ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

Lexical cohesion in
academic writing
Richard Nicholas looks at ways to help learners improve the structure of their texts.

C
ohesion refers to the creation of (Flowerdew, 2006). Consequently, while Repetition
“surface links” between clauses students I have taught have been Repetition may be simple or complex
and sentences within texts, able to use grammatical cohesion (Hoey, 1991). Simple repetition
and is the quality that distinguishes to a reasonable standard, their use involves repeating words in the
discourse from isolated sentences of lexical cohesion is limited and same form, while complex repetition
(McCarthy, 1991). Lexical cohesion, perhaps accidental. This neglect of uses derivative forms (e.g. problem
in particular, plays a vital role in lexical cohesion may also explain why and problematic) (Hoey, 1991). This
academic writing because it affects Connor (1984) suggests that cohesive cohesive device seems to play a
“the readability of a text” and “the vocabulary usage is the primary “foregrounding” role in academic
comprehensibility and clarity” of an difference between the writing of texts, and it enables writers to re-
argument (Mahlberg, 2006). It is vital, native and non-native speakers. introduce important topic words back
therefore, that learners are not only into discourse (McCarthy, 1991). For
aware of lexical cohesion devices, Lexical cohesion example, successful learners often
but that they are also able to employ Halliday and Hasan (1976) identify repeat key words from writing prompts
them themselves. two categories of lexical cohesion: at transitional points of essays, such as
reiteration and collocation. topic and supporting detail sentences.
This article aims to raise readers’ Reiteration involves the creation For me, this creates semantic links
awareness of lexical cohesion devices of anaphoric connections between between prompts and responses and
and the important role they play in lexical items in discourse (Stotsky, enables learners to signal that they are
academic writing. It also encourages 1983). These relationships are answering the question.
readers to consider the problems formed through the repetition of
that learners experience when words or the use of synonyms, Learners can encounter a number
trying to use cohesive devices and antonyms, superordinates and of challenges when employing
suggests some teaching methods and general words, with each device repetition. Firstly, they may overuse
techniques that can be employed to performing a different cohesive repetition and repeat words
help them overcome these problems. function (McCarthy, 1991). Successful throughout their writing rather
writers use all of these different than just at transitional points.
An overview of cohesion cohesive devices in unison to create This can lead to texts developing
lexical chains in their texts. Halliday a monotonous feel (McGee, 2009).
Halliday and Hasan (1976) provide the and Hasan (1976) also argue that Simple repetition occurs more
first systematic analysis of cohesion in collocation creates cohesion due frequently in spoken discourse than
discourse. They argue that semantic to “the association of lexical items in written texts and, as learners
relationships are created through two that regularly co-occur”. However, often write using the spoken register
types of cohesion: grammatical and McCarthy (1991) questions whether they are more familiar with, this
lexical. They identify four forms of probability of co-occurrence can may contribute to their overuse of
grammatical cohesion: referencing, be said to constitute a semantic repetition (Shaw and Liu, 1998).
ellipsis, substitution and conjunctions. relationship. Thus, he, as I will Secondly, learners may struggle to
In addition, McCarthy (1991) suggests also do in this article, chooses to employ complex repetition because
that the strategic use of theme-rheme ignore collocation as a form of they simply lack knowledge of
patterns and tenses can be cohesive. lexical cohesion. McGee (2009) derivative forms, or they make errors
However, while most academic writing supports this, but highlights the fact when selecting the morphemes that
textbooks feature activities designed to that learners require knowledge create these forms. For example,
develop grammatical cohesion, lexical of collocations to employ lexical they may write *expention instead of
cohesion has largely been neglected cohesion effectively. expense (Flowerdew, 2006).

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ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

Synonymy and antonymy academic discourse, its synonym advantages and disadvantages”, the
Synonyms are divided into two snag is too informal (McCarthy, underlined antonymous general
categories: true synonyms and near- 1991). Thirdly, learners may struggle words inform readers that two body
synonyms. True synonyms share with the differing grammatical and paragraphs will follow, one being about
the exact same denotational and collocational constraints of synonyms the positive aspects of globalization
connotational meaning (e.g. sick and antonyms, and this can lead and the other the negative.
and ill). Near synonyms, although to syntactic or lexical errors. For
close in meaning, are not completely instance, the adjective daunting Learners may have a number of
interchangeable because they may collocates with the noun task but the problems whilst using superordinates
differ in denotation, attitude or noun phrase *daunting job is peculiar and general nouns to create cohesion.
register, or in their “grammatical or (Inkpen and Hirst, 2006). Finally, some Firstly, they may be unaware of the
collocational constraints” (e.g. forest learners may be unaware of the need functions that superordinates and
and woods) (Inkpen and Hirst, 2006). to use synonymy and antonymy to general words perform and that they
By using this cohesive device, learners avoid redundant repetition because often only appear at specific points in
can avoid the monotony of simply of L1 interference. In languages such academic texts. Consequently, learners
repeating words (McGee, 2009). This as Arabic, simple repetition is the may position them incorrectly and
enhances the readability of texts and primary method of lexical cohesion fail to signal the organisation of texts
helps to maintain readers’ interest (Mohamed and Omer, 2000). or to introduce or summarise their
(Mahlberg, 2006). Furthermore, ideas effectively. Secondly, learners
learners can exploit differences in Superordinates and may write superordinates and general
the meanings of synonyms to bring general words words in advance of specific words
nuance to their writing and signal Superordinates or hypernyms are and this might confuse the message
their attitudes towards topics more words that encompass others (e.g. they wish to convey. This seems to be
effectively (McCarthy, 1991). vehicle is a superordinate of car) and a particular challenge for my current
words within this class are hyponyms class who, in their desire to use a
Antonyms are words whose semantic (McGee, 2009). This cohesive device wider range of vocabulary, do not
relationship is one of oppositeness seems to perform a “summarizing consider the overall meaning of their
and they are either gradable (e.g. hot or encapsulating function” in texts sentences and use specific vocabulary
and cold) or ungradable (e.g. alive and (McCarthy, 1991). Consequently, in when superordinates or general words
dead) (McCarthy, 1990). At sentence academic discourse, superordinates would be more appropriate.
level, this cohesive device, like are often found in the openings of
synonymy, can be used to avoid the introductions, topic sentences and Suggestions for teaching
monotonous repetition of words. For conclusions. McGee (2009) suggests
example, “Brazil is a dangerous country hyponyms and superordinates also As mentioned above, lexical cohesion
while Japan is safe” instead of “Brazil follow systematic patterns in discourse. is a neglected aspect of EAP, and
is a dangerous country while Japan is Successful writers often use specific many learners are unaware of its
not dangerous”. At discourse level, the words first because they carry more role in discourse. Consequently,
use of antonymy is more complex and information, and superordinates teachers need to raise their learners’
can be used to create links between appear later as anaphoric references. awareness of this writing sub-skill
paragraphs. For instance, in essays Consequently, interchanging hyponyms (Thornbury, 2005). In addition, as
with contrastive structures such as and superordinates changes the with grammar instruction, teachers
problem–solution patterns, antonymy messages of texts (Salkie, 1995). have to help learners internalise and
can be used to create direct links automatise the use of lexical cohesion
between the supporting details in General words, such as problem by providing them with opportunities
different paragraphs. or process, are extensions of to practise using it for themselves.
superordinates, often being the Feedback should then be provided to
Learners can experience a number of ultimate superordinates atop lexical help learners check and restructure
difficulties whilst creating cohesion trees (McCarthy, 1991). These words their hypotheses about the use of
through synonymy and antonymy. carry little lexical meaning and lexical cohesion (Thornbury, 1999).
Firstly, they may simply not have depend on the surrounding text
sufficient knowledge of the synonyms for their interpretation (Flowerdew, Awareness-raising
and antonyms of words to employ 2006). Flowerdew argues that general Teachers can use a number of
these cohesive devices effectively words perform a signalling function techniques to raise learners’
(McGee, 2009). Secondly, learners may in academic texts, informing readers awareness of cohesion. Although
be unaware of the denotational and about their content or structure. establishing precise rules about
connotational differences between Consequently, they often appear in the use of lexical cohesion is
synonyms. This could cause semantic thesis statements or topic sentences. problematic, Mahlberg (2006)
or stylistic errors. For example, while For example, in the thesis statement suggests that teachers ask learners
the word problem is suitable for “Globalisation has a number of to analyse authentic and semi-

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 ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

authentic texts to help them notice notebooks have definitely helped Feedback
patterns associated with these my learners employ a wider range of Teachers can employ reformulation to
cohesive devices. Authenticity is vital vocabulary in their writing but they provide learners with feedback about
as inauthentic texts generally contain still struggle to achieve cohesion. their use of lexical cohesion. Using this
few examples of lexical cohesion Therefore, vocabulary work must be technique, teachers rewrite the written
(Cox et al, 1990). Thornbury (2005) combined with explicit focus on and compositions of their learners as they
outlines an activity that teachers practice of lexical cohesion. themselves would write them. Learners
can use to exploit authentic texts to can then use these reformulated texts
increase their learners’ awareness Practice as models for comparison (Harmer,
of lexical cohesion (see Appendix 1). Teachers can also use a number of 2004). This is an effective way to
Learners examine a text containing methods and techniques to help give feedback about lexical cohesion
underlined cohesive devices and their learners practise employing because the corrections are presented
discuss the lexical relations between lexical cohesion. McGee (2009) in context and, as cohesive devices are
them. They then examine a second outlines a technique that can be discourse driven, this is vital. Moreover,
unmarked text and find examples of used to help them practise using the model text can form the basis of
the same cohesive devices. Having synonyms, superordinates and general further awareness-raising tasks, and
used this activity in my own classes, words to achieve cohesion in their this allows the learners to notice gaps
I discovered it serves as a good writing. Learners are given a table between their performance and that
introduction to lexical cohesion containing groups of synonyms and of their teachers. Learners can use this
and enables me to elicit the meta- superordinates, organised according data to restructure their hypotheses
language necessary for lessons that to specificity, and they are told that about the use of lexical cohesion
focus on specific types of lexical they must use these words to write a (Thornbury, 1999). Unfortunately, in my
cohesion. I have also added to this passage (Appendix 2). They are then own context, this technique would be
lesson by asking my learners to given feedback about their use of difficult to manage because I have 17
compare the cohesive text with one synonyms and their placement of learners in my class and do not have
that only employs simple repetition. specific and general words. I believe time to reformulate 17 pieces of writing.
This allows me to highlight the need that this method is useful because However, I have used this technique to
for a combination of methods of it enables learners to practise using raise awareness of the cohesive function
lexical cohesion. lexical cohesion in a restricted of lexical repetition. I reformulated
manner. Moreover, the method can be the work of one learner and used it to
Teachers can also help learners adapted to suit a wide range of text highlight how repetition can be used in
develop vocabulary-learning types and topics. topic sentences and supporting details
strategies to increase their knowledge to create links between questions and
and awareness of the vocabulary I believe that McGee’s (2009) responses. The learners found this
needed to employ lexical cohesion. technique could also be adapted activity extremely useful and they have
Fowle (2002) proposes that learners to fit a more systematic task-based begun to use this cohesive device more
keep systematic vocabulary framework that integrates both accurately in their own texts.
notebooks in which they record a awareness-raising and practice (see
variety of information about lexis, Appendix 3). This framework would
including synonyms, antonyms, provide learners with greater input to REFERENCES
derivative forms, superordinates and help prepare them for the production Connor, U. (1984) A study of cohesion
collocations. He argues that, using stage. The initial task in the and coherence in English as a Second
this approach, learners not only framework would test the learners’ Language students’ writing. Papers in
increase their lexical independence, existing knowledge of the cohesive Linguistics 17 (1-4) pp.301–316
they are also able to apply this lexical function of synonyms, superordinates
knowledge in production tasks. I have and general words. This task requires Cox, B. E., Shanahan, T. and Sulzby,
employed this technique in my own the learners to make predictions E. (1990) Good and poor elementary
classes and, although learners initially about the missing words in a model readers’ use of cohesion in writing.
find recording this level of detail text. The input stage would involve Reading Research Quarterly 25 (1)
time-consuming, they ultimately find them first completing an awareness- pp.47–65
it beneficial. I have also integrated raising task to help them notice the
the use of vocabulary notebooks into target language. The learners would Flowerdew, J. (2006) Use of
discourse analysis tasks. After reading then analyse the text and use their signalling nouns in a learner corpus.
lessons, I encourage the learners to findings to create hypotheses about International Journal of Corpus
examine lexis in texts to complete the use of the target language. Finally, Linguistics 11 (3) pp.227–247
notebook entries. This enables they would practise applying these
them to increase their awareness of hypotheses by writing their own Fowle, C. (2002) Vocabulary notebooks:
vocabulary and promotes the noticing texts. I intend to experiment with this implementation and outcomes. ELT
of lexical cohesion. Vocabulary technique in future lessons. Journal 56 (4) pp.380–388

January 2014 Volume 23 No. 1 www.onlineMET.com 61

 
ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

Halliday, M. A. K. and Hasan, R. (1976) Richard Nicholas remove wrinkles and creases from all
Cohesion in English. London: Longman sorts of fabrics, leaving them looking
neat and amazingly smart. Fast and
Harmer, J. (2004) How to Teach convenient to use, Wrinkle Free is
Writing. Harlow: Pearson Longman ideal for busy people and travellers,
and can be used with complete safety
Hoey, M. (1991) Patterns of Lexis in on all fabrics and garments and won’t
Text. Oxford: Oxford University Press leave a build-up on garments. It costs
only pennies per use. 3oz aerosol.
Inkpen, D. and Hirst, G. (2006)
Building and using a lexical 2 Read the first text again and
knowledge base of near-synonym decide how the underlined words
differences. Computational Linguistics Richard Nicholas has been are related.
32 (2) pp.223–262 involved in the ELT profession for
approximately ten years. He began e.g. garments and clothes = synonyms
Mahlberg, M. (2006) Lexical cohesion: teaching in a private language
corpus linguistic theory and its school in Japan in 2002, where he 3 Read the text below and find
application in English Language worked for three and half a years. examples of the following:
Teaching. International Journal of Having developed a keen interest
Corpus Linguistics 11 (3) pp.363–383 in languages and teaching, he • simple repetition of content words
then completed an MA in Applied
McCarthy, M. (1990) Vocabulary. linguistics, becoming particularly • synonyms
Oxford: Oxford University Press fascinated by discourse analysis.
He conducted research into the • hyponyms and superordinates
McCarthy, M. (1991) Discourse Analysis strategic use of metaphor in legal
for Language Teachers. Cambridge: discourse. He subsequently moved • antonyms
Cambridge University Press into teaching at the tertiary level
and has taught at universities in Easy shoe shine
McGee, I. (2009) Traversing the lexical Turkey, China and the UK. The Shoe Valet will deal with the
cohesion minefield. ELT Journal 63 (3) family’s footwear in record time, with
pp.212–220 Email: ricknicholas@yahoo.co.uk no mess and no grubby hands. Four
interchangeable wheels will give your
Mohamed, A. H. and Omer, M. R. leather shoes the full valet treatment.
(2000) Texture and culture: cohesion One removes mud and dirt, another
as a marker of rhetorical organisation APPENDIX 1 applies neutral shoe cream to the
in Arabic and English narrative texts. leather, and the two soft brushes will
RELC Journal 31 (2) pp.45–75 This handout is adapted from polish your light or dark shoes to a
Thornbury, 2005 p.165. deep shine. Shoe valet operates quickly
Salkie, R. (1995) Text and Discourse and efficiently at the touch of a button.
Analysis. Florence, KY: Routledge Lexical cohesion:
awareness-raising activity *Texts from Kleeneze Catalogue,
Shaw, P. and Liu, E. T. K. (1998) What Solutions, 69 Campus Rd, Listerhills
develops in the development of 1 Read the two texts and decide Science Park, Bradford, BD7 1HR
second language writing. Applied which one you like more. Why?
Linguistics 19 (2) pp.225–254
Wrinkle Free is an amazing new
Stotsky, S. (1983) Types of lexical formula aerosol that will actually
cohesion in expository writing: remove wrinkles and creases from
implications for developing all sorts of fabrics, leaving them
the vocabulary of academic looking neat and super smart. Fast
discourse. College Composition and and convenient to use, Wrinkle Free is
Communication 34 (4) pp.430–446 ideal for busy people and travellers,
and can be used with complete safety
Thornbury, S. (1999) How to Teach on all fabrics and garments and won’t
Grammar. Harlow: Pearson Longman leave a build-up on clothes. It costs
only pennies a spray. 3oz can.
Thornbury, S. (2005) Beyond the
Sentence: Introducing Discourse Wrinkle Free is an amazing new
Analysis. Oxford: Macmillan Education formula aerosol that will actually

62 Modern English Teacher January 2014 Volume 23 No. 1

 ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

APPENDIX 2

Synonyms, superordinates and general words table

This table (taken from McGee, 2009 p.217) contains synonyms, superordinates and general words. These words are organised
according to specificity.

Appendix 2: Synonyms, superordinates and general words table

More general More specific
vessel ship ocean liner Titanic
event impact strike
travel journey voyage
descend sink

APPENDIX 3
This handout is adapted from McGee, 2009.

Synonyms, superordinates and general words – a task-based approach

1 Look at the following and make predictions about the missing words.

In 1912, one of the greatest man-made disasters of all time occurred. ____________, the largest ________ ___________ ever
constructed at that time, ________ after __________ an iceberg. The huge _________ began its ___________ in Southampton
in England and its maiden ___________ should have taken it to New York City. The _____________ was carrying prominent
people from America, Britain and Europe when the __________ happened. People still remember and talk about this terrible
__________ and, in recent years, an award-winning film was made about it.

2 Now listen to the story and fill in the blanks.

3 Examine the completed story and fill in the table below.

In 1912, one of the greatest man-made disasters of all time occurred. Titanic, the largest ocean liner ever constructed at that time,
sank after striking an iceberg. The huge ship began its journey in Southampton in England and its maiden voyage should have
taken it to New York City. The vessel was carrying prominent people from America, Britain and Europe when the impact happened.
People still remember and talk about this terrible event and, in recent years, an award-winning film was made about it.

Appendix 3: Synonyms, superordinates and general words table

More general More specific
vessel
impact
voyage
descend

4 Now think about the words. Do you notice any patterns in the distribution of general and specific words?
5 Think about a disaster that has occurred in your country and complete the chart below using words about this event.

More general More specific

6 Using your words, write a short passage about the disaster.

January 2014 Volume 23 No. 1 www.onlineMET.com 63