Hydrology and Water Management Abasyn (1) - 1

HYDROLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT
NAME:
__________________________________________
REG. NO:
__________________________________________
SEMESTER:
__________________________________________
PREPARED BY: Engr. Ali Nasir

Lab Engineer
ABASYN University Islamabad
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPT

ABASYN University Islamabad
HYDROLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT LAB MANUAL BOOK
Table of Content
List of Experiments
Following experiments are performed in this course
DESIGN EXERCISE NO. 1 ……………………………………………………… Page No. (6)
To plot a graph for the given data of the temperature “t” and the saturated vapor pressure “e s” of
air showing that the saturated vapor pressure is a function of the temperature. Also find the
following for the given conditions:
1. Saturation deficit (es– e)

2. Relative humidity (f)
3. Dew point temperature (td)
Annual precipitation at rain gauge “x” and the average annual precipitation at ….. Surrounding
rain gauges are listed in the following table:
1. Examine the consistency of station “x” data

2. When did the change in the regime occurred? Discuss possible reasons.
3. Adjust the data and determine what difference this makes to the….. Year’s annual
precipitation at station “x”.
To determine Average precipitation by Arithmetic mean, Thiessen Polygon and Isohyetal

methods.
Plot rating curve for the station and extend the relation to estimate the flow at the required stage
by Logarithmic, Slope Area and A√D Method.
DESIGN EXERCISE NO.5 ……………………………………………………… Page No. (42)
Given are the ordinates of a storm hydrograph for a river draining catchment area of . . . . . (km 2)
due to ……. hour’s isolated storm. Derive the ordinates of ……hour’s unit hydrograph for the
catchment.
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 2

The Ordinates Of ……..Hours Unit Hydrograph Are Given, Derive The Ordinates Of:
1. S-Curve Hydrograph
2. Hours Unit Hydrograph
LAB EXERCISE NO.7 ……………………………………………………… Page No. (59)
To carryout experimental Rainfall Runoff relationship (Storm Hydrograph).
Water Abstraction from a single well in an Unconfined Aquifer (Single Well Abstraction).
Water Abstraction from a number of neighboring wells in an Unconfined Aquifer (Two Wells
Abstraction).

Preface
This Laboratory Manual is intended to provide undergraduate engineering students an
understanding of the basic principles of Hydrology and Water management related to the
advanced level of the B.Sc. Civil Engineering.
In this text, related theory is discussed with help of the photographs to quickly grasp the basic
concepts .To further elaborate the theory, blank spaces are provided for observations. It also
contains brief procedure for the experiment, self-explanatory table of observations and
calculations, blanks spaces for writing results and finally comments on the results. As practiced
university, SI units are also used in this manual .However, wherever felt necessary, values in
alternate units are also provided to facilitate students.
.
Any comments/ suggestions by the teachers / students will be highly appreciated.

LAB MANUAL BOOK
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Professor Dr. Salik Javaid, Head of Department of Civil Engineering,
ABASYN University Islamabad, and Engr. Zeeshan Ullah Assistant Professor in ABASYN
University Islamabad for reviewing the manuscript and offering many helpful suggestions for
the manual in particular and many other colleagues and students in general.
HYDROLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT LAB MANUAL
Design Exercise No. 1

To plot a graph for the given data of the temperature “T” and the saturated vapor
pressure “es” of air showing that the saturated vapor pressure is function of the
temperature. Also find the following for the given conditions:
1) Saturation deficit (es – e) 2) relative humidity (f) 3) dew point temperature (td)
RELATED THEORY:
HYDROLOGY
Hydrology is the science of waters of the earth, their occurrence, circulation and distribution
over the globe, their physical and chemical properties and their reaction / interaction with the
physical and biological environment.
It deals with precipitation, evaporation, infiltration, ground water flow, runoff, stream flow and
the transport of substances dissolved or suspended in the flowing water. So, it is the scientific
study of hydrological cycle. The hydrological cycle involves evaporation, transpiration,
interception, infiltration, run-off, seepage and precipitation. Due to solar radiation, water from
ocean, river, lakes or any other body on earth surface evaporates in gaseous form.

ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY
It includes those segments of the field pertinent to planning, design and operation of engineering
projects for the control and use of water.
SIGNIFICANCE OF HYDROLOGY
Study of water is extremely necessary as:

i. It is the basic need for human life over the planet.
ii. To cope with extreme hydrological events (For examples: Floods, droughts, etc.)
iii. To determine input data for the design and operation of hydraulic structures like dams,
reservoirs, storm drainage system, water supply schemes, etc.
METEOROLOGY
It is the science of atmosphere which is gaseous envelope surrounding the earth.

CLIMATIC FACTORS
Meteorology of the region is affected by certain climatic factors:
i. Amount and distribution of precipitation
ii. The occurrence of snow and ice
iii. Wind velocity
iv. Temperature
v. Humidity
IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE OF METEOROLOGY
i. Cloud formation
ii. Occurrence of precipitation
iii. Thunder storm formation
iv. Movement of rainstorms
v. Weather forecast
vi. Flood warnings and forecasts
ATMOSPHERE
It is the gaseous envelope around the earth surface. It consists of many gases like nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.
Different layers of atmosphere are:

i. Troposphere
ii. Stratosphere
iii. Mesosphere
iv. Thermosphere

TROPOSPHERE / HYDROSPHERE
It is the layer of atmosphere adjacent to the surface of earth which contains about 99% of the
total atmospheric water. Its average thickness is about 8-12km.
It is the most important layer with reference to the Civil Engineering as all the hydrological
processes takes place in this layer.
ATMOSPHERIC WATER
It is the water available in the atmosphere in the form of water vapors, ice crystals, clouds and
precipitating particles etc.
VAPORIZATION
It is the process of transformation of water from liquid state to vapor state.

VAPOR PRESSURE “e”
Pressure exerted by the water vapors in air is known as Vapor pressure. The commonly used
units are mm of Hg.
SATURATION VPOR PRESSURE “es”
It is the vapor pressure when air is fully saturated at a given temperature. It is the measure of
moisture holding capacity of air which increases with the increase in the air temperature.
Its values can be obtained from the Psychometric tables.
It can also be obtained (within 1%range) from the value of temperature in the range of - 50 0C to
55oC by the use of following equation:
es ≈3.38639 [ (0.00738T + 0.8072)8 – 0.000019( 1.8T + 48 ) + 0.001316]
SATURATION DEFICIT
The difference between the saturation vapor pressure and the vapor pressure of the air at the
given temperature is known as the Saturation deficit.
HUMIDITY
It is the presence of moisture in the air. Humidity in the atmosphere can be assessed by vapor
pressure of air.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
It is the ratio between the vapor pressure and the saturation vapor pressure of the air at a given
temperature. It is usually expressed in percentage. It is represented as “f”.
f = (e / es) * 100
DEW POINT TEMPERTURE “Td”

It can be defined as the temperature at which the air mass just becomes saturated if cooled at
Constant pressure with moisture neither added nor removed. When air is cooled to this
Temperature, dew drops are formed.

CALCULATIONS:
Table for plotting the Saturation curve:
SR.N SATURATED SATURATED ATMOSPHRIC

TIME TEMPERATURE
O VAPOUR PRESSURE PRESSURE
SR.N
T T (oC) es(kPa) ea (kPa)
O
1 1/1/1997 1:00 -2.85025 0.495126611 0.501012641
2 1/1/1997 2:00 -2.9835 0.490229194 0.489295227
3 1/1/1997 3:00 -3.22225 0.481561481 0.483342232
4 1/1/1997 4:00 -3.43525 0.473943473 0.480752939
5 1/1/1997 5:00 -4.36575 0.441901025 0.443560739
6 1/1/1997 6:00 -4.975 0.421975765 0.424730303
7 1/1/1997 7:00 -5.35225 0.410041148 0.412428645
8 1/1/1997 8:00 -5.34625 0.410228595 0.409170481
9 1/1/1997 9:00 -5.26725 0.412703749 0.413592347
10 1/1/1997 10:00 -4.36525 0.441917714 0.439578492
11 1/1/1997 11:00 -3.2705 0.479826368 0.475652913
12 1/1/1997 12:00 -2.38075 0.512729526 0.509520004
13 1/1/1997 13:00 -1.7415 0.537586908 0.53470161
14 1/1/1997 14:00 -1.899 0.531365482 0.531019185
15 1/1/1997 15:00 -2.0675 0.524780184 0.525788493
16 1/1/1997 16:00 -2.34325 0.514159113 0.515160798
17 1/1/1997 17:00 -2.8815 0.493974189 0.496915948
18 1/1/1997 18:00 -3.35675 0.476738534 0.481683243
19 1/1/1997 19:00 -3.7645 0.462377721 0.46692138
20 1/1/1997 20:00 -4.39975 0.440767487 0.452183428
21 1/1/1997 21:00 -4.73975 0.429573063 0.434247753
22 1/1/1997 22:00 -5.03525 0.420049282 0.423377092
23 1/1/1997 23:00 -5.73375 0.398277446 0.401311182
24 1/2/1997 0:00 -5.79075 0.39654578 0.398476013
SATURATION DEFECIT RELATIVE HUMDITY DEWPOINT

es-ea RH TD
-0.005886029 98.82517347 -3.009405354

0.000933967 100.1908801 -2.957826641
-0.001780752 99.63157537 -3.271827647
-0.006809467 98.58358296 -3.626408173
-0.001659714 99.62582028 -4.415624543
-0.002754539 99.35146171 -5.061108696
-0.002387497 99.42111266 -5.428843782
0.001058114 100.2585998 -5.312159706
-0.000888598 99.7851513 -5.295651259
0.002339221 100.5321509 -4.294603968
0.004173455 100.8774161 -3.153126313
0.003209521 100.6299108 -2.295766367
0.002885298 100.539609 -1.668282935
0.000346297 100.0652137 -1.890144427
-0.001008309 99.80822908 -2.093534503
-0.001001684 99.80555889 -2.36958696
-0.002941759 99.40799665 -2.961469964
-0.004944709 98.97345219 -3.495140345
-0.004543659 99.02688986 -3.895209364
-0.011415941 97.47537382 -4.739431048
-0.00467469 98.92349711 -4.883238075
-0.00332781 99.2139844 -5.139623375
-0.003033736 99.24404402 -5.833530386
-0.001930234 99.51559606 -5.854579404
CALCULATIONS

GRAPHS
Temperature vs Saturated vapour pressure

0.6
0.5
0.4
Saturtaed
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-6.5 -6 -5.5 -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5
Temperature
RESULTS AND COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL BOOK
DESIGN EXERCISE NO. 2

Annual precipitation t rain gauge “x” and the average annual precipitation at… surrounding
rain gauges are listed in the following table:
1. Examine the consistency of station “x” data
2. When did the change in the regime occurred? Discuss possible reasons.
3. Adjust the data and determine what difference this makes to the …. Year’s annual
precipitation at station “x”.
RELATED THEORY
PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is defined as all types of moisture reaching to the surface of earth from the
atmosphere. The precipitation on the land surface is about one third of the total global
precipitation.
Precipitation is the basic input for a hydrological system.
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
Precipitation may be in the form of one or more than one of the following forms:
 Drizzle / Mist
 Rain
 Snow
 Sleet
 Glaze
 Hail
 Fogs
 Frost
 Trace
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 14

MECHANISM TO FORM PRECIPITATION

Following mechanisms are necessarily required for precipitation to occur over an area:
i. Lifting mechanism
ii. Formation of cloud droplets / Ice crystals
iii. Growth of cloud droplets / ice crystals
iv. Sufficient accumulation of moisture over an area
RAIN GAUGE
Rain gauge is an instrument used to measure the amount of rainfall or the intensity of rainfall at any
place.
AMOUNT OF PRECIPITATION
It is the total amount of rainfall over an area usually in one day. It is measured in the units of mm or
inches.
INTENSITY OF PRECIPITATION
It is the amount of precipitation at a place per unit time. It is usually expressed in mm/hr or
inches/hr.
MEAN / AVERAGE RAINFLL FOR “N” YEARS

It is the arithmetic average of annual precipitations for “N” years over a rain gauging station.
Mathematically,
Pa v g = Σ (Pi ) / N
Where
Pavg = Average precipitation

Pi = Annual precipitation for the ith year
N = Total number of years

Σ (Pi) = Summation of annual precipitation for N years

ANNUAL RAINFALL
It is the total amount of the rainfall in one year at a place. It can be calculated by taking the
summation of the daily precipitation at any place for the whole year.
AVERAGE RAINFALL OVER AN AREA

It is the total amount of precipitation which can be assumed as uniform for the area. It is calculated
by using different approaches. By Arithmetic mean, it is calculated as:
Pavg = Σ (Pi) / N
Where
Pavg = Areal average precipitation

Pi = Average annual precipitation for the ith station N
= Total number of stations
Σ (Pi) = Summation of annual precipitation for N stations
CONSISTENCY OF PRECIPITATION DATA RECORD
It is the behavior of data record of a station as compared to the average behavior of all the
surrounding stations.
DOUBLE MASS ANALYSIS / CURVE
At any station “X”, consistency of the data record is checked by plotting the Double mass curve.
The variable on the y-axis is the Accumulated annual precipitation of station “X” and on x-axis is
the average of accumulated annual precipitation of the neighboring stations “N”. Consistency is
checked by the slope of the curve being single or more slopes.
If the slope of the curve remains constant, the precipitation data record is constant and if the slope
doesn’t remains constant, data record is inconsistent.
REASONS OF INCONSISTENCY IN PRECIPITATION DATA RECORD
Precipitation data record may be inconsistent due to the following reasons:

i. Change in location of a rain gauge
ii. Change of the instrument
iii. Change in the observational procedure

iv. Change in the vicinity of station, e.g. construction, landslide, forest fire, flood,
earthquake, etc.
v. Faulty rain gauge for a certain period.
PROCEDURE
i. Calculate cumulative annual precipitation for station “X”
ii. Calculate cumulative average annual precipitation of “N” surrounding
stations.
iii. Plot scatter diagram between cumulative annual precipitation of station

“X” and cumulative average annual precipitation of “N” surrounding
stations.
iv. Join the points with straight lines and note down the intersection
points.
v. Determine slope of the curves.
vi. Compute ratio of the slopes.
vii. Adjust average annual precipitation of the station “X” after the change has occurred.

CALCULATIONS
Table for the computations of the Double Mass Analysis
ADJUSTE CUMMULATIIVE
Average of 6 COMMULATIVE OF
YEA STATION COMMULATIVE D OF CORRECTED
surrounding SOURROUNDING
R X (CM) OF STATION X STATION ADJUSTED
stations (CM) STATIONS
X STATION DATA
1967 182 148 182 148 182 182.0

1966 149 137 319 297 149 331.0
1965 183 151 470 480 183 514.0
1964 167 152 622 647 167 681.0
1963 199 166 788 846 199 880.0
1962 173 160 948 1019 173 1053.0
1961 201 157 1105 1220 201 1254.0
1960 149 122 1227 1369 149 1403.0
1959 165 133 1360 1534 165 1568.0
1958 201 198 1558 1735 201 1769.0
1957 146 161 1719 1881 146 1915.0
1956 163 169 1888 2044 163 2078.0
1955 150 160 2048 2194 150 2228.0
1954 137 148 2196 2331 137 2365.0
1953 100 120 2316 2431 100 2465.0
1952 153 140 2456 2584 153 2618.0
1951 147 168 2624 2731 147 2765.0
1950 145 140 2764 2876 145 2910.0
1949 135 148 2912 3011 135 3045.0
1948 142 135 3047 3153 142 3187.0
1947 135 151 3198 3288 135 3322.0
1946 168 166 3364 3456 168 3490.0
FIND THE SO = (2431 – 1220) / (2316 – 1105)
FACTOR = SO/SA
FIRST FIND THE SO = 1

2ND FIND THE SA = 1
FACTOR 1
CALCULATIONS

GRAPHS
COMMULATIVE OF SOURROUNDING STATIONS
4000
Chart Title
3456
3500 3288
3153
3011
3000 2876
2731
2584
2431
2500 2331
2194
2044
Axis Title
2000 1881
1735
1534
1500 1369
1220
1019
1000 846
647
480
500 297
148
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Axis Title
CUMMULATIIVE OF CORRECTED ADJUSTED STATION DATA

Chart Title
4000.0
3490.0
3500.0 3322.0
3187.0
3045.0
2910.0
3000.0 2765.0
2618.0
2465.0
2500.0 2365.0
2228.0
2078.0
1915.0
2000.0 1769.0
1568.0
1403.0
1500.0 1254.0
1053.0
1000.0 880.0
681.0
514.0
500.0 331.0
182.0
0.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

To determine Average precipitation by Arithmetic mean, Thiessen Polygon and

Isohyetal methods:
Mean Annual Precipitation

Name of Stations
(mm)
CALCULATE THE AVERAGE RAINFALL OVER THE BASIN AREA.
RELATED THEORY

AVERAGE PRECIPITATION AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
Average precipitation is defined as the amount of rainfall that can be assumed uniform for the whole
basin area.
With the help of average precipitation data, total volume of the rainfall over an area can be
calculated by simply multiplying the basin area with the average precipitation over that area.
METHODS OF CALCULATING AVERAGE PRECIPITATION OVER AN AREA:
The methods mostly used for calculating average precipitation over an area are:
i. Arithmetic mean method
ii. Thiessen polygon method
iii. Isohyetal method
i. ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD
It is an approximate method to calculate the average precipitation over an area.

In this method, precipitation is averaged for different stations when the gauging stations are
approximately equally spaced and also the amount of precipitation recorded at these stations
doesn’t vary much.
Pavg = Σ (Pi) / N
Where:
Pavg = Average precipitation aver an area
ΣPi = Sum of mean precipitation at N stations
ii. THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD

This method consists of weighing the value of precipitation at each station by a suitable proportion
of the basin area.
By this method:
Pavg = Σ (PiAi) / Σ (Ai)
Where:
Pavg = Average precipitation over an area
Pi = Mean precipitation for the ith polygon
Ai = Area of the ith polygon
iii. ISOHYETAL METHOD:
ISOHYET:
It is defined as the line representing the same amount of precipitation.

In this method, area between two isohyets is determined. Weighted average for these isohyets is
determined and then average precipitation for the whole basin area is computed.
Pavg = Σ (PiAi) / Σ (Ai)
Where:
Pavg = Average precipitation over an area
Pi = Mean precipitation for the ith strip
Ai = Area of the ith strip

PROCEDURE
For Arithmetic mean method:
i. Note down the annual precipitation for all the gauging stations.
ii. Sum up the precipitations at all of the gauging stations.
iii. Divide by the total number of stations to get the average precipitation for the whole basin
area.
Pavg = ΣPi / N = (P1 + P2 + P3 + ….. + PN) / N
Where:
Pavg = Average precipitation for the whole basin area
Pi = Annual precipitation at the ith station
N = Number of gauging stations
For Thiessen polygon method:
i. Select suitable and same scale for the both axes depending upon the boundary limits for
the catchment area.
ii. Plot catchment boundary and gauging stations’ locations.
iii. Plot polygons around each strength by connecting closest stations by straight dashed lines
and drawing perpendicular bisectors to make the sides of polygons.
iv. Determine area of each polygon by counting the number of squares.

v. Compute product (PiAi) and sum up all the products.
vi. Compute average precipitation using the following formula:

Pavg = (P1A1 + P2A2 + P3A3 + ….. + PNAN) / (A1 + A2 + A3 + ….. + AN)
Where:
N = Number of polygons within catchment
Pi = Mean annual precipitation for the i th
polygon
Ai = Area of the ith polygon
For Isohyetal method:
i. Select suitable and same scale for both X and Y axes.
ii. Plot catchment’s boundary and station locations.

iii. Mention precipitation amount on each station.
iv. Select suitable contour interval and number of Isohyets.
v. Draw isohyets by linear interpolation between the stations.
vi. Compute product (PiAi) and sum up all the products.
vii. Compute average precipitation using the following formula:
Pavg = (P1A1 + P2A2 + P3A3 + ….. + PNAN) / (A1 + A2 + A3 + ….. + AN)
Where:
N = Number of strips / segments within catchment
Pi = Mean annual precipitation for the ith strip
Ai = Area of the ith strip

CALCULATIONS:
1. Average precipitation by Arithmetic Mean method:
SR NO STATION PRECIPITATION
1 DAGGAR 48
2 BESHAM 33
3 SHINKIARI 25
4 PHULRA 32
5 TARBELA 56
6 OGHI 30
SUM OF ALL PRECIPITATION = 224 mm

NO'S OF STATION = 6
Pavg = 37.33333 mm
2. Average precipitation by Thiessen polygon Method
Area of Area of
no of Product A1 x
S.NO Station Precipitation Polygon A Polygon A
P1
Boxes (graph) (actual)
mm mm2 km2 mm3
1 Dagger 48 35 0.455 455 21840
2 Besham 33 40 0.52 520 17160
3 Shinkiari 25 33 0.429 429 10725
4 Phulra 32 32 0.416 416 13312
5 Terbela 56 43 0.559 559 31304
6 GHI 30 40 0.52 520 15600
Total 2.899 2899 109941
Average 37.92 mm
ONE BOX IS EQUAL TO = 13 KM^2

AVERAGE = NO OF PRODUCT / NO OF STATION
AVERAGE = 37.92
3. Average Precipitation by Isohyetal Method

AVG AVG AREA B/W AREA B/W

ISOHYTE Area Avg. Avg.
ISOHYTE ISOHYTE CONSECUTIVE CONSECUTIVE
Sr # VALUES box Pi*Ai [m3] Precipitation Precipitation
VALUES VALUES ISOHYTES ISOHYTES (m2)
(mm) No. (Km2) [Ai] (m) (mm)
(mm) (m) [Pi]
1 Bound. & 25 25 0.025 35 455.00 455000000 11375000 0.0015 1.50
2 25 & 30 27.5 0.0275 68 884.00 884000000 24310000 0.0032 3.21
3 30 & 35 32.5 0.0325 102 1326.00 1326000000 43095000 0.0057 5.69
4 35 & 40 37.5 0.0375 108 1404.00 1404000000 52650000 0.0069 6.95
5 40 & 45 42.5 0.0425 97 1261.00 1261000000 53592500 0.0071 7.07
6 45 & 50 47.5 0.0475 85 1105.00 1105000000 52487500 0.0069 6.93
7 50 & 55 52.5 0.0525 59 767.00 767000000 40267500 0.0053 5.31
8 55 & Bound. 55 0.055 29 377.00 377000000 20735000 0.0027 2.74
Total 583 7579 7579000000 298512500 39.39
Total Volume (m3 ) [Pi*Ai] = 298512500

2
Total Area (km ) = 7579 Total Area (km2) = 7579
Avg Precipitation (m)= Total Volume /
0.039 Total Area (m2) = 7579000000
Total Area
Avg Precipitation (mm) 39.39

One Box = 13.00 13km2 Total Box =
CALCULATIONS

RESULTS

The average annual precipitation for the watershed is:
Pav = 37.33.mm by using Mean Arithmetic Method
Pav = 37.39..mm by using Thiessen Polygon Method
Pav = 39.9.. mm by using Isohyetal Method
COMMENTS

DESIGN EXERCISE NO: 4
Plot rating curve for the station and extend the relation to estimate the flow at
the required stage by Logarithmic, Slope Area and A√D Method.
RELATED THEORY
STAGE
It is defined as the height of the water surface above any arbitrary datum (reference surface). It is
usually represented as “g”.
STAGE GAUGE AND ITS TYPES
Stage gauge is the instrument which is used to observe / measure stage at any gauging station.
Types of stage gauges used are:
i. NON-RECORDING STAGE GAUGE
These are the stage gauges that do not record the value of stage automatically. Most commonly
employed types are Staff stage gauge and Wire weigh gauge.
ii. RECORDING STAGE GAUGE
These stage gauges automatically keep the record of the stages recorded for a particular duration
of time. Float type stage gauge is one of the examples.
RATING CURVE AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

Rating curve is the graphical representation between Stage and Discharge at a particular stream
gauging station.
Rating curve is useful in:
i. Estimating discharge values corresponding to any stage value.
ii. Determining stage values corresponding to various flows for the construction of hydraulic
structures.
ESTABLISHMENT OF RATING CURVE AT A SITE
At a particular section in the stream, stage and discharge are simultaneously observed and with
the help of this data, rating curve is plotted. The cross-sectional area of flow is divided in a
number of segments, assigning that in a particular segment, velocity remains uniform in width.
Velocity is determined in each segment with the help of Current meter. With the help of velocity
and cross-sectional area, discharge is calculated for that particular segment and then total
discharge is calculated by integrating it for the whole cross-section.
EXTENSION OF RATING CURVE
Rating curve is established at a particular section on the basis of the data collected for the stages
and discharges observed in the stream. A flood magnitude (of higher return period) is expected in
the future greater than the highest observed in the past. For this flood magnitude stage, the
available rating curve becomes useless and hence for the stages higher than the observed,
extension of the rating curve becomes essential.
Following methods can be used to extend the Rating curve:
i.LOGARITHMIC METHOD:

If the cross section of stream at the gauging station is of regular shape, then this method
will be used.
Equation used in this method is:

Q=(g−a)n
Now taking' log ' on both side
Log Q = Log K + n Log (g – a)
ii. A√D METHOD:
The basic concept behind this method is the Chezy’s equation:
Q = AC√RS
By simplifying:
Q = AC√R√S
Where:
A = Cross-sectional area of flow
C = Chezy’s co-efficient
R = Hydraulic radius = Area of flow / Wetted perimeter = (b x D) / (b + 2D) = D
(As b>>D for a very wide channel so D can be neglected)
S = Slope of the energy line or the channel
So,
Q = A (C√S) √D
Q = (C√S) A√D
Q ∞ A√D
So the graph between these two quantities gives a straight line which can be extended up
to the required point.
iii. SLOPE AREA METHOD:

The method of estimating high flows is by application of hydraulic principles. Sufficient high
water marks must be located along a reach of channel to determine water surface slope at the
time of peak.
Manning’s Formula is different for both M.K.S and F.P.S systems.
The main
source of
error in
applying this
equation is in
estimating
the
coefficient
‘n’. Since
‘Q’ depends
upon ‘1/n’ and the average value of ‘n’ for natural stream is about 0.035, an error of 0.001 in ‘n’
represents about 3% in discharge.
PROCEDURE
FOR A√D METHOD

i. Calculate the values of “A√D” corresponding to the given data.
ii. Plot the graph between “Q” and “A√D”.
iii. Locate the point for which the value of discharge is to be calculated
on the curve Q~A√D.
iv. Take offset from this point to the Q~A√D curve and then to the Q-axis. Read the value
from the scale for the required reading of the stage.

FOR LOGARITHMIC METHOD

i. Assume any value of “a”.
ii. Corresponding to this value of a, calculate the value of log (g-a).
iii. Plot the graph between log (g-a) and log Q.
iv. Depending upon the curvature of graph, assume different values of “a’ and repeat the same
procedure again. (In case of downward curvature, decrease the value of “a” and vice
versa).
v. Keep on assuming different values of “a” till a single slope is obtained.
vi. Calculate the value of log (g-a) at the required value of “g” for the value of “a” at which
graph is of single slope.
vii. Take offset from point log (g-a) to the curve, calculate the value of log Q and then
determine the value of “Q”

CALCULATIONS
Calculations for the extension of Rating Curve
The stream discharges for various stages at a particular section were observed to be as follows. Obtain an equation for the stage discharge
relationship and determine the discharge for a stage of 6.5m , 12 m and 15 m.
Stage(m) + Discharge + (g-a) (g-a) (g-a)

Stage(m) Discharge
Roll Roll NO [when Log (Q) Log (g-a) [when Log (Q) Log (g-a) [when Log (Q) Log (g-a)
[g] (cumec) [Q]
no(8+5)=13 (85) a=0.4] a=0.6] a=0.8]
1.81 14.81 1 86 14.41 1.934 1.159 14.21 1.9345 1.15259 14.01 1.9345 1.14643814
2 15 1.5 86.5 14.6 1.937 1.164 14.4 1.93702 1.15836 14.2 1.93702 1.15228834
2.3 15.3 2.55 87.55 14.9 1.942 1.173 14.7 1.94226 1.16732 14.5 1.94226 1.161368
2.9 15.9 5.6 90.6 15.5 1.957 1.190 15.3 1.95713 1.18469 15.1 1.95713 1.17897695
3.7 16.7 11.7 96.7 16.3 1.985 1.212 16.1 1.98543 1.20683 15.9 1.98543 1.20139712
4.5 17.5 20.2 105.2 17.1 2.022 1.233 16.9 2.02202 1.22789 16.7 2.02202 1.22271647
5.4 18.4 32.5 117.5 18 2.070 1.255 17.8 2.07004 1.25042 17.6 2.07004 1.24551267
6.1 19.1 44.5 129.5 18.7 2.112 1.272 18.5 2.11227 1.26717 18.3 2.11227 1.26245109
7.3 20.3 70 155 19.9 2.190 1.299 19.7 2.19033 1.29447 19.5 2.19033 1.29003461
7.7 20.7 80 165 20.3 2.217 1.307 20.1 2.21748 1.30320 19.9 2.21748 1.29885308
8.1 21.1 90 175 20.7 2.243 1.316 20.5 2.24304 1.31175 20.3 2.24304 1.30749604
6.5 19.5 31.97 116.968129 19.1 1.281 18.9 1.27646 18.7 1.27184161
12 25 118.41 203.407266 24.6 1.391 24.4 1.38739 24.2 1.38381537
15 28 187.58 272.579591 27.6 1.441 27.4 1.43775 27.2 1.4345689
At g = 6.5
n= 1.94 Q= 31.97 n = log Q/ Log (g-a)
a= 0.60 At g = 12 Q= C (g-a)^n
Log (C) = Log(Q)-nLog(g-a) 2.25 Q= 118.41
Log (Q) = 2.24 At g = 15
Log (C) = 0.301 Q= 187.58
C= 1.095
CALCULATIONS


GRAPHS
RESULTS
a) Flood magnitude, Q at …… , …… , …... m stage by logarithmic method is …… , ……… ,

…….. (m3/sec).
b) Flood magnitude, Q at ………….. m stage by A√D method is …………………… (m3/sec).
COMMENTS:

Given are the ordinates of a storm hydrograph for a river draining catchment
area of . . . . . (km2) due to ……. hour’s isolated storm. Derive the ordinates of
…… hour’s unit hydrograph for the catchment.
RELATED THEORY
HYDROGRAPH
It is the graphical representation of flow against time for a particular section of the stream/river.
Flow discharge is plotted on y-axis and time is plotted on x-axis.
PARTS OF HYDROGRAPH
Four important parts of hydrograph are:

i. Ground water recession
curve
ii. Rising limb

iii. Peak
iv. Recession or falling limb.
COMPONENTS OF HYDROGRAPH
i. Channel Precipitation
ii. Direct Runoff (DRO)
iii. Inter Flow or Subsurface Flow
iv. Ground or Base Flow
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SHAPE OF HYDROGRAPH
Factors affecting the shape of hydrograph are:

i. Climatic factors (Amount of rainfall, intensity and duration of rainfall, etc.)
ii. Physiographical factors (Shape of basin, slope of watershed, surface conditions
of the catchment, soil type in the catchment, etc)

HYDROGRAPH SEPERATION AND METHODS OF SEPERATION OF

HYDROGRAPH
Splitting of hydrograph ordinates in two parts (Direct runoff and Base flow ordinates) is known as
hydrograph separation.
Methods used for the separation of hydrograph are:
i. Straight line method
A horizontal line is drawn from the point of rise. Area below line is Base flow. Line is drawn on
assumption that a constant amount of base flow is maintained during the storm runoff.
In general, Straight Line Method is the simplest and easiest but also the least accurate.
ii. Fixed base length method

In this method, a line AB is drawn in the extension of ground water recession curve ending at
peak of hydrograph (B). Another line BC is drawn from point B to C where DRO ceases at a

distance of N days from the peak of hydrograph. The area of hydrograph above curve ABC is
DRO and below is Base flow.
0.2
N= A d
N = Length of time in days
Ad = Drainage area in square miles
Fixed Base is widely used and practically gives good results.
iii. Variable slope method
Take a point ‘A’ on the previous recession curve, and the Line ‘AE’ by extending the
previous recession curve, and the line ‘AE’ by extending the previous recession curve. Point
‘E’ is under the peak. Now take a point ‘B’ on the recession curve and extend it backward.
Take a point ‘C’ on recession curve where the recession curve is changing slope, this point is
called the point of inflexion. Draw a vertical line from the point ‘C’. It cuts the line backward
from point ‘B’, at point ‘D’. Join point ‘E’ and point ‘D’. The area under the line ‘AEDB’
shows the base flow component.
This method is not a well-defined one. It depends upon experience, so it may vary from one
expert to another. This method is not widely used and is difficult but can give better results
depending upon the expertise of the person using it.

UNIT HYDROGRAPH AND ITS APPLICATION
Unit hydrograph is the direct runoff hydrograph with unit effective precipitation over the entire
watershed.
Unit hydrograph is used for the prediction of flood peak and time to peak in the stream at a
particular section due to any amount of effective precipitation over the watershed.
ASSUMPTIONS FOR THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH
Following assumptions are made for the development of the unit hydrograph:
i. Precipitation amount and intensity is uniform over the entire watershed.
ii. Precipitation intensity remains uniform throughout the storm.
iii. Base length of hydrograph DRO for a particular catchment resulting from a storm of a
given duration is approximately constant.
iv. Entire watershed is treated as a single unit.
PROCEDURE
i. Plot hydrograph for the given data.

ii. Separate base flow and direct runoff.
iii. Determine volume of direct runoff in km3 or ft3.
Volume of direct runoff = Time * Direct Runoff
iv. Determine Effective Rainfall in cm or inches “x” by dividing the total volume with
watershed area.
v. Compute ordinates of UHG:
Ordinates of UHG = Ordinates of DRO / Effective Rainfall

vi. Plot unit hydrograph.
CALCULATIONS
Derivation of the ordinates of unit hydrograph
STRAIGHT LINE METHOD

Straight Line Method

Discharge+
Time Discharge Roll Discharge Base Flow DRO (x10 3 Volume (x10 3
(days) ('000 cusecs) No.('385 (x10 3 m3/s) (x10 3 m3/s) m3/s) m3)
cusecs)
1 231.4 616.4 17.47 0 17.47 1509230.35
2 224 609 17.26 0 17.26 1491111.75
3 207.6 592.6 16.79 0 16.79 1450957.02
4 204.1 589.1 16.69 0 16.69 1442387.41
5 201.5 586.5 16.62 0 16.62 1436021.41
6 200 585 16.58 9 7.58 654748.73
7 201.5 586.5 16.62 9 7.62 658421.41
8 204.4 589.4 16.70 9 7.70 665521.95
9 205.3 590.3 16.73 9 7.73 667725.56
10 225 610 17.29 9 8.29 715960.21
11 254.4 639.4 18.12 9 9.12 787944.91
12 274.7 659.7 18.70 9 9.70 837648.64
13 284 669 18.96 9 9.96 860419.31
14 278 663 18.79 9 9.79 845728.56
15 252.4 637.4 18.06 9 9.06 783048.00
16 231.8 616.8 17.48 9 8.48 732609.73
17 216.5 601.5 17.05 9 8.05 695148.31
18 208.6 593.6 16.82 9 7.82 675805.48
19 197.6 582.6 16.51 0 16.51 1426472.42
20 188.4 573.4 16.25 0 16.25 1403946.60
21 175.6 560.6 15.89 0 15.89 1372606.32
22 170.3 555.3 15.74 0 15.74 1359629.48
23 169.5 554.5 15.71 0 15.71 1357670.72
24 168.8 553.8 15.69 0 15.69 1355956.79
25 168.3 553.3 15.68 0 15.68 1354732.56
FIXED BASE LENGTH METHOD:
Fixed Base Length Method
Discharge Discharge+ Base

Time Discharge Volume (x103
('000 Roll No. Flow DRO (x103 m3/s)
(days) (x103 m3/s) m3)
cusecs) ('000 (x103
cusecs) m3/s)
1 231.4 616.4 17.47 0 17.47 1509230.3
2 224 609 17.26 0 17.26 1491111.8
3 207.6 592.6 16.79 0 16.79 1450957.0
4 204.1 589.1 16.69 0 16.69 1442387.4
5 201.5 586.5 16.62 0 16.62 1436021.4
6 200 585 16.58 9.3 7.28 628828.7
7 201.5 586.5 16.62 9.1 7.52 649781.4
8 204.4 589.4 16.70 9.02 7.68 663793.9
9 205.3 590.3 16.73 9 7.73 667725.6
10 225 610 17.29 8.76 8.53 736696.2
11 254.4 639.4 18.12 8.5 9.62 831144.9
12 274.7 659.7 18.70 8.44 10.26 886032.6
13 284 669 18.96 8.4 10.56 912259.3
14 278 663 18.79 8.34 10.45 902752.6
15 252.4 637.4 18.06 8.01 10.05 868584.0
16 231.8 616.8 17.48 7.99 9.49 819873.7
17 216.5 601.5 17.05 7.89 9.16 791052.3
18 208.6 593.6 16.82 7.5 9.32 805405.5
19 197.6 582.6 16.51 0 16.51 1426472.4
20 188.4 573.4 16.25 0 16.25 1403946.6
21 175.6 560.6 15.89 0 15.89 1372606.3
22 170.3 555.3 15.74 0 15.74 1359629.5
23 169.5 554.5 15.71 0 15.71 1357670.7
24 168.8 553.8 15.69 0 15.69 1355956.8
25 168.3 553.3 15.68 0 15.68 1354732.6
VARIABLE SLOPE METHOD:

Variable Slope Method
Discharge+ Discharge Base
Discharge (x103 m3/s)
Time Roll No. Flow DRO (x103 Volume (x103
('000
(days) ('000 (x103 m3/s) m3)
cusecs)
cusecs) m3/s)
1 233.4 616.4 17.47 0 17.47 1509230.35

2 226 609 17.26 0 17.26 1491111.75

3 209.6 592.6 16.79 0 16.79 1450957.017
4 206.1 589.1 16.69 0 16.69 1442387.409
5 203.5 586.5 16.62 0 16.62 1436021.415
6 202 585 16.58 9.2 7.38 637468.7256
7 203.5 586.5 16.62 9.1 7.52 649781.4146
8 206.4 589.4 16.70 8.6 8.10 700081.9468
9 207.3 590.3 16.73 9.45 7.28 628845.5602
10 226 610 17.29 9.12 8.17 705592.2096
11 254.4 639.4 18.12 9.01 9.11 787080.9148
12 274.7 659.7 18.70 8.88 9.82 848016.6398
13 284 669 18.96 8.76 10.20 881155.3118
14 278 663 18.79 8.55 10.24 884608.5557
15 252.4 637.4 18.06 9.89 8.17 706151.9961
16 231.8 616.8 17.48 9.54 7.94 685953.7332
17 216.5 601.5 17.05 9.5 7.55 651948.305
18 208.6 593.6 16.82 9.45 7.37 636925.4761
19 197.6 582.6 16.51 9.23 7.28 629000.4231
20 188.4 573.4 16.25 0 16.25 1403946.597
21 175.6 560.6 15.89 0 15.89 1372606.317
22 170.3 555.3 15.74 0 15.74 1359629.483
23 169.5 554.5 15.71 0 15.71 1357670.715
24 168.8 553.8 15.69 0 15.69 1355956.794
25 168.3 553.3 15.68 0 15.68 1354732.564
Cusec to Cumec
0.02833865
Area (mile) 7947.22426
0.2
N= (Amile ) 4.82
STRAIGHT LINE METHOD FIXED BASE LENGTH MTD VARIABLE SLOP MTD
2
Total Area (km )= 20600 Total Area (km2) 20600 Total Area (km2) 20600
2
Total area in m = 20600000000 Total area in m2 20600000000 Total area in m2 20600000000
3 3 3
Total Volume(m ) 26541453.62 Total Volume(m ) 27124653.62 Total Volume(m ) 25566861.62
Effective Rainfall(m) 0.0013 Effective Rainfall(m) 0.0013 Effective Rainfall(m) 0.0012
Effective
Effective Rainfall(mm) 1.29 Effective Rainfall(mm) 1.32 1.24
Rainfall(mm)

CALCULATION:
GRAPH:
STRAIGHT LINE METHOD:

time vs discharge
20.00
18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
Discharge
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Precip= 2.72 mm Time
FIXED BASE LENGTH METHOD:
time vs discharge
20.00
18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
Discharge
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Time
Precip= 2.75 mm
VARIABLE SLOPE METHOD:

time vs discharge
20.00
18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
Discharge
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Time
Precip= 2.68 mm


THE ORDINATES OF ……..HOURS UNIT HYDROGRAPH ARE GIVEN, DERIVE
THE ORDINATES OF:
i. S-CURVE HYDROGRAPH
ii. … HOUR UNIT HYDROGRAPH
RELATED THEORY
APPLICATION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH
Unit hydrograph is associated with definite duration of rainfall and hence cannot be used for all
durations. It is therefore necessary to derive unit hydrograph for various durations.
Any duration unit hydrograph can be converted into long or short duration unit hydrograph by S-
curve method provided other durations are integral multiple of the given duration.
S-CURVE
S-curve is a hydrograph of surface runoff, which result from an addition of an infinite series of T
hr. unit hydrograph each lagged by T hours with respect to the preceding one. The S-curve
becomes constant after a period equal to the base length of the unit hydrograph used to derive it.
METHODS FOR S-CURVE GENERATION
Methods used for the derivation of S-curve ordinates are:
i. Offset method
ii. S-curve addition
method
PROCEDURE
FOR OFFSET METHOD
i. Ordinates of given duration unit hydrograph are given a lag of time equal to the duration
of unit hydrograph and subsequent offsets are recorded.
ii. Ordinates of S-curve are obtained by the addition of all ordinates for a particular time.
FOR OFFSET ADDITION METHOD
i. Ordinates of unit hydrograph are given a lag equal to the duration of unit hydrograph and
the ordinates of S-curve addition at a particular time are obtained by the addition of S-
curve addition and UHG been lagged.
ii. To get the ordinates of UHG for a particular duration, S-curve addition curve
ordinates are given a lag of UHG duration and then the difference of both columns is
t2
divided by a factor “ ”.
t1
Where:
t2 = Time of required UHG
t1 = Time of given UHG

CALCULATIONS
Derivation of S-curve ordinates by Offset method
3 hrs hydrograph
Flow (m³/s) 3 Hours
Time Flow
+ Last Dgt 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 duration
(Hours) (m³/s) "S-Curve"
Roll No (85)
0 0 0 0
3 95 180 0 180
6 164 249 180 0 429
9 121 206 249 180 0 635
12 91 176 206 249 180 0 811
15 54 139 176 206 249 180 0 950
18 18 103 139 176 206 249 180 0 1053
21 0 0 103 139 176 206 249 180 0 1053
24 0 103 139 176 206 249 180 0 1053
27 0 103 139 176 206 249 180 0 1053
30 0 103 139 176 206 249 180 0 1053
33 0 103 139 176 206 249 180 0 1053
36 0 103 139 176 206 249 180 1053
39 0 103 139 176 206 249
42 0 103 139 176 206
45 0 103 139 176
48 0 103 139
51 0 103
54 0

Flow (m³/s) 6 Hours

Time Flow
+ Last Dgt 6 9 18 23 29 35 41 47 53 59 65 duration
(Hours) (m³/s)
Roll No (85) "S-Curve"
0 0 0 0
6 95 180 0 180
12 164 249 180 0 429
18 121 206 249 180 0 635
24 91 176 206 249 180 0 811
30 54 139 176 206 249 180 0 950
36 18 103 139 176 206 249 180 0 1053
42 0 0 103 139 176 206 249 180 0 1053
48 0 103 139 176 206 249 180 0 1053
54 0 103 139 176 206 249 180 0 1053
60 0 103 139 176 206 249 180 0 1053
66 0 103 139 176 206 249 180 0 1053
72 0 103 139 176 206 249 180 1053
78 0 103 139 176 206 249
84 0 103 139 176 206
90 0 103 139 176
96 0 103 139
102 0 103
108 0
CALCULATIONS
Derivation of S-curve ordinates by Offset Addition method
2 hr Unit
Time (Hours) 3 Hours duration "S-Curve" Shifft Difference 6 hr Unit hydro
hydro
0 0 0 0 0 0
3 180 180 0 180 90
6 249 429 0 429 214.5
9 206 635 180 455 227.5
12 176 811 429 382 191
15 139 950 635 315 157.5
18 103 1053 811 242 121
21 0 1053 950 103 51.5
UNIT HYDROGRAPH 6 HRS

2 hr Unit
hydro
0 0 0 0 0 0
2 95 95 0 95 31.66666667
4 164 259 0 259 86.33333333
6 121 380 95 285 95
8 91 471 259 212 70.66666667
10 54 525 380 145 48.33333333
12 18 543 471 72 24
14 0 543 525 18 6
S CURVE
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
6 hr Unit hydro 2 hr Unit hydro
3 HRS HYDROGRAPH:

2 hr Unit
hydro
0 0 0 0 0 0
2 95 95 0 95 63.33333333
4 164 259 0 259 172.6666667
6 121 380 95 285 190
8 91 471 259 212 141.3333333
10 54 525 380 145 96.66666667
12 18 543 471 72 48
14 0 543 525 18 12
CALCULATIONS

COMMENTS

LAB EXERCISE NO. 7
To carryout experimental Rainfall-Runoff relationship (Storm

Hydrographs).
Apparatus
i. Basic hydrological system

ii. Stop watch
Related theory
Hydrological cycle
The central theme of hydrology is that water circulates throughout the earth through different
pathways and at different rates. The most vivid image of this is in the evaporation of water from
the ocean, which forms clouds. These clouds drift over the land and produce rain. The rainwater
flows into lakes, rivers, or aquifers. The water in lakes, rivers and aquifers then either evaporates
back to atmosphere or eventually flows back to the ocean, completing a cycle. Water changes its
state of being several times throughout the circle. This whole cycle of water is termed as
hydrological cycle.

Runoff
Runoff is a movement of land water to the oceans, chiefly in the form of rivers, lakes and
streams. Runoff consists of precipitation that neither evaporates, transpires nor penetrates the
surface to become groundwater. Even the smallest streams are connected to large rivers that
carry billions of gallons of water into oceans worldwide. Excess runoff can lead to flooding,
which occurs when there is too much precipitation.
Hydrograph
It is the graphical representation of flow against time for a particular section of the stream/river.
Variable kept on y‐axis is flow or discharge while on x‐axis it is time.
Rainfall-Runoff modeling
A rainfall runoff model is a mathematical model describing the rainfall – runoff relations of a
rainfall catchment area, drainage basin or watershed. More precisely, it produces the surface
runoff hydrograph as a response to a rainfall as input. In other words, the model calculates the
conversion of rainfall into runoff.
PROCEDURE
Stream Flow from a single storm

Before this experiment is carried out, the sand tank should be set to a slope of about 1%. Smooth
the sand in the tank to give a smooth surface parallel to the top edge of the tank, then use the sand
scoop to create a channel of rectangular cross section centrally down the length of the tank
between the river inlet and the deep outlet at the foot. The channel should be approximately 4 cm
wide by 2 cm deep.
Connect the flexible piping from the overhead spray nozzles to the quick release connector on the
3 l/min flow meter.

a) Stream Flow for a Long Duration Storm (See Figure 5A)

Turn on the spray nozzles to simulate rainfall and select a rainfall flow rate of between 1 and 3
l/min. Allow rain to fall long enough to give a steady run-off value. Turn off the flow and
record the recession limb of the hydrograph. Use a stopwatch started (zero time) at
commencement of rainfall, and read weir discharge as frequently as necessary to show the
hydrograph form.
The experiment may be repeated for different rainfall flow rates, smaller catchment areas (by
closing some of the valves to the rainfall nozzles) and for small differences in slope.
b) Stream Flow from a Short Duration Storm (See Figure 5B)
(Less (60% - 80%) than time of concentration)
Proceed as in a) but cut off rain while hydro graph is still rising Figure 5A will result.
Stream Flow from a multiple Storms

Connect the flexible piping from the river inlet tank to the quick release connector on the 5 l/min
flow meter. Connect the flexible piping from the overhead spray nozzles to the quick release
connector on the 3 l/min flow meter.
The sand bed should be allowed to drain following any previous use of the apparatus.

This experiment can be carried out by arranging a first storm of duration rather less (say 50%)
than the time of concentration, tc (as obtained in the previous experiment).
Follow it by a second storm of the same duration while the recession limb of the first one is still
quite high. The discharge values must be recorded continuously from the start of the first storm,
and the resulting double hydro graph when plotted will show the much larger run-off values
obtained for the second storm which falls on a previously saturated catchment. The method for
drawing the hydro graph, outlined in "Stream Flow for a Single Storm", may be used.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Stream Flow from a Single and Multiple Storms
Slop = 2 degree
Sub roll no last 2 digit (8-5)=(3) and
River Flow 0 LPM
add this no in time
Rain Flow = 13 LPM
Time Time
Time Flow Time Time Flow
Time (sec) (sec) add (sec) add
(min) (LPM) (sec) (min) (LPM)
roll no roll no
0 0 0 4 27 29.97 0.500 12 3
1.7 4.7 0.078 5 37 40.05 0.668 11 3
2.4 5.4 0.090 6 46 48.6 0.810 10 3
2.8 5.8 0.097 7 56 59.01 0.984 9 3
4.39 7.39 0.123 8 64 66.87 1.115 8 3
6.23 9.23 0.154 9 70 72.88 1.215 7 3
8.12 11.12 0.185 10 80 83.15 1.386 6 3
12.22 15.22 0.254 11 90 92.69 1.545 5 3
14.5 17.5 0.292 12 100 103.44 1.724 4 3
Flow Max b/w at 0.292 & 0.50 min

Total time of Experiment = 1.724 min

Slop = 4 degree
Sub roll no last 2 digit (8-5)=(3) and
River Flow 10 LPM
add this no in time
Rain Flow = 9 LPM
Time Time
Time Flow Time Time Flow
Time (sec) (sec) add (sec) add
(min) (LPM) (sec) (min) (LPM)
roll no roll no
0 0 0 4 114.45 117.45 1.958 12.5
3.12 6.12 0.102 4.5 117.04 120.04 2.001 12
4.49 7.49 0.125 5 119.22 122.22 2.037 11.5
5.58 8.58 0.143 5.5 121.33 124.33 2.072 11
7.23 10.23 0.171 6 125.05 128.05 2.134 10.5
9.66 12.66 0.211 6.5 127.33 130.33 2.172 10
11.53 14.53 0.242 7 131.5 134.5 2.242 9.5
13.63 16.63 0.277 7.5 135.5 138.5 2.308 9
18 21 0.350 8 138.54 141.54 2.359 8.5
23.82 26.82 0.447 8.5 144.58 147.58 2.460 8
30.31 33.31 0.555 9 148.17 151.17 2.520 7.5
36.19 39.19 0.653 9.5 154.26 157.26 2.621 7
40.32 43.32 0.722 10 158.77 161.77 2.696 6.5
50.65 53.65 0.894 10.5 163.39 166.39 2.773 6
61.16 64.16 1.069 11 170.9 173.9 2.898 5.5
70.98 73.98 1.233 11.5 183.45 186.45 3.108 5
84.2 87.2 1.453 12 188.62 191.62 3.194 4
111.87 114.87 1.915 12.5
Flow Max 9 LPM at 1.915 min

Total time of Experiment = 3.194 min

HYDROGRAPH
14
12
10
FLOW (LPM)
0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50
Time (min)
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
COMMENTS:

LAB EXERCISE NO.8
Water Abstraction from a single well in an Unconfined Aquifer

(Single Well Abstraction).
RELATED THEORY
AQUIFER
An Aquifer is water bearing stratum or formation capable of transmitting water in quantities

sufficient to permit development.
Storage volume within an aquifer is changed whenever water is recharged to, or discharged from,
an aquifer.
From the geological angle, on the basis of existence or non-existence of water table, aquifers have
been divided in following two categories:
1. Unconfined Aquifers
2. Confined Aquifers
1. Confined Aquifers:
Confined aquifers are found at such places where pressure of groundwater is comparatively more
than atmospheric pressure due to non-permeable layers. They are also called ‘artesian aquifers’.
Such types of aquifers are found above the base of confined beds of water level in punctured
wells.
Water enters confined aquifers from such areas where confined beds come up right up to the
surface of the earth or disappear due to geological situations and aquifers become unconfined. The
area supplying water to confined aquifers is called ‘recharge area’. In punctured wells of confined
aquifers, fluctuation in water level is more due to changes m pressure than due to change in
quantity of stored water.

2. Unconfined Aquifers:
Fig.10 shows an unconfined aquifer situated above an impervious base. There is no recharge by
rainfall or loss of water by vapor-transpiration and the water table is consequently horizontal. In
an unconfined aquifer the piezometric surface coincides with the upper limit of the saturated zone
and this is commonly termed the water table.
Ground water abstraction from a well will again result in the lowering of the water table but, in the
unconfined aquifer under consideration, this means at the same time a reduction of the saturated
depth available for the flow of water. The equations of flow thus become:
dh
Darcy Q = 2πrh- d
r
Continuity Q = constant = Q o
Q o .d
Combining hd h r
2 πk . r
Qo
Integrated h2 = log n r+ C
πk
Or in the form of the Dupuit Formula
Qo R
H 2−h2= log n 0 ..... (1)
πk r
In which the integration constants Q o and R, must be determined from the boundary conditions.
In this case
H = depth of saturated zone before pumping
h = (H - s) where
s = lowering of the water surface due to pumping.
By substituting (H - s) for h this lead to the equation of Thiem.
Qo r2
s1−s 2= log n
2 πkH r1
PROCEDURE
Cone of Depression for a Single Well in an Unconfined Aquifer
For this experiment no cap is placed over the sand in the area of the well and the sand surface
should be horizontal and flat. Graphs of water table elevation can be drawn from the manometer
readings for abstraction from the centrally placed well and, from these, a contour plan of the water
table surface may be prepared. So long as the coefficient of permeability k has been determined
by the method above, theoretical values for s can now be determined from the equations provided
and compared with the plotted experimental values. Dupuit's formula in the form given in
equation (1) can be used for small drawdowns in the area close to the well (take value of R, equal
to half the width of the catchment tank), while Thiem's formula, equation (2), can be used for the
more distant areas.
As in the other well experiments, Q o the discharge must be measured. To do this, the outflow pipe
should be diverted into a measuring cylinder to collect the outflow over a timed period. It will be
necessary to balance the inflow valves so that the well abstraction does not lead to a falling water
table while readings of s and Qo are being taken. It is also important to check that a water surface
is visible in the standpipe to ensure that the aquifer remains fully saturated in the region close to
the wall

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
WATER ABSTRACTION FROM A SINGLE WELL IN AN UN-CONFINED AQUIFER
Depth of Saturated Manometer

Tapping Zone before Reading after Draw-down,
S.No Zone before Reading after
Position Pumping, H (cm)+ Abstraction, h(cm) S=H-h (cm)
Pumping, H (cm) Abstraction, h(cm)
ROLL NO 85 + ROLL NO 85
1 Y-1 29.5 114.5 29.5 114.5 0
2 Y-2 29.5 114.5 29.4 114.4 0.1
3 Y-3 29.5 114.5 29.2 114.2 0.3
4 Y-4 29.5 114.5 28.5 113.5 1
5 Y-5 29.5 114.5 23.5 108.5 6
6 Y-6 29.5 114.5 23.7 108.7 5.8
7 Y-7 29.5 114.5 26.7 111.7 2.8
8 Y-8 29.5 114.5 28.7 113.7 0.8
9 Y-9 29.5 114.5 29.2 114.2 0.3
10 Y-10 29.5 114.5 29.2 114.2 0.3
11 Y-11 29.5 114.5 29.2 114.2 0.3
12 Y-12 29.5 114.5 29.2 114.2 0.3
13 Y-13 29.5 114.5 29.2 114.2 0.3
14 Y-14 29.5 114.5 29.2 114.2 0.3
15 Y-15 29.5 114.5 29.2 114.2 0.3
16 Y-16 29.5 114.5 29.2 114.2 0.3
17 Y-17 29.5 114.5 29.1 114.1 0.4
18 Y-18 29.5 114.5 29 114 0.5
19 Y-19 29.5 114.5 29 114 0.5
20 Y-20 29.5 114.5 29.1 114.1 0.4
21 Y-21 29.5 114.5 29.2 114.2 0.3
Figure 1: Position of Tapping

CALCULATIONS

GRAPH

LAB EXERCISE NO.9
Water Abstraction from a single well in an Unconfined Aquifer

(Two Wells Abstraction).
Theory:
From equation of Thiem’s

Qo r2
s1−s 2= log n
2 πkH r1
The method of superposition allows the prediction of a complex situation by considering it to be
made up of a number of simple elements and superimposing their resulting individual effects as
described by the above equation. In the case of neighboring wells in the same aquifer, the linear
relationships essential to the use of this method are to be found in confined aquifer flow because
the saturated depth of the aquifer remains unchanged and the coefficient of transmissibility is
constant.
The flow of ground water in an unconfined aquifer is always accompanied by a change of the
saturated thickness zone of flow. For ground water abstraction with wells, the coefficient of
transmissibility thus also depends on any previously existing ground water movement, for
example, that due to a neighboring well. This means that the method of superposition can be used
only in its simple linear form if the separate drawdowns are small compared with the saturated
thickness of the aquifer.
PROCEDURE:
This experiment is carried out using an unconfined aquifer with water inflow at both ends of the
tank: The method of superposition applies only to small drawdown values; it is suggested that
small Qo values should be used. Draw the required flows from each well in turn, measuring the
drawdown produced in each case with the manometers. Now establish the combined well flow
(both wells at the same time) and measure the resulting water table drawdowns. It should be
possible, according to the principle of superposition, to synthesize this combined water table
pattern by adding the values obtained with each well flow independently. For this experiment the
drawdown close to the well should not exceed 25% of the saturated thickness of the aquifer before
drawdown. It is also of interest to explore the drawdown due to much larger abstractions from
these wells. Although the superposition principle will not apply, it is possible to determine the
effect of a nearby abstraction on the cone of depression of another well and to relate the size of
these interactions to the relative flows discharged by the wells.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
WATER ABSTRACTION FROM TWO WELLS IN AN UN-CONFINED AQUIFER


Tapping Zone before Reading after Draw-down,
S.No Zone before Reading after
Position Pumping, H (cm)+ Abstraction, h(cm) S=H-h (cm)
Pumping, H (cm) Abstraction, h(cm)
ROLL NO 85 + ROLL NO 85
1 Y-1 29.5 114.5 28.5 113.5 1
2 Y-2 29.5 114.5 28.3 113.3 1.2
3 Y-3 29.5 114.5 28.1 113.1 1.4
4 Y-4 29.5 114.5 27.8 112.8 1.7
5 Y-5 29.5 114.5 23.6 108.6 5.9
6 Y-6 29.5 114.5 22.6 107.6 6.9
7 Y-7 29.5 114.5 24.1 109.1 5.4
8 Y-8 29.5 114.5 21.6 106.6 7.9
9 Y-9 29.5 114.5 18.8 103.8 10.7
10 Y-10 29.5 114.5 18.8 103.8 10.7
11 Y-11 29.5 114.5 23.7 108.7 5.8
12 Y-12 29.5 114.5 23.7 108.7 5.8
13 Y-13 29.5 114.5 25.7 110.7 3.8
14 Y-14 29.5 114.5 26.8 111.8 2.7
15 Y-15 29.5 114.5 27.6 112.6 1.9
16 Y-16 29.5 114.5 26.3 111.3 3.2
17 Y-17 29.5 114.5 24.3 109.3 5.2
18 Y-18 29.5 114.5 20.3 105.3 9.2
19 Y-19 29.5 114.5 19.3 104.3 10.2
20 Y-20 29.5 114.5 24.8 109.8 4.7
21 Y-21 29.5 114.5 26.8 111.8 2.7

Figure 2: Position of Tapping's

CALCULATIONS

GRAPH
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HYDROLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT

PREPARED BY: Engr. Ali Nasir

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPT

DESIGN EXERCISE NO. 1 ……………………………………………………… Page No. (6)

1. Saturation deficit (es– e)

DESIGN EXERCISE NO. 2 ……………………………………………………… Page No. (14)

1. Examine the consistency of station “x” data

DESIGN EXERCISE NO. 3 ……………………………………………………… Page No. (21)

To determine Average precipitation by Arithmetic mean, Thiessen Polygon and Isohyetal

DESIGN EXERCISE NO. 4 ……………………………………………………… Page No. (32)

DESIGN EXERCISE NO.5 ……………………………………………………… Page No. (42)

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 2

DESIGN EXERCISE NO. 6 ……………………………………………………… Page No. (51)

LAB EXERCISE NO.7 ……………………………………………………… Page No. (59)

To carryout experimental Rainfall Runoff relationship (Storm Hydrograph).

LAB EXERCISE NO.8 ……………………………………………………… Page No. (67)

LAB EXERCISE NO.9 ……………………………………………………… Page No. (74)

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 3

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 4

Design Exercise No. 1

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 6

Study of water is extremely necessary as:

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 7

IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE OF METEOROLOGY

Different layers of atmosphere are:

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 8

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 9

VAPOR PRESSURE “e”

SATURATION VPOR PRESSURE “es”

Its values can be obtained from the Psychometric tables.

es ≈3.38639 [ (0.00738T + 0.8072)8 – 0.000019( 1.8T + 48 ) + 0.001316]

DEW POINT TEMPERTURE “Td”

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 10

SR.N SATURATED SATURATED ATMOSPHRIC

SATURATION DEFECIT RELATIVE HUMDITY DEWPOINT

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 11

-0.005886029 98.82517347 -3.009405354

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 12

Temperature vs Saturated vapour pressure

RESULTS AND COMMENTS

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 13

HYDROLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT

DESIGN EXERCISE NO. 2

1. Examine the consistency of station “x” data

Precipitation is the basic input for a hydrological system.

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 14

MECHANISM TO FORM PRECIPITATION

MEAN / AVERAGE RAINFLL FOR “N” YEARS

Pavg = Average precipitation

N = Total number of years

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 15

AVERAGE RAINFALL OVER AN AREA

Pavg = Areal average precipitation

CONSISTENCY OF PRECIPITATION DATA RECORD

DOUBLE MASS ANALYSIS / CURVE

REASONS OF INCONSISTENCY IN PRECIPITATION DATA RECORD

Precipitation data record may be inconsistent due to the following reasons:

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (ABASYN University Islamabad) Page 16

i. Calculate cumulative annual precipitation for station “X”