapour density of a gas is related to the relative molecular mass of the gas.

V.D.=mass of 1 mole of a gas or vapourmass of 1 molecule of hydrogenV.D.=mass of 1 vol of a gasmass of 2 atoms of hydrogen
∴2×V.D.= relative molecular mass
The density of hydrogen at S.T.P is 0.09cm3

Example

Calculate the vapour densities of the following gases from the given data.

1. 560cm3 of oxygen at S.T.P weighs 0.8g

2. 1,400cm3 of sulphur (iv) oxide weighs 4g

Solution

1. 1000cm3 of hydrogen at S.T.P weighs 0.09g

∴ 560cm3 of hydrogen at 560cm3100cm3×0.09=0.05g

V.D.=mass of a given volume of gasmass of equal volume of hydrogen
∴ Vapour density of oxygen =mass of 560cm3of oxygenmass of 560cm3of hydrogen
2. 1000cm3 of hydrogen at S.T.P weighs 0.09g.

∴ 1400 of hydrogen will weigh 1400×0.091000=0.126g

Vapour density =mass of a given volume of gasmass of equal volume of hydrogen
∴ Vapour density of SO2 =mass of 1400cm3 of SO2mass of 1400cm3 of H2=4g0.126=31.74≅32
EVALUATION

1. Deduce the relationship between relative molecular mass and vapour density of a substance.
2. Define vapour density of a gas.

MOLAR VOLUME OF GASES- AVOGADRO NUMBER AND THE MOLE CONCEPT

The molar volume of any gas is the volume occupied by one mole of that gas at s.t.p. and is  numerically equally to 22.4dm3  i.e. one mole of any
gas at s.t.p. occupies the same volume the value of which is 22.4dm3 . This value is called molecular mass or molar mass.

From the Avogadro’s law, the molar volume for all gases contains the same number of molecules. This number is called the Avogadro’s number
or constant and the value is 6.02×1023 at s.t.p
MOLE: The mole can be defined as the amount of substance which contain as many elementary particles or entities e.g. ions, molecules,
atoms, electrons as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon -12.

The mole of any substance represents 6.02×1023 particles of any substance. Therefore, a mole refers to Avogadro’s number of particles of any
substance.
In summary, the molar mass of a gas contains Avogadro’s number of molecules which is 6.02×1023 and occupies a volume of 22.4dm3  at s.t.p.
The atomic mass of every element also contains Avogadro’s number of atoms.

The mole concept– This says that one mole of any substance contains the same number of particles; which can be atoms, molecules or ions.
This number is 6.023×1023dm3 (the Avogadro’s number)
Examples

1. 158g of a gas at s.t.p. occupies a volume of 5000dm3 . What is the relative molecular masss of the gas? (Molar volume at s.t.p= 22.4dm3 mol-1

Solution

Volume of gas: V = 50.00dm3

Molar volume of gas; V = 22.4dm3 mol-1

N = amount in moles

=vvN=5022.4dm3mol−1=2.23mol
Molar mass M of the gas =Mn=158g22.4dm3mol−1=70.8
Molar mass = 71 gmol-1

2. What is the mass of 3 moles of oxygen gas O2? (O = 16)

Mass of 1 mole of O2=(2×16)g=32g

Mass of 3moles of O2=(3×32)g=96g
3. How Many moles are there in 20g of CaCO3? [CaCO3 = 100]

Molar mass of CaCO3 = 100g

100g of CaCO3 = 1 mole

20g of CaCO3 =20100×1mole=0.2mole
EVALUATION

1. Using the relationship between mole and Avogadro’s number. Define mole in six ways.

DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that for a mixture of gases that do not react chemically, the total pressure exerted by the mixture of gases
is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.

Mathematically, Dalton’s law of partial pressure for a mixture of n gases can be expressed as:

Ptotal = P1 +P2+P3 +………..+ Pn where Ptotal is the total pressure exerted by the mixture of gases that dot not react, P 1, P2, P3……Pn are partial
pressure of the individual gases.

Example:

If 20.0dm3 of hydrogen were collected over water at 17oC and 79.7kNm-2 pressure; Calculate the

(a) Pressure of dry hydrogen at this temperature.

(b) Volume of dry hydrogen at s.t.p.

(vapour pressure of water is 1.90 kNm-2 at 17OC)

Solution:

(a)

PH2  =  Ptotal – Pwater vapour

=  79.7 – 1.90

=  77.8 kNm-2

(b)

P1V1T1=P2V2T277.9×20290=101.3V2273V2=14.5dm3
1. (a) State Graham’s law of diffusion

(b) Arrange the following gases in decreasing order of diffusion rate: Chlorine, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen sulphide and Carbon(IV) oxide

[H = 1, C = 12, O = 16, S = 32, Cl = 35.5]

2. (a)  What do you understand by s.t.p?

(b) If the volume of a given mass of gas at 298k and pressure of 205.2  × 103 Nm−2 is 2.12dm3, what is the volume at S.T.P? Standard pressure=
101.3 × 103 Nm. Standard temperature = 273k

3. Calculate the number of moles of the following at s.t.p

(a) 16g of oxygen

(b) 67.2dm3 of nitrogen gas, and

(c) 1.14dm3  of hydrogen chloride gas.

O = 16, H = 14, N =1. Molar volume of gas at S.T.P = 22.4dm3

(b) (i) Convert 33ºC  and -41ºC  to Kelvin scale

(ii) Convert 270k and 315k to 0ºC

COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

COMPOUND

A compound is a substance which contains two or more elements chemically combined together. A compound is formed as a result of a chemical
change. It is a new substance with entirely different properties from those of substances from which it is formed. For example water is a
compound of hydrogen and oxygen chemically combined in the ratio 2:1 by mass respectively. Other examples of compound are sound,
limestone, common salt, petrol, kerosene, etc.

MIXTURE

A mixture is made up of two or more substances which can be mixed together, mechanically, in any proportion. It can be said to contain two or
more constituents which easily be separated by physical method. Examples are air, soil, well water, tap water, milk, sweat, blood etc.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

S/N COMPOUNDS MIXTURES

1 Constituents are present in a fixed proportion by mass Constituents can be mixed in any proportion

2 Constituents are joined by chemical bonds No chemical bond between constituents

3 It is always homogeneous It may be homogeneous or heterogeneous

The properties differ entirely from those of its The properties are the sum of those of its
4
components elements individual constituents

Constituents of compounds cannot be separated Components of mixtures can be separated

5
by physical means by physical means
EVALUATION:

1. Define and give one example of (a) homogeneous mixture (b) heterogeneous mixture
2. Describe an experiment to show that sea water is a mixture.
3. Explain why air is regarded as a mixture

SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF TWO SOLIDS

The following methods are employed in the separation of a mixture of two solids:

1. Sieving
2. Magnetic separation
3. Sublimation

1. SIEVING: This is a method used to separate a mixture of two solids of different sizes. The mixture is placed on a sieve with a mesh of a
particular size. Particles smaller than the mesh size of the sieve will pass through the sieve while the bigger particles remain on the sieve. Sieving
method is applied in the mining industries, garri making industries etc.

2. Magnetic separation: To separate magnetic solids from non-magnetic ones. This method is used in the steel industry and to remove magnetic
impurities from tin ore.

3. Sublimation: Solids which sublime are separated from other solids that sublime (i.e. they turn directly from solid to gas and from gas to solid
without turning to liquid) are

 Ammonium chloride
 Aluminum chloride
 Camphor
 Iodine crystals
 Solid CO2 (dry ice)

Purification by sublimation
Purification by sublimation

EVALUATION

1. (a) Define sublimation (b) Give three examples that can sublime
2. Give three applications of sieving as separation technique.

SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF AN INSOLUBLE SOLID AND A LIQUID.

1. DECANTATION: The mixture is allowed to stand for some time until it separates into two distinct layers and an upper clear liquid
layer. The clear liquid can be carefully poured or decanted into a second container.
2. CENTRIFUGATION: This involves the use of a centrifuge to separate solid particles from a liquid as shown in the diagram below.
As the centrifuge spins the mixture, the solids separates and settles at the bottom of the test tube while the liquids on the top layer can
easily be decanted.

The Centrifugation Process

The Centrifugation Process

3. FILTRATION: As shown below, the mixture is poured into s porous material (filter paper) folded inside a funnel. The solid particle that
remains inside the liquid that drips through the filter paper is known as the filtrate.
The Filtration Process

The Filtration Process

EVALUATION:

1. Explain briefly, how a mixture of sand and water can be separated.

2. Explain how plasma can be separated from blood.

SEPARATING A SOLUBLE SOLID FROM A LIQUID

1. Evaporation: Evaporation method is used to recover a solid solute from a solution in which it is soluble to give a solution. The method is
suitable if the solid has a high melting point i.e. cannot be decomposed by heating.

Evaporation is based on the large different between the boiling points of the solid and solvent. For example common salt can be recovered from
its aqueous solution by complete evaporation of water. The solvent (liquid) is usually sacrificed.

The Evaporation Process

Note: Evaporation method is not suitable for salts that can easily be destroyed by heating.

2. Crystallization: Crystallization is a method used to separate salts which decompose easily on heating from their solutions. The salt solution
(the mixture) is heated to drive away some of the liquid (i.e. to evaporate some of the liquid) (i.e. to evaporate some of the liquid) until solution
becomes concentrated or saturated. The concentrated solution remaining is allowed to cool slowly resulting in the formation of crystals. Crystal
formation can be induced by (i) adding crystals of the same salt to serve as seed. (ii) Scratching the inside of the vessel containing the solution.

Note: If all the liquid is evaporated a powder will be obtained and not crystals. This powder might also contain impurities which otherwise
would have remained in the solution and not contaminate the crystals. Many crystals formed on cooling saturated solution contain water which is
chemically combined and loosely bonded to the crystals. This water is called  water of crystallization. Salts which contain water of
crystallization are said to be hydrated. Those which do not are anhydrous. Those are often powders.

EVALUATION:

1. Outline the processes involved in recovery of salt from its aqueous solution.
2. State one difference between crystallization and evaporation to dryness.
3. Give two ways of inducing the recovery of salt by crystallization.
 

SEPARATING A SOLUBLE SOLID FROM A LIQUID:

1. FRACTIONAL CRYSTALLIZATION:

This is a method used to separate a mixture containing different soluble solid solutes in a liquid. The solubility of the different solid solutes in
the given solvent must differ at different temperatures. The process of separation is the same as in crystallization process. While cooling the
solution crystals of the relevant solid solutes will come out of the solution leaving behind the others which are still within their limits of
solubility.

2. PRECIPITATION (PHYSICAL): There are physical and chemical separation techniques involving precipitation.

In physical precipitation, two solids that are soluble in the same solvent are separated by the addition of another solvent in which one of the
solids is insoluble, e.g. an aqueous solution of common salts (sodium chloride) and green vitriol( a compound of iron). It is a method used to
separate a solid which has a difference in solubility in two different miscible liquids. For example, ethanol and water are two miscible liquids.
Iron(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI) is soluble in water but not in ethanol. On addition of ethanol to a solution containing a mixture of iron(II)
tetraoxosulphate and water, the iron(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI) will be precipitated out and can be separated by filtration.

SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF TWO OR MORE LIQUIDS

1. DISTILLATION

Distillation is the evaporation of water or other liquids from a solution and its recovery on a pure state by condensation. The method of
distillation is used to recover a solvent (liquid from a solution mixture). That is, a pure liquid from an impure liquid (mixture). The apparatus
used are shown in the diagram below.

(a) Simple distillation process

A mixture of two liquids with widely differing boiling points can be separated by evaporating one from the other and re-condensing it in a
separate vessel. The process is called simple distillation.

Distillation is carried out by condensing the vapour, using a condenser. The vapour which is condensed and collected in a separate vessel is
called the distillate.

At the end of the distillation process the liquid that is collected at the end of the Liebig condenser is called the  distillate. The solutes and other
impurities are left behind in the distillation flask.
Differences between evaporation and distillation

S/N DISTILLATION EVAPORATION

1 Mainly for obtaining the solvent. Mainly for obtaining salt from solution.

2 It involves boiling and condensation. It involves boiling only.

(b) Fractional Distillation

Fractional Distillation is a process used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids by a repeated evaporation and condensation making use of
fractionating column (as shown in the diagram below)

Mixture of two or more miscible liquids are separated into its component parts. The liquids distill according to their boiling points starting with
the liquid with the lowest boiling point. The apparatus used is the same as in distillation except for the presence of a  fractionating
column between the flask and the condenser.

Fractional Distillation

Note: For efficient fractional distillation, the difference in the boiling points between successive fractions must be more than 10 0c.

EVALUATION:

1. Explain briefly, the process of distillation.

2. Explain briefly, the process of fractional distillation.

SEPARATING IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS (USING SEPARATING FUNNEL METHOD)

This a method used to separate a mixture of immiscible liquids e.g. a mixture of petrol and water. When the two liquids are added together they
do not mix, instead they separate into two distinct layers, a lower denser layer and an upper less dense layer in the funnel as below.
Separating Immiscible Liquids (Separating Funnel Method)

EVALUATION:

Draw a labeled diagram to show how you would separate a mixture of kerosene and water.

CHROMATOGRAPHY

Separating complex mixtures by chromatography: This is a method of separation of the components of mixtures of solutes from a solution
(mixture) using a solvent (liquid) moving over a porous, adsorbent medium e.g. filter paper or gel. This method can be mixtures of soluble
substances. There are different types of chromatographic methods. Paper chromatography (ascending paper chromatography), column
chromatography, thin layer chromatography and gas chromatography.

ASCENDING PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Ascending Paper Chromatography

As shown in the above diagram, the apparatus include: a glass jar with lid, filter paper, clips, solvent (water or ethanol). The solution containing
the mixture of solutes to be separated is spotted unto the strips of paper near one end.

The paper is then suspended in a closed air- tight jar with the spotted end (but not the spot) dipping into the solvent. As the solvent ascends the
paper the different solutes in the mixture gets dissolved and also more along the paper strip at different speeds and hence become separated. The
paper strip is removed from the jar when the solvent has moved about three-quarters way up the strip. It is dried and if necessary sprayed with
appropriate chemical reagents to locate the positions of the various components along the strip. Each solute can then be identified by the distance
it has traveled. This is done by comparing its distance with those of known standard substances.

EVALUATION
 1. Name the most suitable physical method for each of the following. (a) Containing groundnut oil from a mixture of the oil and water.
(b) Obtaining pure water from sea water.
2. Draw the laboratory set up most suitable for each of the following. (a) Separating of a mixture of palm oil and water (b) Separate of
pure liquid from an impure liquid.
3. State one industrial application of each of the following methods of separation explaining clearly the procedure. (a) crystallization (b)
filtration (c) fractional distillation (d) evaporation
4. With the aid of a labelled diagram only show how pure sample of ethanol (alcohol) can be obtained from a mixture of ethanol and
water.
5. Why is sodium chloride solution regarded as a mixture? (b) Draw a labelled diagram to show how pure sodium chloride can be
obtained from its solution.

FLOATATION

Floatation method is based on the wide difference in the densities of the components of the mixture. The method is used for the separation of a
mixture of two solids in which one component is light and the other is heavy. On the addition of a liquid in which neither is soluble, one
component sinks, while the other floats. e.g. a mixture of coarse sand and wooden cork.

PROCEDURE: Place the mixture in a beaker and add plenty of water. The sand particles sink, while the wooden corks float.

FROTH FLOTATION (FROSTATION)

This method is specifically used to separate an ore of a metal from earthy impurities.

PROCEDURE: The ore is crushed into powder and then mixed with water containing detergent, in order to cause frothing (foaming).

Air is then blown into the mixture so that the earthy impurities sink while the ore floats and mixes with the foam. The ore is finally recovered
from the foam

PURE AND IMPURE SUBSTANCES: The following are the criteria for purity of chemical substances.

DENSITY: The density of a pure substance is definite and constant, while that of an impure substance higher than expected.

MELTING POINT: The melting point of a pure solid is sharp and definite. The presence of an impurity lowers the melting point of a
substance, and spread its melting point over a wide range of temperatures.

FREEZING POINT: The freezing point of a pure liquid is sharp and definite; the presence of an impurity lowers the freezing point.

BOILING POINT: The boiling point of a pure liquid is sharp and definite. An impurity raises the boiling point of a pure liquid.
TEST FOR PURITY

After separation of substances from mixtures, it is important to know if they are pure. A pure solid should melt at a constant temperature. A pure
liquid should boil at a constant temperature. A pure dye should give only one spot on a chromatogram. The melting points or boiling points of
pure substances are fixed. These temperatures change if impurities are present. To assess the purity of a substance its melting point (if it is a
solid) or its boiling point (if it is liquid) is determined (if the value obtained agrees with that given in a book of data, then the substance is pure).

The apparatus below can be used to find the melting point of a solid.

Apparatus used to find the melting point of a solid

The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes to liquid. The melting point tube is very thin- a capillary tube- and the
substance under test must be finely powdered so that it can be packed into the capillary tube (melting point tube). The beaker containing the oil
is heated slowly and the oil stirred vigorously. If the solid is pure it will all melt at a constant temperature. i.e. it will have a sharp melting point.

NOTE: If impurities are present the mixture will melt slowly over a range of temperatures below the melting point of the pure solid.

EVALUATION:

1. How will you know that a given liquid is not pure?

DETERMINATION OF THE BOILING POINT OF LIQUIDS

(a) Flammable liquids (b) In flammable liquids

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure equals atmospheric pressure.

The apparatus shown above can be used to find the boiling points of liquids.

A pure sample of liquid will boil at a fixed temperature and the reading on the thermometer will remain constant. If the light is not pure it will
boil over a range of temperature above the boiling point of the pure liquid.

Impurities lower the melting point of a substance and raise its boiling point.

EVALUATION:

1. List five pieces of apparatus that are common to the determination of melting and boiling points of a chemical substance.
2. (a) Define the term’ chromatography’.  (b) Name the different types of chromatography (c) Describe with the aid of a diagram how
you would separate a mixture of inks.
3. (a) List three physical properties that are common criteria for purity of substances. (b) List five pieces of apparatus that are common to
the determination of melting and boiling points of a chemical substances
4. (a) State the importance of the measurement of melting and boiling points. (b) Explain briefly why salt is always sprinkled can the icy
roads in countries where the temperature falls below 273k.
5. Explain the following term briefly (i) floatation (ii) frostation
INTRODUCTION

A chemistry laboratory is a place, usually a room, where scientific experiments are performed by the use of pieces of apparatus and chemical
reagents.

A Chemistry Laboratory

Chemistry laboratory apparatus: Mostly all the apparatus are usually made up of glass such as Pyrex (borosilicate)soda glass, beaker, test
tube etc., metals, wood, plastics, and porcelain. Some are improvised i.e. they are locally made such as bamboo for making measuring cylinder,
coconut shell for making beaker etc.

EVALUATION

1. What is the purpose of laboratory?

2. List three materials that can be used to produce laboratory apparatus.

CHEMISTRY LABORATORY APPARATUS AND THEIR USES

1. BEAKER: Commonly made of Pyrex glass. It has a flat bottom, cylindrical and graduated, usually with lip for easy pouring.

Beakers

USES: Beakers are used to keep reagents for chemical tests, for holding and pouring liquids, and for measuring the volume of liquids.

2. SEPARATING FUNNEL: It is made of glass with ashort stem, stopcork, and a stopper. It may be conical, cylindrical, or spherical.
Separating Funnel

USE: It is used in the separation of immiscible liquids,e.g. a mixture of kerosene and water.

3. EVAPORATING BASIN OR DISH: Is made of porcelain. It may be round –bottomed or flat-bottomed, usually shallow, and with spout
(lip).

Evaporating Basin or Dish

USES: It is used in the evaporation of a liquid solution to dryness, or to concentrate a solution.

4. TRIPOD STAND, WIRE GAUZE AND BUNSEN BURNER:

 TRIPOD STAND: Made of iron, has either a triangular or circular top. It is used as a support for flask when heating.
 WIRE GAUZE: Made of iron mesh with asbestos center. It is usually placed on a tripod stand as a support for flask or boiling tube
when heating.
 BUNSEN BURNER: Used in providing heat (high temperature) by the combustion of liquefied gas (propane or butane). It is
composed of a metal tube with a wide metal base. It is sometimes positioned in–between the legs of the tripod stand when heating.

5. DISTILLATION FLASK: has a flat or round bottom made of glass with a slanting side arm.

Distilling Flask
USE: during distillation.

6. MORTAR AND PESTLE: They are made of porcelain or agate.

Mortar and Pestle

USE: They are used in grinding or crushing solids into fine powder.

Chemistry Laboratory Common Equipment

CHEMISTRY LABORATORY SET-UPS

A laboratory set-up is the combination of two or more apparatus, which are arranged in such a manner that the set-up is workable.

1. Filtration
2. Simple Distillation

3. Fractional Distillation
4. Paper Chromatograph

5. Desiccators

COMMON LABORATORY ACCIDENTS

Laboratory accidents are something unpleasant, undesirable or damaging that happens unexpectedly or by chance in the laboratory.

Generally it could involve the inhalation of dangerous substances or physical injury as the case may be. Most of the laboratory accidents occur as
follows:

1. GLASS CUT:

 Report the situation to your facilitator and let him help the injured person.
  There is always a possibility of infection, even with the most minor injury. For this reason you should report any cut or scrape, even if
there is no visible blood.
 If there is blood at any laboratory station, move to your seat in the classroom area until told it is safe to return to the laboratory.

2. FIRES:

 Laboratory burners are the source of most problems:

 Bunsen burners have very few malfunctions. If a malfunction occurs, turn off the gas and notify your facilitator – end of problem.
 The flame from alcohol burners is hard to see. Pay close attention when using them.
 Be aware when a burner is in use at your lab station. Be extremely careful during that time.
 Paper is the most common type of fire in the lab.
 This type of fire is caused by carelessness and is easily prevented. Take only one lab sheet to your station to follow your written
procedures and record data. Leave all reference materials at your desk. If you need to refer to reference material, leave the lab area to
do so.
 If a paper fire occurs, push the paper into the lab sink and turn on the water – end of problem.
 Clothing or Hair is the most dangerous type of fire in the lab.
 Don’t panic!
 If you are the one involved in a fire – stay where you are – help is coming. “Stop, drop, and roll” is still the best course of action. If
the fire is not at your lab station – stay away!

THE FIRE EXTINGUISHER IS LOCATED ON THE WEST WALL.

 Only the science facilitator is authorized to use the fire extinguisher.

 Fire extinguishers are classified according to a particular fire type and are given the same letter and symbol classification as that of the
fire.

Fire Extinguisher

TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Most lab fire extinguishers is Type ABC, effective against Types A, B, and C.

The average fire extinguisher only operates about 10 seconds. Do not waste it!

You must get close to the fire – as close as 5 or 6 feet!

To effectively operate an extinguisher, think P-A-S-S.

P — Pull the pin

A — aim the hose at the base of the fire
S — squeeze the handle
S — sweep the hose back and forth

3. ACID BURNS

4. INHALING TOXIC GASES

5. EXPLOSION
6. ELECTRIC SHOCK

7. SWALLOWING TOXIC CHEMICALS

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

The following are the basic rules and regulations to guide your safety and hence prevent accidents in the laboratory.

A. DANGER

1. Always handle glass wares being fragile, with care to avoid glass cuts.
2. Never use sodium, potassium, phosphorus or concentrated (conc) acids and alkalis unless you are specially instructed. These chemicals
are corrosive. Always add concentrated acid to water slowly, when diluting the acid, never add water to acid. This is to avoid acid
burns, explosion and fire.
3. Do not taste or drink any chemical, and never smell any chemical directly .This is to avoid swallowing or inhaling toxic chemicals.
4. Do not mix chemicals aimlessly, or carry out any experiment except when instructed, to avoid explosion or fire outbreak
5. Do not put a glowing splint or a burning paper in the waste bin, to avoid fire outbreak.
6. Do not touch or hold any electric instrument with wet hands.
7. All accident should be reported immediately to your facilitator.
8. Laboratory coats must be worn to protect clothing from soiling, damage from accidents of various sorts.

B. CLEANLINESS AND EXPENSES

(i) Pour liquids only down the sink or funnel, and never pour solids, to avoid blockage.

(ii) Clean the apparatus after use and replace them in their proper places.

(iii) Wipe down your bench and leave it clean and dry.

(iv) Do not light the Bunsen burner or other sources of heat until required. Turn it off when no longer required.

(v) Do not bring any food or drink in to the laboratory and avoid eating, drinking or smoking in the laboratory.

(vi) Contact  lenses should NOT be worn in the laboratory

 It is almost impossible to remove contacts after chemicals have been splashed into the eye.
 Chemicals trapped under contacts will damage the eye even more than normal.
 The plastic used for some types of contact lenses is permeable to vapours found in the laboratory. If these vapours are trapped behind
the lens, irritation may occur.

EVALUATION

1. You are provided with the following laboratory apparatus give one use for each of the following pieces of apparatus.

(a) Reagent bottle (b) Water bath (c) Combustion boat (d) Wash bottle (e) Deflagratine spoon (f) Evaporating dish (g) Desiccator (h) Tripod
stand (i) Test tube rack (j) Liebig condenzer (k) Beam balance.

2. With the aid of a diagram, draw the laboratory apparatus/set–up for drying solids in the laboratory.

3. Mention THREE basic rules and regulations regarding safety in the laboratory.

4. Mention two laboratory accident and they can be prevented.

5. Name two apparatus used during filtration process.

6. Identify the apparatus you would use to carry out the following in the laboratory

 Separating two immiscible liquids

 Condensing steam to liquid
 Drying a sample of residues
 Measuring a small quantity of liquid