All Topics Power System

PROTECTION
RELAYS a)Selectivity. It is the ability of the protective system to select

Objective 2 correctly that part of the system in trouble and disconnect the
Explain the types of relaying systems faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.
a)Permanent magnet A well designed and efficient relay system should be selective
b)balance Beam i.e. it should be able to detect the point at which the fault
c)Induction type over current relays occurs and cause the opening of the circuit breakers closest to
d)Distance relays the fault with minimum or no damage to the system.
e)Directional Relays In order to provide selectivity to the system, it is a usual
f)Non Directional Relays practice to divide the entire system into several protection
g)Solid state relays zones. When a fault occurs in a given zone, then only the
circuit breakers within that zone will be opened
Protective Relays
A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates
the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective
element from the rest of the system.
The system can be divided into the following protection zones

:
a) generators
b) low-tension switchgear
c)transformers
d) high-tension switchgear
The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical e)transmission lines
circuits by constantly measuring the electrical quantities,
which are different under normal and fault conditions b)Speed. The relay system should disconnect the faulty section
The relay circuit connections can be divided into three parts as fast as possible for the following reasons :
i)First part is the primary winding of a current transformer i)Electrical apparatus may be damaged if fault currents last
(C.T.) which is connected in series with the line to be long.
protected. ii)A fault may lead to grater reduction of the system voltage which may
ii)Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the lead to shutting down of consumer motors (loads)
relay operating coil. iii)The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of
iii)Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either a.c. or development of one type of fault into the other more severe
d.c. It consists of a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit type.
breaker and the relay stationary contacts.
When a short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission c)Sensitivity. It is the ability of the relay system to operate with
line, the current flowing in the line increases to an enormous low value of actuating quantity.
value. This results in a heavy current flow through the relay coil, Sensitivity of a relay is a function of the volt-amperes input to
causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This in turn the coil of the relay necessary to cause its operation. The
closes the trip circuit of the breaker, making the circuit smaller the volt-ampere input required to cause relay
breaker open and operation, the more sensitive is the relay. Thus, a 1 VA relay is
isolating the faulty section from the rest of the system. In this more sensitive than a 3 VA relay.
way, the relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from d)Reliability. It is the ability of the relay system to operate
damage and normal working of the healthy portion of the under the pre-determined conditions and restore back the
system system to it original functional state.
e)Simplicity. - The relaying system should be easy to be
Fundamental Requirements of Prote ctive Relaying understood by the user and for easy maintenance. Reliability
In order that protective relay system may perform this is closely related to simplicity. The simpler the protection
function satisfactorily, it should have the following qualities: scheme, the greater will be its reliability.
a)Selectivity f)Economy. - As a rule, the protective gear should not cost more
b)Speed than 5% of total cost. However, when the apparatus to be
c)Sensitivity protected is of utmost importance (e.g. generator, main
d)Reliability transmission line etc.), economic considerations are often
e)Simplicity subordinated to reliability.
f)Economy
1|Page BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Basic Relays schematic arrangement of a balanced beam type relay. It
Most of the relays in service on electric power system today consists of an iron armature fastened to a balance beam.
are of electro-mechanical type.
They work on the following two main operating principles :
i)Electromagnetic attraction
ii)Electromagnetic induction
1)Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue of an
armature being attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or a
plunger being drawn into a solenoid. Such relays may be
actuated by d.c. or a.c. quantities. The important types of
electromagnetic attraction relays are:
1)Attracted armature type relay.
2)Solenoid type relay. Under normal operating conditions, the current through the
relay coil is such that the beam is held in the horizontal position
a)Attracted armature type relay. The figure below shows the by the spring. How- ever, when a fault occurs, the current
schematic arrangement of an attracted armature type relay. It through the relay coil becomes greater than the pickup value
consists of a laminated electromagnet M carrying a coil C and a and the beam is attracted to close the trip circuit. This causes
pivoted laminated armature. the opening of the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty circuit.
2)Induction Relays
Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of
induction motor and are widely used for protective relaying
purposes involving a.c. quantities. They are not used with d.c.
quantities owing to the principle of operation. An induction
relay essentially consists of a pivoted aluminum disc placed in
two alternating magnetic fields of the same frequency but
displaced in time and space. The torque is produced in the disc
by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the currents
The armature is balanced by a counterweight and carries a pair induced in the disc by the other.
of spring contact fingers at its free end. Under normal
operating conditions, the current through the relay coil C is
such that counterweight holds the armature in the position
shown. However, when a short-circuit occurs, the current
through the relay coil increases sufficiently and the relay
armature is attracted upwards. The contacts on the relay
armature bridge a pair of stationary contacts attached to the
relay frame. This completes the trip circuit which results in the
opening of the circuit breaker and, therefore, in the
Important Terms used in relays
disconnection of the faulty circuit.
It is desirable to define and explain some important terms
The minimum current at which the relay armature is attracted
much used in connection with relays.
to close the trip circuit is called pickup current.
a)Pick-up current. It is the minimum current in the relay coil
at which the relay starts to operate. So long as the current in
b)Solenoid type relay. It consists of a solenoid and movable iron
the relay is less than the pick-up value, the relay does not
plunger arranged as shown.
operate and the breaker controlled by it remains in the closed
position. However, when the relay coil current is equal to or
greater than the pickup value, the relay
operates to energize the trip coil which opens the circuit
breaker.
b)Current setting. It is the adjustment of pick-up current to

any required value. This is known as current setting and is
usually achieved by the use of tappings on the relay operating
coil.
Under normal operating conditions, the current through the
relay coil C is such that it holds the plunger by gravity or
spring in the position shown. However, on the occurrence of a
fault, the current through the relay coil becomes more than
the pickup value, causing the plunger to be attracted to the
solenoid. The upward movement of the plunger closes the trip
circuit, thus opening the circuit breaker and disconnecting the
faulty circuit.
c)Balanced beam type relay. The figure below shows the
The taps are brought out to a plug bridge as shown in the above number of active turns on the relay operating coil can be
figure. The plug bridge permits to alter the number of turns on varied, thereby giving the desired current setting. The
the relay coil. This changes the torque on the disc and hence secondary winding is energized by induction from primary
the time of operation of the relay. The values assigned to each and is connected in series with the winding on the lower
tap are expressed in terms of percentage full-load rating of C.T. magnet. The controlling torque is provided by a spiral spring.
with which the relay is associated and represents the value The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges
above which the disc commences to rotate and finally closes the two fixed contacts (connected to trip circuit) when the disc
trip circuit. rotates through a pre-set angle. This angle can be adjusted to
Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. Current any value between 0o and 360o. By adjusting this angle, the
setting travel of the moving contact can be adjusted and hence the
c)Plug-setting multiplier (P.S.M.). It is the ratio of fault current relay can be given any desired time setting.
in relay coil to the pick-up current i.e. Operation. Under normal operating conditions, restraining
Fault Current in relay Coil torque is greater than the driving torque produced by the relay
P.S.M =
Pick−up current coil current. Therefore, the aluminium disc remains stationary.
d)Time-setting multiplier. A relay is generally provided with However, if the current in the protected circuit exceeds the pre-
control to adjust the time of operation. This adjustment is set value, the driving torque becomes greater than the restraining
known as time-setting multiplier. The time-setting dial is torque. Consequently, the disc rotates and the moving contact
calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec (see Fig. 21.15). bridges the fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through a
These figures are multipliers to be used to convert the time pre-set angle. The trip circuit operates the circuit breaker
derived from time/P.S.M. curve into the actual operating time. which isolates the faulty section.
2.Induction Type Directional Power Relay
Functional Relay Typ es This type of relay operates when power in the circuit flows in
Most of the relays in service on power system today operate a specific direction. Unlike a *non- directional overcurrent
on the principle of electromagnetic attraction or relay, a directional power relay is so designed that it obtains
electromagnetic induction. Regardless of the principle its operating torque by the interaction of magnetic fields
involved, relays are generally classified according to the derived from both voltage and current source of the circuit it
function they are called upon to perform in the protection of protects. Thus this type of relay is essentially a wattmeter and
electric power circuits.: the direction of the torque set up in the relay depends upon the
i)Induction type overcurrent relays direction of the current relative to the voltage with which it is
ii)Induction type reverse power relays associated.
iii)Distance relays
iv)Differential relays
v)Translay scheme
1.Induction Type Overcurrent Relay (non-

directional)
This type of relay works on the induction principle and initiates
corrective measures when current in the circuit exceeds the
predetermined value. The actuating source is a current in the
circuit supplied to the relay from a current transformer. These
relays are used on a.c. circuits only and can operate for fault
current flow in either direction.
Constructional details. The figure above shows the essential

parts of a typical induction type directional power relay. It
consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate in between
the poles of two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet
carries a winding (called potential coil) on the central limb
which is connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to
the circuit voltage source. The lower electromagnet has a
separate winding (called current coil) connected to the
secondary of C.T. in the line to be protected. The current coil
is provided with a number of tappings connected to the plug
setting bridge (not shown for clarity). This permits to have any
Constructional details. It consists of a metallic (aluminium) disc desired current setting. The restraining torque is provided by a
which is free to rotate in between the poles of two spiral spring.
electromagnets. The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges
two fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through a pre-set
The upper electromagnet has a primary and a secondary angle. By adjusting this angle, the travel of the moving disc
winding. The primary is connected to the secondary of a C.T. can be adjusted and hence any desired time-setting can be
in the line to be protected and is tapped at intervals. The given to the relay.
tappings are connected to a plug-setting bridge by which the

Operation. The flux 1 due to current in the potential coil will reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the upper
be nearly 90º lagging behind the applied voltage V . The flux element rotates to bridge the fixed contacts 1 and 2. This
2 due to current coil will be nearly in phase with the operating completes the circuit for overcurrent element. The disc of this
current I. element rotates and the moving contact attached to it closes the
trip circuit. This operates the circuit breaker which isolates the
3.Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay faulty section. The two relay elements are so arranged that final
The directional power relay discussed above is unsuitable for tripping of the current controlled by them is not made till the
use as a directional protective relay under short-circuit following conditions are satisfied :
conditions. When a short-circuit occurs, the system voltage i)current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional
falls to a low value and there may be insufficient torque element.
developed in the relay to cause its operation. This difficulty is ii)current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
overcome in the directional overcurrent relay which is ii)excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time
designed to be almost independent of system voltage and setting of overcurrent element.
power factor. 4.Distanc e or Im p e danc e Relays
This is another group of relays in which the operation is
governed by the ratio of applied voltage to current in the
protected circuit. In an impedance relay, the torque produced
by a voltage element opposes the torque produced by a current
element. The relay will operate when the ratio V/I is less than
a pre- determined value.In the figure below, the voltage
element of the relay is excited through a potential transformer
(P.T.) from the line to be protected.
Constructional details :It consists of two relay elements

mounted on a common case viz. The current element of the relay is excited from a current
i) directional element transformer (C.T.) in series with the line. The portion AB of
ii) non-directional element. the line is the protected zone. Under normal operating
a)Directional element. It is essentially a directional power conditions, the impedance of the protected zone is ZL. The
relay which operates when power flows in a specific direction. relay is so designed that it closes its contacts whenever
The potential coil of this element is connected through a impedance of the protected section falls below the
potential transformer (P.T.) to the system voltage. The current predetermined value i.e. ZL in this case.
coil of the element is energised through a C.T. by the circuit Now suppose a fault occurs at point F1 in the protected zone.
current. This winding is carried over the upper magnet of the The impedance Z (= V /I) between the point where the relay is
non-directional element. The trip contacts (1 and 2) of the installed and the point of fault will be less than ZL and hence
directional element are connected in series with the secondary the relay operates. Should the fault occur beyond the protected
circuit of the overcurrent element. Therefore, the latter zone (say point F2), the impedance Z will be greater than ZL
element cannot start to operate until its secondary circuit is
completed. and the relay does not operate.
b)Non-directional element. It is an overcurrent element similar
in all respects to a non-directional overcurrent relay. The Types.
spindle of the disc of this element carries a moving contact There are two types of distance relays in use for the protection
which closes the fixed contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the of power supply, namely ;
operation of directional element. i)Definite-distance relay which operates instantaneously for
It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the fault up to a pre-determined distance from the relay.
relay for current setting but has been omitted in the figure for ii)Time-distance relay in which the time of operation is
clarity and simplicity. The tappings are provided on the upper proportional to the distance of fault from the relay point. A
magnet of overcurrent element and are connected to the fault nearer to the relay will operate it earlier than a fault
bridge. farther away from the relay.
Operation. Under normal operating conditions, power flows in Definite Distanc e Typ e Im p e danc e Relay
the normal direction in the circuit protected by the relay. It consists of a pivoted beam F and two electromagnets
Therefore, directional power relay (upper element) does not energized respectively by a current and voltage transformer
operate, thereby keeping the overcurrent element (lower in the protected circuit. The armatures of the two
element) energized. However, when a short-circuit occurs, electromagnets are mechanically coupled to the beam on the
there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in the opposite sides of the fulcrum. The beam is provided with a
bridging piece for the trip contacts. The relay is so designed
that the torques produced by the two electromagnets are in the The speed of rotation of the disc is approximately proportional
opposite direction. to the operating current, neglecting the effect of control spring.
Also the time of operation of the relay is directly proportional
Operation. Under normal operating conditions, the pull due to to the pull of the voltage-excited magnet and hence to the line
the voltage element is **greater than that of the current voltage V at the point where the relay is connected. Therefore,
element. Therefore, the relay contacts remain open. However, the time of operation of relay would vary as V/I i.e. as Z or
when a fault occurs in the protected zone, the distance.
6,Differential Relays
Most of the relays discussed so far relied on excess of current
for their operation. Such relays are less sensitive because they
cannot make correct distinction between heavy load
conditions and minor fault conditions. In order to overcome
applied voltage to the relay decreases whereas the current this difficulty, differential relays are used.
increases. The ratio of voltage to current (i.e. impedance) falls A differential relay is one that operates when the phasor
below the pre-determined value. Therefore, the difference of two or more similar electrical quantities
exceeds a pre-determined value.
pull of the current element will exceed that due to the voltage Thus a current differential relay is one that compares the current
element and this causes the beam to tilt in a direction to close entering a section of the system with the current leaving the
the trip contacts. section. Under normal operating conditions, the two currents
5.Time-Distanc e Im p e da nc e Relay are equal but as soon as a fault occurs, this condition no longer
A time-distance impedance relay is one which automatically applies. The difference between the incoming and outgoing
adjusts its operating time according to the distance of the relay currents is arranged to flow through the operating coil of the
from the fault point i.e. Operating time, T V/ relay. If this differential current is equal to or greater than the
Construction. It consists of a current driven induction element pickup value, the relay will operate and open the circuit breaker
similar to the double- winding type induction overcurrent to isolate the faulty section.
relay. The spindle carrying the disc of this element is There are two fundamental systems of differential or
connected by means of a spiral spring coupling to a second balanced protection viz.
spindle which carries the bridging piece of the relay trip 1) Current balance protection
contacts. The bridge is normally held in the open position by 2) Voltage balance protection
an armature held against the pole face of an electromagnet
excited by the voltage of the circuit to be protected. 1)Current Differential Relay
The figure below shows an arrangement of an overcurrent
relay connected to operate as a differential relay. A pair of
identical current transformers are fitted on either end of the
section to be protected (alternator winding in this case).
The secondary’s of CT’s are connected in series in such a way

that they carry the induced currents in the same direction. The
operating coil of the overcurrent relay is connected across the
Operation. Under normal load conditions, the pull of the CT secondary circuit. This differential relay compares the
armature is more than that of the induction element and hence current at the two ends of the alternator winding.
the trip circuit contacts remain open. However, on the Under normal operating conditions, suppose the alternator
occurrence of a shortcircuit, the disc of the induction current winding carries a normal current of 1000 A. Then the currents
element starts to rotate at a speed depending upon the in the two secondary’s of CT’s are equal .These currents will
operating current. As the rotation of the disc proceeds, the merely circulate between the two CT’s and no current will
spiral spring coupling is wound up till the tension of the spring flow through the differential relay. Therefore, the relay
is sufficient to pull the armature away from the pole face of the remains inoperative. If a ground fault occurs on the alternator
voltage-excited magnet. Immediately this occurs, the spindle winding as shown in fig 21.24 (i), below, the two secondary
carrying the armature and bridging piece moves rapidly in currents will not be equal and the current flows through the
response to the tension of the spring and trip contacts are operating coil of the relay, causing the relay to operate. The
closed. This opens the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty amount of current flow through the relay will depend upon the
section. way the fault is being fed.
The equivalent circuit of a biased beam relay is shown in Fig.
21.26. The differential current in the operating coil is
proportional to i2 i1 and the equivalent current in the
restraining coil is proportional to (i1 + i2)/2 since the operating
coil is connected to the mid-point of the restraining coil. It is
a)If some current (500 A in this case) flows out of one side
clear that greater the current flowing through the restraining
while a larger current (2000 A) enters the other side as shown
coil, the higher the value of current required in the operating
in Fig. 21.24 (i), then the difference of the CT secondary
winding to trip the relay. Thus under a heavy load, a greater
currents i.e. 10 2·5 = 7·5 A will flow through the relay.
differential current through the relay operating coil is required
b)If current flows to the fault from both sides as shown in Fig.
for operation than under light load conditions. This relay is
21.24 (ii), then sum of CT secondary currents i.e. 10 + 5 = 15
called percentage relay because the operating current required
A will flow through the relay.
to trip can be expressed as a percentage of load current.
Disadvantages
2.Voltage Balance Differential Relay
i)The impedance of the pilot cables generally causes a slight
It consist of two similar current transformers are connected at
difference between the currents at the two ends of the section
either end of the element to be protected (e.g. an alternator
to be protected. If the relay is very sensitive, then the small
winding) by means of pilot wires. The secondaries of current
differential current flowing through the relay may cause it to
transformers are connected in series with a relay in such a way
operate even under no fault conditions.
that under normal conditions, their induced e.m.f.s’ are in
ii)Pilot cable capacitance causes incorrect operation of the
opposition.
relay when a large through-current flows.
iii)Accurate matching of current transformers cannot be
achieved due to pilot circuit impedance. The above
disadvantages are overcome to a great extent in biased beam
relay.
Biased Beam Relay. The biased beam relay (also called

percentage differential relay) is designed to respond to the
differential current in terms of its fractional relation to the
current flowing through the protected section
Under healthy conditions, equal currents (I1 = I2) flow in both
primary windings. Therefore, the secondary voltages of the
two transformers are balanced against each other and no
current will flow through the relay operating coil. When a
fault occurs in the protected zone, the currents in the two
primaries will differ from one another (i.e. I1, I2) and their
secondary voltages will no longer be in balance. This voltage
difference will cause a current to flow through the operating
coil of the relay which closes the trip circuit.
Disadvantages
The voltage balance system suffers from the following
drawbacks:
i)A multi-gap transformer construction is required to achieve
It is essentially an overcurrent balanced beam relay type with an the accurate balance between current transformer pairs.
additional restraining coil. The restraining coil produces a bias ii)The system is suitable for protection of cables of relatively
force in the opposite direction to the operating force. short lengths due to the capacitance of pilot wires. On long
Under normal and through load conditions, the bias force due cables, the charging current may be sufficient to operate the
to restraining coil is greater than the operating force. relay even if a perfect balance of current transformers is
Therefore, the relay remains inoperative. When an internal attained.
fault occurs, the operating force exceeds the bias force. The above disadvantages have been overcome in Translay
Consequently, the trip contacts are closed to open the circuit (modified) balanced voltage system.
breaker. The bias force can be adjusted by varying the number
of turns on the restraining coil. 7.Tra nslay System
This system is the modified form of voltage-balance system.
Although the principle of balanced (opposed) voltages is

retained, it differs from the above voltage-balance system in Thus referring to Fig. 21.29, each line has an overcurrent relay
that the balance or opposition is between voltages induced in that protects the line. If a fault occurs on any line, it will be
the secondary coils wound on the relay magnets and not cleared by its relay and circuit breaker. This forms the primary
between the secondary voltages of the line current or main protection and serves as the first line of defense. The
transformers. Since the current transformers used with service record of primary relaying is very high with well over
Translay scheme have only to supply to a relay coil, they can be ninety percent of all operations being correct. However,
made of normal design without any air gaps. This permits the sometimes faults are not cleared by primary relay system
scheme to be used for feeders of any voltage. because of trouble within the relay, wiring system or breaker.
Constructional details. The figure below shows the Under such conditions, back-up protection does the required
simplified diagram illustrating the principle of job.
Translay scheme.
b)Back-up protection. It is the second line of defense in case of
failure of the primary protection. It is designed to
It consists of two identical double winding induction type

relays fitted at either end of the feeder to be protected. The
primary circuits (11, 11a) of these relays are supplied through a
pair of current transformers. The secondary windings (12, 13
and 12a, 13a) of the two relays are connected in series by pilot
wires in such a way that voltages induced in the former opposes
the other. The compensating devices (18, 18a) neutralize the
effects of pilot-wire capacitance currents and of inherent lack
of balance between the two current transformers. operate with sufficient time delay so that primary relaying will
Operation. Under healthy conditions, current at the two ends of be given enough time to function if it is able to. Thus referring
the protected feeder is the same and the primary windings (11, to Fig. 21.29, relay A provides back-up protection for each of
11a) of the relays carry the same current. The windings 11 and the four lines. If a line fault is not cleared by its relay and
11a induce equal e.m.f.s in the secondary windings 12, 12a breaker, the relay A on the group breaker will operate after a
and 13, 13a. As these windings are so connected that their definite time delay and clear the entire group of lines. It is
induced voltages are in opposition, no current will flow through evident that when back-up relaying functions, a larger part is
the pilots or operating coils and hence no torque will be disconnected than when primary relaying functions correctly.
exerted on the disc of either relay. In the event of fault on the Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on the better
protected feeder, current leaving the feeder will differ from maintenance of primary relaying
the current entering the feeder. Consequently, unequal
voltages will be induced in the secondary windings of the
relays and current will circulate between the two windings, Objective 3 and 4
causing the torque to be exerted on the disc of each relay. 1)Types of unit protectection
It is worthwhile here to mention the role of closed copper i)Generator protection/Alternator
rings (18, 18a) in neutralizing the effects of pilot capacitive ii)Transformer protection
currents. Capacitive currents lead the voltage impressed across iii)Bus bars protection
the pilots by 90º and when they flow in the operating winding iv)Feeder protection
13 and 13a (which are of low inductance), they produce fluxes
that also lead the pilot voltage by 90º. Since pilot voltage is 2) Non Unit protection
that induced in the secondary windings 12 and 12a, it lags by a i)Directional overcurrent protection
substantial angle behind the fluxes in the field magnet air gaps ii)Distance protection
A and B. The closed copper rings (18, 18a) are so adjusted that iv)Grade time protection
this angle is approximately 90º. In this way fluxes acting on the
disc are in phase and hence no torque is exerted on the relay A)GENERATOR /ALTERNATOR PROTECTION
disc. types of faults that an alternator/Genarator may be protected
from include:
Types of Prote ction i. Failure of prime-mover
When a fault occurs on any part of electric power system, it ii. Failure of field
must be cleared quickly in order to avoid damage and/or iii. Overcurrent
interference with the rest of the system. It is a usual practice to iv. Over-speed
divide the protection scheme into two classes viz. primary v. Overvoltage
protection and back-up protection. vi. Unbalanced loading
a)Primary Protection. It is the protection scheme which is vii. Stator winding faults
designed to protect the component parts of the power system.
mounted in each phase, having their secondaries connected in
a)Failure of prime-mover. When input to the prime-mover parallel. A relay is connected in parallel across the transformer
fails, the alternator runs as a synchronous motor and draws secondary’s.
some current from the supply system. This motoring condi-
tions is known as “inverted running”.
-In case of turbo-alternator sets, failure of steam supply may
cause inverted running. If the steam supply is gradually
restored, the alternator will pick up load without disturbing
the system.
-In case of hydro-generator sets, protection against inverted
running is achieved by providing mechanical devices on the
water-wheel. When the water flow drops to an insufficient rate
to maintain the electrical output, the alternator is disconnected
from the system.. The scheme comprises three line current transformers, one
mounted in each phase, having their secondaries connected in
-Diesel engine driven alternators, when running inverted, draw parallel. A relay is connected in parallel across the transformer
a considerable amount of power from the supply system and it secondaries. Under normal operating conditions, equal
is a usual practice to provide protection against motoring in currents flow through the different phases of the alternator
order to avoid damage due to possible mechanical seizure. This and their algebraic sum is zero. Therefore, the sum of the
is achieved by applying reverse power relays to the alternators currents flowing in the secondaries is also zero and no
which isolate the latter during their motoring action. current flows through the operating coil of the relay. However,
b)Failure of field. The chances of field failure of alternators if un- balancing occurs, the currents induced in the
are undoubtedly very rare. Even if it does occur, no immediate secondaries will be different and the resultant of these currents
damage will be caused by permitting the alternator to run will flow through the relay.The relay will trip the circuit
without a field for a short-period. It is sufficient to rely on the breaker to the alternator from the system.
control room attendant to disconnect the faulty alternator
manually from the system bus-bars. f.Stator winding faults. These faults occur mainly due to the
insulation failure of the stator windings. The main types of
c)Overcurrent. It occurs mainly due to partial breakdown of stator winding.
winding insulation or due to overload on the supply system.
Overcurrent protection for alternators is considered Differential Protection of Alternators
unnecessary because of the following reasons
The modern tendency is to design alternators with very high (Merz-Price circulating current scheme.)
values of internal impedance so that they will stand a complete It is the most common system used for the protection of stator
short-circuit at their terminals for sufficient time without winding faults. It involves comparing currents at the two
serious overheating. On the occurrence of an overload, the ends of the protected section. Under normal operating
alternators can be disconnected manually. conditions, these currents are equal but may become unequal
on the occurrence of a fault in the protected section. The
ii)The disadvantage of using overload protection for difference of the currents under fault conditions is arranged to
alternators is that such a protection might disconnect the pass through the operating coil of the relay.
alternators from the power plant bus on account of some The relay then closes its contacts to isolate protected section
momentary troubles outside the plant and therefore interfere from the system. This form of protection is also known as
with continuity of the plant. Merz-Price circulating current scheme.
d)Over-speed. The chief cause of over speed is the sudden loss
of all or the major part of load on the alternator. Modern
alternators are usually provided with mechanical centrifugal
devices mounted on their driving shafts to trip the main valve
of the prime mover when a dangerous over speed occurs.
e)Over-voltage. The field excitation system of modern
alternators is so designed that overvoltage conditions at
normal running speeds cannot occur. However, overvoltage in
an alternator occurs when speed of the prime-mover increases
due to sudden loss of the alternator load.
f)Unbalanced loading. Unbalanced loading means that there In the schematic arrangement of current differential protection
are different phase currents in the alternator. Unbalanced for a 3-phase alternator. Identical current transformer pairs
loading arises from faults to earth or faults between phases on CT1 and CT2 are placed on either side of each phase of the
the circuit external to the alternator. The unbalanced currents, stator windings. The secondaries of each set of current
if allowed to persist, may either severely burn the mechanical
transformers are connected in star ; the two neutral points and
fixings of the rotor core or damage the field winding.
the corresponding terminals of the two star groups being
The diagram below shows the schematic arrangement for the connected together by means of a four-core pilot cable.
protection of alternator against unbalanced loading. The
scheme comprises three line current transformers, one Thus there is an independent path the current circulating in
each pair of current transformers and the corresponding pilot p iii. Winding short-circuits e.g. earth-faults, phase-to-
The relays are connected in star. The relays are generally of phase faults and inter-turn faults.
electromagnetic type and are arranged for instantaneous action a)An open circuit in one phase of a 3-phase transformer-
since fault should be cleared as quickly as possible . In case such fault occurs, relay protection is not provided
because this condition is relatively harmless. On the
Limitation. It is impossible to protect whole of the stator occurrence of such a fault, the transformer can be
windings of a star-connected alternator during earth-faults. disconnected manually from the system.
When an earth-fault occurs near the neutral point.
b)Overheating of the transformer is usually caused by
A modified differential protection for alternators is used to sustained overloads or short-circuits and very occasionally by
help in this case. the failure of the cooling system. The relay protection is also
not provided against this contingency and thermal accessories
Modified differential protection for alternators are generally used to sound an alarm or control the banks of
The modifications affect only the relay connections and fans.
consist in connecting two relays for phase-fault protection and
the third for earth-fault protection only. The two-phase elements c)Winding short-circuits (also called internal faults) – This
(PC and PA) and balancing resistance (BR) are connected in star requires relay protection.
and the earth relay (ER) is connected between this star point Short circuit results into overheating or mechanical injury. When
and the fourth wire of circulating current pilot-circuit. an internal fault occurs, the transformer must be disconnected
quickly from the system because a prolonged arc in the
transformer may cause oil fire. Therefore, relay protection is
absolutely necessary for internal faults.
Protection Systems for transformers

The principal relays and systems used for transformer
protection are :
1)Buchholz devices- providing protection against all kinds of
incipient faults i.e. slow-developing faults such as insulation
failure of windings, core heating, fall of oil level due to leaky
joints etc.
2.Earth-fault relays- providing protection against earth-faults
only.
3.Overcurrent relays -providing protection mainly against phase-
Operation to-phase faults and overloading.
Under normal operating conditions, currents at the two ends 4.Differential system -(or circulating-current system)
of each stator winding will be equal. Therefore, there is a providing protection against both earth and phase faults.
balanced circulating current in the phase pilot wires and no The complete protection of transformer usually requires the
current flows through the operating coils of the relays. combination of these systems.
Consequently, the relays remain inoperative
If an earth-fault occurs on any one phase, the out-of-balance Factors that affects the Choice of a particular combination
secondary current in CTs in that phase will flow through the of protection systems
earth relay ER and via pilot S1 or S2 to the neutral of the (a) Size of the transformer
current transformers. This will cause the operation of earth (b) Type of cooling
relay only. If a fault occurs between two phases, the out- of- (c) Location of transformer in the network
balance current will circulate round the two transformer (d) Nature of load supplied and
secondaries via any two of the coils PA , BR, PC (the pair (e) Importance of service for which transformer is required. In
being decided by the two phases that are faulty) without the following sections, above systems of protection will be
passing through the earth relay ER. Therefore, only the phase- discussed in detail.
fault relays will operate.
B)PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 1.Buchholz relay

Transformers are static devices, totally enclosed and generally
oil immersed. Therefore, chances of faults occurring on them
are very rare. However, the consequences of even a rare fault
may be very serious unless the transformer is quickly
disconnected from the system.
Common transformer faults.

As compared with generators, in which many abnormal
conditions may arise, power transformers may suffer only
from :
i. Open circuits
ii. Overheating
Buchholz relay is a gas -actuated relay installed in oil
immersed transformers for protection against all kinds of faults.
Named after its inventor, Buchholz, it is used to give an alarm in
case of incipient (i.e. slow-developing) faults in the transformer
and to disconnect the transformer from the supply in the
event of severe internal faults.
c)BUS-BAR PROTECTION
Bus-bars in the generating stations and sub-stations form
important link between the incoming and outgoing circuits
The two most commonly used schemes for
busbar protection are :
i)Differential protection
ii)Fault bus protection
1.Differential protection. This is the basic method for busbar

When a pre- determined amount of gas protection in which currents entering and leaving the bus are
gets accumulated, it exerts sufficient totalised. During normal load condition, the sum of these
pressure on the float to cause it to tilt and currents is equal to zero. When a fault occurs, the fault current
close the contacts of mercury switch upsets the balance and produces a differential current to
attached to it. This completes the alarm operate a relay.
circuit to sound an *alarm.
Advantages
It is the simplest form of transformer protection.
It detects the incipient faults at a stage much earlier than is
possible with other forms of protection.
Disadvantages
It can only be used with oil immersed transformers equipped
with conservator tanks.
The device can detect only faults below oil level in the 2.Fault Bus protection. It is possible to design a station so that
transformer. Therefore, separate protection is needed for the faults that develop are mostly earth-faults. This can be
connecting cables. achieved by providing earthed metal barrier (known as fault
Earth-Fault or Leakage Protection bus) surrounding each conductor throughout its entire length in
An earth-fault usually involves a partial breakdown of the bus structure. With this arrangement, every fault that might
winding insulation to earth. The resulting leakage occur must involve a connection between a conductor and an
earthed metal part. By directing the flow of earth-fault current,
current is considerably less than the short-circuit current.
it is possible to detect the faults and determine their location.
The earth-fault may continue for a long time and cause This type of protection is known as fault bus protection
considerable damage before it ultimately develops into a
short-circuit and removed from the system. Under these
circumstances, it is profitable to employ earth-fault
relays in order to ensure the disconnection of earth-fault
or leak in the early stage. An earth-fault relay is
essentially an overcurrent relay of low setting and
operates as soon as an earth-fault or leak develops. One
method of protection against earth-faults in a transformer
is the core-balance leakage protection
A fault involving a connection between a conductor and

earthed supporting structure will result in current flow to
10 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

ground through the fault bus causing the relay to trip. The i)Using definite time relays. As shows in the figure above
operation of relays will trip all breakers connecting equipment ,The time of operation of each relay is fixed and is independent
to the bus. of the operating current. Thus relay D has an operating time of
0·5 second while for other relays, time delay is successively
c)PROTECTION OF LINES increased by 0·5 second. If a fault occurs in the section DE, it
Probability of fault occurring on the lines is much more due to will be cleared in 0·5 second by the relay and circuit breaker
the greater length and exposer to the atmospheric conditions. at D because all other relays have higher operating time. In
Many application of protection schemes have been adopted. this way only section DE of the system will be isolated. If the
relay at D fails to trip, the relay at C will operate after a time
Requirements of line protection delay of 0·5 second i.e. after 1 second from the occurrence of
The requirements of line protection are : fault.
i)In the event of a short circuit, the circuit breaker closest to
the fault should open, all other circuit breakers remaining in a Disadvantage
closed position. The disadvantage of this system is that if there are a number of
ii)In case the nearest breaker to the fault fails to open, back-up feeders in series, the tripping time for faults near the supply end
protection should be provided by the adjacent circuit breakers. becomes high (2 seconds in this case). However, in most
iii)The relay operating time should be just as short as cases, it is necessary to limit the maximum tripping time to 2
possible in order to preserve system stability, without seconds. This disadvantage can be overcome to a reasonable
unnecessary tripping of circuits. extent by using inverse-time relays.
The protection of lines presents a problem quite different from Inverse time relays in which operating time is inversely
the protection of station apparatus such as generators, proportional to the operating current. With this
transformers and bus-bars. While differential protection is
arrangement, the farther the circuit breaker from the
ideal method for lines, it is much more expensive to use. The
two ends of a line may be several kilometers apart and to generating station, the shorter is its relay operating time.
compare the two currents, a costly pilot-wire circuit is
required. This expense may be justified but in general less
The three relays at A , B and C are assumed to have
costly methods are used. inverse-time characteristics. A fault in section BC will
give relay times which will allow breaker at B to trip out
Methods of Line protection before the breaker at A .
The common methods of line protection are :
i)Time-graded overcurrent protection
ii)Differential protection
iii)Distance protection
i)Time graded overcurrent protection

It involves time setting of relays in so graded manner that in
the event of fault, the smallest possible part of the system is
isolated. This can be illustrated by the use of definite time
relay shown below.
2) Parallel feeders. Where continuity of supply is particularly
necessary, two parallel feeders may be installed. If a fault
occurs on one feeder, it can be disconnected from the system and
continuity of supply can be maintained from the other feeder.
The parallel feeders cannot be protected by non-directional
overcurrent relays only. It is necessary to use directional relays
also to grade the time setting of relays for selective tripping.
One of the terms we need to understand include:

1)Radial feeder
2)Parallel feeder
3)Ring main system
1)Radial feeder. The main characteristic of a radial system is

that power can flow only in one direction, from generator or The protection of this system requires that
supply end to the load. It has the disadvantage that continuity i)Each feeder has a non-directional overcurrent relay at the
of supply cannot be maintained at the receiving end in the generator end. These relays should have inverse-time
event of fault. Time-graded protection of a radial feeder can be characteristic.
achieved by using ii)Each feeder has a reverse power or directional relay at
(i) definite time relays and the sub-station end. These relays should be instantaneous type
(ii) inverse time relays. and operate only when power flows in the reverse direction
i.e. in the direction of arrow at P and Q.
11 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Suppose an earth fault occurs on feeder 1 as shown in Fig.
above.It is desired that only circuit breakers at A and P should
open to clear the fault whereas feeder 2 should remain intact
to maintain the continuity of supply.
3.Ring main system. In this system, various power stations or

sub-stations are interconnected by alternate routes, thus
forming a closed ring. In case of damage to any section of the
ring, that section may be disconnected for repairs, and power
will be supplied from both ends of the ring, thereby
maintaining continuity of supply Under healthy conditions, current entering the line at one-end
is equal to that leaving it at the other end. Therefore, equal and
opposite voltages are induced in the secondary of the CTs at the
two ends of the line. The result is that no current flows through
the relays. Suppose a fault occurs at point F on the line as shown
in the figure above,. This will cause a greater current to flow
through CT1 than through CT2. Consequently, their secondary
voltages become unequal and circulating current flows through
the pilot wires and relays. The circuit breakers at both ends of
The above figure shows the single line diagram of a typical ring the line will trip out and the faulty line will be isolated.
main system consisting of one-generator G supplying four sub- The figure below shows the connections of MerzPrice voltage
stations S1, S2, S 3 and S4. In this arrangement, power can flow in balance scheme for all the three phases of the line.
both directions under fault conditions. Therefore, it is
necessary to grade in both directions round the ring and also to
use directional relays. In order that only faulty section of the
ring is isolated under fault conditions, the types of relays and
their time settings should be as follows
i)The two lines leaving the generating station should be
equipped with non-directional overcurrent relays (relays at A
and J in this case).
ii)At each sub-station, reverse power or directional relays
should be placed in both incoming and outgoing lines (relays
at B, C, D, E, F, G, H and I in this case).
iii)There should be proper relative time-setting of the relays.
As an example, going round the loop G S 1 S 2 S3 S4 G ; the
outgoing relays (viz at A, C, E, G and I) are set with decreasing NOTE: To extract for one phase, follow one complete line
time limits e.g. (phase i.e Red –only ) from one end to the other.
A = 2·5 sec, C = 2 sec, E = 1·5 sec G = 1sec and I = 0·5 sec
Advantages
Differential Pilot-Wire Protection i)This system can be used for ring mains as well as parallel
The differential pilot-wire protection is based on the principle feeders.
that under normal conditions, the current entering one end of ii)This system provides instantaneous
a line is equal to that leaving the other end. As soon as a fault protection for ground faults. This
occurs between the two ends, this condition no longer holds decreases the possibility of these faults
and the difference of incoming and outgoing currents is involving other phases.
arranged to flow through a relay which operates the circuit iii)This system provides instantaneous
breaker to isolate the faulty line.: relaying which reduces the amount of
i. Merz-Price voltage balance system damage to overhead conductors
ii. Translay scheme resulting from arcing faults.
1.Merz-Price voltage balance system. The figure below shows
the single line diagram of Merz-Price voltage balance system Disadvantages
for the protection of a 3-phase line. Identical current i)Accurate matching of current transformers is very essential.
transformers are placed in each phase at both ends of the line. ii)If there is a break in the pilot-wire circuit, the system will
The pair of CTs in each line is connected in series with a relay not operate.
in such a way that under normal conditions, their secondary iii)This system is very expensive owing to the greater length
voltages are equal and in opposition i.e. they balance each of pilot wires required.
other. iv)In case of long lines, charging current
due to pilot-wire capacitance effects may
be sufficient to cause relay operation
even under normal conditions.
v)This system cannot be used for line
12 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
voltages beyond 33 kV because of
constructional difficulties in matching the
current transformers.
2.Translay scheme. This system is similar to voltage balance

system except that here balance or opposition is between the
voltages induced in the secondary windings wound on the
relay magnets and not between the secondary voltages of the It is a simple system consisting of lines in series such that power can flow
line current transformers. This permits to use current only from left to right. The relays at A , B and C are set to operate for
impedance Z1,Z2, and Z3 respectively.
transformers of normal design and eliminates one of the most Suppose a fault occurs between sub-stations B and C, the fault impedance at
serious limitations of original voltage balance system, namely power station and substation A and B will be Z1 + Z2 and Z3 respectively.
its limitation to the system operating at voltages not exceeding Similarly , if a fault occurs within sections A,B, then only relay at A will
33 kV. operate. In this manner, instantaneous protection can be obtained for all
conditions of operation
The modified Distance protection is as shown below
In this scheme of protection, three distance elements are

used at each terminal. The zone 1 element covers first
90% of the line and is arranged to trip instantaneously
for faults in this portion. The zone 2 element trips for
faults in the remaining 10% of the line and for faults in
However, it is possible to make further simplification by
combining currents derived from all phases in a single relay at
the next line section, but a time delay is introduced to
each end, using the principle of summation transformer prevent the line from being tripped if the fault is in the
next section. The zone 3 element provides back-up
protection in the event a fault in the next section is not
cleared by its breaker.
Example
A star connected 3-phase 10MVA, 6.6kV alternator has a phase
reactance of 10%. It is protected by Mertz price Circulating current
principle that is set to operate to a fault current not less than 175A.
Calculate the value of earthling resistor to be provided in order to ensure
that only 10% of the voltage winding is left unprotected.
sln
6.6 𝑥 103
𝑉𝑝 = = 3810.5V
√3
NOTE: Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 10MVA
Advantages Where 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 1 (unity), then Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴
i. The system is economical as only two pilot wires are
10 𝑥 106 10 𝑥 106
required for the protection of a 3-phase line. Full load current 𝐼𝐿 = = =874.77A
√3 𝑥 𝑉𝐿 √3 𝑥 6600
ii. Current transformers of normal design can be used. Percentage reactance % = 10
% 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐 𝑥 𝑉𝐿
iii. The pilot wire capacitance currents do not affect the 𝑥𝑛 =
√3 𝑥 𝐼𝐿 𝑥 100
iv. operation of relays.
10 𝑥 6600
𝑥𝑛 = = 0.4356Ω
√3 𝑥 874.77 𝑥 100
Distanc e Protection Reactance of 10% winding = 0.4356 x = 0.04356Ω
10
100
This is suitable for the protection of very long high E.m.f induced in the 10% winding
10
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
voltage transmission lines. The action of relay depends 100
10
= 3810.5 x = 381.05V
upon the distance (or impedance) between the point 100
where the relay is installed and the point of fault. This Impedance offered by the 10% winding Z = √(𝑅)2 + (0.04356)2
system provides discrimination protection without Earth fault current due to 10% = 175 A
employing pilot wires. Therefore: 175A =
𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝐸)
=
381.05𝑉
𝑍 √(𝑅)2 +(0.04356)2
381.05𝑉
√(𝑅)2 + (0.04356)2 = 175𝐴 = 2.17742
(𝑅)2 + (0.04356)2 = 4.74119
𝑅 2 = 4.74119 – 0.001895 = 4.739
R = 2.177Ω
13 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Example 6.6 𝑥 103
𝑉𝑝 = = 3810.5V
A star connected 3-phase 20MVA, 11kV alternator has a phase reactance √3
of 5.3%. It is protected by Mertz price Circulating current principle Min. fault current which will operate the relay = Current ratio x minimum
which is set to operate to a fault current not less than 145A. Calculate the operating relay current:
value of earthling resistor to be provided in order to ensure that only
10% of the voltage winding is left unprotected. Therefore:
1000
sln Min. Earth fault current = x 0.5 = 100A
5
11 𝑥 103
𝑉𝑝 = = 6350.9V
√3 E.mf induced in the x % winding
NOTE: Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 20MVA 𝑥
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
Where 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 1 (unity), then Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴 100
𝑥
20 𝑥 106 20 𝑥 106 = 3810.5 x = 38.1x
Full load current 𝐼𝐿 = = = 1049.7A 100
√3 𝑥 𝑉𝐿 √3 𝑥11000
Percentage reactance % = 5.3 Earth fault current due to x% winding = 100 A
%𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐 𝑥 𝑉𝐿
𝑥𝑛 =
√3 𝑥 𝐼𝐿 𝑥 100 𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝐸) 38.1𝑥
5.3 𝑥 11000 Therefore : 100A = =
𝑥𝑛 = = 0.3207Ω 7.5 7.5
√3𝑥 1049.7 𝑥 100
10 38.1x = 100 x 7.5
Reactance of 10% winding = 0.3207 x = 0.03207Ω 100 𝑥 7.5
100 x= = 19.7
E.mf induced in the 10% winding 38.1
10
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
100
10
= 6350 x = 635.09 V Example
100
Impedance offered by the 10% winding Z = √(𝑅)2 + (0.03207)2 A three-Phase, 10MVA, 11kV, star- connected alternator
is protected by the MerZ-price system of protection. If the
ratio of the current transformer is 1200/5, the minimum
Earth fault current due to 10% = 145 A
𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝐸) 635.09𝑉 operating current of the relay is 0.6A and the neutral point
Therefore: 145A = =
𝑍
635.09𝑉
√(𝑅)2 +(0.03207)2 earthing resistance is 5.2Ω. Calculate the percentage of
√(𝑅)2 + (0.03207)2 = 145𝐴 = 4.37993 each phase of the stator winding which is unprotected
(𝑅)2 + (0.03207)2 = 19.183 against each fault. (7mks)
R = 4.38Ω sln
Let x% of the winding be unprotected.
Earthing resistance R = 5.2Ω
Example
A star connected 3-phase 70MVA, 6.6kV alternator has a phase sln
reactance of 7.3%. It is protected by Mertz price Circulating current 11 𝑥 103
principle which is set to operate to a fault current not less than 170A. 𝑉𝑝 = = 6350.85V
√3
Calculate the value of earthling resistor to be provided in order to Min. fault current which will operate the relay = Current ratio x minimum
ensure that only 8% of the voltage winding is left unprotected. operating relay current:
sln
6.6 𝑥 103 Therefore:
𝑉𝑝 = = 3810.5V 1200
√3 Min. Earth fault current = x 0.6 = 144A
NOTE: Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 70MVA 5
Where 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 1 (unity), then Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴

70 𝑥 106 70 𝑥 106
E.mf induced in the x % winding
Full load current 𝐼𝐿 = = = 874.77A 𝑥
√3 𝑥 𝑉𝐿 √3 𝑥6600 E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
100
Percentage reactance % = 7.3 𝑥
= 6350.85 x = 63.5085x
%𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐 𝑥 𝑉𝐿 100
𝑥𝑛 =
√3 𝑥 𝐼𝐿 𝑥 100
7.3 𝑥 11000 Earth fault current due to x% winding = 144 A
𝑥𝑛 = = 0.318Ω
√3𝑥 874.77 𝑥 100
8
Reactance of 8 % winding = 0.318 x = 0. 02544Ω Therefore : 144 A =
=
63.5085𝑥
100
5.2 5.2
E.mf induced in the 8% winding 63.5085x = 144 x 5.2
8
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥 x=
144 𝑥 5.2
= 11.79
100
8 63.5085
= 3810.5 x = 304.84 V
100
Impedance offered by the 10% winding Z = √(𝑅)2 + (0.02544)2
Example
Earth fault current due to 8% = 170 A A 10MVA, 6.6kVA ,Y–connected alternator is protected by Mertz price
𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝐸) 304.84𝑉 circulating current Principle. If the ratio of current transformer is
Therefore: 170A = =
𝑍 √(𝑅)2 +(0.02544)2 1000/5 .The minimum operating current for the relay is 0.75A and the
304.84𝑉
√(𝑅)2 + (0.02544)2 = 170𝐴 = 1.793 neutral point earthing resistance is 6Ω. Calculate:
(𝑅)2 + (0.02544)2 = 3.215 a)The % of each stator winding which is unprotected against earth fault
if the machine is operating at normal voltage.
R = 1.79Ω
b)The minimum resistance to provide protection for 90% of stator
winding.
Example
Sln
A star connected 3-phase, 10MVA, 6.6kVA is protected by Mertz price
a)The % of each stator winding which is unprotected against earth fault
circulating current Principle using 1000/5 Ampere current transformer.
if the machine is operating at normal voltage.
The stator point of alternator is earthed through a resistance of 7.5Ω. If
the minimum operating current for relay is 0.5A. Calculate the % of
each phase of the stator winding which is unprotected against earth fault
when the machine is operated at normal voltage.
The Earthing resistance R = 6Ω
sln 6.6 𝑥 103
Let x% of the winding be unprotected. 𝑉𝑝 = = 3810.5V
√3
Earthing resistance R = 7.5Ω Therefore:
1000
Min. Earth fault current = x 0.75 = 150A
sln 5
14 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Example
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
𝑥 A 6000kVA, 3300V, Star connected alternator has
= 3810.5 x
100
𝑥
= 38.1x
asynchronous reactance of 4Ω and resistance of 0.6Ω
100
per phase. It is protected using the MertZ price
Earth fault current due to x% winding = 150 A Balanced current system, which operates when out of
Therefore :150A =
=
38.1𝑥 balanced current exceeds 40% of the load current.
6 6
38.1x = 150 x 6 Determine the : (7mks)
150 𝑥 6
x=
38.1
= 23.62 i)Out of balance current
sln
b)The minimum resistance to provide protection for 90% of stator NOTE: Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 6MVA
winding. Where 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 1 (unity), then Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴
Sln 6 𝑥 106 6 𝑥 106
Full load current 𝐼𝐿 = = = 1050A
√3 𝑥 𝑉𝐿 √3 𝑥3300
Let RΩ be the minimum earthing resistance. Therefore:
Out of balance current is:
40
Resistance required providing protection for 90% of the stator windings, then, Min. Earth fault current = 1050 x = 420A
100
it implies that, only 10% is unprotected.
i.e 10%
ii)Proportion of the Winding unprotected if the star
Earth fault current due to 10 % winding = 150 A point is earthed by resistor of 8Ω
𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝐸) 𝑥 38.1 𝑥 33 00
Therefore : 150A = = 𝑉𝑝 = = 1905.3V
𝑅 𝑅
√3
But x = 10
38.1 𝑥 10 3.81 𝑥 10
150 =
𝑅
and hence R = = 2.540Ω
150
Earthing resistance R = 8Ω
Example 𝑥
Impedance of x% winding = (0.6 + 𝑗4)
A 20MVA, 11kV, Star connected alternator has 100
Total impedance at fault of the fault current circuit
asynchronous reactance of 2.5Ω and resistance of = [(8 +
0.6𝑥
)+𝑗 ]
4𝑥
0.75Ω per phase. It is protected using the MertZ 100 100
price Balanced current system. Determine what E.mf induced in the x % winding
𝑥
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
portion of the winding remains unprotected if neutral 𝑥
100
= 1905.3 x = 19.053x
of alternator is earthed via a resistance wire of 5Ω , 100
assume that the relay operation when out of balance Earth fault current due to x% winding = 420 A
𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝐸) 19.053𝑥
current exceeds 25% of the load current. Therefore : 420A = 0.6𝑥 4𝑥 =
[(8+
0.6𝑥
)+𝑗 ] [(8+ )+𝑗
4𝑥
]
100 100 100 100
sln Neglecting the reactance of the winding
NOTE: Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 20MVA 420A =
19.053𝑥
0.6𝑥
Where 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 1 (unity), then Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴 [(8+ )]
100
20 𝑥 106 20 𝑥 106
Full load current 𝐼𝐿 = = = 1049.73A 0.6𝑥
√3 𝑥 𝑉𝐿 √3 𝑥11000
420(8 + ) = 19.053x
Therefore: 100
Out of balance current is: 3360 + 2.52x = 19.053x
25 3360
Min. Earth fault current = 1049.73 x = 262.4A x= = 20.3%
100 16.533

11000
𝑉𝑝 =
√3
= 6351V Example
A 20MVA, 11kV, Star connected alternator has
asynchronous reactance of 2.5Ω and resistance of
Impedance of x% winding =
100
(0.75 + 𝑗2.5)
𝑥
0.75Ω per phase. It is protected using the MertZ
Total impedance at fault of the fault current circuit price Balanced current system. Determine what
0.75𝑥 2.5𝑥
= [(5 + )+𝑗 ] portion of the winding remains unprotected if neutral
100 100

of alternator is earthed via a resistance wire of 5Ω ,
𝑥
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
100
assume that the relay operation when out of balance
𝑥
= 6351 x
100
= 63.51x current exceeds 25% of the load current.
sln
Earth fault current due to x% winding = 262.4 A NOTE: Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 20MVA
Therefore : 262.4A = 0.75𝑥 2.5𝑥 = 0.75𝑥 2.5𝑥 Where 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 1 (unity), then Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴
[(5+ )+𝑗 ] [(5+ )+𝑗 ] 20 𝑥 106 20 𝑥 106
100 100 100 100
Neglecting the reactance of the winding Full load current 𝐼𝐿 = = = 1049.73A
√3 𝑥 𝑉𝐿 √3 𝑥11000
63.51𝑥 Therefore:
262.4A = 0.75𝑥
[(5+ )] Out of balance current is:
100
25
0.75𝑥
Min. Earth fault current = 1049.73 x = 262.4A
100
262.4 (5 + ) = 63.51x
100
1312 + 1.968x = 19.053x Let x% of the winding be unprotected.
1312 11000
x= = 21.31% 𝑉𝑝 = = 6351V
61.542 √3
15 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

𝑥
Impedance of x% winding = (0.75 + 𝑗2.5)
100
0.75𝑥 2.5𝑥
= [(5 + )+𝑗 ]
100 100

𝑥
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
100
𝑥
= 6351 x = 63.51x
100
Earth fault current due to x% winding = 262.4 A

Therefore : 262.4A = 0.75𝑥 2.5𝑥 = 0.75𝑥 2.5𝑥
[(5+ )+𝑗 ] [(5+ )+𝑗 ]
100 100 100 100
Neglecting the reactance of the winding
63.51𝑥
262.4A = 0.75𝑥
[(5+ )]
100
0.75𝑥
262.4 (5 + ) = 63.51x
100
1312 + 1.968x = 19.053x
1312
x= = 21.31%
61.542
Example
A three phase 6.6kV star connected alternators is
protected by Merz-price circulating current system. If the
current ratio of the current transformer is 300/1 A, the
synchronous reactance of the alternator is 5.0Ω/phase, the
minimum operating current for the relay is 0.5A and the
neutral point is earthed through a 2Ω non inductive
resister, calculate the:
i)Percentage of each stator winding which is protected
against earth fault when the machine is opening at normal
voltage (4mks)

Earth resistance is 2Ω
6.6 𝑥 103
𝑉𝑝 = = 3810.5V
√3
Therefore:
300
1

𝑥
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
100
𝑥
= 3810.5 x = 38.1x
100
Earth fault current due to x% winding = 150 A

Therefore :150A = 5𝑥 = 5𝑥
2 +𝑗100 2 +𝑗 100
Negleting reactance resistance
38.1x = 150 x 2
150 𝑥 2
x= = 7.87%
38.1
ii)Maximum resistance to provide protection for 95% of

the stator winding (8mks)
Let RΩ be the maximum earthing resistance.
Resistance required providing protection for 95% of the stator windings, then,
it implies that, only 5% is unprotected.
i.e 5%
Earth fault current due to 5 % winding = 150 A
𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝐸) 𝑥 38.1 𝑥

Therefore : 150A = =
𝑅 𝑅
But x = 5
38.1 𝑥 5
150 =
𝑅
3.81 𝑥 10
R= = 1.27Ω
150
16 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

TOPIC 2. installation of vibration dampers.
OVERHEAD LINE CONSTRUCTION The most common type of damper is the Stock-bridge type
which comprises of two hollow masses attached together by
means of a flexible connection.
CORONA + CONDUCTOR VIBRATIONS
The whole assembly is clamped to the conductor close to the
Objectives
suspension point. The fixing distance between the suspension
i)Explain the types of conductor vibrations
point and the damper is a function of the diameter and tension
a)Aelian Vibration
b)Galloping of conductors of the protected conductor.
c)Sub-span osscillations
d)High frequency vibration
ii) Differentiate between types of conductors sag and
tension
i)Catenary methods
ii)Unequal and equal ground levels
iii)Effects of wind and Ice loading
iii) Describe the corona phenomena in overhead
transmission line
i)Disruptive
ii)Visible disruptive
iii)Critical
iv) Explain the principle of the operation of phase
modifiers
i)Lagging and leading VARs
ii)Voltage drop Compensation
OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINE VIBRATION Other types of dampers such as buckles and festoons have
also proved successful
Objective 1
i)Explain the types of conductor vibrations 2. GALLOPING
a)Aelian Vibration Galloping Vibration – These are vibrations of Low
b)Galloping of conductors frequency (0.25 – 2Hz) and high Amplitude (up to 6m)
c)Sub-span osscillations and caused by asymmetrical layers of ice for
d)High frequency vibration
motion,(dancing/swinging
e)Swinging
f)Danacing -It occurs mostly in the vertical plane with oscillations of 1, 2
or 3 half wavelengths per span.
Overhead transmission line vibration and galloping have been -It is caused by moderately strong, steady crosswind acting
a design and operating problem. upon an asymmetrically-iced conductor surface.
TYPES OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINE -It may involve two different mechanisms:
VIBRATION In the absence of ice it can arise with large diameter
The three forms of wind-induced conductor vibrations conductors (40 mm).
are: The phenomena may be controlled by using smooth body
a)Aeolian vibration or Resonant Vibration conductors.
b)galloping Ice-initiated oscillations which occur at near freezing
c)Sub-span oscillation. temperatures associated with freezing rain, wet snow or hoar
frost.
1)AEOLIAN (RESONANT) VIBRATION,
i)Aeolian vibration – They are vibrations of low -The deposits modify the shape of the conductors into
amplitudes (max 0.50) and High frequency (50 – unstable aerodynamic profiles at moderate
100Hz) and of low speed of (10 – 30km/h) wind speeds. The ice deposits necessary to initiate such
oscillations may be very small and difficult to detect by eye.
Aeolian vibration is caused by an alternating wind force,
which arises from a pressure difference associated with a HOW TO REDUCE GALLOPING
regular formation of vortices behind a conductor. i) Removing spacers from twin conductor configurations
They occur most frequently in winds of laminar flow in the ii)addition of pendulum, perforated cylinders, aerodynamic
range 0.5–10 m/s. dampers, interphase spacers and air flow spoilers.
An estimation of conductor lifetime based on their ‘endurance
capability’ is possible to allow design, selection and
17 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Differences between Aeolian and Galloping abrasion or fatigue failures will generally occur over a period
Aeolian Vibration Galloping Vibration of time.
Caused by alternating Caused by
wind force symmetrical layer of Some of the effects of Vibration include:
ice on conductor i) Abrasion -is the wearing away of the surface of a
surface conductor and is generally associated with loose connections
High frequency (50- Low frequency (0.25 – between the conductor and attachment hardware or other
100Hz) 2Hz) conductor fittings. The looseness that allows the abrasion to
Have low amplitude Have high amplitude occur is often the result of excessive aeolian vibration.
max 0.50m of up to 6m
Abrasion damage can occur within :
Low speed of (10 – High speed
a)the span itself at spacers,
30km/h)
b) spacer dampers and marker spheres, or
c)at supporting structures
3.SUBSPAN OSCILLATION.
Subspan oscillation occurs only at bundle conductors with
subconductors arranged one after the other in wind direction.
The leeward conductors is aerodynamically excited by the
inhomogeneous wind field behind the windward conductor.
This is addressed as an ability due to aerodynamic coupling.
The frequency of subspan oscillation is between 1 and 5Hz.
The wave length being equal or twice the sub-span length .
The wind velocities causing sub-span oscillation are between
4 and 8m/s and may result in differing oscillation modes.. The
oscillation amplitude depends on the oscillation mode and
may reach half of the sub conductors spacing causing
conductors clashing, therefore, sub-span oscillations are
considered as flow –induced vibration and are classified as
low frequency
4) Swinging of conductors – Is caused by the changes in the

wind pressure .It is harmless provided there is enough
clearance between the conductor to prevent the flash over.
5) Dancing of conductor – It is caused by irregular coating of

sleat in wind. These changes the shape of the conductor
temporarily from round or horizontal with the amplitude
enough to make conductor to touch each other.
6) Jumping of conductors – It is caused by shedding of ice
load. The worst jump occurs when it falls on acentre span.
ii) Fatigue
7) High frequency vibration – It is caused by eddies on the Are failures due to the direct result of bending a material
leeward side of the conductor . Vibration may cause metal back and forth a sufficient amount over a sufficient number of
fatigue at the support clamp. cycles.
Removing the pull tab from a can of soda is a good example.
The intensity of induced vibrations depends on:
i)Type of conductors and clamps,
ii)Tension, (Maximum Tension at Highest Wind and/or Ice
Loading)
iii)Span
iv)length of the conductor,
v)Topography in the surrounding,
vi)Height and direction of the line
vii)Frequency of occurrence of vibration inducing wind
streams.
EFFECTS OF VIBRATION,
All materials have a certain “endurance limit” related to
It should be understood that the existence of vibration doesn’t
fatigue.
necessarily constitute a problem. However, if the magnitude
of the vibration is high enough, damage in the form of
18 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
The endurance limit is the value of bending stress above Factors considered in the design and Stringing of
which a fatigue failure will occur after a certain number of Conductors on the line support
bending cycles, and below which fatigue failures will not a)Conductor load per unit length
occur, regardless of the number of bending cycles. b)Conductor tension
The maximum bending stresses occur at locations where the c)Span, that is, distance between the supports
conductor is being restrained from movement. Such restraint d)Temperature
can occur in the span at the edge of clamps of spacers.at the
supporting structures.
Factors to consider in determining the conductor load
NOTE: When the bending stresses in a conductor due to 1.Weight of the conductor itself
vibration exceed the endurance limit, fatigue failures will 2.Weight of ice or snow clinging to conductor
occur 3.Wind blowing against conductor
a) Catenary sags
i) This is when the span of conductor is contained between
line supports which are at the same level
When the conductor is suspended between two supports at the
same level, it takes the shape of catenary. However, if the sag
is very small compared with the span, then sag-span curve is
like a parabola.
ii)The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially.
Thus tension TO at the lowest point O acts horizontally as
shown in Fig. 8.23. (ii).
iii)The horizontal component of tension is constant throughout
the length of the wire.
iv)The tension at supports is approximately equal to the
horizontal tension acting at any point on the wire. Thus if T is
The time to failure will depend on the magnitude of the the tension at the support B, then T = TO.
bending stresses and the number of bending cycles
accumulated Conductor sag and tension.
Sag is difference between points of supports and the lowest
HOW TO REDUCE VIBRATION point on the conductor.
To prevent vibration reaching to support clamp, you can Tension – Is a tangential force on the lowest side of the sag
suspend the stock bridge damper at the entrance of each This is an important consideration in the mechanical design of
clamp. overhead lines. The conductor sag should be kept to a
minimum in order to reduce the conductor material required
and to avoid extra pole height for sufficient clearance above
ground level. It is also desirable that tension in the conductor
should be low to avoid the mechanical failure of conductor and
Objective 2 to permit the use of less strong supports. However, low
ii) Differentiate between types of conductors sag and conductor tension and minimum sag are not possible. It is
tension because low sag means a tight wire and high tension, whereas
i)Catenary methods a low tension means a loose wire and increased sag.
ii)Unequal and equal ground levels Therefore, in actual practice, a compromise in made between
iii)Effects of wind and Ice loading the two.
Conductor sag
In an overhead line, the sag should be so adjusted that tension
Sag- is The difference in level between points of supports and
in the conductors is within safe limits.
the lowest point on the conductor.
The figure below shows a conductor suspended between two
equilevel supports A and B. The conductor is not fully SAG TEMPLATE
stretched but is allowed to have a dip. The lowest point on the Sag template is convenient devices used in the design of
conductor is O and the sag is S transmission line to determine the location and height of
structure. Sag template ca be relied upon to provide the
following:
1;Economic layout
2:Minimum errors in design and layout
3.Proper grading of structures
4.Prevention of excessive insulator swing
19 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Factors affecting tension of conductors b)When supports are at unequal levels. In hilly areas, we
The tension is governed by the following factors: generally come across conductors suspended between supports
i) Conductor weight at unequal levels. The figure below shows a conductor
ii) Effects of wind blowing against conductor suspended between two supports A and B which are at different
iii) Weight of ice loading or snow clinging to conductor levels. The lowest point on the conductor is O.
iv) Temperature variations.
It is a standard practice to keep conductor tension less than
50% of its ultimate tensile strength i.e., minimum factor of
safety in respect of conductor tension should be 2
i)Conductor weight
a)When supports are at equal levels. Con- sider a conductor

between two equilevel supports A and B with O as the lowest
point as shown below. It can be proved that lowest point will
be at the mid-span.The weight of the conductor will be highly
concentrated at this lowest point Derivation of the equation of sag when supported at
unequal levels
Let
l = span length
h = Difference in levels between two supports
𝒙𝟏 = Distance of support at lower level i.e A from O
𝒙𝟐 = Distance of support at higher leve i.e B T from From O
T= Tension in the conductor
If w is the weight per unit length of the conductor, then

𝑤𝑥1 2
Sag 𝑆1 =
2𝑇
And
Devation for equation of sag for equal line supports 𝑤𝑥 2
2
Sag 𝑆2 =
Let l= length of span 2𝑇
w = weight per unit length of conductor At support A , x = 𝑥1 and , y = 𝑆1
T = tension in the conductor
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 = 𝒍 ------- eqn i
Now consider a point p on the conductor. Taking the lowest Now
𝒘
point O as the origin, let the coordinates of point p be x and y. 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 = [𝒙𝟐 𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝟐 ]
𝟐𝑻
𝒘
OP = x, = (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟏 )(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )
𝟐𝑻
The two forces acting on the portion OP of the conductor are: 𝒘𝒍
𝑥 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 = (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )
a)The weight wx of the conductor acting at a distance from 𝟐𝑻
2
O
𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 = h
b)The tension T acting at O 𝒘𝒍
h = (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )
𝟐𝑻
Now moment due to tension T, about O will be : 𝟐𝑻𝒉
So that (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 ) = ------ eqtn ii
Moment = Ty 𝒘𝒍
Again moment due to weight wx , about O will be

𝒙 Solving equation (i) and (ii) simultaneously we get
Moment = wx ×
𝟐
By substaraction:
Equating the moments of above two forces about point O , we 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 = 𝒍
get: 𝟐𝑻𝒉
𝒙 - (−𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 ) =
Ty = wx × 𝒘𝒍
𝟐 𝒍 𝑻𝒉
So that 𝒙𝟏 = −
𝟐 𝒘𝒍
𝑤𝑥 2
y=
2𝑇 𝒂𝒏𝒅
The maximum dip (sag) is represented by the value of y at 𝒍 𝑻𝒉
either of the supports A and B 𝒙𝟐 = +
𝟐 𝒘𝒍
So: Having found values of 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 , 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 , can be easily
𝑙
At A, x = and y = S calculated
2
𝑙
𝑤(2)2 𝑊𝑙 2
Therefore Sag S = or S =
2𝑇 8𝑇
20 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

2.Effect of wind and ice loading. CALCULATION OF SAG
Reasons for calculations of sag

i)A sag should be adjusted so that tension within the
conductors is within safe limits.
ii)tension is governed by conductor weight , effects of wind
and temperature vibrations.
iii)The standard practice is to keep conductor tension less
than 50% of its ultimate strength
iv)Sufficient clearance above the ground level
The above formulae for sag are true only in still air and at NOTE: In calculation of Sag:
normal temperature when the conductor is acted by its weight Total weight of conductor per length is:
only. However, in actual practice, a conductor may have 𝑾𝒕 = √(𝒘 + 𝒘𝒊 )𝟐 + (𝒘𝒘 )𝟐
i) Ice coating and Where :
ii) Simultaneously subjected to wind pressure. w = weight of conductor per unit length
= conductor material density x Volume of ice per unit
a)Effects of Ice or snow length
Accumulation of ice on the line conductor has the following 𝑊𝑖 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
effects on the conductor design: = Density of ice x volume per unit length
i. Increases the dead weight per meter in the line 𝜋
= Density of Ice x [(𝑑 + 2𝑡)2 − 𝑑 2 ]𝑥1
4
ii. Increases the projected surface of the line subject to = density of ice x × 𝜋𝑡 (𝑑 + 𝑡)
wind pressure 𝑊𝑤 = wind force per unit length
The weight of ice acts vertically downwards i.e., in the same = wind pressure per unit area x projected area per unit
direction as the weight of conductor. length
= Wind pressure x [(𝑑 + 2𝑡) + 1]
When the conductors has wind and ice loading , the following
points may be noted:
i)The conductor sets itself in a plane at an angle 𝜽 to the
vertical where :
𝒘𝒘
Tan 𝜽 =
𝒘+ 𝒘𝒊
ii)The sag in the conductor is given by:
𝑾𝒍𝟐
S=
𝟖𝑻
And s represent the slant slag in a direction making an angle 𝜃
to the vertical. If no specific mention is made in the problem,
then slant slag is calculated by using the above formula
iii)The vertical sag = S cos 𝜽.
Note:
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Working tension T = .
𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Example
A 132 kV transmission line has the following data:
Wt. of Conductor = 680 kg/km
Length of span = 260 m
Ultimate strength = 3100 kg
b)Effects of Wind Safety factors = 2
The force due to the wind is assumed to act horizontally i.e., Calculate the height a above ground at which the
at right angle to the projected surface of the conductor. conductor should be supported . Ground clearance
Wind force on the conductor increases the sag required is 10metres.
3)Temperature variation Sln
Temperature rise of conductor increases the length of 680
conductor and hence sag increases as tension decreases. A Wt. of conductor/metre run w = = 0.68𝑘𝑔
1000
temperature fall causes opposite effects. Working tension T =
The tension increases when the temperature decreases and 3100
there is a corresponding decrease in the sag. Icing-up of the = = 1550kg
2
line and wind loading will cause stretching of the conductor by Span length l = 260m
an amount dependent on the line tension. 𝑊𝑙2 0,68 𝑥 (260)2
Sag = S = = = 𝟑. 𝟕𝒎
8𝑇 8 𝑥 1550
Hence conductor should be supported at height
H = 10 + 3.7 = 13.7m
21 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Example Sln
A transmission line has a span of 275 m between level Span length, l = 150, Wind force/m run 𝑊𝑤 = 1.5kg
supports. The conductor has an effective diameter of 1.96 Wt. of conductor/m run w = Conductor area x 100cm x
cm and weighs 0.865 kg/m. Its ultimate strength is 8060 Sp.Gravity
kg. If the conductor has ice coating of radial thickness 1.27 = 2 x 100 x 8.9 = 1780 g = 1.78 kg
cm and is subjected to a wind pressure of 3.9 gm/𝒄𝒎𝟐 of 2
Working tension, T = 5000 x = 2000 kg
5
projected area, Calculate sag for a safety factor of 2. Total weight of one metre length of conductor is
Weight of 1.c.c of ice is 0.91 gm.
Sln 𝑊𝑡 = √(𝑤)2 + (𝑤𝑤 )2
Span length l = 275m 𝑊𝑡 = √(1.78)2 + (1.5)2 = 2.33 kg
Wt . of conductor/m length, w = 0.865kg 𝑊𝑙2 2.33 𝑥 (150)2
Slant Sag , S = = = 3.28 m
Conductor diamaeter d = 1.96 8𝑇 8 𝑥 2000
𝑤
Ice coating thickness, t = 1.27 cm Vertical sag = S Cos𝜃 = 3.28 x
𝑤𝑖
Working tension T = 8060/2 = 4030 kg 1.78
= 3.28 𝑥 = 2.5 𝑚
2.33
Conductor should be supported at a height of:
= 7 + 2.5 = 9.5 m
Example
A transmission line has a span length of 200m between
level supports. The conductor has a cross-section area of
𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝒄𝒎𝟐 and weight 1170 kg/km. It has a braking
strength of 4018/𝒄𝒎𝟐 . Calculate the sag for a safety factor
Volume of ice per metre (i.e,100cm) length of conductor of 5 given wind pressure of 122kg/𝒎𝟐 of the projection
area.
Volume of ice =( 𝜋𝑅2 − 𝜋𝑟 2 )x length per metre Sln
Total diameter D = 1.27 + 1.96 +1.27 = 4.5cm Weight of conductor = 1170kg/km or 1.17 kg/m
4.5
R = = 2.25 Breaking stress = 4018/𝑐𝑚2
2 Safety factor = 5
1.96
r= =0.98 Wind pressure = 122kg/𝑚2
2
Volume of ice = ( 𝜋𝑅2 − 𝜋𝑟 2 )x length per metre Thickness of ice coating t = 0
Volume of ice = 𝜋(2.25)2 − 𝜋(0.98)2 𝑥100 = 1288𝑐𝑚3 S=
𝑾𝒍𝟐
𝟖𝑻
Alternatively : 𝑾𝒘 = [𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆] 𝒙 [(𝑑 + 2𝑡)𝑥 100]

𝜋𝑑 2
Volume of ice = 𝜋𝑡 (𝑑 + 𝑡) x length per metre. But Area A =
4
= 𝜋 𝑥 1.27 𝑥 ( 1.96 + 1.27)𝑥 100 = 1288𝑐𝑚3 4𝐴 4 𝑥 1.29
Weight of ice per metres length of conductor is and d = √ =√ = 1.28cm
𝜋 𝜋
𝑾𝒊 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝑾𝒘 = [𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆] 𝒙 [(𝑑 + 2𝑡)𝑥 100]
= Density of ice x volume per unit length 122𝑘𝑔 1.28𝑐𝑚
= 2 x x 1m = 1.56kg
= 0.91 x 1288 = 1172 g = 1.172 kg 𝑚 100
Wind force /m length of conductor is 𝑊𝑡 = √(𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖 )2 + (𝑤𝑤 )2
𝑾𝒘 = wind force per unit length
= wind pressure per unit area x projected area per unit 𝑊𝑡 = √(1.17 + 0)2 + (1.56)2 = 1.95 kg
length 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Working tension T =
= [𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆] 𝒙 [(𝑑 + 2𝑡)𝑥 100] 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
= 3.9 x (1.96 + 2 x 1.27) x 100g = 1755g=1.755kg =
Total weight of conductor per metre length of conductor is 4018 𝑘𝑔
𝑥 1.29𝑐𝑚2
𝑐𝑚2
= = 1036.6kg
5
𝑊𝑡 = √(𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖 )2 + (𝑤𝑤 )2 𝑾𝒍𝟐 𝟏.𝟗𝟔 𝒙 (𝟐𝟎𝟎)𝟐
S= = = 9.41m
𝑊𝑡 = √(0.865 + 1.172)2 + (1.755)2 = 2.688kg 𝟖𝑻 𝟖 𝒙 (𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟔.𝟔)
𝑊𝑙2 2.688 𝑥 (275)2
S= = = 𝟔. 𝟑 𝒎 In case of vertical sag
8𝑇 8 𝑥 4030
Example
An Overhead line has a span of 150 m between level
support. The conductors has a cross-sectional area of 2
𝒄𝒎𝟐 . The ultimate strength is 5000 kg/𝒄𝒎𝟐 and safety
factor is 5. The specific gravity of the material is 8.9gm/cc. Vertical sag = S cos 𝜃
𝑤
the wind pressure is 1.5 kg/m. Calculate the height of the But cos 𝜃 =
𝑊𝑡
conductor above the ground level at which it should be Vertical sag = S
𝑤
= 9.41 x
1.17
= 5.65
supported if a minimum clearance of 7m is to be left 𝑊𝑡 1.95
between the ground and the conductor.
22 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

𝑤
Examples But cos 𝜃 =
𝑊𝑡
A tower of height 30m and 90m respectively supports a 𝑤 1.98
transmission line of line conductor of a water crossing. Vertical sag = S = 3.48 x = 2.77m
𝑊𝑡 2.48
The Horizontal distance between the tower is 500m. If the Example
tension in the line is 1600kg and The weight of the A transmission line has a space length of 275m. The level
conductor is 1.5kg/m. Find the: supports of the conductors has effective diameter of
a) minimum clearance of the conductor of water b) the 1.96cm and weighs 0.865 kg/m. Its ultimate strength is
minimum clearance between the supports. 8060 kg. If the conductor has an ice coating of radial
Sln thickness 1.27cm and its subjected to wind pressure of 3.9
T = 1600kg g/𝐜𝐦𝟐 of projected area. Calculate sag for a safety factor
W = 1.5kg/m of 2 weight of and 1cc ice = 0.919g.
L = 500m Sln
h = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = (90 – 30) = 60m 𝑾𝒊 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝒍 𝑻𝒉
𝒙𝟏 = − = Density of ice x volume per unit length
𝟐 𝒘𝒍
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟔𝟎 = 0.919 x 𝜋𝑡 (𝑑 + 𝑡) x length per metre
= − = 122m = 0.919 x 𝜋 𝑥 1.27 (1.96 + 1.27) x 100
𝟐 𝟏.𝟓 𝒙 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑤𝑥1 2 1.5 𝑥 (122)2
Sag 𝑆1 = = = 6.98m = 1184.3g or 1.184kg
2𝑇 2 𝑥 1600
𝑾𝒘 = [𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆] 𝒙 [(𝑑 + 2𝑡)𝑥 100]
𝒂𝒏𝒅
𝑙 𝑇ℎ 500 600 𝑥 60 = 3.9 x (1.96 + 2 x 1.27) x 100g = 1755g=1.755kg
𝑥2 = + = + = 378m Total weight of conductor per metre length of conductor is
2 𝑤𝑙 2 1.5 𝑥 500
Or (500 – 122 ) = 378m
𝑊𝑡 = √(𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖 )2 + (𝑤𝑤 )2
𝑤𝑥2 2 1.5 𝑥 (378)2
Sag 𝑆2 = = = 66.98m 𝑊𝑡 = √(0.865 + 1.184)2 + (1.755)2 = 2.69kg
2𝑇 2 𝑥 1600
Minimum clearance = 90 – 66.98 = 23.02m Working tension T =
ii)Minimum clearance between midway 8060
sln = = 4030
2
Mid-way = (250 – 122) = 128m S=
𝑊𝑙2
=
2.688 𝑥 (275)2
= 𝟔. 𝟑𝟎𝟗𝟗 𝒎
𝑤𝑥 2 (1.5)𝑥 (128)2 8𝑇 8 𝑥 4030
S mid point = 2 = = 7.68m
2𝑇 2 𝑥 1600
Min: clearance at midway = 7.68 + 23.02
= 31.70m Example
A transmission line has a space of 214m between level
Example supports. . The conductor has a cross-section area of
A transmission line has a span of 150m between level 𝟑. 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟐 .
supports. The conductor has across-sectional area of 𝟐𝐜𝐦𝟐 Calculate the safety under the following conditions.
.The tension in the string in the conductor is 2000kg. If the Vertical sag = 2.35m
specific gravity of the conductor is material is 9.9g/𝐜𝐦𝟑 Breaking stress = 2540kg/𝒄𝒎𝟐
and the wind force is 1.5kg/m. Determine Wind pressure = 1.5kg/m
a)The sag Weight of conductor = 1.125 kg/m.
ii)Vertical sag Sln
Sln L = 214m
L = 150m Wind pressure 𝑤𝑤 = 1.5kg
A = 2𝑐𝑚2 Weight of conductor W = 1.125kg/m
Density of conductor = 9.9g/𝑐𝑚3 𝑊𝑡 = √(𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖 )2 + (𝑤𝑤 )2
Wind force 𝑾𝒘 = 1.5kg/m
𝑊𝑡 = √(1.125 + 0)2 + (1.5)2 = 1.875
W =density of conductor x Volume per metre length
9.9 𝑔
= 3 𝑥 2𝑐𝑚2 x 100cm = 1980g or 1.98kg Vertical sag = S cos 𝜃
𝑐𝑚
𝑤
𝑊𝑡 = √(𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖 )2 + (𝑤𝑤 )2 But cos 𝜃 =
𝑊𝑡
𝑤
Vertical sag V.S = S
𝑊𝑡
𝑊𝑡 = √(1.98 + 0)2 + (1.5)2 = 2.48 kg
𝑊𝑙2 2.48 𝑥 (150)2
Making S the subject of formular
S= = = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟖 𝒎 𝑊
S = 𝑡 x V.S =
1.875 𝑥 2.35
= 3.92m
8𝑇 8 𝑥 2000
𝑊 1.125
ii)Vertical Sag Working tension T =
In case of vertical sag 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
=
2540 𝑥 3.225 8191.5
T= =
𝑠.𝑓 𝑠.𝑓
𝑊𝑙2
But S = and making T the subject of formula
8𝑇
𝑊𝑙2 1.875 𝑥 (214)2
T= =
8𝑆 8 𝑥 3.92
Vertical sag = S cos 𝜃 Equating the two equations of T
23 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

8191.5 1.875 𝑥 (214)2 Example
=
𝑠.𝑓 8 𝑥 3.92 An overhead line of a river crossing is supported at the
8 𝑥 3.92 𝑥 8191.5
Safety factor s.f = =3 end by the towers of 45m and 75m above water level. The
1.875 𝑥 (214)2
horizontal distance between the towers is 300m and the
Example weight of the conductor is 1.2kg/m. If the tension is limited
A transmission line has a span length of 200m between 2500kg. Determine the clearance between the conductor
level supports. The conductor has a cross-section area of and water at appoint midway between the towers.
𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟐 . The ultimate strength is 5000kg/𝒄𝒎𝟐 . The specific Sln
gravity of the material is 8.9 gm/cc . The wind pressure is h = 75 – 45 = 30m
1.5kg/m and safety factor of 5 . Calculate the height of the L = 300m
conductor above the ground. W = 1.2kg/m
T = 2500kg
𝒍 𝑻𝒉
𝒙𝟏 = −
𝟐 𝒘𝒍
𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟑𝟎
= − = - 58.3m
𝟐 𝟏.𝟐 𝒙 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑙 𝑇ℎ 300 2500 𝑥 30
𝑥2 = + = + = 358.3m
2 𝑤𝑙 2 1.2 𝑥 300
𝑤𝑥2 2 1.2 𝑥 (358.3)2

Sag 𝑆2 = = = 30.8m
2𝑇 2 𝑥 2300
Minimum clearance = 75 – 30.8 = 44.19m
Mid-way = (150 – 122) = 128m

𝑤𝑥 2 (1.5)𝑥 (128)2
S mid point = 2 = = 7.68m
2𝑇 2 𝑥 1600
Min: clearance at midway = 7.68 + 23.02
= 31.70m
Clearance midway = 150 – 44.19 = 105.82

Example
Example A transmission line over a hillside where the gradient is
An overhead transmission line conductor has aparabolic 1:20 is supported by two 22m high towers with a distance
ration weighs 1.925kg/m. The x-sectional area of the of 300m within them. The lower conductors is fixed 2m
conductor is 𝟐. 𝟐𝒎𝟐 and ultimate tensile strength is below the top of each tower. Find the clearance of the
8000kg/𝒄𝒎𝟐 . The support are 600m apart having 15m conductor from the ground . given that the conductor
difference of level. Calculate the sag from the taller of the weigh 1kg/m and allowable tension is 1500kg.
support which must be allowed so that the factor of the Sln
safety shall be 5. Assume that the ice load is 1.0kg/m and
there is no wind pressure.
Sln
W = 1.925kg/m
L = 600m
A = 2.2𝑐𝑚2
h = 15cm
s.f = 5
Working tension T =
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
=
8000 𝑥 2.2
= = 3520
3520
W = 1.925 and 𝑤𝑖 = 1
𝑊𝑡 = √(𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖 )2 = √(1.925 + 1)2 = 2.925
𝒍 𝑻𝒉 L = 300m
𝒙𝟏 = − T = 1500kg
𝟐 𝒘𝒍
𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟓𝟐𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟓 W = 1kg
= − = 269.91m
𝟐 𝟐.𝟗𝟐𝟓 𝒙 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝑙 𝑇ℎ 300 1500 𝑥 15
But 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 = L 𝑥2 = + = + = 225m
2 𝑤𝑙 2 1 𝑥 300
𝒙 𝟐 = L - 𝒙𝟐
= 600 – 269.91 = 330.09 m 𝒙𝟏 = 300 – 225 = 75m
2 𝑤𝑥 2 1 𝑥 (225)2
Sag 𝑆2 = = = 16.88m
𝑤𝑥2 2 2.925 𝑥 (330.09)2 2𝑇 2 𝑥 1500
Sag 𝑆2 = = = 45.24m Effective height = 22 – 2 = 20m
2𝑇 2 𝑥 3520
24 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Sln
REFERENCE: Pg 391 POWER SYSTEMS BY
Wadhwa,C.L New Academic Science (2017)
𝑾𝒊 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
= Density of ice x volume per unit length
= 𝑤𝑐 x 𝜋𝑡 (𝑑 + 𝑡) x 10−4
1
= 912 x 𝜋 𝑥 1.25 (2.80 + 1.25) x 10−4 kg/m
Sin 𝜃 = = 1.45 kg/m
20
ℎ
= Sin 𝜃
300 b)Total vertical load on conductor in Kg/m
h = 300 Sin 𝜃 Sln
1
= 300 x = 15 𝑊𝑇 = 𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖
20
𝐺𝐻 =1520 + 1.45 = 2.97 kg/m
Tan 𝜃 =
𝑂𝐻 c)Horizontal wind force exerted on line in kg/m
GH = OH Tan 𝜃 Sln
1
= 75tan 𝑇𝑎𝑛 (𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 ( )) = 3.75m 𝑑 +2𝑡1
20 F= 𝑝 kg/m
100
FG = EH – EF – GH
d =2.80 cm, t = 1.25cm
= 35 – 16.88 – 3.75
p = 20 kg/ 𝑚2
= 14.37m 2.80 +2 𝑥 1.25
F= 𝑥 20 kg/m = 0.81 kg/m
100
Example
A transmission line of a river crossing is supported by 2 d)Effective load acting on conductor in kg/m
towers of heights 40m and 90m above water level. The 𝑊𝑒 = √(𝐹)2 + (𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖 )2
horizontal distance between the towers is 400m. If the max 𝑊𝑒 = √(𝐹)2 + ( 𝑤𝑇 )2
allowance tension is 2000kg.Find the clearance between
the water and conductor at appoint midway of the tower. 𝑊𝑒 = √(0.81)2 + ( 2.97)2 = 3.078 kg/m
Weight of the conductor is 1kg/m.
Sln e)Sag in m
Working tension T =
12900
Working tension T = = = 6450 kg
2
𝑊𝑒 𝑙2 3.078 𝑥 (150)2
S= = = 1.342 𝑚
8𝑇 8 𝑥 6450
f)Vertical sag in metres.

Vertical sag = S cos 𝜃
𝑤
But cos 𝜃 =
𝑊𝑡
𝑤 2.97
L = 400 Vertical sag = S = 1.342 x = 1.295 m
𝑊𝑡 3.078
h = 90 – 40 = 50 Example
T = 2000kg An overhead transmission line at a river crossing is
𝑙 𝑇ℎ
𝑥1 = − supported from towers of height 40m and 80m above
2 𝑤𝑙
400 2000 𝑥 50 water level with a span of 250m. Weight of the conductor
= − = - 50m is 1.16 kg/m and working tension is 1800kg. Determine the
2 1.𝑥 400
So 𝑥1 = 200 + 50 = 250 clearance between the conductor and water level midway
𝑙 𝑇ℎ 400 2000 𝑥 50
𝑥2 = + = + = 450 between the towers.
2 𝑤𝑙 2 1.𝑥 400
𝑤𝑥1 2 1 𝑥 (250)2 Sln
Sag Midpoint 𝑆1 = = = 15.625m
2𝑇 2 𝑥 2000
2 𝑤𝑥 2 1 𝑥 (450)2
Sag 𝑆2 = = = 50.625m
2𝑇 2 𝑥 2000
Mid point = 50 + 200 = 250
Mid clearance midway = CE = BE – 52 + CD
= 90 – 50.625 + 15.625
= 55m
Example
A stress – crossing overhead transmission line has a span
of 150m over the stream. Horizontal wind pressure is L = 250m
20kg/𝐦𝟐 and the thickness of ice is 1.25cm. Diameter of h = 80 – 40 = 40
conductor is 2.80cm and weight is 1520kg/km. and an T = 1800kg and w = 1.16kg/m
ultimate strength of 12900kg. Use a factor of 2 and 𝑙 𝑇ℎ
𝑥1 = −
912kg/𝐦𝟑 for the weight of ice. Using parabolic method, 2
250
𝑤𝑙
1800 𝑥 40
determine the following: = − = - 123.27m
2 1.16 𝑥 250
a)Weight of Ice in Kg per metre Horizontal distance of mid point, P from O (OP)
25 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
𝑙 250 Dividing equation (ii) by eqtn (iii)
= + 𝑥1 = = – (-123.27) = 248.27m
2 2 250−2𝑥1 0.4 4
Horizontal distance of mid point, B from O (OB) = =
125−2𝑥1 0.3 3
= 𝐿 − 𝑥1 = =250 – (-123.27) = 373.27m 𝑥1 = -125
Therefore, height of mid point P above O, Substituting 𝑥1 = -125 in eqtn (ii) we get
𝑙
𝑤 ( − 𝑥1 )2 )2 1.16 𝑥 248.272 250−2(−125)
𝑑1 = 2 = = 19.86m =0. 40
2𝑇 2 𝑥 1800 𝑇
Similarly, height of point B above O T = 1250 kg
𝑤 (𝐿 − 𝑥 )2
1 1.16 𝑥 373.272
𝑑2 = = = 44.9m
2𝑇 2 𝑥 1800
Hence mid point P is (𝑑2 - 𝑑1 ) = 44.9 -19.86 = 25.04m below Example
point B An overhead transmission line has apan of 300m. Ultimate
Height of the midpoint P with respect to A strength is 600kg and factor of safety 2.0. If the sag is 2m,
= 19.86 – 4.9 = 14.96m determine :
Therefore, Clearance between the conductor and the water a)Weight of the conductor
level mid-way between towers will be b)Length of the wire
Clearance s =(40 + 14.96) = 54.96m sln
or a)Weight of the conductor
Clearance s = (80 – 25.04) = 54.96m Sln
Span length L= 300m
Example 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 6000
Allowable tension T = = = = 3000 kg
An overhead transmission line at a river crossing is 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 2
supported from towers of height 30m and 70m above 𝑊𝐿2
Using eqtn of sag S=
8𝑇
water level . The horizontal distance between the towers is 𝑊 (300)2
250m. If the required clearance between the conductors ∴ 2=
8(3000)
and the water midway between the towers is 45m and if W = 0.533 kg/m
both the towers are on the same side of the point of
maximum sag, find the tension in the conductor. The b)Length of the wire
weight of the conductor is 0.80 kg/m. 8𝑑 2 8(2)2
Sln l = L (1 + ) = 300 (1 + ) = 300.0355m
3𝐿2 3(300)2
Total weight of the conductor = wl
= 0.533 x 300.0355
= 159.918kg
Example
An overhead line is supported on two towers 300m apart
having a difference in level of 10m. The conductors radius
is 1cm and weighs 2.3kg/m. Determine the sag at the lower
support when the line is subjected to wind pressure of
Assuming parabolic configuration as shown in the figure 55kg/𝐦𝟐 of projected area. The maximum tensile strength
above fig 15.15 of copper is 422 x 𝟏𝟎𝟓 kg/𝐦𝟑 . Factor of safety is 2.3
L = 250m, w = 0.80 kg/m Solution:
Difference in level between the two supports Span length, L = 300m
h = 70 – 30 = 40m Weight of the conductor, w = 2.3 kg/m
Note that both the towers are on the same side of the point of Radius of conductor = 1cm
maximum sag. Hence 𝑥1 is negative Diameter of conductor d = 2cm
𝑤
h = (𝑥2 2 − 𝑥1 2 ) 𝑑
2𝑇
F= 𝑝 kg/m
As 𝑥1 is negative, 𝑥2 = L - 𝑥1 100
𝑤
h = ((𝐿 − 𝑥1 )2 − 𝑥1 2 ) P = 55kg/𝐦𝟐
2𝑇 2
𝑤 F= 𝑥 55 kg/m = 1.1 kg/m
h= (𝐿 − 2𝑥1 ) 100
2𝑇
From point A and B, h = 40m 𝑤 = √(𝐹)2 + (𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖 )2
∴
0.8 𝑥 250
(250 − 2𝑥1 ) = 40 𝑤 = √(𝐹)2 + ( 𝑤𝑇 )2
2𝑇
250−2𝑥1 𝑤 = √(1.1)2 + ( 2.3)2 = 2.55 kg/m
=0. 40 (eqtn (ii)
𝑇
For points A and P, h = 45 -30 = 15m
Horizontal distance between A and P
250
= = 125m
2
Using equation (i)
0.8𝑥 125
(125 − 2𝑥1 ) = 15
2𝑇
125−2𝑥1
= 0.3 eqtn (iii)
𝑇
26 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
𝜋𝑑 2
Crossectional area of the conductor A =
4 Example
𝜋(2)2
A= = 3.142 𝑐𝑚 or 3.142 x 10−4 𝑚2
2
Calculate the sag and vertical sag of a transmission line
4
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 422 𝑥105 𝑥 3.142 𝑥 10−4 having conductor diameter of 0.93. Weight of conductor is
Allowable tension T = =
𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 2.3 0.6kg/m and breaking strength 2000kg. Assume safety of
= 5764.88 kg factor 2 and span length 200m and supports at the same
level. The line is subjected to wind pressure of 40kg/𝐦𝟐 of
the projected area. The radial thickness of the ice is
1.25cm and weight of the ice is 912kg//𝐦𝟑
Sln
L = 200m , w = 0.60 kg/m, t = 1.25cm, d = 0.93, 𝑤𝑐 = 912
𝑾𝒊 = 𝑤𝑐 x 𝜋𝑡 (𝑑 + 𝑡) x 10−4
= 912 x 𝜋 𝑥 1.25 (0.93 + 1.25) x 10−4 kg/m
= 0.7807 kg/m
Hence , Total vertical load on conductor in Kg/m
𝑊𝑇 = 𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖
=0.6 + 0.7807 = 1.3807 kg/m
And Horizontal wind force exerted on line in kg/m
Sln
Distance of lowest point of conductor ,O,(see fig 15.5) from 𝑑 +2𝑡1
F= 𝑝 kg/m but p = 40 kg/ 𝑚2
100
the support at lower level A can be obtained using: 0.93 +2 𝑥 1.25
𝑙 𝑇ℎ F= 𝑥 40 kg/m = 1.372 kg/m
𝑥1 = − 100
2 𝑤𝑙 Thus, the Effective load acting on conductor in kg/m
300 10 𝑥 5764.88
= − = 74.65m 𝑊𝑒 = √(𝐹)2 + (𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖 )2
2 2.55 𝑥 300
𝑤𝑥1 2 2.55 𝑥 (74.65)2
Sag 𝑆1 =
2𝑇
=
2 𝑥 5764.88
= 1.232m 𝑊𝑒 = √(𝐹)2 + ( 𝑤𝑇 )2
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑊𝑒 = √(1.372)2 + ( 1.3807)2 = 1.946kg/m
Vertical sag = S cos 𝜃
𝑤
But cos 𝜃 =
𝑊𝑡 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Vertical sag = S
𝑤
= 1.232 x
2.3
= 1.111 m Working tension T =
𝑊𝑡 2.55 2000
Working tension T = = = 1000 kg
2
Example So that the sag S:
An overhead transmission line conductor having weight 𝑊𝑒 𝑙2 1.946 𝑥 (200)2
S= = = 9.73𝑚
8𝑇 8 𝑥 1000
1.16 kg/m, diameter 1.7cm and an ultimate strength 32 x
𝟏𝟎𝟔 kg/𝐦𝟐 . When erected between supports 300m, apart b) Vertical sag in metres.
and having 12m difference in height, determine the sag Vertical sag = S cos 𝜃
with respect to the taller of the two supports. Conductor 𝑤
But cos 𝜃 =
𝑊𝑡
was loaded due to 1kg of ice per meter and a factor safety 𝑤 1.3807
of 2.0 Vertical sag = S = 9.73 x = 6.9035 m
𝑊𝑡 1.946
Sln
Span length L = 300m
W = 1.16 kg/m
𝑤𝑖 = 1 kg/m
𝑤𝑇 = w + 𝑤𝑖 = 1.16 + 1 = 2.16kg/m
Difference in level of two support h = 12m
Diameter of the conductor d = 1.7
Cross sectional area
𝜋𝑑 2
A=
4
𝜋(1.7)2
A= = 2.27 𝑐𝑚2 or 2.27 x 10−4 𝑚2
4
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 32 𝑥106 𝑥 2.27 𝑥 10−4
Allowable tension T = =
𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 2
= 3632 kg
Distance of the lowest point of the conductor from the taller
support can be obtained
𝑙 𝑇ℎ 300 12 𝑥 3632
𝑥2 = + = + = 217.26
2 𝑤𝑙 2 2.16 .𝑥 300
And the sag
𝑤𝑥2 2 2.16 𝑥 (217.26)2
Sag 𝑆2 = = = 14.03m
2𝑇 2 𝑥 3632
27 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Objective 3
Describe the corona phenomena in overhead transmission
line
i)Disruptive
ii)Visible disruptive
iii)Critical
1 CORONA
What is CORONA?
The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and
production of ozone gas in an overhead transmission line
The phenomenon of corona plays an important role in the

design of an overhead transmission line.
THEORY OF CORONA FORMATION.

Some ionisation is always present in air due to cosmic rays,
ultra-violet radiations and radioactivity.
Therefore, under normal conditions, the air around the
conductors contains some ionised particles (i.e., free
electrons and +ve ions) and neutral molecules.
When p.d.is applied between the conductors, potential
gradient is set up in the air which will have maximum value
at the conductor surfaces.
Under the influence of potential gradient, the existing free
electrons acquire greater velocities.
The greater the applied voltage, the greater the potential
gradient and more is the velocity of free electrons.
When the potential gradient at the conductor surface reaches
about 30 kV per cm (max. value),
the velocity acquired by the free electrons is sufficient to
strike a neutral molecule with enough force to dislodge one
or more electrons from it.
This produces another ion and one or more free electrons,
which is turn are accelerated until they collide with other
neutral molecules, thus producing other ions.
Thus, the process of ionisation is cumulative. The result of
this ionisation is that either corona
is formed or spark takes place between the conductors.
If the conductors are polished and smooth, the corona glow
will be uniform throughout the length of the conductors,
otherwise the rough points will appear brighter.
With d.c. voltage, there is difference in the appearance of the
two wires.
The positive wire has uniform glow about it, while the
negative conductor has spotty glow.
Characteristics of Corona
i. Corona is characterized by
ii. Accompanied by power loss
iii. A luminous violet glow around the conductor
iv. The glow is much brighter over rough and dirty
surfaces of the conductor
v. Produces a hissing sound
vi. It produces ozone gas which can be readily detected
by its characteristic ‘oduor’
28 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

FACTORS AFFECTING CORONA. found if temperature is 0𝑜 𝐶 and remains for longer duration if
Corona depends : temperatures are lower.
a)Atmosphere.
As corona is formed due to ionization of air surrounding the i)Effects of Dust and Dirt
conductors, therefore, it is affected by the physical state of In the Presence of dust and dirt, required voltage gradient is
atmosphere. less for maintaining sustained discharge. Disruptive critical
In the stormy weather, the number of ions is more than normal voltage is reduced due to dust and dirt and hence corona loss
and as such corona occurs at much less voltage as compared is more.
with fair weather.
b) Conductor size. DEFINITION OF TERMS.
Depends upon the shape and conditions of the conductors. 1.Critical disruptive voltage.
-The rough and irregular surface will give rise to more It is the minimum voltage at which complete disruption of
corona because unevenness of the surface decreases the value air occurs and corona occurs.
of breakdown voltage. Consider two conductors of radii r cm & spaced d cm apart.
-Thus a stranded conductor has irregular surface and hence If V is the phase-neutral potential, then The potential gradient
gives rise to more corona that a solid conductor. at the conductor surface is given by:
𝑽
𝒈= 𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔/𝒄𝒎
c) Spacing between conductors. 𝒓𝑳𝒐𝒈𝒆
𝒓
If the spacing between the conductors is made very large as In order that corona is formed, the value of g must be made
compared to their diameters, there may not be any corona equal to the breakdown strength of air.
effect. The breakdown strength of air at 76 cm pressure and
-It is because larger distance between conductors reduces the temperature of 25ºC is 30 kV/cm
electro-static stresses at the conductor surface, thus avoiding ( max) 21·2 kV/cm (r.m.s.) and is denoted by go
corona formation. If Vc is the phase-neutral potential required under these
conditions, then,
𝑽𝒄
d) Line voltage. 𝒈𝟎 = 𝒅
𝒓𝑳𝒐𝒈𝒆
The line voltage greatly affects corona. 𝒓
If it is low, there is no change in the condition of air where go = breakdown strength of air at 76 cm of mercury
surrounding the conductors and hence no corona is formed. and 25ºC = 30 kV/cm (max) or 21·2 kV/cm (r.m.s.)
However, if the line voltage has such a value that ∴ Critical disruptive voltage
electrostatic stresses developed at the conductor surface 𝒅
𝑽𝒄 = 𝒈𝒐 𝒓𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆
This make the air around the conductor conducting, then 𝒓
corona is formed The above expression for disruptive voltage is under
standard conditions i.e., at 76 cm of Hg and 25ºC.
e)Effects of Density of Air However, if these conditions vary, the air density also
Corona loss is inversely proportional to air density factor. changes, thus altering the value of
Corona loss increases with decrease in density of air 𝛿. This 𝑔𝑜
explains why corona loss of ahigh voltage transmission line The value of 𝑔𝑜 is directly proportional to air density.
passing through a hilly area may be higher than that of similar Thus the breakdown strength of air at a barometric pressure
transmission line in plains due to the lower value of 𝛿 at high of b cm of mercury and temperature of t ºC becomes δ 𝑔𝑜
altitudes Where:
𝟑.𝟗𝟐𝒃
𝜹 = 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝟐𝟕𝟑+𝒕
f)Effects of frequency
Corona loss is directly proportional to system frequency Under standard conditions, the value of δ = 1.
∴ Critical disruptive voltage
g)Effects of Conductor Radius
If conductor radius is high, surface field intensity is less and 𝒅
hence corona loss is less. For the same current carrying 𝑽𝒄 = 𝒈𝒐 𝒓𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆
𝒓
capacity, an ACSR conductor has larger radius than single Correction must also be made for the surface condition of the
copper conductor . Thus Transmission lines of ACSR conductor. This is accounted for by multiplying the above
conductor have lower corona loss than copper conductor lines, expression by irregularity factor 𝒎𝒐
For bundle conductors lines, effective radius is high and hence 𝑪𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆:
corona loss is less 𝒅
𝑽𝒄 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒈𝒐 𝒓𝛅 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆
𝒓
Where 𝒎𝒐 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
h)Effects of Snow or Frost layer
Snow or frost layer on a transmission line conductor causes = 0.98 𝑡𝑜 0.92 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
very high corona losses and radio interference. This layer is = 0.87 𝑡𝑜 0.8 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
29 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

2.Visual critical voltage. (Vv) METHODS OF REDUCING CORONA
It is the minimum voltage at which corona glow appears all It has been seen that intense corona effects are observed at a
along the line conductors. working voltage of 33 kV or above. The corona effects can be
It has been seen that in case of parallel conductors, the reduced by the following methods :
corona glow does not begin at the disruptive voltage Vc but 1.Increasing conductor size.
at a higher voltage Vv (called visual critical voltage). By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona
Voltage gradient 30KV/cm will cause ionization when this occurs is raised and hence corona effects are considerably
0.0301 reduced. This is one of the reasons that conductors which
value is reached at a distance of (r + ) from the
√𝑟
have a larger cross-sectional area are used in transmission
conductor axis where r is in meters and reason is that some
lines.
energy is required by the charged ions to start Corona
2) Increasing conductor spacing.
The phase-neutral effective value of visual critical voltage is
By increasing the spacing between conductors, the voltage at
given by the following empirical formula :
𝟎.𝟑 𝒅
which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects can be
𝑽𝒗 = 𝒎𝒗 𝒈𝒐 𝜹𝒓 (𝟏 + ) 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝒌𝑽/𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 eliminated.
√𝜹𝒓 𝒓
where mv is another irregularity factor having a value of 1·0 However, spacing cannot be increased too much otherwise
for polished conductors & 0·72 to 0·82 for rough conductors. the cost of supporting structure (e.g., bigger cross arms and
supports) may increase to a considerable extent.
3) Power loss due to corona.
Formation of corona is always accompanied by energy loss CORONA CALCULATION
which is dissipated in the form of light, heat, sound and Examples
chemical action. When disruptive voltage is exceeded, the A 3-phase line has conductor 2cm in diameter spaced
power loss due to corona is given by : equilaterally 1m apart. If the dielectric strength of air is
𝒇+𝟐𝟓 𝒓 30kV(max) per cm, find the disruptive critical voltage for
P = 242.2( ) (𝒗 − 𝒗𝒄 )𝟐 √ 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒌𝑾/𝒌𝒎/𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 the line. Take air density factor 𝜹 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟐 and
𝜹 𝒅
where f = supply frequency in Hz irregularity factor of 𝒎𝟎 = 0.9
V = phase-neutral voltage (r.m.s) Sln
2
𝑉𝑐 = disruptive voltage (r.m.s) per phase Conductor radius , r = = 1 𝑐𝑚
2
𝛿 = Air density facor Conductor spacing d = 1m = 100cm
r = radius of the conductor 30
Dielectric strength of air 𝑔0 = = 21.2𝑘𝑉(𝑟𝑚𝑠) per cm
d = Spacing between conductors √2
Critical disruptive voltage:
𝒅
Disadvantages of Corona 𝑽𝒄 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒈𝒐 𝒓𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 kV/phase(rms)
𝒓
1.Corona is a accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects Note 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 = 𝑙𝑛
𝟏𝟎𝟎
the transmission efficiency of the line. = 0.9 x 21.2 x 0.952 x 𝑙𝑛 = 83.64 kV/phase
𝟏
2.Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of Line voltage : √𝟑 x 83.64 = 144.8 kV
the conductor due to chemical action.
3.The current drawn by the line due to corona is non- Example:
sinusoidal and hence non-sinusoidal A 132 kV line with 1.956 cm diameter conductors is built
Voltage drop occurs in the line. This may cause inductive so that corona takes place if the line voltage exceeds
interference with neighbouring communication lines. 210kV(r.m.s).If the value of potential gradient at which
4.Highly ionised air may cause flash-over in the insulators or ionization occurs can be taken as 30 kV per cm, find the
between the phases, causing considerable damage to the spacing between the conductors.
equipment Sln
Assume line is 3-phase
1.956
ADVANTAGES OF CORONA Conductor radius r = = 0.978
2
30
1.Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the Dielectric strength of air 𝑔0 = = 21.2𝑘𝑉(𝑟𝑚𝑠) per cm
√2
conductor becomes conducting and hence virtual diameter 210 𝑘𝑉
Disruptive voltage/phase: 𝑉𝑐 = = 121.25𝑘𝑉
of the conductor is increased. √3
2.The increased diameter reduces the electro-static stresses Assuming smooth conductors (i.e irregularity factor 𝑚0 = 1)
between the conductors. and standard pressure for which air density factor 𝛿 = 1. Let
3. Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by d cm be the spacing between the conductors)
Hence, Disruptive voltage (r.m.s0 per phase is:
surges. 𝑑
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑔𝑜 𝑟 𝛿𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 kV/phase(rms)
𝑟
𝑑
NOTE 1 x 21.2 x 1 x 0.978 x 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 121.25
𝑟
Corona has many advantages and disadvantages. In the 𝑑
20.733𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 121.25
correct design of a high voltage overhead line, a balance 𝑟
𝑑 121.25
should be struck between the advantages and disadvantages 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = =5.848
𝑟 20.733
𝑑
2.3𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 5.848
𝑟
30 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

𝑑 5.848 𝟏𝟏.𝟐 𝟐
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = = 2.5426 W=( ) x 53 = 128 kW
𝑟 2.3 𝟕.𝟐
𝑑
= 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 2.5426
𝑟
𝑑 Example
= 348.8
𝑟
Conductors of three phase transmission line are
Conductor spacing : d = 348.8 x r
equilaterally spaced 6m apart. The radius of each
= 348.8 x 0.978 = 341 cm
conductor is 1cm. The air temperature is is 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑪 and
pressure is 740mm of Hg. If surface factor is 0.83 and
Example
A 3-phase, 220kV, 50Hz transmission line consist of 1.5 cm irregularity factor is 0.92, calculate:
radius conductor spaced 2 metres apart in equilateral a)The disruptive voltage
triangle formation. If the temperature is 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑪 and Sln
atmospheric pressure is 76 cm, calculate the corona power Corona loss is given by:
loss per km of the line. Take 𝒎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓. P = 242.2(
𝑓+25 𝑟
) (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 )2 √ 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤/𝑘𝑚/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
Sln 𝛿 𝑑
Corona loss is given by: 3.92𝑏 3.92 𝑥 74
Density factor 𝛿 = = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟕
273+𝑡 273+30
𝑓+25 𝑟
P = 242.2( ) (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 √ 𝑥 10 )2 −5
𝑘𝑤/𝑘𝑚/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 Assuming 𝑔0 = 21.2𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚 (r.m.s)
𝛿 𝑑
3.92𝑏 3.92 𝑥 76 Critical disruptive voltage per phase is
Density factor 𝛿 = = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟐 𝒅
273+𝑡 273+40 𝑽𝒄 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒈𝒐 𝒓 𝛿𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 kV/phase(rms)
𝒓
Assuming 𝑔0 = 21.2𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚 (r.m.s) 600
Critical disruptive voltage per phase is = 0.92 x 21.2 x 0.957 x 1𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 119.475𝑘𝑉
1
𝒅
𝑽𝒄 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒈𝒐 𝒓 𝛿𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 kV/phase(rms) 220
𝒓 Supply voltage /phase = =127kV
200 √3
= 0.85 x 21.2 x 0.952 x 1.5𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 125.9𝑘𝑉
1.5 Substituting the above values, we have corona loss as:
220
Supply voltage /phase = =127kV 50+25 1.5 𝑘𝑤
√3 P = 242.2( ) 𝑥√ (127 − 125.9)2 𝑥 10−5 /𝑘𝑚/
0.952 200 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
Substituting the above values, we have corona loss as:
75
50+25 1.5 𝑘𝑤 P = 242.2( ) 𝑥 0.0866𝑥 1.21 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤/𝑘𝑚 /phase
P = 242.2( ) 𝑥 (127 − 125.9)2 √ 𝑥 10−5 /𝑘𝑚/ 0.952
0.952 200 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
75
= 0.01999 kW
−5
P = 242.2( ) 𝑥 0.0866𝑥 1.21 𝑥 10 𝑘𝑤/𝑘𝑚 /phase Total corona loss for 3∅ = 0.0199 x 3 = 0.05998
0.952
= 0.01999 kW = 0.06kW
Total corona loss for 3∅ = 0.0199 x 3 = 0.05998
= 0.06kW b)Visual critical voltage.
0.3 𝑑
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 𝑔𝑜 𝛿𝑟 (1 + ) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
√𝛿𝑟 𝑟
Example: 0.3 600
A certain 3-phase equilateral transmission line has a total 𝑉𝑣 = 0.83 𝑥 21.2 𝑥 0.957 𝑥 1.0 (1 + ) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 =
√0.957𝑥 1 1
corona loss of 53kW at 106 kV and a loss of 98 kW at 140.95 kV/phase
110.9kV. What is the disruptive Voltage? What is the
corona loss at 113kV.
Sln Example
The power loss due to corona for 3 phase is given by : A 275kV , 3phase , 50Hz, 120km long overhead line has
𝑓+25 𝑟 conductors cross-sectional area of 𝟖. 𝟎𝟒𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟐 Each spaced
P =3 × 242.2( ) √ (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 )2 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤
𝛿 𝑑 3m apart. The barometric pressure is 75cm of mercury
As f, 𝜹, r and d are the same for the two cases. and the temperature is 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑪. If the regularity factor for
P ∝ (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 )2 disruptive and visible corona are 0.8 and 0.7 respectively.
106
For first case, P = 53 kW and V = = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟐𝒌𝑽 Calculate
√3
113 a)Critical disruptive voltage
For second case P = 98kW and V = = 𝟔𝟒 𝒌𝑽 Sln
√3
53 ∝ (61.2 − 𝑣𝑐 )2
equation (i) 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑔𝑜 𝑟 𝛿𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑑
𝑟
98 ∝ (64 − 𝑣𝑐 )2 equation (ii)
A = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝟖. 𝟎𝟒𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟐
Dividing equation (ii) and (i), we get :
𝟗𝟖 (64−𝑣𝑐 )2
𝑟 2 = 2.56
= (61.2−𝑣𝑐 )2 r = 1.6 and d = 3m = 3 x 100 = 300cm
𝟓𝟑
3.92𝑏 3.92 𝑥 75
𝑽𝒄 = 𝟓𝟒 𝒌𝑽 𝛿= = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒
273+𝑡 273+10
Let W kW be the power loss at 113 kV 𝑑
𝟐 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑔𝑜 𝑟 𝛿𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝟏𝟏𝟑 𝑟
W∞ ( − 𝑽𝒄 ) 300
√𝟑 𝑉𝑐 = 0.8 𝑥 21.2 𝑥 1.04 𝑥 1.6 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝟐 1.6
W ∞ (𝟔𝟓. 𝟐 − 𝟓𝟒) = 147.7kv/phase
𝒘 (65.2−54)2
= (61.2−54)2
𝟓𝟑
31 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

b)Visual corona voltage 𝑑
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑔𝑜 𝑟 𝛿𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
0.3 𝑑 𝑟
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 𝑔𝑜 𝛿𝑟 (1 + ) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑐 = 0.85 𝑥 21.2 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 0.967 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
480
√𝛿𝑟 𝑟
0.3 300 1.5
𝑉𝑣 = 0.7 𝑥 21.2 𝑥 1.04 𝑥 1.6 (1 + ) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = = 150.06 kv/phase
√1.04𝑥 1.6 1.6
159.2kv/phase
b)Visual critical voltage for local corona if the regularity
factor is 0.72
0.3 𝑑
c)Total corona power loss 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 𝑔𝑜 𝛿𝑟 (1 + ) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
√𝛿𝑟 𝑟
𝑓+25 𝑟 0.3 480
P =3 × 242.2( ) √ (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 𝑥 10 )2 −5
𝑘𝑤 𝑉𝑣 = 0.72 𝑥 21.2 𝑥 0.967 𝑥 1.5 (1 + ) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 =
𝛿 𝑑 √0.967𝑥 1.5 1.5
275 158.87kV/phase
But Phase voltage V = = 158.77kV
√3
50 +25 1.6
P =3 × 242.2( )√ (158.77 − 167.7)2 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤 c)Visual critical voltage for local corona if the regularity
1.04 300
= 305,03kW factor is 0.82
0.3 480
𝑉𝑣 = 0.82 𝑥 21.2 𝑥 0.967 𝑥 1.5 (1 + ) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 =
√0.967𝑥 1.5 1.5
180.93kV/phase
Example
Or
A 275kV, 3 phase , 50Hz, 120km long overhead 0.82
transmission line consist of 1.5cm radius conductors per 𝑉𝑣 = 158.87 𝑥 kV =180.93kV
0.72
phase. They are spaced apart 2m apart in equilateral
220
triangle formation. If the ambient temperature, barometer Actual operating voltage to Neutral = = 127kV, which is
√3
pressure and irregularity factors are 𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝑪, 75cm and 0.85 less than 𝑉𝑣 and there is no Corona
respectively. Determine:
i)Rms line voltage at which disruptive corona will start. Example
Sln Determine the Corona Loss of a three phase, 220kV, 50Hz
f = 50Hz, r = 1.5cm , d = 2 x 100 cm, t = 𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝑪, and 200Km long transmission line of three conductors
b = 75cm, 𝑔𝑜 = 21.2 (constant) and 𝑚𝑜 = 0.85 each of radius 1cm and spaced 5m apart in an equilateral
d = 2m = 2 x 100 = 200cm triangle formation. The air temperature is 𝟑𝟎𝟎 C and the
3.92𝑏 3.92 𝑥 75
𝛿= = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟒 atmospheric pressure is 760mm of Hg. The irregularity
273+𝑡 273+32
𝑑 factor is 0.85
𝑟 Sln
200
𝑉𝑐 = 0.85 𝑥 21.2 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 0.964 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑓+25 𝑟
1.5
P =3 × 242.2( ) (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 )2 √ 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤
= 127.49 kv/phase 𝛿 𝑑
But
ii)Total corona power loss per km of line (take breakdown 3.92𝑏 3.92 𝑥 76
𝛿= = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟑
273+𝑡 273+30
strength of air to be 21.1kV/cm rms) 𝑑
𝑓+25 𝑟
𝑟
P =3 × 242.2( ) (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 )2 √ 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤 500
𝛿 𝑑 𝑉𝑐 = 0.85 𝑥 21.2 𝑥 1 𝑥 0.983 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
275 1
But Phase voltage V = = 158.77kV = 110.15 kV/phase
√3
50 +25 1.5
P =3 × 242.2( ) (158.77 − 127.49)2 √ 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤 220
0.964 200 But Phase voltage V = = 127kV
√3
6
= 47.8995 kv/km Or 4.78995 𝑥 10 kv/cm For 200km
50 +25 1
Example P =3 × 242.2( ) (127 − 110.15)2 √ 𝑥 10−5 𝑥 200 𝑘𝑊
0.983 500
A three phase 220kV,50Hz, 200Km long transmission line = 1418.19 kV/km
consists of three stranded aluminium conductors spaced
triangularly at 4.8m. Radius of each conductor is 1.5cm. Example
The air temperature is 𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝐂 and pressure 740mm of Hg. Calculate the disruptive critical voltage for a three phase
If the breakdown strength of air is 21.1kV(rms)per cm and line with conductors of radius 1cm and spaced
the surface factor is 0.85, Compute: symmetrically 4m apart
a)Disruptive critical voltage Sln
Sln 𝑑
𝑟
f = 50Hz, r = 1.5cm , d = 4.8 x 100 cm, t = 𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝑪,
And assuming:
b = 74cm, 𝑔𝑜 = 21.2 (constant) and 𝑚𝑜 = 0.85
𝛿 = 1, 𝑚𝑜 = 1 (smooth conductor)
d = 2m = 4.8 x 100 = 480cm 400
3.92𝑏 3.92 𝑥 74 𝑉𝑐 = 21.2 𝑥 1 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝛿= = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟕 1
273+𝑡 273+27
32 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

= 127.1 kv/phase (line to Neutral) Example
Hence : A 220kV, 50Hz, three phase transmission line consists of
Line-to –line disruptive critical voltage 1.4cm radius conductors spaced 3m apart in equilateral
√3 x 127.1 = 220.14kV triangle formation. If the temperature is 𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝐂 and the
atmospheric pressure 750mm of Hg, 𝒎𝒐 = 0.80, determine
the corona loss
Sln
Example 𝑓+25 𝑟
P =3 × 242.2( ) (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 )2 √ 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤
A 220kv three phase transmission line with conductors 𝛿 𝑑
radius of 1.3 cm is built such that corona takes place if the But
3.92𝑏 3.92 𝑥 75
line voltage exceeds 260kV(rms). Find the spacing between 𝛿= = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖
273+𝑡 273+27
conductors 𝑑
Sln 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑔𝑜 𝑟 𝛿𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟
260 300
Disruptive critical voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = kV = 150.11kV 𝑉𝑐 = 0.80 𝑥 21.2 𝑥 1.4 𝑥 0.98 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
√3 1.4
𝑑 = 124.97 kV/phase
𝑟
And assuming: 220
But Phase voltage V = = 127kV
𝛿 = 1, 𝑚𝑜 = 1 (smooth conductor) √3
𝑉𝑐 = 0.85 𝑥 21.2 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 0.967 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒

480 For 200km
1.5 50 +25 1
𝑑 P =3 × 242.2( ) (127 − 124.97)2 √ 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑊
150.11 x 103 = 1 𝑥 21.2 𝑥 1.3 𝑥 1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 0.98 500
1
𝑑 = 160.2W/km
ln ( ) = 5.44
1.3
d = 1.3 𝑒 5.44 = 300cm or 3m apart Example
3ai)Explain the effect of wind and ice loading on conductor
Example sag tension (3mks)
A three phase equilateral transmission line has a total KNEC O/N 2022
corona loss of 55kW at 110kV and 100kW at 114kV. What Sln
is:  Wind loading – Will increase the projected area of the
a)The disruptive critical voltage between lines conductor amd hence increases sag and tension
Sl  Ice Loading – Increases the dead weight per metre of the
𝑓+25 𝑟 line hence increases sag and tension
P =3 × 242.2( ) (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 )2 √ 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤
𝛿 𝑑
- Also increases the projected surface area of the line
Taking 𝛿, f, r and D are constants hence increase sag and tension
55 ∝ (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 )2
110 2
∴ 55 ∝ ( − 𝑣𝑐 ) ii)Describe two factors which affects sag on overhead lines
√3
2 (4mks)
114
And 100 ∝ ( − 𝑣𝑐 ) Sln
√3
Dividing eqt (i) by (ii) we get? i. Conductor weight –Sag of the conductor is directly
55 (63.5 − 𝑣𝑐 )2 proportional to its weight. The weight of conductors is
= increased due to ice loading
100 (68.5 − 𝑣𝑐 )2
63.5−𝑣𝑐
0.74 =
65.8−𝑣𝑐 ii. Span –Sag is directly proportional to the square of the
𝑣𝑐 = 57kV span length. Longer span,more sag
b)Corona loss at 120kV iii. Tension – Sag is inversely proportional to tension and
W ∝ (v − vc )2 hence sag
2
120 iv. Wind loading – It increases sag in the inclined direction
∴W∝( − vc )
√3 v. Temperature –Sag is reduced at low temperatures and
And W ∝ ( 69.28 − vc )2 increases at high temperatures
Dividing eqt (i) by (ii) we get?
W (69.28 − vc )2 b)Figure 1 shows an overhead transmission line over
=
55 (63.5 − vc )2 unequal levels of gradients 1:2 supported by two towers
𝑷𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝟐 .The conductor weight is 0.85 kg/m. The
(69.28−57)2
W = 55 x = 196.3kW maximum breaking stress is 3000kg, withsafety factor of 2.
(63.5−57)2
The conductor is fixed 20m below the top of each tower.
Hence line to line disruptive critical voltage
= √3 x 57 = 98.72kV
33 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Merits of constant voltage transmission/Phase
advancers/Modifiers
1. Possibility of carrying increased power for a given
conductor size in case of long distance heavy power
transmission
2. Improvement of power factor at times of moderate and
heavy loads.
3. Possibility of better protection for the line due to possible
use of higher terminal reactance’s.
4. Availability of steady voltage at all loads at the line
terminals.
5. Improvement in system stability due to inertia effect of
synchronous phase modifier and reduction in effect of sudden
Determine the : changes in load.
i)Vertical distance between the two supports
Sln Demerits of constant voltage transmission/Phase
Effective height of the tower advancers
800 1. Increase of short –circuit current of the system and,
Vertical distance btwn the supports AF = =40m therefore, increase in the circuit breaker ratings.
20
2. Increase risk of interruption of supply due to falling of
ii)Horizontal distance between the two supports synchronous motors, called the synchronous phase modifiers,
Sln out of synchronicity.
AC = √8002 − 402 = 798.9m 3. Lower reserve of lines in case of line trouble.
iii)Sag𝑺𝟐 𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐏𝟐 KNEC O/N 2022

𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑒𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 Explain two effects of voltage variations in power systems
Working tension = T =
𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (2mks)
3000
= = 1500kg Sln
2
𝑥2 =
𝑙
+
𝑇ℎ
=
800
+
1500 𝑥 40
= 488.235m i. Wide variation of voltage causes over heating in
2 𝑤𝑙 2 0.85 𝑥 800 transmission elements hence reduce their performance.
𝑤𝑥2 2 0.85 𝑥 (488.235)2
ii. Results to reactance power which increases magnetic
Sag 𝑆2 = = = 67.47m field patterns which inturn affects synchronizing torque,
2𝑇 2 𝑥 1500
power factor
iii. Results into harmonics and undamped surges which limits
Objective 4 faults clearing in devices
Explain the principle of the operation of phase modifiers iv. Results to power losses
i)Lagging and leading VARs v. Shutting down in the systems
ii)Voltage drop Compensation
GENERAL NETWORK CONSTANTS
Synchronous Phase Modifier –
The voltage at the receiving end 𝑉𝑅 of a transmission line can
be controlled by connecting a synchronous motor in parallel
with the load.
The synchronous phase modifier is the synchronous motor
running without a mechanical load. It is connected with the A= D dimensionless
load at receiving the end of the line. The synchronous phase C = shunt, admittance
modifier absorbs or generates the reactive power by varying B = Impedance
the excitation of the field winding. ABCD are called general network constants of the
The excitation of the motor can be adjusted automatically if it synchronous and are in complex numbers.
is desired in order to maintin the 𝑉𝑅 . - A and D are dimensionless
- B has dimensions of an impedance (Ω) and C has the
Constant Voltage transmission dimensions of admittance (Siemens/Ohms)
For constant voltage transmission , especially designed
synchronous motor , called the synchronous phase Power Equations and Line Compensation
modifiers, are installed at receiving end , which maintain the (Siemens/Ohms)
voltage drop across the line constant with the change in load, a)𝑷𝒔 = Per phase active power dissipated from the sensing
power factor of the system is changed by the synchronous end
motors and thus voltage drop along the line remains constant. 𝑉𝑠 2 |𝐴| 𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑠
The advantage and disadvantage is given below 𝑃𝑠 = |𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑏 − 𝑎) − |𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑏 + 𝛿)
34 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

b)𝑸𝒔 = Per phase reactive power dissipated from the sensing 0 = 148.47 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (84.8 − 𝛿) -13.65
13.65 = 148.47 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (84.8 − 𝛿)
end 13.65
𝑉𝑠 2 |𝐴| 𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (84.8 − 𝛿) = = 0.0919
148.47
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑏 − 𝑎) − 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑏 + 𝛿)
|𝐵| |𝐵| : (84.8 − 𝛿) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 0.0919 = 84.720
c)𝑷𝒓 = Per phase active power at the receiving end 𝛿 = 0.0750
𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑠 |𝐴|𝑉𝑟 2 𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑠 |𝐴|𝑉𝑟 2
𝑃𝑟 = |𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑏 − 𝛿) − |𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑏 − 𝑎) 𝑄𝑟 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑏 − 𝛿) − 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑏 − 𝑎)
|𝐵| |𝐵|
d)𝑸𝒓 = Per phase reactive power at the receiving end (220)(220) 0.80 𝑥 (220)2
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (84.8 − 0.075) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(84.8 − 1.4)
326 326
𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑠 |𝐴|𝑉𝑟 2
𝑄𝑟 = |𝐵|
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑏 − 𝛿) − |𝐵|
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝑄𝑟 = 147.84 – 117.98 = 29.86MVAR
Example As the load reactive requirement is Zero, this reactive power
A 3∅, 50Hz long line transmission line constant A = 0.80 of 29.80MVAR is to be absorbed by the compensating
<𝟏. 𝟒𝟎 Ω and B = 326 <𝟖𝟒. 𝟖𝟎 Ω. The sending end and equipment/device.
receiving end has to be held constant at 220kV. Determine
the rating of the compensating equipment when : Example
a)The line supplies the load of 75MVA at 0.8 power factor A 3∅ , 50km line has resistance and reactance per phase of
Sln 25Ω and 90Ω. Respectively. The sending end and receiving
A = 0.80 <1.40 Ω and B = 326 <84.80 Ω. end voltages are held constant at 145kV and 132kV
respectively. With an aid of synchronous phase modifier.
A= 0.80 |𝒂| = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟎
If the devise has the same reactive power value of Zero
B= 326 |𝒃| = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟖𝟎
and supplies a load of 50MW. Find the rating of the device
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑟 = 220kV
and power factor of the load.
Cos 𝜃 = 0.8 and hence : 𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 0.8 = 36.870
Sln
A = 1.0 <00 Ω and B =Z = 25 + j90
B = 93.41 <74.480 Ω.
For Zero Load
𝑉𝑟𝑉𝑠 |𝐴|𝑉𝑟 2
𝑃𝑟 = 0 = |𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑏 − 𝛿) − |𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑏 − 𝑎)
(145)(132) 1 𝑥 (132)2
0 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (74.48 − 𝛿) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(74.48 − 0)
93.41 93.41
𝑃𝑟𝐿 0 = 204.9 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (74.48 − 𝛿) -49.91

= cos 36.87 49.91 = 204.9 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (74.48 − 𝛿)
75𝑀𝑉𝐴 49.91
𝑃𝑟 𝐿 = 75MVA x Cos 36.87 = 60MW 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (74.48 − 𝛿) = = 0.243
204.9
𝑄𝑟 𝐿
= Sin 36.87 : (74.48 − 𝛿) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 0.2346 = 75.90
75𝑀𝑉𝐴
𝛿 = −1.42180
𝑄𝑟 𝐿 = 75MVA x Sin 36.87 = 45MVAR required. |𝐴|𝑉𝑟 2
𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑠
The power angle delta 𝛿 is to be such that the active power 𝑄𝑟 = |𝐵|
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑏 − 𝛿) − |𝐵|
demanded by the load is met by the line at the receiving end. (145)(132)
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (74.48 + 1.4218) −
1 𝑥 (132)2
𝑆𝑖𝑛(74.48 − 0)
93.41 93.41
𝑃𝑟 = |𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑏 − 𝛿) − |𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑏 − 𝑎) 𝑄𝑟 = 19MVAR
60 =
(220)(220)
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (84.8 − 𝛿) −
0.80 𝑥 (220)2
𝐶𝑜𝑠(84.8 − 1.4)
As there is no load at the receiving end, the whole of
326 326
60 = 148.47 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (84.8 − 𝛿) -13.65
19MVAR of the inductive reactive power as to be absorbed by
73.65 = 148.47 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (84.8 − 𝛿) the compensating device.
73.65
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (84.8 − 𝛿) = = 0.4960
148.47
: (84.8 − 𝛿) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 0.4960 = 60.260 b) For 50MW
𝛿 = 24.540 𝑃𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑏 − 𝛿) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑏 − 𝑎)
|𝐵| |𝐵|
𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑠 |𝐴|𝑉𝑟 2 1 𝑥 (132)2
𝑄𝑟 = |𝐵|
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑏 − 𝛿) − |𝐵|
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑏 − 𝑎) 50 =
(145)(132)
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (74.48 − 𝛿) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(74.48 − 0)
93.41 93.41
(220)(220) 0.80 𝑥 (220)2 50 = 204.9 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (74.48 − 𝛿) -49.91
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (84.8 − 24.54) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(84.8 − 1.4)
326 326 99.91 = 204.9 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (74.48 − 𝛿)
99.91
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (74.48 − 𝛿) = = 0.4876
𝑄𝑟 = 128.91 – 117.98 = 10.93MVAR available. 204.9
: (74.48 − 𝛿) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 0.4876 = 60.820
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 supplied by compensating
𝛿 = 13.660
equipment (synchronous phase modifier) will be equal to 45 𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑠 |𝐴|𝑉𝑟 2
– 10.93 = 34 .07 MVAR 𝑄𝑟 = |𝐵|
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑏 − 𝛿) − |𝐵|
(145)(132) 1 𝑥 (132)2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (74.48 − 13.66) − 𝑆𝑖𝑛(74.48 − 0)
93.41 93.41
b)When line is open circuited at the receiving end 𝑄𝑟 = -0.832MVAR
Sln The load will be inductive and the synchronous phase
𝑃𝑟 𝐿 = 0 and 𝑄𝑟 𝐿 = 0 modifier has to supply 19MVAR received by load . The net
𝑃𝑟 = |𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑏 − 𝛿) − |𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑏 − 𝑎) reactive power received by load will be (19 + (-0.832) =
(220)(220) 0.80 𝑥 (220)2 18.17MVAR
0 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (84.8 − 𝛿) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(84.8 − 1.4)
326 326
35 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

𝑔2 max; maximum gradient of porcelain insulators
Maximum gradients on surface of conductor
𝑄
𝑔max 1 =
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑄
𝑔max 2 =
2𝜋𝜀1 𝑟1
18.17
𝑔1 max r =𝑔2𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜀1 𝑟1
: 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑔1 max x 1.5 =𝑔2𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑥 5 𝑥 2
50
Cos 𝜃 =Cos[ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
18.17
] =0.9397 𝑔2𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.15𝑔1 max
50 2 5
25 = 𝑔1 max r𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 + 𝑔2 max 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
1.5 2
2 5
25 = 1.5𝑔1 max r𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 +0.15𝑔1 max x 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
1.5 2
Example 𝑔1 max = 35.4kV/cm
A 220kV, 3-phase transmission line has a resistance of 12Ω
and reactance of 28Ω per phase and supplies a load of ii)Corona value at 𝒈𝟏 max; (4mks)
108MW of 0.92 pf lagging. If the receiving end voltage is to Sln
be maintained at 220kV. Determine the rating of the phase Corona value at 𝑔1 max
modifier.
Since value at 𝑔1 max excceds 21.1kV/cm
Sln
Corona value = 35.4 – 21.1 = 14.3kV/cm
A = 1.0 <00 Ω and
B =Z = 12 + j28
B = 3046 <66.80 Ω.
Active power demanded by the load is 108MW. Reactive
power demanded by load :
: 𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 0.92 = 23.07
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑅
= 𝑇𝑎𝑛 23.07
108
MVAR =108tan(23.07)
= 46kVAR
For Zero Load
𝑃𝑟 = |𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑏 − 𝛿) − |𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑏 − 𝑎)
(220)(220) 1 𝑥 (220)2
108 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (66.8 − 𝛿) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(66.8 − 0)
30.46 30.46
−1 0
(66.8 − 𝛿) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0.4619 = 62.49
𝛿 = 4.310
𝑄𝑟 = |𝐵|
𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑏 − 𝛿) − |𝐵|
(220)(220) 1 𝑥 (220)2
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (66.8 − 4.31) − 𝑆𝑖𝑛(66.8 − 0)
30.46 30.46
𝑄𝑟 = -51.17MVAR
The modifier 46 – 51.17 = -5.17 MVAR to be absorbed by the
Modifier.
Example
A conductor of diameter 3cm is placed centrally through a
porcelain bushing of relative permittivity 5.The internal
and external diameters of the porcelain bushing are 4cm
and 10cm respectively. The voltage between the conductor
and an earthed clamp surrounding the porcelain is 25kV
rms. Determine the
i)maximum Gradient on the surface of conductor, 𝒈𝟏 max;
(4mks) KNEC O/N 2022
Sln
Let 𝑔1 max; maximum gradient of conductor surface
36 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

TOPIC 3: NOTE: , it is desirable that the voltage regulation of a
PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINE transmission line should be low i.e., the increase in load current
Objective should make very little difference in the receiving end voltage
1:Explain the classification of Overhead transmission lines b)Transmission efficiency - The ratio of receiving end power
i. Short transmission line to the sending end power of a transmission line
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
ii. Medium transmission line % transmission efficiency 𝜂 = 𝑥 100
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅
iii. Long transmission line = 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑠
Classification of Transmision line Performance of A single phase Short Transmission lines

Important consideration in design and operation of Let I = load current
transmission are determination of voltage drop, line losses and
R = loop resistance i.e., resistance of both conductors
efficiency transmission.
The values are influenced by line constant R, L and C of the XL = loop reactance
line. VR = receiving end voltage
Eg. Voltage drop depends upon the three constants. cos R = receiving end power factor (lagging)
Resistance – causes power loss in line and determines the VS = sending end voltage
transmission efficiency.
Transmission lines are divided into Three
i. Short transmission line
ii. Medium transmission line
iii. Long transmission line
a)Short transmission line

- Has length of 20km to 50km
-Has low voltage of less than 20kV i.e (< 20 kV) The figure (ii) shows the phasor diagram.
- due to short length and low voltage, the capacitance effects (𝑂𝐶)2 = (𝑂𝐷)2 + (𝐷𝐶)2
are smaller and can be neglected. 𝑉𝑠 2 = (𝑂𝐸 + 𝐸𝐷)2 + (𝐷𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶)2
𝑉𝑠 2 = (𝑉𝑅 cos∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑅 Sin∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2
b)Medium transmission line 𝑉𝑠 = √(𝑉𝑅 cos∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑅 Sin∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2
- Has length between 50km to 150km
- Moderate voltage above 20kV but less than 100KV. I.e (>20 𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑅
i) % Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
kV < 100 kV) 𝑉𝑅
𝑂𝐷 𝑉𝑅 cos∅𝑅 +𝐼𝑅
-Capacitance effects are taken into account .For calculation, ii) sending end pf , ∅𝑠 = =
𝑂𝐶 𝑉𝑠
the distributed capacitance of the line divided and jumped in iii)Power delivered = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos∅𝑅
condenser from shunted across the line or at one of more Line losses = 𝐼 2 𝑅
points. Power Sent out = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos∅𝑅 + 𝐼 2 𝑅
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
% transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100
c)Long Transmission line 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡
- When the length of an overhead transmission line is more than 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos∅𝑅

150 km and line voltage is very high (> 100 kV), it is considered = 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos∅𝑅 + 𝐼 2 𝑅
as a long transmission line. For the treatment of such a line,
the line constants are considered uniformly distributed over the An approximate expression for the sending end voltage = Vs
whole length of the line and rigorous methods are employed can be obtained as follows. Draw perpendicular from B and C
for solution. on OA produced as shown in Figure 10.2. Then OC is nearly
NOTE_ It may be emphasised here that exact solution of any equal to OF i.e.
tranmission line must consider the fact that the constants of
the line are not lumped but are distributed unfiormly
throughout the length of the line. However, reasonable
accuracy can be obtained by considering these constants as
lumped for short and medium transmission lines.
Definition of Terms in transmission line OC = OF = OA + AF = OA + AG + GF

= OA + AG + BH
a)Voltage regulation - The difference in voltage at the 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + IRCos∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
receiving end of a transmission line between conditions of no
load and full load
𝑉 −𝑉
% Voltage regulation = 𝑠 𝑅 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
37 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

SOLUTION IN COMPLEX NOTATION considered, phase values of 3-phase system should be taken.
It is often convenient and profitable to make the line Thus, 𝑉𝑠 and 𝑉𝑅 are the phase voltages, whereas R and 𝑋𝐿
calculations in complex notation. are the resistance and inductive reactance per phase
Taking ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VR as the reference phasor, draw the phasor diagram as respectively.
shown in figure 10.3 Fig. 10.4 (i) shows a Y-connected generator supplying a
It is clear that ⃗⃗⃗
Vs is the phasor sum of I⃗ Z
⃗ balanced Y-connected load through a transmission line. Each
⃗⃗⃗⃗ conductor has a resistance of R Ω and inductive reactance of
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0
𝑋𝐿 Ω. Fig. 10.4(ii) shows one phase separately. The
𝐼 = 𝐼 < −∅𝑅 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) calculations can now be made in the same way as for a single
𝑍 =R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 phase line.
⃗⃗⃗𝑉𝑠 =𝑉
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑍
=( 𝑉𝑅 + j0)+ I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )( R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ) Effects of Load Pf on regulation and efficiency
= ( 𝑉𝑅 + IRCos∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) + j(𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) a)Effects on regulations
𝑉𝑠 = √( 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )2 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
% Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
The second term under the root is quite small and can be 𝑉𝑅
neglected with reasonable accuracy. Therefore, approximate For (lag.pf)

𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 − 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
expression for 𝑉𝑠 becomes : % Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 For Leading pf.
NOTE: The following conclusions can be drawn from the above

i)The approximate formula for expressions
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 gives fairly correct results i)When the load p.f. is lagging or unity or such leading that I R
for lagging power factors. However, appreciable error is cos R > I XL sin R, then voltage regulation is positive i.e.,
caused for leading power factors. Therefore, approximate
receiving end voltage VR will be less than the sending end
expression for 𝑉𝑠 Should be used for lagging pf only.
ii) The solution in complex notation is more presentable form. voltage VS.
ii)For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line
b)Effects on Transmission efficiency increases with the decrease in p.f. for lagging loads.
The power delivered to the load depends upon the power iii)When the load p.f. is leading to this extent that I XL sin R >
factor.
I R cos R, then voltage regulation is negative i.e. the receiving
P = 𝑉𝑅 ICos ∅𝑅 ( for 1-phase)
𝑃 end voltage VR is more than the sending end voltage VS.
I=
𝑉𝑅 Cos ∅𝑅 iv)For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line
P = 3𝑉𝑅 ICos ∅𝑅 ( for 3-phase)
𝑃 decreases with the decrease in p.f. for leading loads.
I=
3 𝑉𝑅 Cos ∅𝑅
Example
It is clear that in each case, for a given amount of power to be A single phase overhead transmission line delivers 1100
transmitted (P) and receiving end voltage kW at 33 kV at 0·8 p.f. lagging. The total resistance and
(VR), the load current I is inversely proportional to the load p.f. inductive reactance of the line are 10  and 15 
cos R. Consequently, with the decrease in load p.f., the load respectively. Determine:
current and hence the line losses are increased. This leads to (i) Sending end voltage
the conclusion that transmission efficiency of a line de- Sln
creases with the decrease in load Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 lagging
p.f. and vice-versa, 𝑍 =R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 10 + j15
Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 = 33kV = 33000V
𝑘𝑊 𝑥 103 1100 𝑥 103
THREE PHASE SHORT TRANSMISSION LINES Line current, I = = = 41.67 A
𝑉𝑅 Cos ∅𝑅 33000 𝑥 0.8
For reasons associated with economy, transmission of electric
power is done by 3-phase system. This system may be regarded As Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and Sin ∅𝑅 = 0.6
as consisting of three single phase units, each wire transmitting 𝐼 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
one-third of the total power. As a matter of convenience, we
generally analyse 3-phase system by considering
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0
𝐼 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
= 41.67 ( 0.8 – j0.6) = 33.33 – j25
one phase only. Therefore, expression for regulation,
efficiency etc. derived for a single phase line can also be Sending end Voltage: ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑍
𝑉𝑠 =𝑉
applied to a 3-phase system. Since only one phase is = 33000 + (33.33 – j25.0)(10+ j15)
= 33000 + 333.3 – j250 + j500 + 375
38 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
= 33708.3 + j250
Magnitude of 𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑠 = √( 33708.3)2 + (250)2 = 33709V
(ii) Sending end power factor

Angle between : ⃗⃗⃗𝑉𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 is
𝟐𝟓𝟎
∝= 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟎 b)Voltage regulation of the line
𝟑𝟑𝟕𝟎𝟖.𝟑
Sending end power factor angle ∅𝒔 = ∅𝑅 + ∝ = 36.87 + 0.42 Sln
𝑉 −𝑉
= 37.290 % Voltage regulation = 𝑠 𝑅 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
Sending end power factor Cos ∅𝑠 = Cos 37.29 = 0.7956 11867−10.2
lagging = 𝑥 100 = 16.34%
10.2
(iii) Transmission efficiency. c)The value of the capacitor to be placed in parallel with
the load such that the regulation is reduced by 60% of that
Line losses = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = (41.67)2 x 10 = 17364W obtained in part (a)
= 17.364kW Sln
Output delivered = 1100kW Voltage regulation required = 0.60 x 16.34 = 9.804%
Power sent = 1000 + 17.364 = 1117.364 KW Therefore under this condition, we can write:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑠 − 10.2
Hence, Transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100 = 0.09804
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 10.2
=
1100
𝑥 100 = 98.44% 𝑉𝑠 = 11.2kV
1117.364
Alternative The figure below shows the equivalent circuit of the line with
𝑉𝑠 and ∅𝑠 can also be calculated as follows. a capacitor parallel with the load.
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
= 33000 + 41.67 x 10 x 0.8 + 41.67 x 15 x 0.6
= 33000 + 333.36 + 375.03
= 33708.39 Which is approximately the same as above
𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝐼𝑅 33000 𝑥0.8+41.67 𝑥 10 26816.7
Cos∅𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑅 = =
𝑉𝑠 33708.39 33708.37
= 0.7958
Assuming combined pf of the load and capacitor = Cos ∅𝑅
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼(𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
Example
A Single phase 60Hz generator supplies an inductive load And the difference in Sending voltage is given by:
of 4500kW at a power factor of 0.8 lagging by means of an (11.2 – 10.2 )x 103 = 𝐼𝑅 (𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) …… (i)
20km long overhead transmission line. The line resistance Since the capacitance does not draw any real power, we have,
4500
and inductance are 0.0195Ω and 0.60mH per km. The 𝐼𝑅 = ……. (ii)
10.2𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅
voltage at the receiving end is required to be kept constant From eqtn (i) and (ii), we get
at 10.2kV. Find:
4.52tan ∅𝑅 = 1.876
a)The sending end voltage
tan ∅𝑅 = 0.415
REF: POWER SYTEM BY WADHWA Pg 131-132 ∅𝑅 = 22.5𝑜
Sln Cos ∅𝑅 = Cos 22.5 = 0.9239
4500
Line constants are: So 𝐼𝑅 = = 477.56 A
10.2 𝑥 0.9238
R = 0.0195 x 20 = 0.39 Ω Now 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑅 - I
X = 0.60 x 10−3 x 2𝜋 x 60 x 20 = 4.52 Ω 𝐼𝑅 =477.56< −22.50 = 441.2 – j182.75
Since this is ashort line I = 551.47< −36.870 = 441.2 – j330.88
I = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝐶 = 441.2 – j182.75 – (441.2 –j330.88) = j148.13A
𝑘𝑊 4500 𝑥 103 1 𝑉 10.2 𝑥 1000
Line current, I =
𝑉𝑅 Cos ∅𝑅
=
10.20 𝑥 0.8
= 551.47 A 𝑋𝐶 = = 𝑅=
2𝜋𝑥60 𝑥𝐶 𝐼𝐶 148.13
But 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼(𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) And C = 38.5𝜇F
= Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 lagging
𝑍 =R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 0.39 + j4.25 d)Compare the transmission efficiency in parts (a) and (c)
Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 = 10.2kV = 10200V Sln
As Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and Sin ∅𝑅 = 0.6 Case a
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
∴ 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼(𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) Transmission efficiency = =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡+𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑠 = 10200 + 551.47(0.39𝑥0.8 + 4.52𝑥0.6) 4500
𝜂 = −3 𝑥 100 = 97.43%
|𝑉𝑠 | = 11.867 kV 4500+ (551.47)2 𝑥 0.39 𝑥 10
Case c
4500
𝜂 = 𝑥 100 = 98.06%
4500+ (477.56)2 𝑥 0.39 𝑥 10−3
It is to be noted that by placing a capacitor in parallel with
the load, the receiving end power factor improves from 0.8 to
0.9238 which also improves the efficiency
39 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
The sending end Voltage magnitude
Example 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼(𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
An overhead 3-phase transmission line delivers 5000 kW |𝑉𝑠 |= 127000 + 787.4(9𝑥0.8 + 26.39𝑥0.6)
at 22 kV at 0·8 p.f. lagging. The resistance and reactance = 145.13kV
of each conductor is 4  and 6  respectively. Determine : ∴ Sending end Line-to Line Voltage
(i) Sending end voltage |𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 145.13 = 251.37kV
Sln
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑅
251.37−220
= = 14.26%
220
Per phase real power loss in the line
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 2 R = (787.4)2 x 9 x 10−6 MW = 5.58MW
Per phase receiving end power
300
𝑃𝑅 = x 0.8 = 80MW
3
Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 lagging Per phase sending end power
22000
Receiving end voltage/phase = = 12700V 𝑃𝑆 = (80 + 5.58) = 85.58 MW
√3
Impedance/phase 𝑍 =R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 4 + j6
𝑘𝑊 𝑥 103 5000 𝑥 103
Transmission line efficiency
Line current, I = = = 164A 𝑃 80
3𝑉𝑅 Cos ∅𝑅 3 𝑥 12700 𝑥 0.8 η= 𝑅 = = 93.47%
𝑃𝑠 85.58
As Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and Sin ∅𝑅 = 0.6
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 12700V b)300MVA at 0.8 pf leading at 220kV
𝐼 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 ) Sln
= 164 ( 0.8 – j0.6) = 131.2 – j98.4 √3 x |𝐼𝑅 ||𝑉𝑅 | = 300MVA
But |𝑉𝑅 | = 220kV
Sending end Voltage/phase : ⃗⃗⃗𝑉𝑠 =𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑍 |𝐼𝑅 | = 787.4 Amp
= 12700 + (131.2 – j98.4)(4+ j4) Load is at 0.8 p.f leading. For leading p.f load, equation can
= 12700 + 524.8 + j787.2 – j393.6+ 590.4 be written as:
= 13815.2 + j393.6 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼(𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 − 𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
Magnitude of 𝑉𝑠 |𝑉𝑠 |= 127000 + 787.4(9𝑥0.8 − 26.39𝑥0.6)
𝑉𝑠 = √( 13815.2)2 + (393.6)2 = 13820.8V = 120.2kV
Line value of 𝑉𝑠 = √3 x 13820.8 = 23938V = 23.938kV ∴ Sending end Line-to Line Voltage
|𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 120.2 = 208.2kV
ii)% Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
13820.8−12700 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅
= 𝑥 100 = 8.825% % Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
12700 𝑉𝑅
208.2−220
= = - 5.36%
220
iii) Transmission efficiency. Per phase real power loss in the line
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 2 R = (787.4)2 x 9 x 10−6 MW = 5.58MW
Line losses = 3𝐼 2 𝑅 =3 (164)2 x 4 = 322752W Per phase receiving end power
= 322.752kW 300
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑅 = x 0.8 = 80MW
Hence, Transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100 3
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 Per phase sending end power
5000
= 𝑥 100 = 93.94% 𝑃𝑆 = (80 + 5.58) = 85.58 MW
5000+322.752
Example Transmission line efficiency
𝑃 80
A 22okV, 3-phase transmission line is 60kk long. The η= 𝑅 = = 93.47%
𝑃𝑠 85.58
resistance is 0.15Ω/km and the inductance 1.4mH/km. Use
the short line model to find the voltage and power at the
sensding end and voltage regulation and efficiency when
Example
the line is supplying a three phase load of:
What is the maximum length in km for a 1-phase
a)300MVA at 0.8 pf lagging at 220kV
transmission line having copper conductor of 0·775 cm2
Sln
cross-section over which 200 kW at unity power factor and
R = 0.15 x 60 = 9Ω
at 3300V are to be delivered ? The efficiecny of
X = 2𝜋 x50 x 1.4 x 10−3 x 60 = 26.39Ω
220𝑘<0 transmission is 90%. Take specific resistance as 1.725  
Receiving end voltage per phase 𝑉𝑅 = = 127<00 cm.
√3
The three phase apparent power is 300MVA at 0.8pf lagging.
∅ = 36.870 Sln
S = 300<−36.870 = (240 + j180)MVA Receiving end power = 200kW = 200000W
The current per phase is given by: Transmission efficiency = 0.9
300<−36.870 200000
𝐼𝑅 = x 103 = Amp Sending end power factor = = 222222W
3𝑥127<00 0.9
𝐼𝑅 =787.4<−36.870 Amp Line losses = 222222 – 200000 = 22222W
40 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Line current , I =
200 𝑥 103
= 60.6A Line losses = 3𝐼 2 𝑅 =3 (81.36)2 x 5.31 =105.447kW
3300 𝑥 1 Output power = 3600kW
Let RΩ be the resistance of one conductor. Input power = output power + line lossess
Line losses = 2𝐼 2 R = 3600 + 105.447kW = 3705.447kW
22.222 = 2(60.6)2 x R 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
22222 Transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100
2 = 3.025Ω
R= 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
2 𝑥 (60.6) 3600
𝜌𝑙 = 𝑥 100= 97.15%
R= 3600+105 .447
𝐴
𝑅𝐴 3.025 𝑥 0.775
l= = = 1.36 𝑥 106 𝑐𝑚 = 13.6km Example
𝜌 1.725 𝑥 10−6
A short 3- transmission line with an impedance of (6 + j
Example 8)  per phase has sending and receiving end voltages of
Estimate the distance over which a load of 15000 kW at a 120 kV and 110 kV respectively for some receiving end
p.f. 0·8 lagging can be delivered by a 3-phase transmission load at a p.f. of 0·9 lagging. Determine
line having conductors each of resistance 1  per (i) power output
kilometre. The voltage at the receiving end is to be 132 kV
and the loss in the transmission is to be 5%. Resistance of each conductor, R = 6 
Sln Reactance of each conductor, X L = 8 
15000 𝑥 103
Line current, I =
= = 82A Load power factor, cos R = 0·9 lagging
√3 𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑝.𝑓 √3 𝑥 132000 𝑥 0.8
110 𝑥 103
Line losses = 5% x power delivered = 750kW Receiving end voltage/phase 𝑉𝑅 =
200 𝑥 103 √3
Line current , I = = 60.6A = 63508V
3300 𝑥 1
Let RΩ be the resistance of one conductor. 120 𝑥 103
Sending end voltage/phase 𝑉𝑠 = =69282V
Line losses = 3𝐼 2 R √3
750000 = 3(82)2 x R Let I be the load current. Using approximate expression for
750 𝑥 103 𝑉𝑠 , we get:
R= = 37.18Ω 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
3 𝑥 (82)2
Resistance of each conductor per km is given as 1Ω 69282= 63508 + 𝐼 𝑥 6 𝑥 0.9 + 𝐼 𝑥8 𝑥 0.435
Length of line 37.18 x 1 = 37.18km 8.88I = 5774
5774
I= = 650.2 A
8.88
𝑉𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 3𝑥63508 𝑥 650.2 𝑥 0.9
Example Power output = kW =
1000 1000
A 3-phase line delivers 3600 kW at a p.f. 0·8 lagging to a = 111490 kW
load. The resistance and reactance of each conductor are
5·31  and 5·54  respectively. (ii) sending end power factor.
If the sending end voltage is 33 kV, determine : Sln
i)the receiving end voltage 𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝐼𝑅 63508 𝑥 0.9 𝑥 650.2 𝑥 6
𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑅 kW =
ii)line current 𝑉𝑠 69282
iii) transmission efficiency. = 0.88 lag
Sln Example
Resistance of each conductor, R = 5.31  An 11 kV, 3-phase transmission line has a resistance of 1·5
Reactance of each conductor, X L = 5.54   and reactance of 4  per phase. Calculate the
Load power factor, cos R = 0·8 lagging percentage regulation and efficiency of the line when a
total load of 5000 kVA at 0.8 lagging power factor is
33 𝑥 103
Sending end voltage/phase 𝑉𝑠 = = 19052V supplied at 11 kV at the distant end.
√3
Let 𝑉𝑅 be the phase voltage at the receiving end. Sln
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 Resistance of each conductor, R = 1·5 
Line current I =
𝑉𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅
Reactance of each conductor, XL = 4 
1200 𝑥 103 1200 𝑥 103
= = 110𝑥 103
𝑉𝑅 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑉𝑅 𝑥 0.8 Receiving end voltage/phase 𝑉𝑅 = = 6351V
150 𝑥 105 √3
= Line current I =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑥 1000
𝑉𝑅
3 𝑥 𝑉𝑅
5000 𝑥 1000
. Using approximate expression for 𝑉𝑠 , we get: = = 262.43 A
3 𝑥 6351
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 . Using approximate expression for 𝑉𝑠 , we get:
15 𝑥 105 150 𝑥 105 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
19052=𝑉𝑅 + 𝑥 5.31 + 𝑥 5.54 𝑥0.6 = 6351 + 262.43 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 0.8 + 262.43 x 4 x 0.6
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑅 2 - 19052𝑉𝑅 + 11358000 = 0 = 7295.8v
𝑉 −𝑉
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡: % Voltage regulation = 𝑠 𝑅 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑅 = 18435V 7295.5−6351
= 𝑥 100 = 14.88%
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = √3 x 18435 = 31.93kV 6351`
15 𝑥 105 15 𝑥 105
Line current =
𝑉𝑅
=
18435
= 81.36A Line losses = 3𝐼 2 𝑅 =3 (262.43)2 x 1.5 = 310kW
Output power = 5000 x 0.8 = 4000kW
41 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Input power = output power + line lossess i)There is a considerable error (about 10%) in calculations
= 4000 + 310 = 4310kW because the distributed capacitance has been assumed to
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 lumped or concentrated
Transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
4000 ii) This method overestimates the effects of line capacitance
=𝑥 100= 92.8%
4310
Example The figure below shows one single phase of a 3-phase
A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 16 km long overhead line supplies 1000 transmission line
kW at 11k V, 0·8 p.f. lagging. The line resistance is 0·03 
per phase per km and line inductance is 0·7 mH per phase
per km. Calculate the sending end voltage, voltage
regulation and efficiency of transmission
Sln
Resistance of each conductor, R =0.03 x16 = 0.48 
Reactance of each conductor, XL = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑥16
= 2 x 𝜋𝑥50𝑥0.7 𝑥10−3 𝑥 16 = 3.52
11𝑥 103
Receiving end voltage/phase 𝑉𝑅 = = 6351V
√3
Load power factor = 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 = 0.8
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑥 1000
Line current I = Let R = resistance per phase
3 𝑥 𝑉𝑅
1000 𝑥 1000 1000 𝑥 1000 C = capacitance per phase
= = = 65.6A
3 𝑥 𝑉𝑅 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ 3 𝑥 6351𝑥 0.8 𝐼𝑅 = Load current per phase
. Using approximate expression for 𝑉𝑠 , we get: 𝑋𝐿 = Inductive reactance per phase
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = Receiving end power factor (lagging)
= 6351 + 65.6 𝑥 0.48 𝑥 0.8 + 3.52 x 0.6= 6515V
𝑉𝑅
6515−6351
= 𝑥 100 = 2.58%
6351`
Line losses = 3𝐼 2 𝑅 =3 (65.6)2 x 0.48 = 6.2kW

Output power = 5000 x 0.8 = 4000kW
Input power = output power + line lossess
= 1000 + 6.2 = 1006.2kW
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
1000
= 𝑥 100= 99.38%
1006.2
Example
A medium ,single phase transmission line 100km long has
MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINE
Length – Upto about 50 – 150 km length the following constants:
Resistance/km = 0.25Ω
Line voltage – is moderately high (>20kV but less than <
Reactance /km = 0.8Ω
100kV)
Due to sufficient length and voltage of line, the capacitance Susceptance /km = 14 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 Ω
effects that is uniformly distributed over the entire length of Receiving end line voltage = 66000V
the line are taken into account. The line is delivering 15000kW at 0.8 power factor lagging.
For purpose of calculations, the distributed capacitance of the Assuming that the total capacitance of line is localized at
line is divided and lumped (localized) in the form of the receiving end alone, determine:
condensers shunted across the line at one or more points. The i)The sending end current
most commonly used localized capacitance methods are; ii)The sending end voltage
i)End condenser method iii)Regulation
ii ) Nominal T method iv)Supply power factor
iii ) Nominal π method. v)Draw the phasor diagram to illustrate your calculations
End Condenser Method Sln:

It is a method where capacitance of the line is lumped or Total resistance R = 0.25 x 100 = 25 Ω
concentrated at the receiving or load End. Total reactance 𝑋𝐶 = 0.8 x 100 = 80 Ω
This method of localizing the line capacitance at the load end Total susceptance Y = 14 x 10−6 S x 100
overestimate the effects of capacitance. =14 x 10−4 Ω
Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 = 66000 𝑉
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
Load current: 𝐼𝑅 =
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑃.𝑓
Limitations 15000 𝑥 10 3
= = 284 𝐴
66000 𝑥 0.8
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Determine:
𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 = 0.6
i)Sending end Current (5mks)
𝑉𝑅
And the 𝐼𝐶̅ = 1 = jY x 𝑉𝑅 ii)Sending end power factor (3mks)
𝑌
−4
= j 14 x 14 𝑥 10 x 66000 = j 92 Ω iii)Transmission efficiency (2mks)
And 𝐼𝑅̅ = 𝐼𝑅 ( 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 − j𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 )
= (284(0.8 – j0.6) = 227 – j170 Sln
Total resistance/phase R = 0.1 x 100 = 10Ω
Therefore: Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 0.2 𝑥 100 = 20Ω
i)Sending end current = 𝐼𝑆̅ = 𝐼𝑅̅ +𝐼𝐶̅ Capacitive susceptance Y= 0.04 x 10−4 x 100
= (227 – j 170) + j 92 =04 x 10−4
= 227 – j78 Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 =
66000
= 38105 𝑉
√3
Magnitude of current 𝐼𝑠 = √2272 + 782 = 240 A 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
Load current: 𝐼𝑅 =
√3 𝑥𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑃.𝑓
ii)Voltage drop = 𝐼𝑠 𝑍 = 𝐼𝑠 (𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 ) 10000 𝑥 103
= (227 – j78) (25 + j80) = = 109 𝐴
√3 𝑥6000 𝑥 0.8
= 5675 + j18160 –j1950 + 6240
= 11915 + j16210 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 = 0.6
Sending end Voltage
𝑉̅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 = 38105 𝑉
𝑉̅𝑆 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐶̅ 𝑍 = 66000 + 11915 + j16210
= 77915 + j16210
= (109(0.8 – j0.6) = 87.2 – j65.4
Magnitude of 𝑉𝑠 = √779152 + 162102 = 79583 V Voltage across 𝐶1 :
𝑍̅
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅 And 𝑉̅1 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝑅̅
iii)% voltage regulation = x 100 2
𝑉𝑅 (10+𝑗20)
79583−66000 =38105 + (87.2 – j65.4)( )
= 𝑥 100 = 20.58 % 2
66000 = 38105 +436 –j327 +654
iv)Phase angle between 𝑉̅𝑅 and 𝐼𝑅̅ is , = 39195 + j545
−78
𝜃1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 -0.3436 = −18.960 Charging current 𝐼𝑐 :
227
𝑉
Phase angle between 𝑉̅𝑅 and 𝑉̅𝑆 is And the 𝐼𝐶̅ = 11 = jY x 𝑉1
16210 𝑌
𝜃2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.2036 = 11.500 = j 4 x 𝑥 10−4 (39195+j545)
77915
Supply power factor angle ∅𝑠 = 18.96 + 11.50 = - 0.218 + j15.6
= 30.460
Power factor = Cos 30 . 46 = 0.86 lag Therefore:
i)Sending end current = 𝐼𝑆̅ = 𝐼𝑅̅ +𝐼𝐶̅
= (87.2 – j65.4) + (-0.218 + j15.6)
NORMINAL T METHOD = (87.0 – j 49.8)
In this method, trhe whole capacitance is assumed = 100< -𝟐𝟗𝟎 𝟒𝟕′
concentrated at the middle point of the line and half the line Magnitude of sending end current = 100A
resistance and reactance are lumped on its either side
-Therefore, the full charging current flows over a half the line. ii)Sending end Voltage
One phase of 3-phase transmission line is shown below. 𝑍̅
𝑉̅𝑆 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝑠̅ = (39195 +j545)=(87-j49.8)(5+j10)
2
= 39195 + j545 + 434.9 + j870 – j249 + 498
= 40128 + j1170 or 40145< 10 40′
Line value of sending end voltage
= 40145 x √3 = 69533 V
Note:
Sending end power factor angle is simply the sum of the angle
at sending voltage and sending current
= 𝟐𝟗𝟎 𝟒𝟕′ + 10 40
=310 27′
Example Pf = Cos 310 27′ = 0.853 lagging
A three phase, 50Hz overhead transmission line 100km
long has the following constants: iii)Sending end power = 3 𝑉̅𝑆 𝐼𝑆̅ Cos ∅𝑠
= 3 x 40145 x 100 x 0.853
Resistance/km/phase = 0.1 Ω
= 10273.105kW
Inductive reactance/km/phase = 0.2Ω 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
Susceptance /km/phase = 0.04 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Siemen Transmission efficiency = 𝑥 100
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
10000
The line supplies a balanced load of 10000 kW at 66kV, p.f = 𝑥 100 = 97.34 %
10273.105
0.8 lagging. Using Norminal T method
43 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Example
A 3-phase, 50 Hz transmission line 100 km long delivers 20 NOMINAL 𝛑 METHOD
MW at 0·9 p.f. lagging and at 110 kV. The resistance and In this method, capacitance of each conductor (i.e., line to
reactance of the line per phase per km are 0·2  and 0·4 neutral) is divided into two halves; one half being lumped at the
 respectively, while capacitance admittance is 2·5  10 6 sending end and the other half at the receiving end as shown
siemen/km/phase. Calculate : (i) the current and voltage at in Fig. 10.16. It is obvious that capacitance at the sending end
the sending end (ii) efficiency of transmission. Use nominal has no effect on the line drop. However, its charging current
T method must be added to line current in order to obtain the total
Sln sending end current.
Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 0.4 𝑥 100 = 40Ω
Capacitive susceptance Y= 2.5 x 10−6 x 100
= 2.5 x 10−6 S
Phase impedance 𝑍 = 20 + j40
Let R = resistance per phase

C = capacitance per phase
𝐼𝑅 = Load current per phase
110000 𝑋𝐿 = Inductive reactance per phase
Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 = = 63508 𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = Receiving end power factor (lagging)
√3
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
Load current: 𝐼𝑅 = VS = Sending end voltage per phase
√3 𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑃.𝑓
3
20 𝑥 10
= = 116.6 𝐴 The phasor diagram is as shown below
√3 𝑥 110 𝑥 0.9
𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = 0.9 and 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 = 0.435

𝑉̅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑗0 = 63508 𝑉
= 116.6(0.9 – j0.435) = 105 – j50.7
Voltage across 𝐶1 :
𝑍̅ Taking receiving end voltage as reference line, we have:
And 𝑉̅1 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝑅̅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
2 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0
(20+𝑗40)
=63508 + (105 – j50.7)( ) 𝐼 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅
2
= 63508 + (2064 + j1593) Charging current at load end is
𝐶
= 65572 + j1593 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = j𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑉
𝐼𝐶1 = j𝜔 ( )𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅
2 𝑅
Charging current 𝐼𝑐 : Hence
𝑉
And the 𝐼𝐶̅ = 11 = jY x 𝑉1 Line current 𝐼𝐿̅ = 𝐼𝑅̅ +𝐼𝐶1̅
𝑌
= j 2.5 x 𝑥 10−4 (65572+j1593) Sending end voltage: 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐿̅ 𝑍 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐿̅ (𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋̅𝐿 )
̅
= - 0.4 + j16.4
Therefore: Charging current at the sending end is:
𝐶
Sending end current = 𝐼𝑆̅ = 𝐼𝑅̅ +𝐼𝐶̅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ = j𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑉
𝐼𝐶2 = j𝜔 ( )𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗𝑠
2 𝑠
= (105 – j50.7) + (-0.4 + j16.4) Hence:
= (104.6 – j 34.3) = 110< -𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟗′A Sending end current : 𝐼𝑠̅ = 𝐼𝐿̅ +𝐼𝐶2
̅
Magnitude of sending end current = 110A
Sending end Voltage Example

𝑍̅
𝑉̅𝑆 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝑠̅ = (65572 +j1593)+ (104.6-j43.3)(10+j20) A 3-phase, 50Hz, 150 km line has a resistance, inductive
2
= 67304 + j3342 reactance and capacitive shunt admittance of 0·1 , 0·5 
Magnitude of 𝑉̅𝑆 = √(67304)2 + (3342)2 = 67387V and 3  106 S per km per phase. If the line delivers 50 MW
Line value of sending end voltage at 110 kV and 0·8 p.f. lagging, determine the sending end
= 67387 x √3 = 116717 V voltage and current. Assume a nominal  circuit for the
line.
ii)Total line losses for the three phases Sln
𝑅 𝑅
iii)Sending end power = 3𝐼𝑆 2 + 3𝐼𝑅 2
2 2
20 20
= 3 𝑥 (110)2 ( ) + 3 𝑥 (116.6)2 ( ) = 0.770MW
2 2
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
20
= 𝑥 100 = 96.29 %
20+0.770
44 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Total resistance/phase R = 0.1 x 150 = 15Ω Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 0.5 𝑥 100 = 50Ω
Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 0.5 𝑥 150 = 75Ω Susceptance/phase Y= 10 x 10−6 x 100
Capacitive admittance/phase Y= 3 x 10−6 x 150 =10 x 10−4 S
=45 x 10−6 S Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 =
66 𝑥 103
= 38105 𝑉
110 𝑥 103 √3
Receiving end voltage 𝑉𝑅 = = 63508 𝑉 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
√3 Load current: 𝐼𝑅 =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 √3 𝑥𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑃.𝑓
Load current: 𝐼𝑅 = 20 𝑥 106
√3 𝑥𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑃.𝑓 = = 195𝐴
50 𝑥 106 √3 𝑥 66000 𝑥 0.9
= = 328𝐴
√3 𝑥 110000 𝑥 0.8
𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = 0.9 and 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 = 0.435
𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 = 0.8 and 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 = 0.6 𝑉̅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑗0 = 38105𝑉
𝑉̅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑗0 = 63508 𝑉 And 𝐼𝑅̅ = 𝐼𝑅 ( 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 − j𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 )
And 𝐼𝑅̅ = 𝐼𝑅 ( 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 − j𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅𝑅 ) = 195(0.9 – j0.435) = 176 – j85
= 328(0.8 – j0.6) = 262.4 – j196.8 Charging current at the load end is:
Charging current at the load end is: ̅ = 𝑉̅𝑅 𝑗 𝑌
And 𝐼𝐶1
2
̅ = 𝑉̅𝑅 𝑗 𝑌
And 𝐼𝐶1 (10 𝑥 10−4 )
2 =38105 x j( )= j19
(45 𝑥 10−5 ) 2
=63508 x j( )= j14.3 Line current 𝐼𝐿̅ = 𝐼𝑅̅ +𝐼𝐶1
̅
2
Line current 𝐼𝐿̅ = 𝐼𝑅̅ +𝐼𝐶1
̅ = (176 – j85) +j19
= (262.4 – j196.8) +j14.3 = 176 – j66
= 262.4 – j182.5 Sending end voltage: 𝑉̅𝑆 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐿̅ 𝑍 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐿̅ (𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋̅𝐿 )
Sending end voltage: 𝑉̅𝑆 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐿̅ 𝑍 = 𝑉̅𝑅 +𝐼𝐿̅ (𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋̅𝐿 ) = 38105 + (176 – j66)(10+j50)
= 63508 + (262.4 _ j182.5)(15+j75) = 38105 + (5060 +j8140)
= 63508 + 3936 + j19680 –j2737.5 +13687 = 43165 + j8140
= 81131 + j16942.5 = 43925 < 10.650 𝑉
= 82881 < 110 47′𝑉 Line value of sending end voltage
Line value of sending end voltage = 43925 x √3 = 76k V
= 82881 x √3 = 143.55k V
Charging current 𝐼𝑐2 at the sending end
̅ = 𝑉̅𝑠 𝑗 𝑌
And 𝐼𝐶2
2
Charging current 𝐼𝑐2 at the sending end (10𝑥 10−4 )
̅ = 𝑉̅𝑠 𝑗 𝑌
And 𝐼𝐶2 =(43165+ j8140) x j( )
2
2
(45 𝑥 10−5 ) =- 4.0 + j21.6
=(81131+ j16942) x j( ) Sending end current 𝐼𝑠̅ = 𝐼𝐿̅ +𝐼𝐶2
̅
2
=-3.81+ j14.3 = (176 – j66) +(-4.0 + j21.6)
Sending end current 𝐼𝑠̅ = 𝐼𝐿̅ +𝐼𝐶2
̅ = 172 – j44.4
= (262.4 – j182.5) +(-3.81 + j18.25) = 177.6 < −14.50 𝐴
= 258.6 – j164.25 Sending end current = 306.4 A
= 306.4 < −32.40 𝐴
Sending end current = 306.4 A
Example
A 100-km long, 3-phase, 50-Hz transmission line has
following line constants:
Resistance/phase/km = 0·1 
Reactance/phase/km = 0·5 
Susceptance/phase/km = 10  10 6 S Referring to phasor diagram:
If the line supplies load of 20 MW at 0·9 p.f. lagging at 66 𝜃1 Angle between 𝑉̅𝑅 and 𝑉̅𝑠 = 10.650 
kV at the receiving end, calculate by nominal  method : 𝜃2 Angle between 𝑉̅𝑅 and 𝐼𝑠̅ = −14.50 
i)sending end power factor
i i ) regulation ∅𝑠 Angle between 𝑉̅𝑅 and 𝐼𝑠̅ = 𝜃2 𝜃1 
iii)transmission efficiency 14.50 10.650 25.150 
Sln Sending end Pf , Cos ∅𝑠 = Cos25.150 = 0.905Lag
𝑉 −𝑉
ii)% voltage regulation = 𝑆 𝑅 x 100
𝑉𝑅
43925 −38105
= 𝑥 100 = 15.27 %
38105
iii)Sending end power = 3𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅𝑠 

= 3 x 43925 x 177.6 x 0.905 = 21.18MW
20
= 𝑥100 = 94%
Total resistance/phase R = 0.1 x 100 = 10Ω 21.18
45 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Hence
ABCD CONSTANTS 𝒁𝒀
A = (𝟏 + ) , B=Z
It is convenient to represent a transmission line by the two 𝟐
𝒁𝒀 𝒁𝒀
port –network, wherein the sending-end voltage 𝐕𝐬 and C = (𝟏 + ) and D = (𝟏 + )
𝟒 𝟐
Currents 𝐈𝐬 are related to receiving end voltage 𝐕𝐑 and current
IR through A, B, C and D parameters as: Example
𝑽𝒔 = A𝑽𝑹 + B𝑰𝑹 Volts A 60Hz, 250km long transmission line has an impedance of
𝑰𝒔 = C𝑽𝑹 + D𝑰𝑹 Amps (33 + j104) ohm and a total shunt admittance of 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 mho.
In matrix form: The receiving end load is 50MW at 208kV with 0.80 power
𝑽 𝑨 𝑩 𝑽𝑹 factor lagging. Find the sending –end voltage, current,
| 𝒔| = | || |
𝑰𝒔 𝑪 𝑫 𝑰𝑹 power and power factor using:
a)Short line approximation
A,B,C and D are the parameters that depends on the Sln
transmission –line constants R,L,C and G. The ABCD Z = (33 + j104) = 109.11<72.40 ohm
parameters are, in general,complex numbers. A and D are Y = j10−3 mho
dimensionless. B and C have units of Ohms and Siemens Receiving end load is 50MW at 208kV, 0.80 Lagging power
respectively. factor.
Also the following identity holds for ABCD constants: 50
𝐼𝑅 = < −36.870 = 0.173 < −36.870
AD – BC = 1 √3𝑥 208 𝑥 0.8
208
𝑉𝑅 = < 00 = 120.08 < 00
√3
To avoid confusion between total series impedance and series Short line approximation
impudence per unit length, the following notation is used. 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + IZ
z = 𝜸 + j𝝎L Ω/m, Series impedence per unit length = 120.08 < 00 + (0.173 < −36.870 )(109.11 < 72.40 )
y = G + j𝝎C S/m, Shunt admittance per unit length 𝑉𝑠 = 135.87 < 4.62𝑘𝑉 0
Z = zl, Total series impedance |𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 135.87< 4.620 kV
Y = yl S, total shunt admittance
= 235.3< 4.620 kV
L = line length, m
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑅 = 0.173 < −36.870 𝑘𝐴
Sending end power factor = Cos (36.87 + 4.62) = 0.75
Note that the shunt conductors G is usually neglected for
overhead transmission systems 𝑃𝑠 = √3 x 235.33 x 0.173 x 0.75 = 52.88MW
The sending end voltage and current for the nominal 𝜋 model b)Nominal 𝝅 method
𝑍𝑌 𝑗 𝑥 10−3 𝑥 109.11<72.40
are obtained as follows: A =D = (1 + ) = 1 +
2 2
= 0.9481< 10
B = Z = 109.11 <72.40
𝑍𝑌
C = (1 + ) = j x 10−3
4
𝑽𝒔 = A𝑽𝑹 + B𝑰𝑹
= 0.9481< 10 x 120.08< 00 + 109.11< 72.4 x 0.173<
−36.870
= 129.817< 5.720 kV
From KCL, the current in series impedance designated by 𝐼𝐿 |𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 129.817< 5.720 kV = 224.85< 5.720 kV
is
𝑌
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅 ……… Eqtn (i) 𝐼𝑠 = C𝑉𝑅 + D𝐼𝑅 Amps
2
From KVI, the sending end voltage is 𝐼𝑠 =jx 10−3 x 120.08< 00 + 0.9481< 10 x 0.173< −36.870
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑅 + Z𝐼𝐿 ……….. Eqtn (ii) 𝐼𝑠 = 0.135< 10.230 kA
From Eqtn (i) and (ii)
𝑍𝑌 Power factor (pf) angle at the sending end
𝑉𝑠 = (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅 …..(iii)
2 = 10.230 – ( 5.720 ) = 4.510
The sending end Current is:
𝑌 Sending end pf = Cos 4.510 = 0.997
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝑉𝑠 …… (iv) Sending end power
2
From equation (iii) and (iv) 𝑃𝑠 = √3 x 224.85 x 0.135 x 0.997 = 52.4MW
We get
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑠 =Y (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 +(1 + ) 𝐼𝑅 c)Exact transmission line equation
4 2
Equation (iii) and (v) can be written in matrix form as : Sln
𝑽 𝑨 𝑩 𝑽𝑹 𝛾𝑙 = √𝑧𝑦 l = √𝑧𝑙 . 𝑦𝑙 = √𝑍𝑌
| 𝒔| = | || |
𝑰𝒔 𝑪 𝑫 𝑰𝑹 √𝑍𝑌 = √(𝑗𝑥 10−3 𝑥 109.11 < 72.40
= 330.31 < −8.80
𝒁𝒀
𝑽 (𝟏 + ) 𝒁 𝑽𝑹
𝟐
| 𝒔| = | || | A = D = Cosh (𝛾𝑙) = Cosh (√𝑍𝑌)
𝑰𝒔 𝒁𝒀
𝒀 (𝟏 + ) 𝒀 (𝟏 +
𝒁𝒀
) 𝑰𝑹
𝟒 𝟐 = 0.9481< 10
46 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Sinh (𝛾𝑙) ≈ Sinh (√𝑍𝑌) (1 + ) = 0.33< 81.20
𝑍𝑌 𝐼𝑠 = 4.094< 10−4 < 90.150 x 76.21< 00 +
6 (1−0.0124+𝑗0.0053) + 437.38<−36.870
B = 𝑍𝑐 Sinh (𝛾𝑙) = 330.31< −8.80 x 0.33< −8120 1000
B = 109< 72.40 = (0.0311< 90.150 + 0.432< −36.650 ) kA
Sinh (𝛾𝑙) 0.33<81.20 = 414< −33.060 Amp
C= = ≈ j x 10−3
𝒁𝑪 330.31<−8.80 Power factor (pf) angle at the sending end
= 8.180 – (−33.060 ) = 41.240
𝑽𝒔 = A𝑽𝑹 + B𝑰𝑹 Sending end pf = Cos 41.240 = 0.752
= 0.9481< 10 x 120.08< 00 + 109< 72.4 x 0.173<
−36.870 Example
= 129.817< 5.720 kV A 3-phase, 150km long, 50Hz transmission line delivering
|𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 129.806.< 5.72 kV = 224.83< 5.720 kV 20MW at a power factor of 0.8 lagging and 66kV to
balanced load. Resistance of line is 0.075Ω/km, 1.5 cm
𝐼𝑠 = C𝑉𝑅 + D𝐼𝑅 Amps outside diameter, spaced equilaterally 2metrs between
𝐼𝑠 =jx 10−3 x 120.08< 00 + 0.9481< 10 x 0.173< −36.870 centrs. Use Norminal 𝝅, to determine:
𝐼𝑠 = 0.135< 10.230 kA
a)Voltage regulation
Power factor (pf) angle at the sending end sln
= 10.230 – ( 5.720 ) = 4.510 R = 0.075 x 150 = 11.25Ω
Sending end pf = Cos 4.510 = 0.997 Diameter of the conductor = 1.5
Sending end power 1.5
Radius r = = 0.75 cm
2
𝑃𝑠 = √3 x 224.85 x 0.135 x 0.997 = 52.4MW Space between them d = 2m = 200cm
Example 𝒅
A three phase transmission line 160km long delivering a Inductance per unit length L = 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒍𝒏 Henry
𝒓
3
load of 100MVA at 0.8 pf lagging and 132kV to a balanced D equivalent = √𝐷1 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥𝐷3
load. Resistance per km is 0.16Ω, inductance per km is 3
D equivalent = √2 𝑥 2 𝑥2 = 2
1.2mH and capacitance per km per conductor is 0.0082
𝝁𝑭. Use nominal 𝝅 method to Determine for the sending 200
L = 2𝑥10−7 (150 𝑥1000)𝑙𝑛 = 0.1675 Henry
end: 0.75
a)Voltage
b)Current The Capacitance per phase
2𝜋𝜀
c)Power factor C per unit length = 𝑑 F/m
𝑙𝑛
R = 0.16 x 160 = 25.6Ω 𝑟
2𝜋𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10 −12
X = 1.2 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 x 2𝜋 x50 x 160 = 60.3Ω = (200) 𝑥 (150 𝑥 1000)
Y = j2𝜋 x 50 x 0.0082 x 10−6 x 160 = j4.12 x 10−4 mho 𝑙𝑛
(0.75)
Z = R + jX = 25.6 + j60.3 = 65.51<67.00 Ω = 1.49𝜇F
From Y = j𝜔C = j2𝜋 x 50 x 1.49 x 10−6 mho
𝑍𝑌
𝑉𝑠 = (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅 Y =j 468.1 x 10−6 mho
2
𝑌 𝑗 468.1 𝑥 10−6
Phase voltage at the receiving end. = = j 234 x 10−6 mho
132 2 2
𝑉𝑅 = < 00 = 76.21 < 00 Z = (11.25 + j52.62) = 53.809< 77.90 Ω
√3
Receiving end current: Now
100 𝑥 106 𝑃𝑠 = √3 x 𝐼𝑅 x 66000 x 0.8 = 20000000
𝐼𝑅 = Amp = 437.38 Amp
√3 𝑥 132 𝑥 103
𝐼𝑅 = 218.7 Amp at 0.8 pf lagging
Load has pf of 0.8, ∅𝑅 = 36.870
Receiving end phase voltage
𝐼𝑅 = 437.38 < −36.870 Amp 66
𝑍𝑌 (65.51<67.00 )(4.12 𝑥 10−4 ) 𝑉𝑅 = = 38.104 kV
= = (-0.0124 + j0.0053) √3
2 2
From
𝑽𝒔 = (1-0.0124+j0.0053) x 76.2< 00 + 𝑍𝑌
65.51<670 x 437.38<−36.870 𝑉𝑠 = (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅
2
1000 Phase voltage at the receiving end.
= 101.07< 8.180 kV 132
Sending end line to line Voltage 𝑉𝑅 = < 00 = 38.104 < 00
√3
Receiving end current:
|𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 101.07< 8.180 kV = 175.05< 8.180 kV 𝐼𝑅 = 218.7 < −36.870 Amp
𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑠 =Y (1 +
𝑍𝑌
) 𝑉𝑅 +(1 +
𝑍𝑌
) 𝐼𝑅 =(53.809 𝑥 234 𝑥 10−6 < 77.9 + 900
4 2 2
𝑍𝑌 = (53.809 𝑥 234 𝑥 10−6 < 77.9 + 900
= 0.00675< 1570
4
𝑍𝑌
= 0.01259 < 167.90 = -0.0123 +j0.00264
1+ = 0.9938< 0.150 𝑉𝑠 = (1-0.0123+j0.00264) x 38.104< 00 +
4
𝑍𝑌 53.809<77.90 x 218.7<−36.870
Y (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 = 4.12 x 10−4 x 0.9938 < 90.150 1000
4
= 4.094 x 10−4 < 90.150 𝑉𝑠 = 37.63 + j0.1 + 8.87 + j7.72 = 46.5 + j7.82
𝑉𝑠 = 47.15< 9.540 kV
47 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
Sending end line to line Voltage Sln
𝐼𝑠 = C𝑉𝑅 + D𝐼𝑅 Amps
|𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 47.15< 9.540 kV = 81.66< 9.540 kV 𝐼𝑠 =j4.44x 10−4 x 71.6< 00 x 1000 + 0.986< 0.320 x
279.36< −36.870
𝑉𝑠
𝐴
− 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑠 =221.28 – j132.24
% Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100 = 257.78< −30.860 Amp
𝑉𝑅
81.66
−66
0.9877
= x 100 = 25.26% Power factor (pf) angle at the sending end
66
= 7.120 – (−30.860 ) = 37.980
b)Efficiency of the Line Sending end pf = Cos 37.980 = 0.788
Power loss per phase = 𝐼 2 R
= 𝐼 2 R = 218.72 x 11.25 x 10−6 MW = 0.538MW d)Regulation
20𝑀𝑊 𝑉 −𝑉
Per phase receiving end power 𝑃𝑅 =
3
% Voltage regulation = 𝑠 𝑅 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
20𝑀𝑊 𝑉𝑠
Per phase sendin end power 𝑃𝑠 = + 0.538 = 7.204MW 𝐴
−124
3 = x 100 = 24.43%
124
20
η= 3
𝑥 100 = 92.54% e)Efficiency of the Line
7.204
Sending end power
Example 𝑃𝑠 = √3 x 152.14 x 257.78 x Cos (37.980 ) = 53.52MW
A long transmission line delivers a load of 60MVA at Receiving end power
124kV, 50HZ, at 0.8 power factor lagging. Resistance of 𝑃𝑅 = 60 x 0.80 = 48MW
48
the line is 25.3Ω reactance is 66.5Ω and Admittance due to η= 𝑥 100 = 89.69%
53.52
charging capacitance is 0.442 x 𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟑 mho. Find:
a)A,B,C,D constants
Sln FERRANTI EFFECT
R = 25.3 Ohm, X = 66.5 ohm, Z = (25.3 + j66.5) ohm This is a phenomenon where the receiving end voltage is
Y = j 0.442 x 10−3 mho greater than sending end voltage during light load or No-
𝛾𝑙 = √𝑧𝑦 l = √𝑧𝑙 . 𝑦𝑙 = √𝑍𝑌 load due very high line charging current
√𝑍𝑌 = √(25.3 + 𝑗66.5)(𝑗 0.442 𝑥 10−3 A charged open circuit line draws significant amount of
= (o,0327 + j0.174) current due to capacitive effect of the line. This is more in
A = D = Cosh (𝛾𝑙) = Cosh (√𝑍𝑌) high –voltage long line transmission. Under no Load, 𝐼𝑅 = 0
= Cosh (0.03217 + j0.174) Thus 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 Cosh (𝛾𝑙)
𝑉𝑠
= 0.986< 0.320 𝑉𝑅 =
Cosh (𝛾𝑙)
Now: Cosh (𝛾𝑙)≤ 1 and therefore 𝑉𝑅 is always greater or
𝑍 equal to 𝑉𝑠
B = 𝑍𝑐 Sinh (𝛾𝑙) = (√ )Sinh (√𝑍𝑌)
𝑌
𝑍
(√ ) = (393 – j72.3) MORE EXAMPLES
𝑌
Example
B = 70.3< 69.2
A three-phase, 50Hz, 100km Long transmission line
𝟏 𝑍
C= Sinh (𝛾𝑙) = (√ )Sinh (√𝑍𝑌) supplies a load of 70MW at 132kV at 0.8 power factor
𝒁𝑪 𝑌
lagging. Each conductor has a resistance, inductance and
= 4.44 x 10 <90 = j4.44 x 10−4
−4 0
capacitance of 0.15 Ω, 1.2mH and 0.0087 𝝁𝑭 per km per
phase respectively. Using the Norminal 𝝅 Method,
Determine the sending end:
b)Sending voltage i)Line voltage (6 marks)
Sln
Load at 60MVA at 124 kV (line to line)
Load current
60 𝑥 1000
𝐼𝑅 = = 279.36 Amp
√3 𝑥 124
Power factor is 0.8 lagging
𝐼𝑅 =787.4<−36.870 Amp
124
𝑉𝑅 = = 71.6 kV (phase voltage)
√3
𝑽𝒔 = A𝑽𝑹 + B𝑰𝑹 Total Resistance/phase R= 0.15 x 100 = 15Ω
70.3<69.20 + 279.36<−36.870
= 0.986< 0.320 x 71.6< 00 + Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑥 100
1000
= 87.84< 7.120 kV = 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 1.2 x 10−3 x 100 = 37.7Ω
1
|𝑽𝒔 |𝑳−𝑳 = √3 x 87.84< 7.120 kV = 152.14< 7.120 kV Total capacitance /phase = x 150
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
1
= x 100 = 36.58 x 106 Ω
c)Current and Power factor 2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 0.0087 𝑥 10−6
48 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

132 𝑥 103 𝑉 1
𝑉𝑅 = = 76210.2V = x 150 = 50 x 105 Ω
√3 2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 0.0096 𝑥 10−6
70 𝑥 106 𝑊
Load current 𝐼𝑅 = = 382.71𝐴 132 𝑥 103 𝑉
√3 𝑥 132000 𝑥 0.8
Taking receiving end voltage as the reference phasor, we have 𝑉𝑅 = = 76210.2V
√3
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 30 𝑥 106 𝑊
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 76210.2V Load current 𝐼𝑅 = = 145.8𝐴
√3 𝑥 132000 𝑥 0.9
Load current ⃗⃗⃗𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos ∅𝑅 − 𝑗 Sin ∅𝑅 ) Taking receiving end voltage as the reference phasor, we have
= 382.71(0.8 – j0.6) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 76210.2V
= 306 – j229.8A
Charging current at the load end is: Load current ⃗⃗⃗𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos ∅𝑅 − 𝑗 Sin ∅𝑅 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 76210.2 76210.2 76210.2
= 145.8(0.9 – j0.436)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶1 = 𝑅 = 𝐶 𝑥𝑗= 6 𝑥 𝑗= 6= j0.004 = 130.5 – j63.22
𝐶1 36.58 𝑥 10 18.29 𝑥 10
2 2 Charging current at the load end is:
Line current ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 76210.2 76210.2 76210.2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶1 = 𝑅 = 𝐶 𝑥𝑗= 5 𝑥 𝑗= 5 = j0.03
= (306 – j229.8) + j0.004 𝐶1 50 𝑥 10 25 𝑥 10
2 2
= 306 –j229.796
𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶1
Sending voltage ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑉𝑆 =⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 𝑍 = (130.5 – j63.22) + j0.03
⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑆 =⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 (𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 ) = 130.5 –j63.22
= 76210.2 + (306 –j229.796)(15 + j37.7) Sending voltage ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑉𝑆 =⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 𝑍
= 76210.2 + (382<-36.9)(40<68.3) ⃗⃗⃗
= 76210.2 + (15280< 31.4) 𝑉𝑆 =⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 (𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 )
= 76210 + (13042.2 +j7961.0) = 76210.2 + (130.5 –j63.22)(22.5 + j56.5)
= 89252.2 +j7961.0 = 76210.2 + (58.8<-116.5)(60.8<68.29)
= 76210.2 + (3575.04< -48.21)
= 89606.5<5.0970 V
= 76210 + (2382.4 –j2665.52)
Line value = 89606.5 x √3 = 155.2kV = 78592.4 – j2665.52
= 78637.6<−1.9420 V
ii)Current (3mks)
Sln
ii)Current (3mks)
Charging current at the sending end is :
Sln
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 89606.5<5.0970
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶2 = 𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑥𝑗 Charging current at the sending end is :
𝐶2
2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 78637.6<−1.9420
89606.5<5.0970 89606.5<5.0970 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶2 = 𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑥𝑗
= 36.58 𝑥 106
𝑥 𝑗= 𝐶2
18.29 𝑥 106 2
2 78637.6<−1.9420 78637.6<−1.9420
= 50 𝑥 105
𝑥 𝑗=
25 𝑥 105
= 0.0049< 5.0970 2
= 0.0049 + j0.00043
= 0.03< −1.9420
Sending end current ⃗⃗𝐼𝑠 = ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶2 = 0.03 – j0.001
= 306 –j229.796 + ( 0.0049 – j0.00043)
𝐼𝐶2
= 306.0 – j229.79
= 130.5 –j63.22 + ( 0.03 – j0.001)
= 382.67<−36.90 A = 130.53 – j63.221
= 145<−25.80 A
Example
Example
A three-phase, 50Hz 132kV,150km Long transmission line
A 100km long , 3-phase, 50Hz transmission line has the
supplies a load of 30MW at 0.9 power factor lagging. Each
following line Constants:
conductor has a resistance, inductance and capacitance of
Resistance/phase/km = 0.2Ω
0.15 Ω, 1.2mH and 0.0096 𝝁𝑭 per km per phase
Inductance/phase/km = 2mH
respectively. Using the Norminal 𝝅 Method, Determine the
Capacitance(line to neutral)/per km = 0.015𝝁𝑭
sending end:
If the line supplies a star-connected load of 50MW at
i)Line voltage (6 marks)
13kV, 0.8 power factor lagging, use the Nominal –T-
method to determine the sending end:
i)Current (5mks)
Sln
Total Resistance/phase R= 0.15 x 150 = 22.5Ω

Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑥 150
= 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 1.2 x 10−3 x 150 = 56.56Ω
1 = 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 2 x 10−3 x 100 = 62.84Ω
Total capacitance /phase = x 150 1
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 Total capacitance /phase = x 100
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
49 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

1 𝑘𝑊 𝑥 103 1000 𝑥 103
= x 100 = 31.8 x 105 Ω Line current, I = = = 65.61A
2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 0.015 𝑥 10−6 3𝑉𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 3 𝑥 6351 𝑥 0.8
𝑍 = R +j𝑋𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 6351V
13 𝑥 103 𝑉
𝑉𝑅 = = 7505.55V 𝐼 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
√3
50 𝑥 106 𝑊 = 65.61 ( 0.8 – j0.6) = 52.5 – j39.37
Load current 𝐼𝑅 = = 277.6𝐴
√3 𝑥 13000 𝑥 0.8
cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Sin ∅𝑅 = 0.6 Sending end Voltage/phase : ⃗⃗⃗𝑉𝑠 =𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑍
𝑍 = R +j𝑋𝐿 = 20 + j62.84 = 6351 + (52.5 – j39.37)(0.04+ j0.2357)
= 6351 + 2.1 + j12.37 – j1.575+ 9.28
Taking receiving end voltage as the reference phasor, we have = 6362.38 + j10.795
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 7505.55V Magnitude of 𝑉𝑠
Load current ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos ∅𝑅 − 𝑗 Sin ∅𝑅 ) 𝑉𝑠 = √( 6362.38)2 + (10.795)2 = 6362.39V
= 277.6(0.8 – j0.6) Line value of 𝑉𝑠 = √3 x 6362.39 = 23938V = 11.02kV
= 222.08 – j166.56 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑅
𝑍 ii)% Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
Voltage across C, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼⃗⃗⃗𝑅 ( ) 𝑉𝑅
2 6362.39−6351
= 7505.55 + (222.08 – j166.56)(10 + j31.42) = 𝑥 100 = 0.179%
6351
= 7505.55 + (277.6<-36.87) (32.97<72.34)
= 7505.55 + 9152.5 < 35.47
= 7505.55 + 7453.97 +j5310.98 KNEC O/N 2022
= 14959.52 + j5310.98 A 200km long, three phase, 50Hz transmission line
= 15874.3<19.550 delivers 30MW at apower factor 0.85 lagging to a 66kV
balanced load. The resistance of the line is 0.08 Ω/km. The
Charging current at the load end is:
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 15874.3<19.550
conductor diameter is 2cm equilaterally spaced 3m
⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶 = 1 = 5 𝑥 𝑗 = 499.19< 19.550 between the centres. Using the nominal T method,
𝐶 31.8 𝑥 10
= 470. 4 +j167.0 A determine the
Sending end current 𝐼𝑠 = ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ 𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶 i)Impedence per phase (2mks)
=( 222.08 – j166.56) + (470. 4 +j167.0) Sln
= 692.08 +j 0.44 R = 0.08 x 200 = 16Ω
= 692<0.0360 A
ii)Sending end current

𝑍
⃗⃗⃗𝑆 =⃗⃗⃗⃗
Sending voltage 𝑉 𝑉1 + ⃗⃗𝐼𝑠 ( )
2
⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑆 = 15874.3<19.550 + (692<0.0360 A) (32.97<72.34)
= (14959.52 + j5310.98) + (22815.24 <72.376)
= (14959.52 + j5310.98 ) + 6907.75 +j21744.4
= 21867.27 + j27055.38
D equivalent = 3√𝐷1 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥𝐷3
= 34787.5<51.050 3
Example 𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.7788 xr = 0.7788
𝟐
A three –phase , 50Hz, 20km long overhead transmission r = = 1cm, d = 3m = 300cm
𝟐
line supplies 1000kW at 11kV,0.8 power factor lagging. 𝑑
The line resistance and inductance are 0.04 Ω and 0.75mH L == 2𝑥10−7 𝑙𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 H/m
𝑟1
300
per phase km respectively. Determine the: (7mks) L = 2𝑥10−7 𝑥 200 𝑥1000𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 H/m
0.7788
i)Sending end voltage = 0.238H
Sln 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋 𝑥50 𝑥0.238 = 74.8Ω
Sln
Z = R + j𝑋𝐿
= 16 + j74.8 = 76.5<77.930 Ω
ii)Capacitive susceptance (2mks)

2𝜋𝑙𝜀0
C= 𝑑 F/m
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟
2𝜋𝑥 200 𝑥1000 𝑥 8.85𝑥 10 −12
= 300
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
1
Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 lagging = 1.95𝑥10 F −6
11000
Receiving end voltage/phase = = 6351V
√3
Inductanctance per phase = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑥 50 𝑥 0.75 𝑥10−3
=0.2357Ω
Impedance/phase 𝑍 =R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 0.04 + j0.2357
50 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
iii)Receiving end current in complex form
(2mks)
VOLTAGE SURGE
Objective
Sln
2)Explain the causes for surges in transmission lines
𝑃 30 𝑥106
𝐼𝑅 = = = 309𝐴 at 0.85pf lag a)Direct and indirect lightning strokes
√3𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑟 √3 𝑥66000 𝑥 0.85
𝐼𝑅 = 309 (0.85 – j0.53) = 262.7 – j164 A b)Switching surge due to:
= 308.74<−31.790 A i)Open circuited lines
ii)Short circuited lines
iii)Load interruptions
iv)Voltage drop 𝑽𝟏 across the capacitor (2mks)
iv)Arching ground lines
Sln
𝐼𝑅 𝑍
3)Explain the phenomenon of surges in transmission lines
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑅 + systems
2
(77.57.9)(308.74<−31.79) i)Surge velocity
= 38105 + = 46105 + j8112 V
2 ii)surge impedance
iii)Open circuited lines
KNEC O/N 2022 iv)Short circuited lines
A three phase transmission line has conductors of 4)Describe the protection of surges against over
diameter 3cm,spaced 2m apart in an equilateral voltage
formation. A voltage wave of 11kV travels along the lines. i)Overhead earth wire
Determine the: ii)Horn gaps
i)Inductance per unit length (2mks) iii)Silicon and Zinc oxide surge diverters
sln iv)Peterson coil
𝑑
Inductance per unit length L = 2𝑥10−7 𝑙𝑛 H/m
𝑟
1 VOLTAGE SURGE
D equivalent = 3√𝐷1 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥𝐷3
3 Voltage Surge
D equivalent = √2 𝑥 2 𝑥2 = 2 A sudden rise in voltage for a very short duration on the power
𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.7788 xr =0.7788 x0.15 = 0.011682 system
200
L = 2𝑥10−7 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 1.028𝑥10−6 H/m
0.01182 It is caused by sudden change in voltage at appoint in the
system.Since transmission lines are connected with shunt
ii)Capacitance per unit length (2mks) capacitor and resistors in series and induces speed over the line.
Sln There is time delay. This time delay takes time before it reaches
𝟐𝝅𝜺
C per unit length = 𝑑 F/m the end point due to electromagnetic fields in the line. The
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟 velocity at which the change or surge travels to the other part
𝟐𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟗 𝟐𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟗
= 𝑑 = 200 = 1.136𝑥10−11 F/m of the system depends on the media which the surge is
𝟑𝟔𝝅𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝟑𝟔𝝅𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟 1.5 travelling.
Transients or surges are of temporary nature and exist for a very
short duration (a few hundred(𝜇s) but they cause over voltages
iii)Natural impedance (2mks)
on the power system. They originate from switching and from
𝐿 1.028𝑥10−6
𝑍𝑛 = √ = √ = 300.82Ω other causes but by far the most important transients are those
𝐶 1.136𝑥10−11
caused by lightning striking a transmission line. When lightning
strikes a line, the surge rushes along the line, just as a flood of
iv)line current (2mks) water rushes along a narrow valley when the retaining wall of
Sln a reservoir at its head suddenly gives way. In most of the cases,
𝑽
Line current = such surges may cause the line insulators (near the point where
𝑍𝑛
𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 lightning has struck) to flash over and may also damage the
𝑽𝒑𝒉 = = 635V0.85 nearby transformers, generators or other equipment
√𝟑
𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟎.𝟖𝟓 connected to the line if the equipment is not suitably
Line current = = 21.11A
300.82
protected.
51 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

The above figure shows the wave-form of a typical lightning When the unloaded line is connected to the voltage source, a
surge. The voltage build-up is taken along y-axis and the time voltage wave is set up which travels along the line. On reaching
along x-axis. It may be seen that lightning introduces a steep- the terminal point A , it is reflected back to the supply end
fronted wave. The steeper the wave front, the more rapid is without change of sign. This causes voltage doubling i.e.
the build-up of voltage at any point in the network. In most of voltage on the line becomes twice the normal value.
the cases, this build-up is comparatively rapid, being of the .
order of 1–5 𝜇s. Voltage surges are generally specified in b)Case of a loaded line. Overvoltage’s will also be produced
terms of rise time t1 and the time t2 to decay to half of the during the switching operations of a loaded line. Suppose a
peak value. For example, a 1/50 𝜇s surge is one which reaches loaded line is suddenly interrupted. It sets up a voltage across
its maximum value in 1𝜇s and decays to half of its peak value is the break.
50 𝜇s. c)Current chopping. This is caused by powerful deionizing
effect of air-blast circuit breaker which causes the current to
In practice, the steepness of the waveform is of great fall abruptly to zero before the natural current zero is reached.
importance since it indicates the rate of rise at any point . The Current chopping results in the production of high voltage
system breakdown voltage of insulation varies with the rise of transients across the contacts of the air blast circuit breaker..
rate of voltage. Overvoltage’s due to current chopping are prevented by
resistance switching
Current Surge 2.Insulation failure. The most common case of insulation
A voltage surge is always accompanied by current surge failure in a power system is the grounding of conductor (i.e.
which travels at the same velocity. insulation failure between line and earth) which may cause over
The associated current surge consist of charging and voltages in the system.
discharging capacitance current caused by changes in the
voltage across shunt capacitance in transmission line.
Causes of Overvoltage’s
The causes of overvoltage on a power system may be broadly
divided into two main categories.
a)Internal causes
i)Switching surges (switching of an open circuit line)
ii)Insulation failure Suppose a line at a potential E is Earthed at point X, the
iii)Arcing ground (line – ground –fault) earthing of the line causes two equal voltages of –E to travel
iv)Resonance (when 𝑿𝑳 = 𝑿𝑪) −𝐸 +𝐸
along XQ and XP containing currents and respectively
v)Short circuit of transmission line 𝑍𝑛 𝑍𝑛
Both these currents pass through X to earth so that current to
b)External causes i.e. lightning earth is 2 E/Zn.
3. line-to-ground fault (Arcing ground. )

It is an earth fault on one-phase of an insulated neutral system
Internal factors in a 3-phase line. The fault phase will have its potential
1.Switching surges lowered to such an extent that the arc will be extinguished.
These are due to oscillations set up by the sudden changes in -at this instant, the potential of the healthy phases are so,
the circuit conditions. i.e normal switching operation such as suddenly raised that voltage surge is initiated.
opening of a circuit breaker, or it may be the fault The phenomenon of intermittent arc taking place in line-to-
condition such as grounding of a line conductor. ground fault of a 3 phase system with consequent production
Such overvoltages produces by switching operations (Open of transients
circuit) of circuit breakers are known as Switching surge.
This was used in the early days of transmission where the
a)Case of an open line (open circuit) During switching neutral of three phase lines was not earthed to gain two
operations of an unloaded line, travelling waves are set up advantages. Firstly, in case of line-to-ground fault, the line is
which produce over voltages on the line. As an illustration, not put out of action. Secondly, the zero sequence currents are
consider an unloaded line being connected to a voltage source eliminated, resulting in the decrease of interference with
as shown communication lines. Insulated neutrals give no problem with
short lines and comparatively low voltages. However, when the
lines are long and operate at high voltages, serious problem
called arcing ground is often witnessed. The arcing ground
produces severe oscillations of three to four times the normal
voltage.
The transients produced due to arcing ground are cumulative
and may cause serious damage to the equipment in the power
system by causing breakdown of insulation. Arcing ground
52 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

can be prevented by earthing the neutral. TYPES OF SURGES
There are four types of voltage surges which may disturb
4.Resonance. ( when L = C )- ie (𝑿𝑳 = 𝑿𝑪 ) Resonance in an
electrical installations and loads:
electrical system occurs when inductive reactance of the
circuit becomes equal to capacitive reactance. Under 1. Operating voltage surge
resonance, the impedance of the circuit is equal to resistance of 2. Transient overvoltage at industrial frequency
the circuit and the p.f. is unity. Resonance causes high voltages 3. Voltage surges caused by electrostatic discharge
in the electrical system. In the usual transmission lines, the 4. Atmospheric voltage surges
capacitance is very small so that resonance rarely occurs at the
fundamental supply frequency. However, if generator e.m.f.
wave is distorted, the trouble of resonance may occur due to 1.Operating voltage surge
5th or higher harmonics and in case of underground cables too. An electrical network causes transient phenomena to occur.
These are generally high frequency or damped oscillation
NOTE:Internal causes do not produce surges of large voltage surge waves
magnitude. Experience shows that surges due to internal
causes hardly increase the system voltage to twice the normal
value.
Generally, surges due to internal causes are taken care of by
providing proper insulation to the equipment in the power
system.
Causes of High Voltage surge

1)Direct lighting stroke on overhead conductors.
-This may initiate a surge having amagnitude of 10million volts.
It is the most severe surge but very rare
Surges due to lightning are very severe and may increase the
system voltage to several times the normal value. If the Causes of operating voltage surges
equipment in the power system is not protected against i. The opening of protection devices (fuse, circuit-
lightning surges, these surges may cause considerable damage. breaker), and the opening or closing of control
In fact, in a power system, the protective devices provided devices (relays, contactors, etc.)
against over voltages mainly take care of lightning surges. ii. Inductive circuits due to motors starting and stopping,
or the opening of transformers such as MV/LV
substations
2) Cloud to cloud or Cloud to Earth discharge in the iii. Capacitive circuits - due to the connection of capacitor
viscinity of the overhead conductor. banks to the network
-A positively charged cloud ‘electrostatically’’ induces a iv. All devices that contain a coil, a capacitor or a
corresponding negative charge on an overhead line in the transformer at the power supply inlet e.g: relays,
vicinity. When a cloud discharges to earth into another cloud, the contactors, television sets, printers, computers, electric
negative charges on the line is isolated leading to high negative ovens, filters, etc.
voltage surge.
3. Transient over voltage
These over-voltages have the same frequency as the network
3)Switching on an open – circuited line
(50 or 60 Hz);
When the switch is closed, High voltage surge E does not Causes of transient over-voltages at industrial
instantaneously appear at the receiving end. frequency
E is 1st opposed by the back emf induced in 𝐿1 by the flow of I to i. Phase/frame or phase/earth insulating faults
charge𝐶1 . on a network with an insulated neutral, or by the
The voltage developed across 𝐶1 causes current to flow through breakdown of the neutral conductor. When this
𝐶1 and 𝐿2 . The continuous interchange of electromagnetic
happens, single-phase devices will be supplied
energy causes a time delay before it appears at the receiving end.
in 415 V instead of 230 V.
Short –Circuit of transmission line ii. A cable breakdown. For example, a medium
At a fault, the voltage is reduced to zero causing to sudden voltage cable which falls on a low voltage line.
redistribution of electrostatic and electromagnetic energy iii. The arcing of a high or medium voltage
protective spark gap causing a rise in earth
53 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
potential during the action of the protection dissipated without the formation of a complete stroke. In other
devices. These protection devices follow words, the leader streamer will not reach the earth fig (i)
automatic switching cycles, which will recreate below.
a fault if it persists.
3.Voltage surge caused by electrical discharge

i. Insulated neutral, or by the breakdown of the
neutral conductor. When this happens, single
phase devices will be supplied in 415 V instead of
230 V.
ii. A cable breakdown. For example, a medium
voltage cable which falls on a low voltage line.
iii. The arcing of a high or medium voltage protective
spark-gap causing a rise in earth potential during ii)In many cases, the leader streamer continues its journey
the action of the protection devices. towards earth ,see figure (ii) until it makes contact with earth or
some object on the earth. As the leader streamer moves towards
4. Atmospheric voltage surge earth,it is accompanied by points of luminescence which
travel in jumps giving rise to stepped leaders. The velocity of
Lightning stepped leader exceeds one-sixth of that of light and distance
An electric discharge between cloud and earth, between travelled in one step is about 50 m. It may be noted that
clouds or between the charge centers of the same cloud is stepped leaders have sufficient luminosity and give rise to first
known as lightning. visual phenomenon of discharge.
Lightning is a huge spark and takes place when clouds are The path of leader streamer is a path of ionisation and,
charged to such a high potential (+ve or -ve) with respect to therefore, of complete breakdown of insulation. As the leader
earth or a neighboring cloud that the dielectric strength of streamer reaches near the earth, a return streamer shoots up
neighboring medium (air) is destroyed. from the earth [See Fig. 24.4 (iii)] to the cloud, following the
It is based on the theory that one is that during the uprush of same path as the main channel of the downward leader. The
warm moist air from earth, the friction between the air and the action can be compared with the closing of a switch between
tiny particles of water causes the building up of charges. When the positive and negative terminals; the downward leader
drops of water are formed, the larger drops become positively having negative charge and return streamer the positive
charged and the smaller drops become negatively charged. charge. This phenomenon causes a sudden spark which we
When the drops of water accumulate, they form clouds, and call lightning.
hence cloud may possess either a positive or a negative charge,
depending upon the charge of drops of water they contain. The
charge on a cloud may become so great that it may discharge
to another cloud or to earth and we call this discharge as The following points may be noted about lightning
lightning. The thunder which accompanies lightning is due discharge:
to the fact that lightning suddenly heats up the air, thereby i. A lightning discharge, which usually appears to the eye as a single
causing it to expand. The surrounding air pushes the expanded flash, is in reality made up of a number of separate strokes
air back and forth causing the wave motion of air which we that travel down the same path. The interval between them
recognize as thunder. varies from 0·0005 to 0·5 second. Each separate stroke
starts as a downward leader from the cloud.
Mechanism of Lightning Discharge ii. It has been found that 87% of all lightning strokes result
When a charged cloud passes over the earth, it induces equal from negatively charged clouds and only 13% originate
and opposite charge on the earth below. The figure below from positively charged clouds.
shows a negatively charged cloud inducing a positive charge iii. It has been estimated that throughout the world, there
on the earth below it. As the charge acquired by the cloud occur about 100 lightning strokes per second.
increases, the potential between cloud and earth increases and, iv. Lightning discharge may have currents in the range of 10
therefore, gradient in the air increases. When the potential kA to 90 kA.
gradient is sufficient (5 kV*/cm to 10 kV/cm) to break down
the surrounding air, the lightning stroke starts. Types of Lightning Strokes
As soon as the air near the cloud breaks down, a streamer There are two main ways in which a lightning may strike the
called leader streamer or pilot streamer starts from the power system (e.g. overhead lines, towers, sub-stations etc.),
cloud towards the earth and carries charge with it . namely;
1. Direct stroke
2. Indirect stroke
(i)The leader streamer will continue its journey towards
earth as long as the cloud, from which it originates feeds
enough charge to it to maintain gradient at the tip of leader Direct stroke. In the direct stroke, the lightning discharge (i.e.
streamer above the strength of air. If this gradient is not current path) is directly from the cloud to the subject
maintained, the leader streamer stops and the charge is equipment e.g. an overhead line. From the line, the current
54 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
path may be over the insulators down the pole to the ground.
The direct stroke is of two types: SURGE VOLTAGE PROPAGATION MODE
The TWO kinds of surge voltage propagation modes
• Common mode
• Differential Mode
a) Common mode surge
a)Stroke A – Where lightning discharge is from the cloud to

the subject equipment i.e (i) above
b)Stroke B - the lightning discharge occurs on the overhead
line as a result of stroke A between the clouds as shown in (ii)
above. There are three clouds P, Q and R having positive,
negative and positive charges respectively. The charge on the
cloud Q is bound by the cloud R. If the cloud P shifts too near
the cloud Q, then lightning discharge will occur between them
and charges on both these clouds disappear quickly. The result
is that charge on cloud R suddenly becomes free and it then
discharges rapidly to earth, ignoring tall objects. a)Common mode voltage surges occur between the live parts
and the earth i.e. phase/earth or neutral/earth.
Indirect stroke. Indirect strokes result from the i. They are especially dangerous for devices
electrostatically induced charges on the conductors due to whose frame is earthed due to the risk of
the presence of charged clouds. A positively charged cloud is dielectric breakdown.
above the line and induces a negative charge on the line by
electrostatic induction. b) Differential mode
ii. Differential mode voltage surges circulate
between live conductors: Phase to phase or
phase to neutral
Harmful effects of Lighting

i)Shatters the insulators and wreck poles
ii) Huge current that can cause fires
iii) Damages to transformer windings
iv)Electrodynamic effects: when the lightning currents
circulate in parallel conductors, they provoke attraction or
repulsion forces between the wires, causing breaks or
mechanical deformations (crushed or flattened wires)
v)Combustion effects: lightning can cause the air to expand They are especially sensitive computer equipment, etc.
and create overpressure, which stretches over a distance of a dangerous for electronic equipment,
dozen meters
vi)A blast effect breaks windows or and can throw animals or SURGE VELOCITY
people several meters away from their original
vii)A shock wave is also transformed into a sound wave:
thunder or telephone lines or induced by the electromagnetic
induction effect.
viii)The elevation of the earth potential by the circulation of
the lightning current in the ground. This explains indirect
strokes of lightning by step voltage and the breakdown of
equipment
55 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Let the velocity of the surge be x m/s and charging the line at = [
1 √𝐶
] 𝐸2
a potential of E volts 2 √𝐿
-let the line have capacitance C farads /m Dividing both Numerator and denominator by √𝐶
-The charge required per second = CEx √𝐶
1
From Q = It = [√𝐶
√𝐿
] 𝐸2
2
𝑄 √𝐶
I = = CEx ------ eqtn 1
𝑡
Let the line have the inductance L H/m 1 𝐸
= [ ]𝐸
Length of x metres has an inductance Lx 2
√
𝐿
𝐶
-Now the voltage to overcome the back emf
= Lx . I volts 𝑳
But 𝒁𝟎 =√ Ω
Thus E = Lx . I -------- eqtn 2 𝑪
1 𝐸
Equiting equation (ii) into eqtn (i) = [ ]𝐸
𝑄 2 𝒁𝟎
I = = CEx = C(Lx)(x) = LC𝑥 2 𝐸
𝑡 but I =
1 𝒁𝟎
𝑥2 = hence:
𝐿𝐶
1 1 1
x=√ m/s or x = m/s = [𝐼]𝐸
𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶 2
1
Electrostatic energy = 𝐼𝐸
2
Surge velocity in a single –phase Overhead line
𝒅
L = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒍𝒏 H/m Again
𝒓 1 1
C=
𝟏
F/m 𝐿𝑥𝐼 2 = 𝐿𝑥𝐼 2
𝒅 2 2
𝟑𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒙 𝒍𝒏
𝒓
Surge velocity in a 3 –phase Overhead line in air 1 𝐿
1 1 = [ ] 𝐼2
x= = = 3 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠 2 √𝐿𝐶
√𝐿𝐶 −𝟕 𝒍𝒏𝒅 𝑥 𝟏 1 √𝐿 𝑥 √𝐿
√𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒓 𝟑𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒙 𝒍𝒏𝒅 = [ ] 𝐼2
𝒓 2 √𝐿 𝑥 √𝐶
1 √𝐿 2
which is the speed of light in light = [ ]𝐼
2 √𝐶
Impedance , 𝒁𝟎 (characteristic impedance) Dividing both Numerator and denominator by √𝐿

√𝐿
The expression: 1
√𝐿
= [√𝐶 ] 𝐼2
I = CEx and E = Lx . I 2
𝑽 𝑬 √𝐿
Impedence Z = 𝒐𝒓
𝑰 𝑰 1 1
Hence = [√𝐶 ] 𝐼
2
𝑬 𝑳𝒙𝑰 𝑳𝑰 √𝐿
Z= = =
𝑰 𝑪𝑬𝒙 𝑪𝑬 𝑳
𝑬
=
𝑳𝑰
(and cross multiplying same letters only), we have: But 𝒁𝟎 =√ Ω
𝑰 𝑪𝑬 𝑪
𝑬𝟐 𝑳 1 √𝐿
= = [ 𝑥 𝐼] 𝐼
𝑰𝟐 𝑪 2 √𝐶
𝑬 𝑳 𝑳
𝑰
=√
𝑪
But 𝒁𝟎 =√ Ω
𝑪
Hence 1
= [𝒁𝟎 𝑥 𝐼]𝐼
2
𝑬 𝑳
𝒁𝟎 = = √ Ω
𝑰 𝑪
𝒁𝟎 𝑰 = E
Chracteristic impedance depends on:
hence:
- Conductor spacing 1
- Permittivity of the material 𝜀𝑟 = [𝐸]𝐼
2
1
Electromagnetic waves = [𝐸𝐼] Watts
2
Surge Power input and Energy
When switch is closed potential E volts sends the surge VOLTAGE WAVES
current (I A) Consider a reflected wave 𝑉2 (t,x) and imagine that we are
Along the line at velocity of xm/sec. riding along with the waves. For observing instantaneous
Surge power to line EI watts value, peak amplitude requires that:
Assuming an open –circuit at the far end and loss- free 𝜔t – 𝛽𝑥 = 2k𝜋
situation. 𝜔
x= 𝑡−
2𝑘𝜋
t
-Energy /sec = Energy stored/sec 𝛽 𝛽
1 1 𝑑𝑥 𝜔
EI = 𝐶𝑥𝐸 2 = 𝐿𝑥𝐼 2 Watts The speed can be given as =
2 2 𝑑𝑡 𝛽
1 𝜔 2𝜋𝑓
Substituting for x = Thus, the velocity of propagation is given by v = =
√𝐿𝐶 𝛽 𝛽
1
𝐶𝑥𝐸 = [ 2 1 𝑐
]𝐸 2 A complete voltage cycle along the line corresponds to
2 2 √𝐿𝐶 achange of 2𝜋 radian in the angular argument 𝛽𝑥.The
1 √𝐶 𝑥 √𝐶
= [ ] 𝐸2
2 √𝐿 𝑥 √𝐶
56 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

corresponding line length is defined as the wavelength . If 𝛽 is TERMINATIONS
expressed in rad/min
𝛽𝜆 = 2𝜋
𝟐𝝅
Wavelength 𝝀 =
𝜷
When line lossess are neglected i.e when g = 0 and 𝛾 = 0,
then the real part of the propagation constant ∝ = 0
𝛾 = ∝ +j𝛽 = √𝑧𝑦 = √(𝑟 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝑔 + 𝑗𝜔𝑐)
And hence:
Propagation constant: 𝛽 = 𝜔√𝐿𝐶
And
𝑧 𝐿
The characteristic impedance 𝑍𝑐 , = √ = √
𝑦 𝐶
Its value lies between 250 ohm and 400 ohm in case of Derivation of Equation of termination
Overhead transmission lines and between 40 ohm and 60 ohm 𝐸
𝑍0 = 𝑖
in case of underground cables. 𝐼𝑖
Where : 𝑍0 = Surge impedance
Velocity of propagation v =
1 𝐸𝑖 = Incident voltage surge
√𝐿𝐶 𝐼𝑖 = Incident current surge.
𝝁 𝑫
The inductance L = 𝟎 𝐥𝐧( ) The sudden build up of this excess potential and current
𝟐𝝅 𝒓′
And causes surges to travel from the terminal back towards the
𝟐𝝅𝜺
Capacitance C = 𝑫𝟎 sending end of the the line giving reflected surge ( Er )
𝐥𝐧( )
𝒓 voltage and reflected current Ir
𝐸𝑟 =𝐸𝑇 -𝐸𝑖 Volts
SURGE IMPEDENCE 𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼𝑇 - 𝐼𝑖 Ampere
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) of a transmission line is Where 𝐸𝑇 and 𝐼𝑇 terminal voltages and current
defined as the power delivered by a line to purely resistive
𝐸𝑖 = Emf (incident value)
load equal in value to the surge impedance of the line.
𝐸𝑟 = Emf (reflected)
When the transmission line is loaded by being terminated with
𝐼𝑖 = Current (incident value value)
an impedance equal to its characteristics impedance, the
receiving end current is: 𝐼𝑟 = current ( reflected)
𝑽 Thus
𝑰𝑹 = 𝑹
𝒁𝑪 𝐸𝑇 =𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖 ----- eqtn (i)
For a loss less line 𝑍𝐶 is purely resistive. 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑟 + 𝐼𝑖 ……... eqtn (ii)
SIL is given by: But
𝟑|𝑽𝑹 |𝟐 𝐸 𝐸
SIL =
𝒁𝒄
𝐼𝑖 = 𝑖 , hence 𝐼𝑇 = 𝑇
𝑍0 𝑅
|𝑉𝐿 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 | −𝐸𝑟
Since |𝑉𝑅 | = 𝐼𝑟 = (Note: The negative sign shows 𝐼𝑟 moves in opposite
√3 𝑍0
3|𝑉𝐿 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 |2 direction)
SIL becomes SIL =
𝑍𝑐
Substituting these values in eqtn (ii)
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑟 + 𝐼𝑖
Example 𝐸𝑇 −𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
A three phase, 50Hz, 400kV transmission line is 300km = 𝑟+ 𝑖 = 𝑖− 𝑟
𝑅 𝑍0 𝑍0 𝑍0 𝑍0
long. The line inductance is 0.97mH/km per phase and But 𝐸𝑇 =𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖
capacitance is 0.0115𝝁𝑭/Km per phase. Assume a loss less 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖 𝐸 −𝐸
= 𝑖 𝑟
line. Determine the line phase constants 𝜷, 𝒁𝒄 , v and λ 𝑅 𝑍0
Sln 𝑍0 [𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖 ] = R[𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑟 ]
𝑍0 𝐸𝑟 + 𝑍0 𝐸𝑖 = 𝑅𝐸𝑖 − 𝑅𝐸𝑟
a) propagation constant 𝛽 = 𝜔√𝐿𝐶
Collecting 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑟 together
= 2𝜋𝑥50 √0.97 𝑥 0.0115 𝑥 10−9 𝑍0 𝐸𝑟 + 𝑅𝐸𝑟 = 𝑅𝐸𝑖 − 𝑍0 𝐸𝑖
= 0.00105 rad/km 𝐸𝑟 [𝑍0 + 𝑅 ] = [𝑅 − 𝑍0 ]𝐸𝑖
R −Z0
𝐿 0.97 𝑥 10−3 𝐸𝑟 = [ ] 𝐸𝑖
b) Surge impedance: 𝑍𝑐 , = √ = √ R +Z0
𝐶 0.0115 𝑥 10−6 R –Z0
Hence reflection factor or coefficient 𝜌 = [ ]
= 290.43 ohm R +Z0
1 1 Hence
c) Velocity of propagation v = =
√𝐿𝐶 √0.97 𝑥 0.0115 𝑥 10−9 Reflected surge voltage 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖
5
v = 2.994 x 10 km/sec
And substituting 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖 into 𝐸𝑇 =𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖
d) Line wavelength 𝜆 = =
𝑣 1
v Rem 𝐸𝑟 = −𝐼𝑟 𝑍0 and 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑍0
𝑓 50 Thus 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖
1
= x 2.994 x 105 = 4990 km −𝐼𝑟 𝑍0 = 𝜌𝐼𝑖 𝑍0
50
𝐼𝑟 = −𝜌𝐼𝑖
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Again 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑟
From
R −Z0 Where 𝐸𝑡 = Emf transmitted
𝐸𝑟 = [ ] 𝐸𝑖
R +Z0
𝐸𝑖 = Emf (incident value)
And substituting into 𝐸𝑇 =𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖
R −Z0
𝐸𝑟 = Emf (reflected)
𝐸𝑇 = [ ]𝐸
𝑖 𝑖 +𝐸 𝐼𝑡 = current transmitted
R +Z0
(R −Z0 )𝐸𝑖 + (R+Z0)𝐸𝑖 𝐼𝑖 = Current (incident value value)
𝐸𝑇 = [ ]
R +Z0 𝐼𝑟 = current ( reflected)
2R𝐸𝑖
𝐸𝑇 = [ ]
R +Z0
2R ii)Voltage and current surge when (R >𝐙𝟎 )
𝐸𝑇 = [ ] 𝐸𝑖
R +Z0
And
2R
Transmission coefficient 𝛾 = R +Z0
And therefore 𝐸𝑡 = 𝜸 𝐸𝑖
Now further :
from:
𝐸 𝐸
𝐼𝑖 = 𝑖 , 𝐼𝑇 = 𝑇
𝑍0 𝑅
𝐸𝑇 = R𝐼𝑇
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑍0
And substituting the above into : Expressions for 𝐸𝑡 and 𝐼𝑡
2R
𝐸𝑇 = [ ] 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖 +𝐸𝑟
R +Z0
Will give 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑖 - 𝐼𝑟
2R The line capacitance discharges to supply that current and
R𝐼𝑇 = [ ] 𝐼𝑖 𝑍0
R +Z0 causes that voltage to go down.
R𝐼𝑇 = [𝛾] 𝐼𝑖 𝑍0
R𝐼𝑇 = 𝜸 𝐼𝑖 𝑍0 Example
𝜸 𝒁𝟎 An overhead line has an inductance of L = 1.38mH/km
𝑰𝑻 = [ ] 𝑰𝒊 ----- Eqtn (iii)
𝑹
and a capacitance of C = 0.00808𝛍F/km. It is connected in
Note that 𝛾 = 𝜌 + 1
R −Z0 series with an underground cable having an inductance of
𝛾 = 𝜌 + 1 =[ ]+𝟏 L = 0.185mH/km and a capacitance of C = 0.217𝛍F/km.
R +Z0
𝛾 =[
R −Z0 + R+Z0
]=
2R Calculate value of transmitted and reflected waves of
R +Z0 R +Z0 Voltages and current at the line and ground cable junction
The voltage and current surges when R is greater than 𝑍0 caused a voltage surge of 50kV travelling towards the
from the graph below: the reflected surges consists of junction.
increased voltages and reduced current a)from the line end
b)From the cable end
Three various of terminations impedance are : Sln
1)Impedance before the termination is equal (R =𝑍0 ) to the a)from the line end
impedance after termination
ii)Impedance before termination is less than impedance after Impedance of line
termination (R <𝑍0 )
𝑳 𝟏.𝟑𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
iii)impedance before termination is greater than the 𝒁𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 =𝒁𝟎 = √ = √ = 413.27Ω
𝑪 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
impedance after termination (R >𝑍0 ) 𝐸𝑖 50 𝑥 1000
𝐼𝑖 = = = 0.121kA
𝑍0 413.27
i)Voltage and current surge when (R <𝐙𝟎 )
Impedance of cable
𝑳 𝟎.𝟏𝟖𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝒁𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 = √ = √ = 29.36Ω
𝑪 𝟎.𝟐𝟏𝟕 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
NOTE: From line to cable:

Travelling 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝑳 = 413.3Ω
Termination R = 𝒁𝑪 = 29.36Ω
R −Z0 ZCable −ZLine
Rreflection coefficient of line: ρ = =
R +Z0 ZCable +ZLine
29.36 −413.27
= = -0.867
29.36 +413.27
2R
Transmission coefficient of cable γ =
R +Z0
2 x 29.36
Expressions for 𝐸𝑡 and 𝐼𝑡 = = 0.133
29.36 +413.27
𝐸𝑡 =𝐸𝑖 -𝐸𝑟
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Emf (reflected) 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖 = -0.867 x 50000 = - 43.35kV
−𝐸 −43.35 ii)Relative permittivity of the cable:
Current reflected) 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑟 = = 0.105kA
𝑍0 413.27 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Emf (transmitted) 𝐸𝑡 = 𝜸 𝐸𝑖 = 0.133 x 50000 = 6.65kV 𝑥𝑐 =
√𝜀𝑟
−𝐸 6.6𝑘𝑉 𝟑.𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟖
Current (transmitted) 𝐼𝑡 = 𝑡 = = 0.226kA 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 =
𝑍0 413.27 √𝜀𝑟
𝜀𝑟 = 3.65
Example
Calculate for the time taken to travel for 160km in the
above example:
a)In the line
b)In the cable
Sln
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Time T =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
Hence :
b)from the cable end a) For the line,
NOTE: From cable to line: 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 160
Travelling 𝑍0 = 𝑍𝐶 = 29.36Ω T= = = 0.533ms
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝟑.𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝒌𝒎/𝒔
Termination R = 𝑍𝐿 = 413.27Ω
For the cable,
𝐸𝑖 50 𝑥 1000 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 160
𝐼𝑖 = = = 1.7kA T= = = 01.019ms
𝑍0 29.36 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝟏.𝟓𝟕 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝒌𝒎/𝒔
𝑅 −𝑍0 𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 −𝑍𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
Reflection coefficient of cable: 𝜌 = = =
𝑅 +𝑍0 𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 +𝑍𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
413.27 −29.36 Example
= 0.867 An overhead transmission line having inductance of
413.27 +29.36
2𝑅 2 𝑥 413.27
Transmission coeeficeint of Line 𝛾 = = = 2mH/km and capacitance of 0.01𝝁F/km is connected in
𝑅 +𝑍0 413.27 +29.36
series with an underground cable having an inductance of
1.867
0.25mH/km and capacitance of 0.102 𝝁𝑭/𝒌𝒎. If a voltage
Emf (reflected) 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖 = 0.867 x 50000 = 43.35kV
−𝐸 −43.35 surge of 100kV travels along the overhead line towards its
Current reflected) 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑟 = = -.1.47kA junction with cable, calculate the:
𝑍0 29.27
Emf (transmitted) 𝐸𝑡 = 𝛾 𝐸𝑖 = 01.867 x 50000 = 93.35kV (9mks)
−𝐸 93.35𝑉 i)Reflected voltage and current
Current (transmitted) 𝐼𝑡 = 𝑡 = = 0.23kA
𝑍0 413.27 Impedance of line
𝑳 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝒁𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 =𝒁𝟎 = √ = √ = 447.2Ω
𝑪 𝟎.𝟎𝟏 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
𝐸𝑖 100 𝑥 1000
𝐼𝑖 = = = 0.2236kA
𝑍0 447,2
Impedance of cable
𝑳 𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝒁𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 = √ = √ = 49.5Ω
𝑪 𝟎.𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔

Travelling 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝑳 = 447.2Ω
Termination R = 𝒁𝑪 = 49.5Ω
Example Rreflection coefficient of line: ρ =
R −Z0
=
ZCable −ZLine
Calculate the volicy in the line and velocity in the cable R +Z0 ZCable +ZLine
49.5−447.2
and relative permittivity 𝜺𝒓 for the above example . =
49.5 +447.2
= -0.800
Sln 2R
i)Parameters of the line R +Z0
2 x 49.5
L=1.38 𝑥 10−3 H =
49.5 +447.2
= 0.1993
C = 0.00808 𝑥10 −6 F Emf (reflected) 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖 = -0.80 x 100000 = -8kV
Surge velocity in the line −𝐸 −8000
1 1
𝑍0 447.2
x= = = 𝟑. 𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 km/s
√𝐿𝐶 −𝟑
√𝟏.𝟑𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
𝑥 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎 Emf (transmitted) 𝐸𝑡 = 𝜸 𝐸𝑖 = 0.1993 x 100000 = 19.93kV
−𝐸 19.93𝑘𝑉
Parameters of the Cable 𝑍0 447.2
L= 0.18 𝑥 10−3 H ii)Ralative permittivity of the cable

C = 0.217 𝑥10 −6 F Surge velocity in the line
1 1
Surge velocity in the line x= = −𝟑 −𝟔
= 𝟐. 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 km/s
√𝐿𝐶 √𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝑥 𝟎.𝟎𝟏 𝒙𝟏𝟎
1 1
x= = −𝟑
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 km/s
√𝐿𝐶 √𝟎.𝟏𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝑥 𝟎.𝟐𝟏𝟕 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
59 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑥𝑐 =
√𝜀𝑟 OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION DEVICES
𝟑.𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟖
𝟐. 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 = i) Overhead earth wire
√𝜀𝑟
𝜀𝑟 = 36.63 ii) Horn Gap
iii) Non –Linear surge diverters
Example iv) Penterson Coil
An Overhead transmission line having an inductance of
Two major types of protection devices are used to suppress or
1.28mH per Km and a capacitance of 0.00602𝝁𝑭 per Km is
limit voltage surges they are referred to as:
connected in series with an underground cable having an
inductance of 0.167mH per km and a capacitance of 0.201 i. Primary protection devices and
ii. Secondary protection devices
𝝁𝑭 per Km.
Determine the surge velocities in: (5mks)
a) Primary protection devices (protection of installations
i)Transmission line:
against lightning)
Sln
1 1 -The purpose of primary protection devices is to protect
x= = installations against direct strokes of lightning. They catch
√𝐿𝐶 √𝟏.𝟐𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑥 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟎𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
=3.602 x10 m/s5 and run the lightning current into the ground.
-The principle is based on a protection area determined by a
structure, which is higher than the rest.
ii)Underground cable -The same applies to any peak effect produced by a pole,
1 1 building or very high metallic structure.
x= = −3
√𝐿𝐶 √0.167 𝑥 10 𝑥 0.201 𝑥10 –6
= 1.726 𝑥10 5 m/s
There are three types of primary protection:
a)Lightning conductors (which are the oldest and best known
Transmitted and reflected waves of voltages and current lightning protection device)
In Open and short circuit b)Overhead earth wires
c)The meshed cage or Faraday cage
When TL is open When TL is short
Circuited (R = ∞) circuited (R = 0) a)Lightning Conductors
For transmitted voltage For transmitted voltage
𝑅 −𝑍0 𝑅 −𝑍0
𝐸𝑟 =[ ] 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑟 =[ ] 𝐸𝑖
𝑅 +𝑍0 𝑅 +𝑍0
And R = ∞
And thus: And R = 0
𝑅 −𝑍 0 −𝑍
𝐸𝑟 =[ 0 ] 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑟 =[ 0 ] 𝐸𝑖
𝑅 +𝑍0 0 +𝑍0
𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑟 = −𝐸𝑖
Note that: Note that:
𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖
So: So:
𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖 + 𝐸𝑖 = 2𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖 + (−𝐸𝑖 ) = 0
i.e the surge doubles
For the transmitted For the transmitted This is a tapered rod placed on top of the
Current current building. It is earthed by one or more
−𝐸 −𝐸
𝐼𝑟 = 𝑟 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑟 conductors (often copper strips)
𝑍0 𝑍0
But 𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑖 But 𝐸𝑟 = −𝐸𝑖
−𝐸 −𝐸 -Attention must be paid to the copper strip paths, the test
𝐼𝑟 = 𝑖 =−𝐼𝑖 𝐼𝑟 =- 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖
𝑍0 𝑍0 clamps, the crow-foot earthing to help high frequency
So: So: lightning currents run to the ground, and the distances in
𝐼𝑡 = −𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑖 = 0 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑖 = 2𝐼𝑖 relation to the wiring system (gas, water, etc.).
i.e No current is i.e current is double
transmitted
-Furthermore, the flow of the lightning current to the ground
will induce voltage surges, by electromagnetic radiation, in
Illustration Illustration the electrical circuits and buildings to be protected.
-These may reach several dozen kilovolts. It is therefore

necessary to symmetrically split the down conductor currents
in two, four or more, in order to minimize electromagnetic
effects.
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b) Overhead earth wires/Overhead Earth wires military applications and lightning protection cables for
It is the most effective method of providing protection to overhead high voltage power lines
transmission lines against direct lightning strokes .
-It is a wire carried by the line supports and runs over the NOTE: that : The resistance must be kept
phase conductors. as low as possible to avoid insulator
-The ground wires(Earth) are placed above the line flashover.
conductors at such positions that practically all lightning Advantages
strokes are intercepted by them (i.e. ground wires). The i. It provides protection against direct lightning strokes on
ground wires are grounded at each tower or pole through a transmission lines.
low resistance as possible at regular intervals. Due to their ii. A grounding wire provides damping effect on any
proper location, the ground wires will take up all the lightning disturbance travelling along the line as it acts as a short-
strokes instead of allowing them to line conductors. They circuited secondary.
reduces the possibilities of a direct lightning stroke reaching iii. It provides a certain amount of electrostatic shielding
the main conductor. against external fields. Thus it reduces the voltages
When the direct lightning stroke occurs on the transmission line, induced in the line conductors due to the discharge of a
it will be taken up by the ground wires. The heavy lightning neighboring cloud.
current (10 kA to 50 kA) from the ground wire flows to the Disadvantages
ground, thus protecting the line from the harmful effects of i. It requires additional cost.
lightning. ii. There is a possibility of its breaking and falling across the
-The main conductors also partially shield them from line conductors, thereby causing a short-circuit fault. This
electrostatically induced charges caused by charged cloud in objection has been greatly eliminated by using galvanized
the vicinity of line. stranded steel conductors as ground wires. This provides
-It is only effective when the resistance between the tower sufficient strength to the ground wires.
/poles and the earth is too low.
c) The meshed cage (Faraday cage)
This principle is used for very sensitive
buildings housing computer or integrated
circuit production equipment.
It consists in symmetrically multiplying the
number of down strips outside the building.
Horizontal links are added if the building is
high; for example every two floors
The down conductors are earthed by frog’s foot earthling
connections. The result is a series of interconnected 15 x 15
m or 10 x 10 m meshes. This produces better equipotential
bonding of the building and splits lightning currents, thus
greatly reducing electromagnetic fields and induction.
Other connection are as shown below;
ii) Secondary protection devices (Protection of internal

installations against lightning)
These handle the effects of atmospheric, operating or
industrial frequency voltage surges.
They can be classified according to the way they are
connected in an installation:
a. Serial protection (Series protection)
b. Parallel protection
a)Serial protection device: Connected in series to the power
supply wires of the system to be protected
Apllication:
61 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Types of serial protection devices 2.LV surge arresters: They come in the form of modules to
i)Transformers : They reduce voltage surges by inductor be installed inside LV switchboard. There are also plug-in
effect and make certain harmonics disappear by coupling. types and those that protect power outlets. They ensure
This protection is not very effective. secondary protection of nearby elements but have a small
ii)Filters : Uses resistors, inductance coils & capacitors, they flow capacity. Some are even built into loads although they
are suitable for voltage surges caused by industrial and cannot protect against strong voltage surges
operation disturbance corresponding to a clearly defined 3.Low current surge arresters or overvoltage protectors
frequency band. This protection device is not suitable for These protect telephone or switching networks against voltage
atmospheric disturbance surges from the outside (lightning), as well as from the inside
iii)Wave absorbers: Made up of air inductance coils which (polluting equipment, switchgear switching, etc.). They are
limit the voltage surges, and surge arresters which absorb the also installed in distribution boxes or built into loads
currents. They are extremely suitable for protecting sensitive
4.Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) of Transmission Line
electronic equipment. But they only act against voltage
By applying some methods such as introducing series
surges, are extremely cumbersome and expensive.
capacitors (capacitors in series with the transmission line) or
iv)Network conditioners & static uninterrupted power
shunt capacitors (capacitors in parallel with transmission
supplies (UPS):Used to protect highly sensitive equipment,
lines) can be used to reduce the value of surge impedance (Z ).
e.g. computer equipment, They regulate the voltage & o
frequency, stop interference and ensure a continuous
electrical power supply even mains power failure but can not
protected against large, atmospheric type voltage surges
b) Parallel protection device: Connected in parallel to the Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) can be increased by reducing
power supply and the device to be protected. the Surge impedance of the line.
From the above expression Z can be decreased by either
o
increasing the capacitance (C) of the line or by reducing the
inductance (L) of the line. Inductance (L) of the transmission
line cannot be reduced easily
By use of the series capacitors surge impedance (Z ) and the
o
phase shift get reduced due to decrease in the line inductance
(L). This improves the system stability limit. These capacitors
also helps in reducing the line drops and so voltage variations.
Main characteristics But this method causes difficulty under short circuit
• The rated voltage of the protection device must conditions of system as capacitors will get damage.
correspond to the network voltage at the installation
terminals By use of shunt capacitors though the surge impedance (Z ) is
• When there is no voltage surge, a leakage current should o
not go through the protection device which is on standby reduced but the phase shift of the system increases this affects
• When a voltage surge above the allowable voltage the poor stability in the system specially when synchronous
threshold of the installation to be protected occurs, the machines are under the load. This method is not employed in
protection device abruptly conducts the voltage surge long transmission lines specially when stability limits are
current to the earth by limiting the voltage to the desired present
protection level Up When the voltage surge disappears, Some other methods of Protection Against Lightning
the protection device stops conducting and returns to The most dangerous surges are those caused by lightning. The
standby without a holding current. lightning surges may cause serious damage to the expensive
• The protection device response time (tr) must be as short equipment in the power system (e.g. generators, transformers
as possible to protect the installation as quickly as etc.) either by direct strokes or by strokes on the transmission
possible lines that reach the equipment as travelling waves. The most
• The protection device must have the capacity to be able commonly used devices for protection against lightning surges
to conduct the energy caused by the foreseeable voltage are :
surge on the site to be protected i. Earthing screen
• The surge arrester protection device must be able to ii. Overhead ground wires (has been discussed above)
withstand the rated current In. iii. Lightning arresters or surge diverters
How- ever, lightning arresters or surge diverters protect the
station apparatus against both direct strokes and the strokes that
come into the apparatus as travelling waves. We shall briefly
Types of parallel protection device discuss these methods of protection.
1.Voltage limiters: they are used in MV/LV substations at
the transformer output, in this earthing scheme. They can run 1.The Earthing Screen
voltage surges to the earth, especially industrial Earthing screen provides protection to power stations and sub-
frequency surges stations which house expensive equipment against direct
strokes
62 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
-It consists of a network of copper conductors (generally resistance
called shield or screen) mounted all over the electrical Action. The action of the lightning arrester or surge diverter is
equipment in the sub-station or power station. The shield is such that:
properly connected to earth on at least two points through a i)Under normal operation, the lightning arrester is off the line
low impedance. On the occurrence of direct stroke on the i.e. it conducts **no current to earth or the gap is non-
station, screen provides a low resistance path by which conducting.
lightning surges are conducted to ground. ii)On the occurrence of overvoltage, the air insulation across
the gap breaks down and an arc is formed, providing a low
The limitation- the limitation of this method is that it does not resistance path for the surge to the ground. In this way, the
provide protection against the travelling waves which may excess charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly
reach the equipment in the station. conducted through the arrester to the ground instead of being
sent back over the line.
2,.Lightning Arresters
The Lightning arresters or surge diverters protect the station
apparatus against both direct strokes and the strokes that come Types of Lightning Arresters
into the apparatus as travelling waves There are several types of lightning arresters in general use.
A lightning arrester or a surge diverter is a protective device They differ only in constructional details but operate on the
which conducts the high voltage surges on the power system same principle .i.e providing low resistance path for the
to the ground. surges to the ground. We shall discuss the following types of
lightning arresters :
1.Rod gap arrester
2.Horn gap arrester
3.Multigap arrester
4.Expulsion type lightning arrester
5.Valve type lightning arrester
a)Rod Gap Arrester. It is a very simple type of diverter and

consists of two 1·5 cm rods which are bent at right angles with a
gap in-between as shown
The structure of surge arrestors

The figure below shows the basic form of a surge diverter.
Under normal operating conditions, the gap
remains non-conducting. On the occurrence of a high voltage
surge on the line, the gap sparks over and the surge current is
conducted to earth. In this way, excess charge on the line due
to the surge is harmlessly conducted to earth.
Limitations
i. After the surge is over, the arc in the gap is
maintained by the †normal supply voltage, leading to
a short-circuit on the system.
ii. The rods may melt or get damaged due to excessive
It consists of a spark gap in series with a non-linear resistor. heat produced by the arc.
One end of the diverter is connected to the terminal of the
equipment to be protected and the other end is effectively iii. The climatic conditions (e.g. rain, humidity,
grounded. The length of the gap is so set that normal line temperature etc.) affect the performance of rod gap
voltage is not enough to cause an arc across the gap but a arrester.
dangerously high voltage will break down the air insulation and iv. The polarity of the surge also affects the performance
form an arc. The property of the non-linear resistance is that its of this arrester.
63 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
v. Due to the above limitations, the rod gap arrester is 24.11) are shunted by a resistance.
only used as a ‘back-up’ protection in case of main
arresters.
b)Horn Gap Arrester or surge diverter . Fig. 24.10 shows the

horn gap arrester. It consists of two horn shaped metal rods A
and B separated by a small air gap. The horns are so
constructed that distance between them gradually increases
towards the top as shown. The horns are mounted on porcelain
insulators. Under normal conditions, the point B is at earth potential and the
normal supply voltage is unable to break down the series gaps.
Under normal conditions, the gap is non-conducting i.e. On the occurrence of an overvoltage, the breakdown of series
normal supply voltage is insufficient to initiate the arc gaps A to B occurs. The heavy current after breakdown will
between the gap. On the occurrence of an overvoltage, spark- choose the straight - through path to earth via the shunted gaps B
over takes place across and C, instead of the alternative path through the shunt
resistance. When the surge is over, the arcs B to C go out and
any power current following the surge is limited by the two
resistances (shunt resistance and series resistance) which are
now in series.
d)Expulsion type arrester. This type of arrester is also called

‘protector tube’ and is commonly used on system operating at
voltages upto 33 kV. It essentially consists of a rod gap A A in
series with a second gap enclosed within the fibre tube. The
gap in the fibre tube is formed by two electrodes. The upper
The heated air around the arc and the magnetic effect of the electrode is connected to rod gap and the lower electrode to
arc cause the arc to travel up the gap. The arc moves the earth. One expulsion arrester is placed under each line
progressively into positions 1, 2 and 3. At some position of the conductor shows the installation of expulsion arrester on an
arc (perhaps position 3), the distance may be too great for the overhead line.
voltage to maintain the arc. Consequently, the arc is
extinguished. The excess charge on the line is thus conducted On the occurrence of an overvoltage on the line, the series gap
through the arrester to the ground. A A is spanned and an arc is struck between the electrodes in
-In order to protect a piece of equipment successfully, the the tube. The heat of the arc vaporizes some of the fibre of
horn gap should be situated as near as possible to the tube walls, resulting in the production of a neutral gas*. In an
equipment. Otherwise, a surge may be initiated between the extremely short time, the gas builds up high pressure and is
equipment and the horn gap. expelled through the lower electrode which is hollow. As the
gas leaves the tube violently, it carries away ionized air around
Advantages the arc. This deionizing effect is generally so strong that arc
i. The arc is self-clearing. Therefore, this type of arrester goes out at a current zero and will not be re-established.
does not cause short-circuiting of the system after the
surge is over as in the case of rod gap.
ii. Series resistance helps in limiting the follow current to a
small value.
Limitations
i. The bridging of gap by some external agency (e.g. birds)
can render the device useless.
ii. The setting of horn gap is likely to change due to
corrosion or pitting. This adversely affects the
performance of the arrester.
iii. The time of operation is comparatively long, say about 3
seconds. In view of the very short operating time of
modern protective gear for feeders, this time is far long.
Advantages
c)Multigap arrester. The figure below shows the multigap i. They are not very expensive.
arrester. It consists of a series of metallic (generally alloy of ii. They are improved form of rod gap arresters as they
zinc) cylinders insulated from one another and separated by block the flow of power frequency follow currents.
small intervals of air gaps. The first cylinder (i.e. A ) in the iii. They can be easily installed
series is connected to the line and the other to the ground
through a series resistance. The series resistance limits the
power arc. By the inclusion of series resistance, the degree of Limitations
protection against travelling waves is reduced. In order to i. An expulsion type arrester can perform only limited
overcome this difficulty, some of the gaps (B to C in Fig. number of operations as during each operation some
64 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

of the fibre material is used up.
ii. This type of arrester cannot be mounted in an Surge Absorber
enclosed equipment due to the discharge of gases The travelling waves set up on the transmission lines by the
during operation. surges may reach the terminals apparatus and cause damage to
iii. Due to the poor volt/amp characteristic of the arrester, it. The amount of damage caused not only depends upon the
it is not suitable for the protection of expensive amplitude of the surge but also upon the steepness of its wave
equipment. front. The steeper the wave front of the surge, the more the
damage caused to the equipment. In order to reduce the
e:Valve type arrester. Valve type arresters incorporate non- steepness of the wave front of a surge, we generally use surge
linear resistors and are extensively used on systems operating absorber.
at high voltages. Fig. 24.13 (i) shows the various parts of a A surge absorber is a protective device which reduces the
valve type arrester. It consists of two assemblies (i) series steepness of wave front of a surge by absorbing surge energy.
spark gaps and (ii) non-linear resistor discs (made of material Although both surge diverter and surge absorber eliminate the
such as thyrite or metrosil) in series. The non-linear elements surge, the manner in which it is done is different in the two
are connected in series with the spark gaps. Both the devices. The surge diverter diverts the surge to earth but the
assemblies are accommodated in tight porcelain container. surge absorber absorbs the surge energy. A few cases of surge
i)The spark gap is a multiple assembly consisting of a number absorption are dis cussed below.
of identical spark gaps in series. Each gap consists of two i)A condenser connected between the line and earth can act as
electrodes with a fixed gap spacing. The voltage distribution a surge absorber. Shows how a capacitor acts as surge
across the gaps is linearized by means of additional resistance absorber to protect the transformer winding. Since the
elements (called grading resistors) across the gaps. The reactance of a condenser is inversely proportional to
spacing of the series gaps is such that it will withstand the frequency, it will be low at high frequency and high at low
normal circuit voltage. However, an overvoltage will cause the frequency. Since the surges are of high frequency, the
gap to breakdown, causing the surge current to ground via the capacitor acts as a short circuit and passes them directly to
non-linear resistors. earth. However, for power frequency, the reactance of the
ii)The non-linear resistor discs are made of an inorganic capacitor is very high and practically no current flows to the
compound such as Thyrite or Metrosil. These discs are ground.
connected in series. The non-linear resistors have the property
of offering a high resistance to current flow when normal
system voltage is applied, but a low resistance to the flow of
high-surge currents. In other words, the resistance of these
non-linear elements decreases with the increase in current
through them and vice-versa.
ii)Another type of surge absorber consists of a parallel

combination of choke and resistance connected in series with
the line as shown in .The choke offers high reactance to surge
frequencies ( XL = 2 f L). The surges are, therefore, forced
to flow through the resistance R where they are dissipated.
Advantages
i. They provide very effective protection (especially for
transformers and cables) against surges.
ii. They operate very rapidly taking less than a second. iii) Another type of surge absorber. It is called Ferranti surge
iii. The impulse ratio is practically unity. absorber. It consists of an air cored inductor connected in
Limitations series with the line. The inductor is surrounded by but
They may fail to check the surges of very steep wave front insulated from an earthed metallic sheet called dissipator. This
from reaching the terminal apparatus. This calls for additional arrangement is equivalent to a transformer with short-circuited
steps to check steep-fronted waves. secondary. The inductor forms the primary whereas the dissipator
forms the short-circuited secondary. The energy of the surge is
Limitation used up in the form of heat generated in the dissipater due to
Their performance is adversely affected by the entry of transformer action. This type of surge absorber is mainly used
moisture into the enclosure. This necessitates effective sealing for the protection of trasformers
of the enclosure at all times.
65 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Quiz
1: With an aid of Circuit diagram, describe the action of
Peterson coil in minimizing arcing current.
Example
A 3∅ , 33kv, 50Hz , 0.1H line has a capacitance to earth of
0.4𝝁F . Negleting power loss in the coil, calculate the
inductance and KVA rating of a correctly tuned coil
Sln
1
L= 2
3𝜔 𝐶
1
L= = 8.44H
Non – linear surge Diverter 3(2𝜋 𝑥50)2 𝑥0.4 𝑥 10−6
𝟑𝟑 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟑
DRAW 𝑉𝑝ℎ = = 19.0kV
√3
A stack of discs is connected between each line and earth 𝑉𝑃
close to transformer or other plant to be protected. The disc 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐿 = = 3𝑉𝑝 𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝐿
𝑉 19.05
has anon-linera characteristics as shown above. 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑃 = = 7.18
A
𝜔𝐿 2𝜋𝑥50 𝑥 8.44
-It consist of multiple spark gap/assembly in series with KVA rating = 19.05 x 7.18 = 136.87kVA
resistor element of non linear voltage ampere characteristics.
The spark gap leaves the circuit open between the line and the Example
earth under normal conditions. 2a)Define the following with respect to overhead
When the voltage is high enough,to endanger the equipment,
transmission lines
isolation appears across the terminals of the diverter, the air-
i)Crest (1mk) KNEC
gap sparks over and the current is discharged to the earth
through the resistor which offers small resistance. O/N 2022
It is the maximum amplitude of the wave and is usually
Penterson coil expressed in kV or kVA
ii)Front (1mk)
It is the position of wave before the crest and expressed from
the beginning of the wave to the crest value in milliseconds or
micro seconds
b)A three phase transmission line has conductors of

diameter 3cm,spaced 2m apart in an equilateral
When an arcing ground fault occurs at one line as shown in formation. A voltage wave of 11kV travels along the lines.
figure (a) above, the fault connects the penterson coil across Determine the:
the blue phase winding causing a current 𝐼𝐿 to flow in the coil. i)Inductance per unit length (2mks)
Assume that the coil has negligible resistance , 𝐼𝐿 must lag 𝑉𝐵 sln
𝑑
by 900 as shown in figure (b). As 𝐼𝐿 neutrally equal to 𝐼𝑓 Inductance per unit length L = 2𝑥10−7 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 H/m
𝑟1
tuning the reactor, appropriately, then the arcing current is the 3
D equivalent = √𝐷1 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥𝐷3
phasor sum of 𝐼𝐿 and 𝐼𝑓 3
Arcing current = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑓
𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.7788 xr =0.7788 x0.15 = 0.011682
200
Let the appropriate inductance of the penterson coil be equal L = 2𝑥10−7 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 1.028𝑥10−6 H/m
0.01182
to L Henry
𝑉
𝐼𝐿 = √3𝐿 ii)Capacitance per unit length (2mks)
𝜔𝐿 Sln
1
L= 𝟐𝝅𝜺 𝟐𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎 –𝟗 𝟐𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎 –𝟗
3𝜔2 𝐶 C per unit length = 𝑑 F/m = 𝑑 = 200
𝑋𝐶 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝟑𝟔𝝅𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝟑𝟔𝝅𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑋𝐿 = Ω 𝑟 𝑟 1.5
3
3𝑉𝑝 = 1.136𝑥10−11 F/m
𝐼𝐶 = 3I = 1 = 3𝑉𝑝 𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝐶
Where 𝐼𝐶 = resistance charging current iii)Natural impedance (2mks)
I = Charging current of line to ground of one phase. 𝐿 1.028𝑥10−6
𝑉 𝑍𝑛 = √ = √ = 300.82Ω
1.136𝑥10−11
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑃 𝐶
𝜔𝐿
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶
𝑉𝑃 iv)line current (2mks)
= 3𝑉𝑝 𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝐿 Sln
𝑉𝑝 1
L= = 𝑽 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
3𝑉𝑝 𝜔2 𝐶 3𝜔2 𝐶 Line current = But , 𝑽𝒑𝒉 = = 635V0.85
𝑍𝑛 √𝟑
1
Therefore L = 𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟎.𝟖𝟓
3𝜔2 𝐶 Line current = = 21.11A
300.82
66 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

OVERHEAD LINE FAULTS Symmetrical Faults on 3-Phase System
TOPIC 4 That fault on the power system which gives rise to symmetrical
Objectives fault currents (i.e. equal fault currents in the lines with 120o
1.Explain types of power faults displacement)
a. Single phase earth faults
b. Three phase balanced fault
c. Line to line ground fault
d. Line to line faults
e. Arching ground faults
2.Describe the symmetrical and asymmetrical faults
a.Balanced faults
b)Unbalanced faults
c)Positive,negative and zero sequence vectors
d)Impedence connection matrix for faults
3.Outline the equivalent circuit for the asymmetrical faults
4.Explain the operation of the equivalent circuit and phase
sequence impedance matrix
OBJECTIVE 1
1)Explain types of power faults The following points may be particularly noted i)The
a. Single phase earth faults symmetrical fault rarely occurs in practice as majority of the
b. Three phase balanced fault
faults are of unsymmetrical nature. How- ever, symmetrical
c. Line to line ground fault
fault calculations are being discussed in this chapter to
d. Line to line faults
e. Arching ground faults enable the reader to understand the problems that short circuit
conditions present to the power system.
Faults in a Power System
ii)The symmetrical fault is the most severe and imposes more
A fault occurs when two or more conductors that normally
heavy duty on the circuit breaker.
operate with a potential difference come in contact with each
other. These faults may be caused by: Limitation of fault current
1. Sudden failure of a piece of equipment,
2. Accidental damage or If a fault occurs on the feeder at point F, then the short circuit
3. Short-circuit to overhead lines or by insulation failure current from the generating station will have a value limited by
resulting from lightning surges. the impedance of generator and transformer and the impedance
of the line between the generator and the point of fault. This
shows that the knowledge of the impedances of various
CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS IN 3-PHASE SYSTEM
equipment and circuits in the line of the system is very
Irrespective of the causes, the faults in a 3-phase system can
be classified into two main categories viz. important for the determination of short-circuit currents.
i)Symmetrical faults
ii)Unsymmetrical faults
a)Symmetrical faults. That fault which gives rise to

symmetrical fault currents (i.e. equal faults currents with 120o
displacement) . The most common example of symmetrical
fault is when all the three conductors of a 3-phase line are Defination of Terms
brought together simultaneously into a short-circuit condition.
1.Percentage Reactance
b)Unsymmetrical faults. Those faults which give rise to The reactance of generators, transformers, reactors etc. is
unsymmetrical currents (i.e. unequal line currents with usually expressed in percentage reactance
unequal displacement). The unsymmetrical faults may take to permit rapid short circuit calculations. The percentage
one of the following forms : reactance of a circuit is defined as under
a)Single line-to-ground fault It is the percentage of the total phase-voltage dropped in the
b) Line-to-line fault circuit when full-load current is flowing
b)Double line-to-ground fault 𝐼𝑋
i.e % X = 𝑥 100
𝑉
where: I = Full-load current
V = Phase voltage
X = reactance in ohms per phase
67 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

2.Short –Circuit kVA i)Generator reactors. When the reactors are connected in series wi
Although the potential at the point of fault is zero, it is a each generator, they are known as generator .In this case, the reactor
normal practice to express the short-circuit current in terms of may be considered as a part of leakage reactance of the generator ; he
short-circuit kVA based on the normal system voltage at the its effect is to
point of fault.
The product of normal system voltage and short-circuit current protect the generator in the case of any short-circuit beyond
the reactors.
at the point of fault expressed in kVA is known as short-circuit
Disadvantages
kVA.
1.There is a constant voltage drop and power loss in the
Let: reactors even during normal operation.
V = normal phase voltage in volts 2.If a bus-bar or feeder fault occurs close to the bus-bar, the
I = full-load current in amperes at base kVA voltage at the bus-bar will be reduced to a low value, thereby
%X = percentage reactance of the system on base kVA up to causing the generators to fall out of step.
the fault point 3.If a fault occurs on any feeder, the continuity of supply to
𝟏𝟎𝟎 other is likely to be affected.
Short-circuit current , 𝑰𝑺𝑪 = 𝑰 ( )
%𝑿
Hence: Short- circuit KVA for 3-phase circuit 2.Feeder reactors. When the reactors are connected in series
3𝑉𝐼𝑠
= with each feeder, they are known as feeder reactors. Since most
1000
3𝑉𝐼 100 of the short-circuits occur on feeders, a large number of
= 𝑥
1000 %𝑋 reactors are used for such circuits. Two principal advantages
𝟏𝟎𝟎
= Base kVA x are claimed for feeder reactors. Firstly, if a fault occurs on
%𝑿
any feeder, the voltage drop in its reactor will not affect the
Reactor Control of Short-Circuit Currents bus-bars voltage so that there is a little tendency for the genera-
In order to limit the short-circuit currents to a value which the tor to lose synchronism. Secondly, the fault on a feeder will not
circuit breakers can handle, additional reactance known as affect other feeders and consequently the effects of fault are
reactors are connected in series with the system at suitable localised.
points. A reactor is a coil of number of turns designed to have
a large inductance as compared to its ohmic resistance. The
forces on the turns of these reactors under short-circuit
conditions are considerable and, therefore, the windings must
be solidly braced. It may be added that due to very small
resistance of reactors, there is very little change in the
efficiency of the system.
Advantages
i. Reactors limit the flow of short-circuit current and thus
protect the equipment from overheating as well as from
failure due to destructive mechanical forces. Disadvantages
1.There is a constant power loss and voltage drop in the
ii. Troubles are localised or isolated at the point where they
reactors even during normal operation.
originate without communicating their disturbing effects 2.If a short-circuit occurs at the bus-bars, no protection is
to other parts of the power system. This increases the provided to the generators. However, this is of little
chances of continuity of supply. importance because such faults are rare and modern
iii. They permit the installation of circuit breakers of generators have considerable leakage reactance to enable
lower rating. them to withstand short-circuit across their terminals.
Location of Reactors 3.If the number of generators is increased, the size of feeder
Short circuit current limiting reactors may be connected : reactors will have to be increased to keep the short-circuit
i)In series with each generator currents within the ratings of the feeder circuit breakers.
ii)In series with each feeder and
iii)In bus-bars. No definite statement can be given as to which one of
the above locations is preferable; each installation has its own particular
demands which must be carefully considered before a choice of reactor 3.Bus-bar reactors. The above two methods of locating
reactors suffer from the disadvantage that there is
location can be made.
considerable voltage drop and power loss in the reactors even
during normal operation. This disadvantage can be overcome
by:
-locating the reactors in the bus-bars.
There are two methods for this purpose, namely ;
a)Ring system
b)Tie-Bar system.
a)Ring system. In this system, busbar is divided into sections

and these sections are connected through reactors as shown
68 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

below .Generally, one feeder is fed from one generator only. iv)Find the total % reactance of the network upto the point
Under normal operating conditions, each generator will supply of fault. Let it be X%.
its own section of the load and very little power will be fed by v)Find the full-load current corresponding to the selected
other generators. This results in low power loss and voltage base kVA and the normal system voltage at the fault point. Let
drop in the reactors. However, the principal advantage of the it be I.
system is that: iv)Then various short-circuit calculations are :
a) If a fault occurs on any feeder, only one generator (to which
the particular feeder is connected) mainly feeds the fault 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Short-circuit current , 𝑰𝑺𝑪 = 𝑰 ( )
current while the current fed from other generators is small %𝑿
𝟏𝟎𝟎
due to the presence of reactors. Therefore, only that section of Hence: Short- circuit KVA = Base kVA x
%𝑿
bus bar is affected to which the feeder is connected, the other
sections being able to continue in normal operation.
Example
The figure below shows the single line diagram of a 3phase
system. The percentage reactance of each alternator is
based on its own capacity. Find the short –circuit current
that will flow into a complete 3 –phase short at F.
b)Tie-Bar system. Iin the tie-bar system, there are effectively

two reactors in series between sections so that reactors must
have approximately half the reactance of those used in a
comparable ring system. Another advantage of tie- bar system Sln
is that additional generators may be connected to the system Method 1
without requiring changes in the existing reactors. However, Let the base kVA be 35000 kVA
this system has the disadvantage that it requires an additional %Reactance of alternator A at the base kVA is
bus-bar i.e. the tie-bar. 35000
% 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑥 30 = 70%
15000
% Reactance of alternator B at the base kVA is

35000
% 𝑋𝐵 = 𝑥 50 = 87.5%
20000
Line current corresponding to 35000 at kV is
35000 𝑥 103
𝐼 = = 1684 𝐴
√3 𝑥 12 𝑥 103
Total % reactance from generator neutral up to fault point is

% X = 𝑋𝐴 //𝑋𝐵
𝑋 𝑋 70 𝑥 87.5
= 𝐴 𝐵 = = 38.89 %
𝑋𝐴 +𝑋𝐵 70+87.5
Steps for Symmetrical Fault Calculations 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Hence, 𝑰𝑺𝑪 = 𝑰 ( ) = 1684 x ( ) = 𝟒𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝑨
%𝑿 𝟑𝟖.𝟖𝟗
It has already been discussed that 3-phase short-circuit faults
result in symmetrical fault currents i.e. fault currents in the
Alternative Method 2
three phases are equal in magnitude but displaced 120 o
The problem can also be solved by solved by component short-
electrical from one another. Therefore, problems involving
circuit current method. Each alternator supplies short circuit
such faults can be solved by considering one phase only as the
current to the fault. The total current fed to the fault is the sum
same conditions prevail in the other two phases. The
of the two.
procedure for the solution of such faults involves the
following steps :
Full-load current delivered by alternator
i)Draw a single line diagram of the complete network
indicating the rating, voltage and percentage reactance of A,
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴
each element of the network. 𝐼𝐴 =
√3 𝑥 𝐵𝑢𝑠−𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
ii)Choose a numerically convenient value of base kVA and
convert all percentage reactance to this base value. 15000 𝑥 103
iii)Corresponding to the single line diagram of the network, = = 721.7 𝐴
√3 𝑥 12 𝑥 103
draw the reactance diagram showing one phase of the system Short circuit current fed to fault by alternator A
100
and the neutral. Indicate the % reactance on the base kVA in 𝐼𝑆𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴 𝑥
% 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
the reactance diagram. The transformer in the system should 100
be represented by a reactance in series. = 721.7 x ( = 2405.5 A
30
69 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 load line current delivered by alternator B % reactance of generator 3 and 4 on the base kvA
20000 𝑥 103 10000
𝐼𝐵 = = 962.28 𝐴 = 12 x = 15%
√3 𝑥 12 𝑥 103 8000
Short circuit current fed to fault by alternator B % reactance of bus bar reactor on the base kvA
100 10000
𝐼𝑆𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑥 = 10 x = 20%
% 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 5000
100
𝐼𝑆𝐵 = 962.28 𝑥 = 1924.5𝐴
50
Total short –current fed to fault
𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 𝐼𝑆𝐴 +𝐼𝑆𝐵 = 2405.5 + 1924.5 = 𝟒𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝑨
NOTE: In Complex cases:, The first method has advantage

over the 2nd method.
EXAMPLE 2: When fault occurs on section B (point F in Fig. 17.14), the

A 3 – phase, 20MVA , 10kV alternator has internal reactance diagram at the selected base kVA will be as shown in
reactance of 5% and negligible resistance . Find the Fig. 17.15 (i). This series parallel circuit is further reduced to
external reactance per phase to be connected in series with Fig. 17.15 (ii). Referring to Fig. 17.15 (ii), it is clear that
the alternator so that steady current on short circuit does reactance from generator neutral upto the fault point F is (5%
not exceed 8 times the full load. + 20%) in parallel with 7·5% i.e.
Sln Total % reactance from generator neutral up to fault point F

20 𝑥 106 = (5% + 20% ) // 7.5 % (They are in parallel)
Full load current I = = 1154.7 𝐴 25 𝑥 7,5
√3 𝑥 10 𝑥 103 = = 5.77%
25+7.5
10000 𝑥 100
10 𝑥 103 10 000 Fault kVA = = 1.73310
Voltage per phase , V = = 𝑉 5.77
√3 √3
Full MVA = 173.31
As the short circuit –current is to be 8 times the full load
current
Example
Thus: Total % reactance required
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 A 3 –phase transmission line operating at 10 kV and
= 𝑥 100 having a resistance of 1Ω and reactance of 4Ω is
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡−𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
1
= 𝑥 100 = 12.5 % connected to the generating station bus -bars through
8
5MVA step –up transformer having a reactance of 5%.
External % reactance required The bus – bars are supplied by a 10MVA alternator
= 12.5 – 5 = 7.5% having 10% reactance. Calculate the short-circuit kVA fed
Let XΩ = be the per phase external reactance required to symmetrical fault between phase if it occurs:
𝐼𝑋 i)at the load end of transmission line
Now , percentage reactance = 𝑥 100 ii)At the high voltage terminal of the transmission
𝑉
1154.7 𝑋
7.5 = 10 000 x 100
√3
7.5 𝑥 10000
X= = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 Ω
√3 𝑥 100 𝑥 1154.7
Example
Sln
The section bus-bars A and B are linked by bus bar
% reactance of alternator on base kVA
reactor rated at 5000 kVA with 10% reactance. On the 10000
Bus bar A, There are two generators each of 10000 kVA % 𝑋𝐴 = 3 𝑥 10 = 10%
10 𝑥 10
with 10% reactance and on B two generators each of 8000
kVA with 12% reactance. Find the steady MVA fed into a % reactance of transformer on base kVA
dead short circuit between all phases on B with bus – bar
10000
reactor in the circuit % 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑥 5 = 10%
5 𝑥 103
The line impedance is given in Ohms. It can be converted into

percentage impedance
(𝑘𝑉𝐴) 𝑥 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 Ω
% 𝑋𝐿 = 2
10 𝑥 (𝑘𝑉)
10000 𝑥 4
% 𝑋𝐿 = = 40%
10 𝑥 (10)2
% resistance of transmission line
10000 𝑥 1
Sln % 𝑅𝐿 = 2 = 10%
10 𝑥 (10)
Let 10000 kVA be the base kVA
% reactance of generator 1 and 2 on the base kvA
10000
= 10 x = 10%
10000
70 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775
i)The reactance diagram of the network on the selected base
kVA is shown . The fault at the end of a transmission line (poit
F2)
Total % reactance = % 𝑋𝐴 + % 𝑋𝑇 + % 𝑋𝐿
= 10 + 10 + 40 = 60%
% resistance = 10%
% Impedence from generator neutral up to fault point F2.
= √(60)2 + (10)2 = 60.83%
100
Short-circuit kVA = 10000 x = 16440𝑘𝑉𝐴
60.83
ii)For a fault at high voltage terminals of the transformer
(Point F1), Total % reactance from generator
neutral up to fault point F1
= % 𝑋𝐴 + % 𝑋𝑇 = 10 + 10 = 20%
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Short – circuit kVA = 10000 x = 50000 kVA
𝟐𝟎
71 | P a g e BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Unsymmetrical Fault 1. a balanced system of 3-phase currents, 𝐼𝑅1 . 𝐼𝑌1 , 𝐼𝐵1 having positive
phase sequence (i.e. RYB) as shown in fig (i). These are the positive
Those faults on the power system which give rise to phase sequence components.
unsymmetrical fault currents (i.e. unequal fault currents
in the lines with unequal phase displacement)
It may be noted that the term ‘unsymmetry’ applies only to
the fault itself and the resulting line currents. However,
the system impedances and the source voltages are
always symmetrical* through its main elements
There are three ways in which unsymmetrical faults may
occur in a power system (see Fig. 18.1).
i)Single line-to-ground fault (L — G)
ii)Line-to-line fault (L — L)
iii)Double line-to-ground fault (L — L — G)
2.a balanced system of 3-phase currents IR2 , IY 2 and IB2 having
negative phase sequence (i.e. RBY) as shown in Fig (ii). These are the
negative phase sequence components.
3.a system of three currents I R0 , IY 0 and IB0 equal in magnitude with

zero phase displacement from each other as shown in Fig. (iii). These are
The solution of unsymmetrical fault problems can be the zero phase sequence components
obtained by either
a)Kirchhoff’s laws or The current in any phase is equal to the vector sum of positive, negative
b)Symmetrical components method. The latter method and zero phase sequence currents in that *phase as shown
is preferred because of the following reasons :
i)It is a simple method and gives more generality to be
given to fault performance studies.
ii)It provides a useful tool for the protection engineers,
particularly in connection with tracing out of fault
currents.
showed that any unbalanced system of 3-phase currents
(or voltages) may be regarded as being composed of three
separate sets of balanced vectors 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅0
a)a balanced system of 3-phase currents having positive†
𝐼𝑌 = 𝐼𝑌1 + 𝐼𝑌2 + 𝐼𝑌0
(or normal) phase sequence. These are called positive
𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵1 + 𝐼𝐵2 + 𝐼𝐵0
phase sequence components.
b)a balanced system of 3-phase currents having the
opposite or negative phase sequence. These are called i)The Positive phase sequence current ( 𝐼𝑅1 , 𝐼𝑌1 𝐼𝐵1 ), ii)Negative phase
negative phase sequence components. sequence current ( 𝐼𝑅2 , 𝐼𝑌2 𝐼𝐵2 ), iii)Zero phase sequence current (
b)a system of three currents equal in magnitude and 𝐼𝑅0 , 𝐼𝑌0 𝐼𝐵0 ), separately form balanced system of currents. Hence, they
having zero phase displacement. These are called zero are called symmetrical components of the unbalanced system.
phase sequence components. ii)The symmetrical component theory applies equally to 3-phase
The positive, negative and zero phase sequence currents and voltages both phase and line values.
components are called the symmetrical components of
the original unbalanced system. The term ‘symmetrical’ iii)The symmetrical components do not have separate existence. They
is appropriate because the unbalanced 3-phase system are only mathematical components of unbalanced currents (or voltages)
has been resolved into three sets of balanced (or which actually flow in the system.
symmetrical) components. The subscripts 1, 2 and 0 are iv)In a balanced 3-phase system, negative and zero phase sequence
generally used to indicate positive, negative and zero currents are zero
phase sequence components respectively
Operator ‘a’
As the symmetrical component theory involves the concept of 120º

displacement in the positive sequence set and negative sequence set,
therefore, it is desirable to evolve some operator which should cause
120º rotation. For this purpose, operator ‘a’ (symbols h or are
sometimes used instead of ‘a’) is used. It is defined as under :
The ‘operator ‘a’ is one, which when multiplied to a vector rotates the
NOTE: vector through 120º in the anticlockwise direction.
72 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775
Consider a vector I represented by OA as shown in Fig. Similarly , Positive sequence current in phase Y is 2400 a head of = 𝐼𝑅1
18.5. If this vector is multiplied by operator ‘a’, the so that = 𝐼𝑌1 = 𝑎2 𝐼𝑅1
vector is rotated through 120º in the anticlockwise
direction and assumes the position OB. In an exactly similar manner, the negative sequence set can be expressed
in terms of = 𝐼𝑅2 by means of operator ‘a’ as shown in fig (ii) above.
And a I = I <120º
Hence from the above figure:
= I (cos 120º + j sin 120º)
= I (-0.5 + j 0.866) 𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟎 ….. (i)
And a = -0.5 + j 0.866 (i)
If the vector assuming position OB is multiplied by
=𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝒂 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟎 ….. (ii)
operator ‘a’ the vector is further rotated through 1200 in
the anticlockwise direction and assumes the position OC 𝐼𝐵 = 𝑰𝑩𝟏 + 𝑰𝑩𝟐 + 𝑰𝑩𝟎
𝑎2 𝐼 = 𝐼 < 2400 = 𝒂 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟎 ……(iii)
= I(Cos 2400 + J Sin 2400 )
𝑎2 = −0.5 − 𝑗 0.866 (ii) i)Zero sequence current . By adding exps. (1),(ii) and (iii) , (add the
2
Therefore the vector operator 𝑎 will turn the vector abeve 3 eqtns vertically )we get,
through 2400 in the anticlockwise direction. This is the
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑅0
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑅1 (1 + a + 𝑎2 ) + 𝐼𝑅2 (1 + a + 𝑎2 )+3𝐼
same as turning the vector through 2400 in clockwise 2
1+a+𝑎 =0
direction.
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑅0 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑅1 (0) + 𝐼𝑅2 (0)+3𝐼 3𝐼𝑅0
𝑎2 𝐼 = 𝐼 < −1200
𝟏
Similarly 𝑎3 𝐼 = 𝐼 < 3600 And 𝐼𝑅0 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒀 + 𝑰𝑩 )
𝟑
= I(Cos 3600 + J Sin 3600 ) NOTE; As the red phase is always taken as the reference phase,
𝑎3 = 1 therefore , subscript R is usually omitted.
𝟏
𝐼0 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒀 + 𝑰𝑩 )
𝟑
Properties of Operator ‘a’
ii) Positive sequence current . : Multiply ex (ii) by ‘a’ and exp. (iii) by
i)Adding expression i and ii we get,
′𝑎2 ′ (iii) and then adding these expressions to exp. (I ) we get:
a + 𝑎2 = (-0.5 + j0.866) + (-0.5 –j 0.866) = -1
𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑅0 (1 + a + 𝑎2 )
𝑎𝐼𝑌 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑅1 (1 + 𝑎3 + 𝑎3 ) + 𝐼𝑅2 (1 +𝑎2 + 𝑎4 ) +3𝐼
1 + a + 𝑎2 = 0 𝑎𝐼𝑌 + 𝑎 𝐼𝐵 = 3𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 (0)+𝐼𝑅0 (0) = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗ 2
3𝐼𝑅1
𝟏
ii) Subtracting ex. (ii) from exp. (i) we get: And 𝐼𝑅1 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝐚𝑰𝒀 + 𝑎2 𝑰𝑩 )
𝟑
Omitting subscript R, we have,
a - 𝑎2 = (-0.5 + j0.866) - (-0.5 –j 0.866) 𝟏
𝐼1 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝐚𝑰𝒀 + 𝑎2 𝑰𝑩 )
𝟑
a - 𝑎2 = j √3 ii) Negative sequence current . : Multiply ex (ii) by ‘𝑎2 ’ and exp. (iii)
by ′𝑎′ (iii) and then adding these expressions to exp. (I ) we get:
Symetrical Components in terms of Phase Current
𝐼𝑅 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝑌 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑅1 (1 + 𝑎4 + 𝑎2 ) + 𝐼𝑅2 (1 +𝑎3 + 𝑎3 ) 𝐼𝑅0 (1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎)
The unbalanced phase currents in a 3- phase system can
be expressed in terms of symmetrical components as 𝑎𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑅1 (0) + 𝐼𝑅2 (3)+𝐼𝑅0 (0) = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝑌 + ⃗⃗⃗ 3𝐼𝑅2
𝟏
under And 𝐼𝑅2 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝒀 + 𝑎𝑰𝑩 )
𝟑
Omitting subscript R, we have,
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅0 𝟏
𝐼2 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝐚𝑰𝒀 + 𝑎2 𝑰𝑩 )
𝐼𝑌 = 𝐼𝑌1 + 𝐼𝑌2 + 𝐼𝑌0 𝟑

TO understand according to the above
sequences
𝑎4 = 𝑎3 𝑥 𝑎 = 1 𝑥 𝑎 = 𝑎
Thus 1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎4 = 1 + 𝑎2 + a = 0
In matrix form
A B C
The figure above shows the vector representation of
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐼𝑅0 𝐼𝑅
symmetrical components. It is usually profitable in
[𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 ] [𝐼𝑅1 ] = [𝐼𝑌 ]
calculations to express the symmetrical components in
𝟏 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝐼 𝐼𝐵
terms of unbalanced phase currents. 𝑅2
NOTE: That the positive sequence current can be Pre- multiplying by 𝑨−𝟏 both sides
expressed in terms of = 𝐼𝑅1 by means of operator ‘a’. 𝑨−𝟏 AB = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑪
Thus positive sequence current 𝐼𝐵1 in phase B leads = IB = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑪
𝐼𝑅1 by 1200 and therefore = 𝐼𝐵1 = 𝑎 𝐼𝑅1 B = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑪
73 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

𝐼𝑅0 Example
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐼𝑅
𝟏
[𝐼𝑅1 ] = [𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 ] [𝐼𝑌 ] In a 3-phase, 4-wire system, the currents in R, Y and B lines under
𝟑 abnormal conditions of loading are as under :
𝐼 𝟏 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝐼
𝑅2 𝐵
𝟏 IR = 60<30º A ; IY = 60 <300º A ; IB = 30 <180º A
𝐼𝑅0 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒀 + 𝑰𝑩 )
𝟑
𝟏
𝐼𝑅1 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝐚𝑰𝒀 + 𝑎2 𝑰𝑩 ) Calculate the positive, negative and zero sequence currents in the R-
𝟑
𝟏 line and return current in the neutral wire. (11mks)
𝐼𝑅2 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝒀 + 𝑎𝑰𝑩 )
𝟑
The following points may be noted carefully:

i)The current 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐵 are the symmetrical
components of R-phase. Because of the symmetry of
each set, the symmetrical components of yellow and blue Example
phases can be easily known. The current in a-phase unbalanced system are 𝑰𝑹 = (𝟏𝟐 + 𝐣𝟔 ), 𝑰𝒀 =
ii)Although the treatment has made considering currents, (𝟏𝟐 − 𝐣𝟏𝟐) 𝐚𝐧𝐝
the method applies equally to voltages. Thus the 𝑰𝑩 = (-15 + j10)A. The phase sequence is RYB. Calculate the
symmetrical voltage components of R- phase in terms of positive, negative sequence component s of current in the red-phase
phase voltages shall be: (8mks)
Sln
For Red phase
Example 1
Zero phase sequence 𝐼𝑅0 = (𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 )
In a 3-phase, 4-wire system, the currents in R, Y and 3
1
B lines under abnormal conditions of loading are as = [(12 + 𝑗6) + (12 − 𝑗12) + (−15 + 𝑗10)]
3
under : 1
= [(9 + 𝑗4)]
3
IR = 100<30º A ; IY = 50 <300º A ; IB = 30 <180º A = [(3 + 𝑗1.33)]
Calculate the positive, negative and zero sequence
Positive sequence component
currents in the R-line and return current in the 1
neutral wire. 𝐼𝑅1 = (𝐼𝑅 + 𝑎𝐼𝑌 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝐵 )
3
1
Sln 𝐼𝑅1 = ((12 + 𝑗6) + ( −0.5 + 𝑗0.866)(12 − 𝑗12) + (−0.5 −
3
𝑗0.866)(−15 + 𝑗10) )
𝟏 1
𝐼0 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒀 + 𝑰𝑩 ) 𝐼𝑅1 = ((32.55 + 𝑗30.39)
𝟑 3
1
= [100 < 300 + 50 < 3000 + 30 < 1800 ] = [10.85 + 𝑗10.13)]A
3
1
= [86.60 + 𝑗50 + (25 − 𝑗43.3) + (−30 + 𝑗0]
3 Negative sequence component
1
= [81.6 + 𝑗6.7] 1
3 𝐼𝑅2 = (𝐼𝑅 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝑌 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼𝐵 )
3
= (27.2 + j2.23) = 27.29 < 4.680 A 1
𝐼𝑅2 = ((12 + 𝑗6) + ( −0.5 − 𝑗0.866)(12 − 𝑗12) + (−0.5 +
3
𝟏
𝐼1 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝐚𝑰𝒀 + 𝑎 𝑰𝑩 ) 2 𝑗0.866)(−15 + 𝑗10) )
𝟑 1
1 𝐼𝑅2 = (−5.55 + 𝑗16.41)
= [100 < 300 + 1 < 1200 𝑥50 < 3000 + 1 < 3
3 = [−1.85 − 𝑗5.47)]A
−1200 𝑥 30 < 1800 ] Hence :
1
= [100 < 300 + 50 < 600 + 30 < 600 ] Yellow phase
3
1 Zero phase sequence component
= [86.60 + 𝑗50 + (25 + 𝑗43.3) + (15 + 𝑗25.98]
3
1 𝐼𝑌0 = 𝐼𝑅0 = 3 + j1.33 A
= [126.6 + 𝑗119.28]
3
= (42.2+ j39.76) = 57.98 < 43.30 A Positive phase sequence component
𝟏 𝐼𝑌1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎2 𝐼𝑅1 = (-0.5-j0.866)(10.85+j10.13)
𝐼2 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝒀 + 𝑎𝑰𝑩 )
𝟑 = (3.35 – j14.4) A
1
= [100 < 300 + 1 < −1200 𝑥50 < 3000 + Negative phase sequence component
3
1 < 1200 𝑥 30 < 1800 ]
1 𝐼𝑌2 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼𝑅2 = (-0.5+ j0.866)(-1.85 –j5.47)
= [100 < 300 + 50 < 1800 + 30 < 3000 ]
3 = (5.7 + j1.13) A
1
= [86.60 + 𝑗50 + (−50 + 𝑗0) + (15 − 𝑗25.98] Blue phase
3
1 Zero phase sequence component
= [51.6 + 𝑗24.02]
3
𝐼𝐵0 = 𝐼𝑅0 = 3 + j1.33 A
= (17.2 + j8) = 18.96 < 24.90 A
Current in the neutral line = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 Positive phase sequence component
= (81.6 + j6.7) = 81.87 < 4.70 A
𝐼𝐵1 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼𝑅1 = (-0.5+j0.866)(10.85 J j10.13)
74 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775
= (-14.2 + j4.31) A Negative phase sequence component
Negative phase sequence component 𝐼𝑌2 = ⃗⃗⃗

𝑎𝐼𝑅2 =
𝐼𝑌2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎2 𝐼𝑅2 = (-0.5-j0.866)(-1.85 –j5.47) Blue phase
= (-3.82 + j4.34) A Zero phase sequence component

𝐼𝐵0 = 𝐼𝑅0 =
Example Positive phase sequence component

The current in a-phase unbalanced system are 𝑰𝑹 =
𝐼𝐵1 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼𝑅1 =
(𝟏𝟎 + 𝐣𝟐𝟎 ), 𝑰𝒀 = (𝟏𝟐 − 𝐣𝟏𝟎) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑰𝑩 = (-3 – j5)A.
The phase sequence is RYB. Calculate the positive, Negative phase sequence component
negative sequence component s of current in the red-
phase (8mks) 𝐼𝑌2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎2 𝐼𝑅2 =
sln Example
1
Zero phase sequence 𝐼𝑅0 = (𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 ) The sequence voltages in the red phase are as follows
3
1
= [(10 + 𝑗20) + (12 − 𝑗10) + (−3 − 𝑗5)] ⃗ 𝐑𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐕, 𝐄
𝐄 ⃗ 𝐑𝟏 = (𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝐣𝟏𝟎𝟎)𝐕 𝐚𝐧𝐝
3
1 𝐄⃗ 𝐑𝟐 = -100 V .
= [(19 + 𝑗5)]
3
1 Find the phase voltages 𝐄 ⃗ 𝐑, 𝐄
⃗ 𝐘 and 𝐄
⃗𝐁
= [(19 + 𝑗5)]
3 Sln
= [(6.33 + 𝑗1.666)] In polar form
= [6.54 < 14.70 ] 𝐸⃗𝑅0 = 100 < 00 V , 𝐸⃗𝑅1 = 223.6 < −26.560 V
𝐸⃗𝑅2 = 100 < 1800 V
Positive sequence component
1
𝐼𝑅1 = (𝐼𝑅 + 𝑎𝐼𝑌 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝐵 )
3 𝐸⃗𝑅 = 𝐸⃗𝑅0 + 𝐸⃗𝑅1 + 𝐸⃗𝑅2
1 0 0
𝐼𝑅1 = ((10 + 𝑗20) + ( 1 < 120 )(15.6 < −39.8 ) + = 100 + (200 – j100) + (-100)
3
(1 < 2400 )(5.83 < −1210 ) ) = 200 – j100 = 223.6 < −26.560 V
1
𝐼𝑅1 = ((10 + 𝑗20) + ( 15.6 < 80.20 ) + (5.83 <
3
𝐸⃗𝑌 = 𝐸⃗𝑅0 +𝑎2 𝐸⃗𝑅1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐸𝑅2
1190 ) )
1 =100 < 00 +,1 < 2400 x 223.6 < −26.560
𝐼𝑅1 = ((10 + 𝑗20) + ( 2.66 + 𝑗15.37) + (−2.83 + + 1 < 1200 x 100 < 1800 V
3
𝑗5.1 ) = 100 < 00 +223.6 < 213.440 + 100 < 3000
1
= [(9.83 + 𝑗40.5)] = 100 + j0 + (-186.58 – j123.2) + (50 – j86.6)
3
= [(3.28 + 𝑗13.5)] = -36.58 – j209.8 = 213 < −99.890 V
= [13.89 < 76.30 ]
𝐸⃗𝐵 = 𝐸⃗𝑅0 +a 𝐸⃗𝑅1 +𝑎2 𝐸⃗𝑅2
Negative sequence component =100 < 00 +,1 < 1200 x 223.6 < −26.560
1
𝐼𝑅2 = (𝐼𝑅 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝑌 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼𝐵 ) + 1 < 2400 x 100 < 1800 V
3
1 = 100 < 00 +223.6 < 93.440 + 100 < 4200
𝐼𝑅2 = ((10 + 𝑗20) + ( 1 < 2400 )(15.6 < −39.80 ) + = 100 + j0 + (-13.4 + j223.2) + (50 J j86.6)
3
(1 < 1200 )(5.83 < −1210 ) ) = 136.6 + j309.8 = 338.57 < 66.20 V
1
𝐼𝑅2 = ((10 + 𝑗20) + ( 15.6 < 80.20 ) + (5.83 <
3
Example
1190 ) )
1 The Zero and positive sequence components of red phase are as
𝐼𝑅2 = ((10 + 𝑗20) + ( 2.66 + 𝑗15.37) + (−2.83 + follows
3
𝑗5.1 ) ⃗ 𝐑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟓 − 𝐣𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔V , 𝐄
𝐄 ⃗ 𝐑𝟏 = 𝟐 < 𝟎𝟎 V
1
= [(9.83 + 𝑗40.5)] ⃗ 𝐘 = 𝟑 < 𝟎𝟎 V . Find the negative sequence
If the phase voltages 𝐄
3
= [(3.28 + 𝑗13.5)] component of red phase and the phase voltages 𝐄 ⃗ 𝐘 and 𝐄
⃗𝐁
= [13.89 < 76.30 ]
Sln
Hence : 𝐸⃗𝑅 = 𝐸⃗𝑅0 + 𝐸⃗𝑅1 + 𝐸⃗𝑅2
Yellow phase
3 = (0.5 – j0.866) +2 + 𝐸⃗𝑅2
Zero phase sequence component
Or
𝐼𝑌0 = 𝐼𝑅0 = Negative sequence components in R –phase is
Positive phase sequence component 𝐸⃗𝑅2 = 0 + j0.866 = 1 < −600
Now,
𝐼𝑌1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎2 𝐼𝑅1 = 𝐸⃗𝑌 = 𝐸⃗𝑅0 +𝑎2 𝐸⃗𝑅1 + 𝑎𝐸
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑅2
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=1 < −600 +,1 < 2400 x 2 < 00 Single Line-to-Ground Fault
+ 1 < 1200 x 1 < 600 V Consider a 3-phase system with an earthed neutral. Let a single line-to-
= 1 < −600 +2 < 2400 + 1 < 1800 ground fault occur on the red phase as shown in Fig. 18.13. It is clear
= 0.5 -j0.866 + (-1-j1.732) + (-1+ j0) from this
= -1.5 – j2.598 = 3 < −1200 V ⃗ 𝑅 = 0 and 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑌 = 0
𝑉
𝐸⃗𝐵 = 𝐸⃗𝑅0 +a 𝐸⃗𝑅1 +𝑎2 𝐸⃗𝑅2

=1 < −600 +,1 < 1200 x 2 < 00
+ 1 < 2400 x 1 < 600 V
= 1 < −600 +2 < 1200 + 1 < 3000
= 0.5 -j0.866 + (-1+ j1.732) + (0.5 – j0.866)
=0V
Example
The current from neutral to ground connection is
12A. Calculate the Zero phase sequence components
in phase
Sln
We know that Zero sequence components in all phases
have the same value and that each component is equal to Summary for (R-phase )to ground fault
3𝐸⃗𝑅
one – Third the current in the neutral wire. 𝐼𝑅 = fault current = , 𝐼𝑌 = 𝐼𝐵 = 0
𝑍0 +𝑍1 +𝑍2
Zero sequence current in each phase ⃗𝑅 = 0
1
𝑉
= 𝑥 12 = 𝟒𝑨 ⃗𝑌 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗ 0 + 𝑎2 𝑉
⃗ 1 + a𝑉
⃗2
3
Example
A balanced star connected load takes 90 A from a ⃗𝐵 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗ 0 + a𝑉
⃗ 1 + 𝑎2 𝑉
⃗2
balanced 3-phase, 4-wire supply. If the fuses in the Y
and B phases are removed, Find the symmetrical Line –to-line fault
components of the line currents. Consider a line-to-line fault between the blue (B) and yellow (Y) lines as
i)Before the fuses are removed shown in Fig. 18.15. The conditions created by this fault lead to :
ii)After fuses are removed ⃗𝑌 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗ 𝐵 , 𝐼𝑅 = 0 and 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝑌 = 0
Sln Again taking R-phase as the reference, we have
⃗𝑌 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗𝐵
SEQUENCE IMPEDENCE
In unsymmetrical fault calculations , each piece of

equipment will have three values of impedance
i)Positive sequence impedance (𝑍1 ) Summary of results for Line –to-line fault (Blue and yellow line)
𝐼𝑅 = 0
ii)Negative sequence impedance (𝑍2 ) −𝑗√3𝐸⃗𝑅
and 𝐼𝑌 = −𝐼𝐵 =
𝑍1 +𝑍2
𝑍1 𝐸⃗𝑅 ⃗
iii)Zero sequence impedance (𝑍0 ) ⃗𝑌 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗𝐵 = - ⃗ 𝑅 = - 2𝑍2𝐸𝑅
and 𝑉
𝑍1 +𝑍2 𝑍1 +𝑍2
ANALYSIS /ASSUMPTION OF UNSYMETRICAL
FAULTS Double Line –to – ground faults
In the analysis of unsymmetrical faults, the following
assumptions will be made: Condition created by this fault lead to
1. The generated e.m.f. system is of positive ⃗𝑌 = 𝑉
𝐼𝑅 = 0 and 𝑉 ⃗𝐵 = 0
sequence only.
2. No current flows in the network other than due
to fault i.e. load currents are neglected.
3. The impedance of the fault is zero.
4. Phase R shall be taken as the reference phase.
In each case of unsymmetrical fault, e.m.f.s’ per phase
are denoted by ER, EY and EB and the terminal p.d. per
phase by VR, VY and VB.
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Examples Line – to – ground fault
A 3-phase, 10MVA, 11 kV generator with a solidly Example
earthed neutral point supplies a feeder. The relevant A 3-phase , 11 kV , 25MVA generator with 𝐗 𝟎 = 0.05 p.u, 𝐗 𝟏 = 0.2
impedances of the generator and feeder in ohms are Pu and 𝐗 𝟐 = 0.2p.u, is grounded through a reactance of 3Ω.
as under: Calculate the fault current for a single line to ground fault.
Generator feeder Sln
Positive j1.2 j1.0 The figure below shows the circuit diagram. The fault is assumed to
sequence occur on the Red phase.
impedance Taking red phase as the reference, let its E.m.f be 𝐸⃗𝑅 = 1 p.u
Negative j0.9 j1.0 First of all, convert the reactance 𝑋𝑛 into p.u value from the following
sequence relation.
𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
impedance P.u value 𝑋𝑛 = 𝑋𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑥 2 (𝐾𝑉) 𝑥 1000
Zero sequence j0.4 j3.0
Impedance P.u value 𝑋𝑛 = 3 𝑥
25000
= 0.062
(11)2 𝑥 1000
If a fault from one phase to earth occurs on the far

end of the feeder, calculate
Line to ground fault
i)The magnitude of fault current
𝐸⃗𝑅
ii)Line to neutral voltage at generator terminal 𝐼1 =⃗𝐼2 = 𝐼0 =
𝑋⃗1 + 𝑋⃗2 +(𝑋⃗0 +3𝑋⃗𝑛)
sln 1
=
Assuming the fault occurs in the Red phase, and taking 𝑗0.2 + 𝑗2.0+j(0.05+3 x 0.062)
1
Red-phase as the reference line = = -j1.572 p.u
𝑗0.636
11 𝑥 103 Fault current ⃗𝐼𝑅 = 3𝐼0 = 3 x (-j1.572) = -j4.716 p.u

Phase e.mf of R-phase = 𝐸⃗𝑅 = = 6350V Fault current in Amperes = rated current x P.u value
√3
i)Total impedance to any sequence current is the sum of 25 𝑥 106
= x 4.716 = 6188 A
generator and feeder impedances to that sequence √3 𝑥 11 𝑥 103
current
Line – to - Line fault
Example
Total 𝑍1 = j 1.2 + j 1.0 = j 2.2 Ω
A three phase, 3-wire system has a normal voltage of 10.4 kV
Total 𝑍2 = j 0.9 + j 1.0 = j 1.9 Ω between the lines. It is supplied by a generator having positive,
Total 𝑍0 = j 0.4 + j 3.0 = j 3.4 Ω negative and Zero –sequence reactance’s of 0.6,0.5 and 0.2 Ω per
phase respectively. Calcualte the fault current which flows when a
For line to Ground fault : line – to-line fault occurs at the generator terminal
𝐸⃗𝑅 Sln
𝐼0 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 =
𝑍0 +𝑍1 +𝑍2
6350 6350
Suppose the short circuit faults occurs between yellow and blue phase.
= = = -j846A Taking Red phase as the reference, its phase emf is:
𝑗2.2 +𝑗1.9 +𝑗 3.4 𝑗 7.5
10.4 𝑥 106
Phase e,mf of R –phase = 𝐸⃗𝑅 = = 6000V
√3
Fault current 𝐼𝑅 = 3𝐼0 = 3 x (-j846) = -j2538 A Now
𝑋1 = j0.6 Ω , 𝑋2 = j0.5 Ω and 𝑋0 = j0.2 Ω
ii)Line –to-neutral voltage of R-phase
⃗ 𝑅 = 𝐸⃗𝑅 - 𝐼1 𝑍1 - 𝐼2 𝑍2 - 𝐼0 𝑍0
𝑉 For line – to – line faults, we have
√3𝐸𝑅
Where Fault current, 𝐼𝐹 =
𝑋1 +𝑋2
𝑍0 , 𝑍1 and 𝑍2 are the sequence impedances of generator √3 𝑥 6000
𝐼𝐹 = = 9447.5A
𝑉⃗ 𝑅 = 𝐸⃗𝑅 - 𝐼0 (𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍0 ) (0.6+0.5)
= 6350 – (-j846)(j1.2 + j0.9 + j0.4)

= 6350 + j846 (j2.5)
= 6350 – 2115
= 4235 V
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Double line – to ground Fault (11)2 𝑥 10
= 10 x = 0.605Ω
103 𝑥 20
(11)2 𝑥 10
Example 𝑋1 = 5 x = 0.3025Ω
103 𝑥 20
The per units of positive, negative and Zero sequence (11)2 𝑥 10
reactance of a network at faults are 0.08.0.07 and 𝑋0 = 30 x = 0.815Ω
103 𝑥 20
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
3𝐸𝑅
0.05. determine the faults currents if the faults is Fault current 𝐼𝑅 =
𝑋⃗1 + 𝑋⃗2 + 𝑋⃗0
double line to ground. 3 𝑥 6351
Sln 𝐼𝑅 =
𝑗0.605 +𝑗0.3025+𝑗1.815
Suppose the short circuit faults occurs between yellow 19053
𝐼𝑅 = = -j6998 A
and blue phase. Taking Red phase as the reference, its 𝑗2.7225
phase emf is:
Now
𝑋1 = j0.08p.u , 𝑋2 = j0.07p.u and 𝑋0 = j0.05 p.u Example
A 50MVA, 11kV three –phase alternator was subjected to different
For double line – to – ground faults, we have type of faults. The following are as under:
−3𝑋⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ 2 𝐸𝑅
3-phase faults = 2000A,
𝐼𝐹 =⃗𝐼𝑌 = 𝐼𝐵 = Line –to –line fault = 2600A,
𝑋⃗1 𝑋
⃗2 +𝑋
⃗1 𝑋 ⃗ 0+𝑋⃗2 𝑋
⃗0
Line to –ground fault = 4200A.
−3 𝑥 𝑗0.07 𝑥 1 The Generator neutral is solidly grounded. Find the value of the
Fault current, 𝐼𝐹 =
𝑗0.08 𝑥 𝑗0.07+𝑗0.08 𝑥 𝑗0.05+𝑗0.07 𝑥 0.05 three sequence reactances of the alternator. Ignore reactances.
−𝑗0.21
𝐼𝐹 = Sln
−(56+40+35)𝑥 10−4
𝑗0.21 𝑥 104
Let 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 and 𝑋0 be the positive, negative and Zero sequence
= = j16 p.u reactance respectively.
131
𝐸𝑝ℎ
For 3-phase fault, fault current =
𝑋1
Example 11 𝑥 103
A 20MVA, 11kV, 3-phase , 50Hz generator has its 𝐸𝑝ℎ =
√3
neutral earthed through a 5% reactor. It is in parallel 11 𝑥 103
with another identical generator having isolated √3
2000 =
𝑋1
neutral. Each generator has a positive sequence 11000
reactance of 20% negative sequence reactance of 𝑋1 = = 3.175Ω
√3 𝑥 2000
10% and Zero sequence reactance of 15%. If a line to
ground short circuit occurs in the common bus-bar, For line –to –line fault , we have,
determine the fault current. √3𝐸𝑅
Fault current = 𝐼𝐹 =
Sln 𝑋1 +𝑋2
Or
11 𝑥 103
√3 𝑥
√3
2600 =
𝑋1 +𝑋2
11000
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 = =4.231Ω
2600
𝑋2 = 4.231 - 𝑋1 = 4.231 – 3.175 =1.056 Ω
For line –to – ground fault

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑅
3𝐸
Fault current = 𝐼𝑅 =
𝑋⃗1 + 𝑋⃗2 + 𝑋⃗0
11 𝑥 103
3𝑥
√3
4200 =
𝑋⃗1 + 𝑋⃗2 + 𝑋⃗0
Taking Red phase as the reference, its phase emf is: 3 𝑥 11 𝑥 103
11 𝑥 103 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋0 = = 4.536Ω
√3 𝑥 4200
Its phase emf 𝐸𝑅 = = 6351 V
√3 𝑋0 = 4.536 − 𝑋1 − 𝑋2
The equivalent circuit is as shown in figure (i) and = 4.536 – 3.175 – 1.056 = 0.305Ω
further reduces to fig (ii) for line to ground fault
(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑉)2 𝑥 10
𝑋1 = % 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 x
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐾𝑉𝐴
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b)State five merits of limiting the phase to ground faults by use of
KNEC O/N 2022 resistance grounding method
(5mks)
1.Two 33kv, 20MW, three phase,star connected i. sln
generators operate in parallel as shown in figure 2. ii. Reduces the burning and melting effects in faulted electrical
The positive,negative and zero sequence are equipment, Txs, cables etc.
j0.08p.u,j.006p.u and j0.04pu respectively. Asingle iii. To Reduces mechanical strength in circuits/equipment carrying
line to ground faults occurs at the terminals of one of faults current
the generators. (8mks) iv. To reduce electrical shock hazards to personells caused by stray
ground faults
v. To reduce arc blast or flash hazard
vi. To reduce momentary line voltage dip
vii. To improve detection of earth faults in power systems
Determine the:
i)Actual positive sequence reactance
0.08
𝑋1 = j = j0.04 P.u [𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]
2
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
i.e
𝑠𝑢𝑚
ii)Actual negative sequence reactance

0.06
2
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
i.e
𝑠𝑢𝑚
iii)Impedance
𝑍𝑜 = j0.04 + 3𝑃𝑖𝑛
20
= j0.04 + 3 x 1 x
(33)2
= j0.04 + 0.055 Ω
iv)Fault current
Sln
3𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑎 = 3𝐼𝑦 =
𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3
3 𝑥 1.0
=
𝑗0.04+𝑗0.03+𝑗0.04
0
= 24.6< −63.43 A
v)Current in the grounding resistor

Sln
𝑝
|𝐼𝑓 | = 𝐼𝑓 𝑥
√3𝑥𝑉
20
= 24.6 x = 8.61kA
√3𝑥33
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TOPIC FIVE
POWER STABILITY -System is said to be dynamically stable if this oscillations do not acquire
Objectives more than a certain amplitude and die out quickly. It results from
1.Describe the stability of the synchronous generator interconnection between control systems.
feeding infinite bus-bar
i)Power transfer regulation Assumption of Steady state stability
2.Derive the equal area criteria for transient stability  Concerned with upper loading of machine before losing
i)Change in load synchronism.
ii)change in transfer reactance due to switching  Load is assume to be applied at a slow rate.
iii)change in transfer reactance due to fault  System Analysis is by the set of linear equation.
3.Derive the swing equation  Action of Voltage regulators and turbine governors are not included
-Load angle/time curve
4.Derive the method for improving power system Transient Stability
stability
 Ability to regain normal and stable operation after being subjected
Automatic voltage regulation
to sudden & large disturbances in the load.
Examples : Losses-generator excitation, transmission, switching
Definations
operations and line faults.
-Power system -is defined as a network of one or more
Assumption of Transient Stability
generating units, loads and power transmission lines
including the associated equipment connected to it.  System resistance may be neglected in comparison with reactance
-The stability of a power system is its ability to develop  Machine has cylindrical rotor , the direct reactance (xd) is equal to
restoring forces equal to or greater than the disturbing the quadrature axis reactance (xq)
forces to maintain the state of equilibrium or  The system may be reduced to equivalent two machine system
synchronism.  Each machine may be assumed to supply an infinite busbar
Power system stability problem gets more pronounced in  Direct axis transient, reactance (xd) is used for machine
case of interconnection of large power networks representation
 The shaft input power may be assumed constant for few seconds
Definitions of Power System Stability after occurrence of disturbance
Power system stability is the ability of a power system  Linearization of system equation is not permitted.
to go back to its Normal or stable condition upon  Studied on the basis of swing.
subjected to disturbance.  Action of Voltage regulators and turbine governor are not included.
Classification of stability
Classification is based on the following considerations OTHER TERMS USED IN POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
i. Physical nature of the resulting instability
ii. size of the disturbance considered 1)Stability limits – this is the max power that can be transmitted in a
iii. processes, and the time span involved network from a source without the loss of synchronism (unstable)
2) Steady-state stability limit (SSSL) or Pull-out – Is the maximum

power that can be transferred from source to load without the system
becoming unstable (without loss of synchronism) , when the load is
increased gradually, under steady state condition.
|𝐸||𝑉|
It is Given by 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑋
3) Transient stability limit – Is the maximum power that can be

transferred without the system becoming unstable when a sudden or
large disturbance occurs. (under transient conditions)
It is lower than the steady state stability.
It is divided into three:
i. Steady state stability 4)Transfer Reactance (x) – It is the total reactance X between two
ii. Transient stability voltage source V and E.
iii. Dynamic stability Maximum power is inversely proportional to the transfer reactance X
5) Hunting – This is the fluctuation of torque by the prime mover
Steady state Stability
 Ability of the power system to go back to normal
and stable operation after being subjected to small
disturbance i.e gradual or slow change in the load.
i) Static stability - refers to inherent stability that prevails

without the aid of automatic control devices
ii) Dynamic stability –-Refers to artificial stability
given to an inherently unstable system by automatic
control devices. It is concerned with small disturbances
lasting for 10 to 30 sec.
80 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775
Power Angle Curve /diagram 𝜹 = load angle (phase angle between E and V)
This the graphical representation of Real power P_c
against load angle 𝛿 Formula
E = V + I.Z
(𝑬 < 𝜹 ) = V< 𝟎𝟎 ) + (I< - ∅) (Z<𝜷)
(𝑬<𝜹) −(𝐕<𝟎𝟎 ) 𝑬<𝜹 𝑽<𝟎𝟎
(I < - ∅ ) = = -
𝐙<𝜷 𝐙<𝜷 𝐙<𝜷
𝑬 𝑽
(I< - ∅ ) = (𝜹 − 𝜷) − (−𝜷)
𝒛 𝒛
Taking cos on both sides

𝐸 𝑉
I Cos< - ∅ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(−𝛽)
𝑧 𝑧
By making, angle 𝛽 positive
|𝐸||𝑉| 𝐸 𝑉
The real power 𝑃𝑒 =( S) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿, Thus the real power I Cos< ∅ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽 − 𝛿) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽)
𝑋𝑠 𝑧 𝑧
And multiplying all through by V
output depends on and power angle 𝛿 𝐸𝑉 𝑉2
VI Cos< ∅ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽 − 𝛿) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽)
𝑧 𝑧
-as 𝛿 is increasing to 900 , 𝑃𝑒 increases and the
synchronous machine acts in generation mode/Action.
(E leading V)
-as 𝛿 is increasing beyond900 , 𝑃𝑒 decreases
-At 𝛿 = 1800 , 𝑃𝑒 becomes zero
- Beyond 𝛿 = 1800 , 𝑃𝑒 becomes negative which implies
that the power flow direction is reversed and the power
is supplied from the infinite bus to the generator (E 𝑅
Cos 𝛽 = and R= Z Cos 𝛽
lagging V implies Motor mode/Action.) 𝑍
And P = VI Cos< ∅
And substituting into the above equations
SWING CURVE 𝐸𝑉 𝑉2
𝑧 𝑧
𝐸𝑉 𝑉 2𝑅
𝑃𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽 − 𝛿) − 2
𝑧 𝑍
Z=R+X
R = is very negligible and hence neglected
The equation reduces to:
𝐸𝑉
𝑃𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽 − 𝛿)
𝑋
0
𝛽 = 90
𝐸𝑉
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛿)
𝑋
𝑬𝑽
But 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝑿
𝑷𝒓 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹
Swing Curve: The graph between load angle and time is Example
called Swing Curve. The sending end and receiving –end voltages of a three –phase
If δ increases continuously with time the system is transmission line at 200MW load are equal at 230kV. The per phase
unstable. line impedance j14 ohm . Calculate the maximum steady-state
if δ starts decreasing after reaching a maximum value it power that can be transmitted over the line
is said that the system will remain stable Sln
230 𝑥 1000
|𝑉𝑠 | = |𝑉𝑅 | = = 132790.5 Volt = 132.79 kV
Explanation when generator is loaded √3
In this case:
|𝑉 | |𝑉 | |𝑉 |2 |132.79|2
i)Generator connected to Infinite bus bar terminal 𝑃(𝑅)𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑃(𝑆)𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠 𝑅 = 𝑅 = = 1259.5 MW/phase
𝑋 𝑥 14
= 3 x 1259.5 MW (3-phase total)
= 3778.5 MW
ii)Power transfer through impedance

-In all electrical machines and transmission lines, the resistances is
negligible as compared to inductive reactance.
Let:
E = Excitation phase voltage of the generator
V=Phase voltage of the infinite bus-bar
Z = The total synchronous impedance from the
generator to the infinite bus bar
I=The Current applied by the generator to the infinite Active power received by infinite bus is given by:
bus-bar
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𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑹 Consider a synchronous generator:
𝑷𝒆,𝒎𝒂𝒙 = − …….. eqtn 10
√𝑹𝟐 +𝑿𝟐 𝑹𝟐 +𝑿𝟐 -developing an electromagnetic torque 𝑇𝑒
- and a corresponding electromagnetic power 𝑃𝑒
For 𝑃𝑒,𝑚𝑎𝑥 , to be maximum (i.e for max. power -While operating at the synchronous speed 𝝎𝒔
transfer), the above equation is to be differentiated w.r.t The generator receives mechanical torque input 𝑻𝒊 via the shaft and
‘X’ develop an the output and electromagnetic torque 𝑻𝒆 which opposes 𝑻𝒊 ,
X = √𝟑𝑹 ……………… …..(11)
Then under steady state conditions: (without any disturbance)
-The practical application of (11) is limited. It is that, if x When there is no disturbance,

= 0, power transferred is Zero. Thus a finite value of 𝑻𝒆 = 𝑻𝒊 ……………………….. (14)
reactance is necessary for maximum power transfer.
Here we have neglected any retarding torque due to rotational losses.
Therefore we have:
Dynamics of Synchronous Machine 𝑻𝒆 𝝎𝒔 = 𝑻𝒊 𝝎𝒔 ……………….. (15)
The Kinetic energy of the rotor of the synchronous 𝑻𝒆 𝝎𝒔 - 𝑻𝒊 𝝎𝒔 =𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒆 = 0 …...( 16)
machine in terms of electrical angle is
Where 𝝎𝒔 = Synchronous speed
𝟏
KE = 𝐌𝛚𝐬 …………………. (12)
𝟐
When a change in load or a fault occurs, then the difference between
Where, input power 𝑷𝒊 and electromagnetic power 𝑷𝒆 , results into an
accelerating torque.
𝑃
𝜔𝑠 = ( ) 𝜔𝑠𝑚 = Rotor speed in rads (elect)/sec
2 Let 𝑷𝒂 be the acceleration (or decelerating) power, then
𝑃 2
M = J× ( × 10−6 Moment of inertia in
) 𝜔𝑠 𝒅𝟐 𝜽𝒆 𝒅𝜽𝒆
2 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒆 = M +𝑫 = 𝑷𝒂 ………. (17)
MJsec/elect.rad 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
Where :
Inertia constant H can be defined Through:
M = Inertia Constant or Momentum
Where: D = damping Coefficient
G = Machine rating in MVA 𝜽𝒆 = electrical angular position of the rotor
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝐽 The angular position 𝜃𝑒 of the rotor continuously varies with time .It is
H = inertia Constant =
𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑉𝐴
therefore more convenient to measure the angular position of the rotor
= MJ/MVA with respect to synchronously rotating reference axis than with
𝟏 𝟏
HG = KE = 𝐌𝛚𝐬 = 𝐌(𝟑𝟔𝟎𝐟) = 180Mf stationary axis.
𝟐 𝟐
Solving further,
𝟐𝐆𝐇 𝟐𝐆𝐇 𝐆𝐇 Let
M= = = =MJ sec/elect.radian …(13a) 𝛿 = 𝜃𝑒 - 𝝎𝒔 𝒕 …………………………..(18a)
𝛚𝐬𝐞 𝟐𝛑𝐟 𝛑𝐟
Differentiating eqtn (18) with respect to time t for the 1 st time
M - is called the inertia constant or Momentum
𝒅𝛿 𝒅𝜃𝑒
𝐇 = − 𝝎𝒔 ………………… (18b)
M= 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 /elec-rad …………. (13b) 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟏𝟖𝟎𝐟
And differentiating equation (18b) for the 2 nd time
𝒅𝟐 𝜽𝒆 𝒅𝟐 𝜹
So that = ………………………(19)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐
SWING EQUATION Where 𝜹 is power angle of synchronous machine.
Neglecting dumping D = 0, and substituting equation (19) into eqtn 17

𝒅𝟐 𝜹
M = 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑷𝒂 MW …… (20)
𝒅𝒕𝟐
The above equation (20) is the Swing equation
Where :
M = Momentum
And Pa = accelerationg power
Pi = Mechaniacal input power
Pe = Electrical output power
In p.u form, we can further substitute

𝐆𝐇
M=
𝛑𝐟
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Using equations 13a and 19, we get 𝒅𝟐 𝜹 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟓𝟒
= = 108 electrical .deg/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝟓
𝐆𝐇 𝐝𝟐 𝛅
= 𝐏𝐢 − 𝐏𝐞 MW ---------------- eqtn (20) Hence a = acceleration = 108 electr.deg/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝛑𝐟 𝐝𝐭 𝟐
Dividing through out by G, The MVA rating of the 𝟏𝟐

c) 12cycles = = 0.2 sec
𝟔𝟎
machine
∆𝒕 = 0.2 sec
d2 δ
Mp.u =( Pi − Pe ) p.u …… (eqtn 21) 𝟏 𝟏
Change in 𝜹 = a (∆𝒕)𝟐 = x 108 x (𝟎. 𝟐)𝟐
dt2 𝟐 𝟐
Where = 2.16 elect.deg
H
Mp.u = Now a = 108 electr.deg/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
πf 108
Or = 60 x 0 rpm/sec
360
𝐇 𝐝𝟐 𝛅 = 18 rpm/sec
= ( 𝐏𝐢 − 𝐏𝐞 ) p.u ……….(eqtn 22)
𝛑𝐟 𝐝𝐭 𝟐 Hence rotor speed at the end of 12 cycles
Equation 22 is the Swing equation in pu form 120𝑓
= + a. ∆𝒕
NOTE this equation can only be derived/explaind from 𝑝
120𝑓
eqtn 14 to 20 =( + 18 x 0.2 )rpm
𝑝
NOTE , = 1803.6 rpm
a)For multi machines system 𝐻1 𝐺1 𝐻2 𝐻2 10 𝑥 100 4 𝑥 150
d) 𝐻𝑒𝑞 = + = + =
𝐺𝑏 𝐺𝑏 50 50
𝐻1 𝐺1
𝐻𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 =
𝐺𝑏
Example
b)For machine swinging in unison (coherently) A single line diagram of asystem is shown in the figure below. All
values are in per unit on a common base. The power delivered into
𝐻1 𝐺1 𝐻2 𝐺2 𝐻𝑛 𝐺𝑛
𝐻𝑒𝑞 = + + ………… bus 2 (an infinite bus having a voltage of 1.0 pu) is 1.0 at 0.80 power
𝐺𝑏 𝐺𝑏 𝐺𝑏
factor lagging. Obtain the power angle equation and the swing
Example equation for the system. Neglet all lossess.
A 60Hz, 4pole turbo generator rated

100MVA,13.8kV has inertia constant of 10MJ/MVA
Sln
a)Find stored energy in the rotor at synchronous

The figure below shows the equivalent impedence diagram
speed
b)If the input to the generator is suddenly raised to

60MW for an electrical load of 50MW, find rotor
acceleration.
c)If the rotor acceleration calculated in part (b) is

maintained for 12cycles,find the change in torgue
angle and speed in rpm at the end of this period 0.2 𝑥 0.2
𝑥𝑒𝑞 = 0.25 + 0.15 + (0.2)+(0.1+0.1) = 0.50 p.u
d)Another generator 150MVA, having inertia
Current into bus 2 is:
constant 4MJ/MVA is put in parallel with above 1.0
I= < −36.870 = 1.25< −36.870
generator. Find the inertia constant for the 1 𝑥 0.8
equivalent generator on a base 50MVA. The voltage 𝐸𝑔 is then given by:
|𝐸𝑔 | < 𝛿 = |𝑉2 | < 00 + j𝑥𝑒𝑞 𝐼
Sln |𝐸𝑔 | < 𝛿 = 1 < 00 + 0.5 < 900 x 1.25 < −36.870
a)Stored energy = GH |𝐸𝑔 | < 𝛿 = 1 + 0.625 < 53.130
= 100MVA x 10MJ/MVA |𝐸𝑔 | < 𝛿 = 1.375 + j0.5
= 1000MJ |𝐸𝑔 | < 𝛿 = 1.463 < 200
b) 𝑷𝒐 =𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒆
= 60 -50 = 10MW |𝐸𝑔 | = 1.463 and 𝛿 = 200
𝐸𝑉 1.463 𝑥 1
From M =
𝑮𝑯
=
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟓
= MJ.se/elect.deg 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛿) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛿)
𝑋 0.5
𝝅𝒇 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝟓𝟒
Now: 𝑃𝑒 = 2.926 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛿)

𝐇 𝐝𝟐 𝛅
= ( 𝐏𝐢 − 𝐏𝐞 ) p.u
𝒅𝟐 𝜹 𝛑𝐟 𝐝𝐭 𝟐
M = 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑷𝒂
𝒅𝒕𝟐
If it is desired to work in electrical degrees, then the above equation can
𝟓 𝒅𝟐 𝜹 𝐇 𝐝𝟐 𝛅
= 10 be re-written as : = ( 𝐏𝐢 − 𝐏𝐞 ) p.u
𝟓𝟒 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝐟 𝐝𝐭 𝟐
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444.13 𝑀𝐽
Hence: 𝑷𝒊 = 1.0 p.u mechanical power input to the =
60𝑀𝑉𝐴
generator. = 7.402 MJ/MVA
𝐺𝐻 𝐺𝐻
𝑯 𝒅𝟐 𝜹 M= =
𝜋𝑓 180𝑓
= 1 - 2.926 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛿)
𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒇 𝒅𝒕𝟐 60 𝑥 106 𝑥 7.402
As a verification of the result, at steady state = = 0.049 MJ/electrical degree
180 𝑥 50
𝑷𝒊 = 𝑷𝒆 = 1
∴ 2.926 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛿) = 1 c)The Inertia constants at 50MVA
𝛿 = 200 Sln
𝐺𝐻 𝐺𝐻
M= =
𝜋𝑓 180𝑓
Example 60 𝑥 106 𝑥 7.402
Find the maximum steady- state power capability of a = = 0.049 MJ/electrical degree
180 𝑥 50
0.049
system consisting of a generator equivalent reactance Per unit inertia constant = = 9.8 𝑥 10−4 p.u
50
of 0.4 pu connected to an infinite bus through a series
reactance of 1.0pu. The terminal voltage of the
Example
generator is held at 1.0 p.u and the voltage of the
A 4 pole , 50Hz, 64MVA alternator has a moment of Inertia of
infinite bus is 1.0 pu.
𝟗. 𝟖 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟑 kg/𝐦𝟐 . Calculate the :
Sln
a)The Kinetic energy stored at the rated speed
The equivalent circuit is as shown below:
Sln
1
KE = 𝐼𝜔2 ……
2
120𝑓 120 𝑥 50
but N = = = 1500
𝑝 4
I = Moment of Inertia = 9 𝑥 103 kg/𝑚2 .
2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋 𝑥 1500
𝜔= = = 157.08
60 60
1 1
KE = 𝐼𝜔2 = 𝑥 (9 𝑥 103 )(157.08)2
2 2
= 120.9 MJ
|𝐸𝑔 | < 𝛿 = |𝑉𝑡 | < 00 + j𝑥𝑒𝑞 𝐼 …. Eqtn (i)
𝑉𝑡 −𝑉 1.1<𝜃 𝑜−1<00
I= = ……. (ii) b)The Inertia constants M and H
𝑗𝑥 𝑗1
Using eqtn (i) and (ii) Sln
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝐽
1.1<𝜃 𝑜 −1<00 H = inertia Constant =
|𝐸𝑔 | < 𝛿 = 1.1 < 𝜃 𝑜 + 𝑗0.4 ( ) 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑉𝐴
𝑗1 120.9 𝑀𝐽
𝑜
|𝐸𝑔 | < 𝛿 = 1.1𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗1.1𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 0.4 𝑥1.1 < =
64𝑀𝑉𝐴
𝑜 = 1.889 MJ/MVA
𝜃 − 0.4
𝐺𝐻 𝐺𝐻
|𝐸𝑔 | < 𝛿 = (1.54𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑜 − 0.4 ) + 𝑗1.54𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 …. M=
𝜋𝑓
=
180𝑓
Eqtn (iii) 64 𝑥 106 𝑥 1.889
Maximum steady- state power capability (limit) is = = 0.013 MJ/electrical degree
180 𝑥 50
reached when 𝛿 = 900 i.e real part of eqtn (iii) is zero.
Thus: Example
1.54𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑜 − 0.4 = 0 A 400 MVA synchronous machine has 𝑯𝟏 = 4.6 MJ/MVA and a
𝜃 𝑜 = 74.9𝑜 1200 MVA 𝑯𝟐 = 4.6 3.0 MJ/MVA. The two machines operate in
|𝐸𝑔 | = 1.54Sin 74.9𝑜 = 1.486 p.u parallel in power plant. Find out 𝑯𝒆𝒒 relative to a 100MVA base.
𝑉𝑡 = 1.1 < 74.9𝑜 Sln
|𝐸𝑔 ||𝑉| 1.486 𝑥 1.0 Taking KE of the two machines is
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 1.061 p.u KE = 4.6 x 400 + 3 x 1200 = 544MJ
(𝑥𝑑 +𝑥) 0.4+1
𝐻 𝐺 𝐻 𝐺 𝐻 𝐺
𝐻𝑒𝑞 = 1 1 + 2 2 + ………… 𝑛 𝑛
𝐺𝑏 𝐺𝑏 𝐺𝑏
Example
A two pole , 50Hz, 60MVA turbo generator has a 4.6 𝑥 400 3 𝑥1200
𝐻𝑒𝑞 = +
moment of inertia of 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 kg/𝒎𝟐 . Calculate: 100 100
a)The Kinetic energy at the rated speed
= 54.4 MJ/MVA
Sln
1
KE = 𝐼𝜔2 …… Or
2
120𝑓 120 𝑥 50
but N = = = 3000 Equivalent inertia relative to 100MVA base is
𝑝 2
I = Moment of Inertia = 9 𝑥 103 kg/𝑚2 .
2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋 𝑥 3000 𝐾𝐸 5440
𝜔= = = 314.16 𝐻𝑒𝑞 = + = 54.4 MJ/MVA
60 60 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 100
1 1
KE = 𝐼𝜔 = 𝑥 (9 𝑥 103 )(314.16)2
2
2 2 Example
= 444.13MJ A 100 MVA, two pole , 50Hz, generator has a moment of Inertia of
𝟒𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟑 kg/𝐦𝟐 . Calculate the :
b)The Inertia constants M and H
a)The Kinetic energy stored at the rated speed
Sln
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝐽 Sln
H = inertia Constant = 1 1
𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑉𝐴 KE = 𝐼𝜔2 or 𝐽𝜔2
2 2
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120𝑓 120 𝑥 50 Now from Swing equation:
but N = = = 3000 rpm
𝑝 2
I =J= Moment of Inertia = 40 𝑥 103 kg/𝑚2 . 𝑑2𝛿
2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋 𝑥 3000 𝑀𝑝.𝑢 = ( 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑒 ) p.u
𝜔= = = 314.16 𝑑𝑡 2
60 60
1 1
KE = 𝐼𝜔 = 𝑥 (40 𝑥 103 )(314.16)2
2
𝑑2𝛿
2 2 𝑀𝑝.𝑢 = 𝑃𝑎
= 1973.9MJ 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝛿 𝑃𝑎
b)Determine the inertia constant H = --------------- eqn 23
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑀
Sln 2𝑑𝛿
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝐽 Multiplying equation 23 by we have
H = inertia Constant = 𝑑𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑉𝐴 2𝑑𝛿 𝑑 2 𝛿 𝑃𝑎 2𝑑𝛿
1973.9 𝑀𝐽 . = .
= 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑀 𝑑𝑡
100 𝑀𝑉𝐴
= 19.739 MJ/MVA And upon integrating with respect to time we get
𝒅𝜹 𝟐 𝟐 𝜹
c)What is the corresponding angular Momentum M [ ] = ∫ 𝑷
𝒅𝒕 𝑴 𝜹𝒐 𝒂
𝐺𝐻 𝐺𝐻
M= = Where
𝜋𝑓 180𝑓
100 𝑥 106 𝑥 19.739 i) 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑷𝒂 (accelerating power and
= = 0.2193 MJ/electrical degree 𝜹𝒐 = Initial power angle before the rotor begins to swing because of a
180 𝑥 50
disturbance
Therefore:
𝒅𝜹
The stability criterion ( =0), implies that
𝒅𝒕
𝜹
∫𝜹 𝑷𝒂 = 0 ……………………………….Eqtn 24
𝒐
EQUAL AREA CRETERION For stability, the area under the graph of accelerating power 𝑷𝒂 versus δ
The transient stability studies, involves the must be zero for some value of δ; i.e., the positive (accelerating) area
determination as to whether or not synchronism is under the graph must be equal to the negative (decelerating) area. This
maintained after machines has been subjected to criterion is therefore know as the equal area criterion for stability and is
severe disturbance. below:
It may include:
a)Sudden application of load
b)Loss of generation
c)Loss of a large load
d)Fault occurrence on the system
Amethod Known as Equal area Criterion is used for the

predication of this case. It involves.
It involves graphical interpretation of energy stored in
the rotating mass as an aid to determine if the machine
maintains its stability after disturbance.
NOTE: It is only applicable to one machine system

connected to an infinite bus or two-machine system. Explanation
In the above diagram, point ‘a’ corresponding to the 𝛿0 is the initial
steady-state operating point.
When the input is increased to 𝑃𝑠1 , the input power will be greater
than the output power and the rotor accelerates making 𝛿 to increase.
When 𝛿 is 𝛿1 , input power is equal to the output power, and the rotor
should be running at synchronous speed, but it has gained a speed
grater than the synchronous speed over shooting to point c when
(𝛿 > 𝛿1 ), output power is more than input power and the motor
decelerates up to point (d) where it will be running at synchronous
As shown in the figure above, in an unstable speed.
system, δ increases indefinitely with time
Max Swing equation is allowed up to 𝛿𝑚
and machine looses synchronism. In a stable
system, δ undergoes oscillations, which In accordance with equation (24) for stability, equal area criterion
eventually die out due to damping. requires
However, it is clear that, for a system to be
𝒅𝜹 Area A1 = Area A2
stable, it must be that 𝒅𝒕
= 0 at some
𝒅𝟏 𝟐 𝒅
instant. ∫𝒅 (𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹) 𝒅𝜹 = ∫𝒅 (𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹 − 𝑷𝒊 )𝒅𝜹
𝟎 𝟏
….. eqtn 25
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Area A1= 𝐴𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 along bc. At time 𝒕𝒄 corresponding clearing angle 𝜹𝒄 is called
𝒅𝟏 clearance angle. After the fault is cleared, the system again becomes
= ∫𝒅 (𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹) 𝒅𝜹
𝟎 healthy and transmit power
Is the work done in moving the rotor from 𝛿0 to 𝛿1 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹 , the state point shifts to ‘’d’’ on the power angle
Area A2= 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 curve. The rotor now decelerates and the decelerating area 𝐴2 begins to
increase while the state point moves to ‘de’.
𝒅
=∫𝒅 𝟐 (𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹 − 𝑷𝒊 )𝒅𝜹
𝟏 For stability, the clearing angle 𝛿𝑐 must be such that area 𝐴1 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴2
Is the work done in moving the rotor from 𝛿1 to 𝛿2 as it
gives Kinetic energy back to the circuit In order to determine the critical angle, we start from the Swing equation
Or 𝐻 𝑑2 𝛿
= ( 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑒 ) p.u ------- eqtn i
𝑃𝑖 (𝛿1 − 𝛿0 ) + 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0) = 𝑃𝑖 (𝛿1 − 𝛿2 ) 𝜋𝑓 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿2 )……eqtn 26 When 𝑃𝑒 = 0 ,we can re-write eqtn above as :
𝐻 𝑑2 𝛿
But = 𝑃𝑖
𝜋𝑓 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑑2 𝛿 𝜋𝑓
= 𝑃𝑖 ………. Eqt (ii)
Which when substituted in equation (26), we get 𝑑𝑡 2 𝐻
𝑑𝛿
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝛿1 − 𝛿0 ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0) = Integrating eqtn ii twice and utilizing the fact that t = 0, = 0, yields
𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝛿1 − 𝛿2 ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿+ 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿2 ) ……….. Eqtn (iii)
Eqtn ……………….27 𝐼𝑓 𝒕𝒄𝒓 is the critical clearing time corresponding to a a critical clearing
On simplification equation (27) becomes angle 𝛿𝑐𝑟 then
(𝜹𝟏 − 𝜹𝟎 ) 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹𝟏 +𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜹𝟐 − 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜹𝟎 = 0 𝝅𝒇𝑷𝒊 𝟐
a) Clearing angle 𝜹𝒄 = 𝒕 + 𝜹𝟎
…… ……………… Eqt 28 𝑯
or
Cos𝜹𝒄 = Cos𝜹𝟏 + (𝜹𝟏 − 𝜹𝟎 )Sin𝜹𝒐
for critical pre-clearing angle (REF : 291 POWER SYSTEM
BY: WADHWA,C.L)
CRITICAL CLEARING ANGLE AND CRITICAL
𝟐𝑯(𝜹𝒄 − 𝜹𝟎 )
CLEARING TIME b) Clearing time 𝒕𝒄 = √
𝝅𝒇𝑷𝒊
If a fault occurs in a system, 𝛿 begins to increase under
𝝅𝒇𝑷𝒊 𝟐
the influence of positive accelerating power, and the c) Critical clearing angle 𝜹𝒄𝒓 = 𝒕 + 𝜹𝟎
𝑯
system will become unstable if 𝛿 becomes very large. Or
There is a critical angle within which the fault must be 𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 1 [(𝜋 − 2𝛿0 )𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 ]
cleared if the system is to remain stable and equal –Area
criterion is to be satisfied. This angle is known as
And
Critical Clearing angle. Consider the system in the
𝟐𝑯(𝜹𝒄𝒓 − 𝜹𝟎 )
figure below, operating with mechanical input 𝑝𝑖 at d) Critical clearing time 𝒕𝒄𝒓 = √
𝝅𝒇𝑷𝒊
steady angle 𝛿0 . (𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑜 ) as shown by the point ‘a’ on
the power angle diagram.
Example
A loss free alternator supplies 50MW to an infinite bus-bar, the
steady state limit being 100MW. Determine Using Equal Area
Criterion, Whether the alternator will remain in synchronism if the
And prime mover input is abruptly increased by 30MW.
Sln
Now if three phase short circuit occurs at the point F of

the outgoing radial line, the terminal voltage goes to zero For stability, Area A2 = Area A1
and hence the electrical power output of the generator 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿
instantly reduces to zero. But 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 100MW
𝑃𝑒 = 0 and the state point drops to ‘b’. The acceleration Thus , to find the initial 𝜹𝟎
Area 𝐴1 starts to increase while the state point moves 50𝑀𝑊 = 100𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜
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And Again to find 𝜹𝟏 , and 50 + 30 = 80MW
−1 50 0 98𝑀𝑊 = 120𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1
𝛿0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 [ ] = 30 or 0.524 Rads
100
And
𝟗𝟖
Again to find 𝜹𝟏 , and 50 + 30 = 80MW 𝜹𝟏 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 [ ] = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟕𝟓𝟎 or 0.956 Rads
𝟏𝟐𝟎
80𝑀𝑊 = 100𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1 𝛿𝑚 = 𝜋 − 𝛿1
And
𝟖𝟎 𝛿𝑚 = 180 – 54.75 = 125.250
𝜹𝟏 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 [ ] = 𝟓𝟑𝟎 or 0.927 Rads
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝛿𝑚 = 𝜋 − 𝛿1 Now we get the areas 𝑨𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟐
𝛿𝑚 = 180 – 53.13 = 126.870 Using eqtn 25
𝑑
Area 𝐴1 = ∫𝑑 1 (𝑃𝑠1 − 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿) 𝑑𝛿
Now we get the areas 𝑨𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟐 0.956
0
Using eqtn 25 𝐴1 = ∫0.623 (98 − 120𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿) 𝑑𝛿

𝑑
Area 𝐴1 = ∫𝑑 1 (𝑃𝑠1 − 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿) 𝑑𝛿 𝐴1 = [98𝛿 + 120𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿]0.956
0.623
0
0.927 𝐴1 = 98(0.924 − 0.623) + 120(𝐶𝑜𝑠54.78 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠36.69)
𝐴1 = ∫0.524 (80 − 100𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿) 𝑑𝛿 𝐴1 = 4429𝑀𝑊 rads
𝐴1 = [80𝛿 + 100𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿]0.924
0.524
𝐴1 = 80(0.924 − 0.524) + 100(𝐶𝑜𝑠53.13 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠30) Again Area 𝑨𝟐
𝐴1 = 5.64𝑀𝑊 rads 𝒅
Again Area 𝑨𝟐 Area 𝐴2 = ∫𝒅 𝒎 (𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹 − 𝑷𝒔𝒊 )𝒅𝜹
𝟏
𝒅 2.14
Area 𝐴2 = ∫𝒅 𝒎 (𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹 − 𝑷𝒔𝒊 )𝒅𝜹 𝐴2 = ∫0.956(100𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿 − 80) 𝑑𝛿
𝟏
2.214 𝐴2 = −120[𝐶𝑜𝑠125.25 − 98𝛿]2.19 0.956
𝐴2 = ∫0.927 (100𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿 − 80) 𝑑𝛿
𝐴2 = −120(𝐶𝑜𝑠 125.25 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 54.75) − 98(2.19 − 0.956)
𝐴2 = [−100𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿 − 80𝛿]2.2140.927 𝐴2 = 17.58𝑀𝑊 rad
𝐴2 = −100(𝐶𝑜𝑠 126.87 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 53.13) − 80(2.214 − Since 𝐴2 is greater than 𝐴1 , then the system remains stable.
0.927)
𝐴2 = 17.04𝑀𝑊 rads
Example
Since 𝐴2 is greater than 𝐴1 , then the system remains
stable A 50Hz, synchronious generator capable of supplying 400MW of
power is connected to alarge power systems and delivering 80MW
when a three phase fault occurs at its terminals, determine:
Example a)The time in which the fault must be cleared if the maximum power
A loss free alternator supplies 70MW to an infinite angle is −𝟖𝟓𝟎 . Assume H = 7MJ/MVA on a 100 MVA base
Bus-bar. The steady state limit of the alternator being Sln
120MW. If the Prime mover input is increased by
40% of the initial value, determine whether the 400
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0 and 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = MW
alternator will remain in synchronism 3
Sln
80
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝 = = 26.6667MW
3
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0 =
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
400
26.6667 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0
3
26.666
Sin 𝛿0 = 400 = 0.2
3
𝛿0 = 11.540 = 0.2 radians
𝛿1 = 850 = 1.48 radians
Cos𝛿𝑐 = Cos𝛿1 + (𝛿1 − 𝛿0 )Sin𝛿𝑜
for critical pre-clearing angle
Cos𝛿𝑐 =Cos(1.48) + (1.48 − 0.2)Sin (0.2)
= 0.343
𝛿𝑐 = 1.22 radians
For stability, Area A2 = Area A1
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿 From:
But 𝟐𝑯(𝜹𝒄 − 𝜹𝟎 )
Clearing time 𝒕𝒄 = √
𝝅𝒇𝑷𝒊
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 120MW
Thus , to find the initial 𝜹𝟎 𝑃𝑖 (3∅) = 80MW at abase of 100
70𝑀𝑊 = 120𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜 =
80
= 0.8p.u MW
And 100
70
𝛿0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 35.690 or 0.623 Rads 2 𝑥 7 𝑥 (1.48−0.2)
120
𝑡𝑐 = √ = 0.377 sec or 377 ms
𝜋 𝑥 50 𝑥 0.8
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a)Sudden loss of one parallel line
iv)Critical Clearing angle
Sln
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 1 [(𝜋 − 2𝛿0 )𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 ]
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 1 [(𝜋 − 2𝑥0.2)𝑆𝑖𝑛 (0.2) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0.2]
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 1 [−0.43] = 115.460 = 2.01 radians
Example
A synchronous generator, capable of developing
500MW power per phase, operates at a power
angle of 8ᵒ. By how much can the input shaft (Fig.11a Single machine tied to infinite bus through two parallel
power be increased suddenly without loss of lines)
stability? Assume that P max will remain constant Consider a single machine tied to infinite bus through parallel lines
Sln as shown in Fig. 11(a). The circuit model of the system is given in
Fig. 11(b).
Let us study the transient stability of the system when one of the lines
is suddenly switched off with the system operating at a steady load.
Before switching off, power angle curve is given by
Immediately on switching of line 2, power angle curve is given by

In Fig. 12, wherein
Initially 𝜹𝟎 = 𝟖𝟎
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0 = 500 𝑆𝑖𝑛80 = 69.6MW
Let 𝛿𝑚 be the power angle to which the rotor can swing
before losing synchronism
𝛿𝑚 = 𝜋-𝛿1
The system is operating initially with a steady state power transfer
Now eqtn 28 becoms
(𝛿𝑚 − 𝛿0 ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1+𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑚 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 = 0 at a torque angle on curve I.
(𝜋 − 𝛿1 − 𝛿0 ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1 +𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜋 − 𝛿1 ) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 = 0
Using double angle Theorem:

(𝜋 − 𝛿1 − 𝛿0 ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1 −𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 = 0 ..Eqtn (i)
And substituting :
𝛿0 = 80 = 0.14 radians
(3.14 − 𝛿1 − 0.14) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1 −𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 80 = 0
(3 − 𝛿1 ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1 −𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿1 − 0.99 = 0 ….. eqtn ii δ δ δ δ
Solving eqtn (ii) we get 𝛿1 = 500
Now (Fig. 12 Equal area criterion applied to the opening of one of the two
𝑃𝑒𝑓 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1 = 500 𝑆𝑖𝑛500 = 383.02MW lines in parallel)
Initial power developed by the machine was: 69.6W On switching off line2, the electrical operating point shifts to
Hence without loss of stability, the system can curve II (point b). Accelerating energy corresponding to area A1is
accommodate a sudden increase of put into rotor followed by decelerating energy for δ > δ 1. Assuming
𝑃𝑒𝑓 - 𝑃𝑒𝑓 = 383.02 – 69.6 = 313.42 MW per phase that an area A2 corresponding to decelerating energy (energy out of
= 3 x 313.42 = 940.3 MW (3-phase) of input power rotor) can be found such that A1 = A2, the system will be stable and
Applications of the Equal Rea Criterion will finally operate at c corresponding to a new rotor angle is needed
to transfer the same steady power.
1) Sudden Loss of One of parallel Lines: If the steady load is increased (line Pi is shifted upwards) a limit
ii) Sudden short circuit on one of parallel lines is finally reached beyond which decelerating area equal to A1 cannot
a) Short circuit at one end of line be found and therefore, the system behaves as an unstable one. For
b) Short circuit at the middle of a line
the limiting case, δ1 has a maximum value given by
𝛿1 = 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜋 − 𝛿𝑜
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b)Sudden Short Circuit on One of Parallel Lines:- clearing time tc (corresponding to clearing angle ), clearing time must
i)Short circuit at one end of line:- be less than a certain value (critical clearing time) for the system to be
Let us consider a temporary three phase bolted fault stable.
occurs at the sending end of one of the line
(2) Short circuit at the middle of a line:-
When fault occur at the middle of a line or away from line ends, there
is some power flow during the fault through considerably reduced.
Circuit model of the system during the fault is shown in fig. 15 (a).
This circuit reduces to fig. 15 (c) through one delta-star and star-delta
conversion.
The power angle curve during fault is given by:
Before the occurrence of a fault, the power angle

curve is given by
This is plotted in Fig. 12.

Upon occurrence of a three-phase fault at the
generator end of line 2 , generator gets isolated from
the power system for purpose of power flow as
shown Fig. 13 (b). Thus during the period the fault
lasts.
The rotor therefore accelerates and angles δ

increases. Synchronism will be lost unless the fault
is cleared in time. The circuit breakers at the two
ends of the faulted line open at time tc
(corresponding to angle δc), the clearing time,
disconnecting the faulted line. The power flow is
now restored via the healthy line (through higher line
reactance X2 in place of ( ), with power
angle curve
and as in Fig. 12 and as obtained above are all plotted in

Fig. 16.
(Fig. 16 Fault on middle of one line of the system with δ c < δcr)
(Fig. 14 Equal area criterion applied to the system) Accelerating area A1 corresponding to a given clearing angle is less
in this case. Stable system operation is shown in Fig. 16, wherein it is
Obviously, . The rotor now starts
decelerate as shown in Fig 14. The system will be stable possible to find an area A2 equal to A1 for . As the clearing
if a decelerating area A2 can be found equal to angle is increased, area A1 increases and to find A2 = A1,
accelerating area A1before δ reaches the maximum increases till it has a value , the maximum allowable for stability.
allowable value . As area A1 depends upon This case of critical clearing angle is shown in Fig. 17.
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𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜
(Fig. 17 Fault on middle on one line of the
And
system)
𝑃𝑖
Applying equal area criterion to the case of 𝛿0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑒
critical clearing angle of Fig. 17, we can write 1 𝝅
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 or
2 𝟔
Again:
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1
Where 𝑃
𝜹𝟏 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 [ 𝑖 ]
𝑃𝑐
−1 1
…(68 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 [ ] = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟖𝟏𝟎
1.5
Integrating we get :
𝛿𝑚 = 𝜋 − 𝛿1
𝛿𝑚 = 180 – 𝟒𝟔. 𝟖𝟏𝟎 = 133.20 or 2.412 rads

𝜋
𝑃1 (𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝛿0 )−𝑃𝑚𝑎𝐼𝐼 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 + 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 180
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼𝐼𝐼 −𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼𝐼
1.0 (2.412−0.524)−0.5𝐶𝑜𝑠30+ 1.5𝐶𝑜𝑠 138.7
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 =
1.5 −0.5
= 0.3369
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 [0.3369] = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟎
This critical clearing angle is in radian. The equation

Example
modifies as below if the angles are in degree An alternator supplying an infinite bus-bar through two
transmission lines operating in parallel, the steady state limit being
100MW. If one of the line is suddenly switched off when
transmitting 80MW, use the equal area criterion to determine
whether the system will remain stable.
Sln
For the two transmission line:
2x 100 =200MW
Examples
A generator generating at 50Hz delivers 1.0 per units
power to an infinite bus-bar through a transmission
line in which the resistance is ignored. A fault takes
place reducing the current of the power transferable
to 0.5 per unit power, whereas before the fault, there
power was 2.0 per unit. After the clearance of the
fault, it will be 1.5 per unit. Use equal area criterion
to determine the Critical angle.
Sln
Reference to fig 17 above :
𝑃𝑖 = 1.0 pu (power input)
𝑃𝑑𝑢𝑟 = 0.5 pu (during-fault)
𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑒 = 2.0 pu (pre-fault)
𝑃𝑐 = 1.5 pu (post- fault) 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿
But
Thus , to find the initial 𝜹𝟎
80𝑀𝑊 = 200𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜
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And 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0 = 0.45𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝛿0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 −1
[
80 0
] = 23.38 or 0.1420 Rads 𝛿0 = 26.740 or 0.466 radians
200
|𝐸𝑔 ||𝑉𝑡 |
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑥𝑑
Again to find 𝜹𝟏 , When the fault occurs, |𝑉𝑡 | becomes 0.25|𝑉𝑡 |
80𝑀𝑊 = 100𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1 And Hence 𝐾1 = 0.25
𝟖𝟎
𝜹𝟏 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 [ ] = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝟎 or 0.927 Rads
𝟏𝟎𝟎
After the fault is cleared, 𝐾2 = 0.7, we have
Now we get the areas 𝑨𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟐 𝑃𝑖 = 𝐾2 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑚 ′
𝑃𝑖
Using eqtn 25 𝛿𝑚 ′ = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑑 𝐾2 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
Area 𝐴1 = ∫𝑑 1(𝑃𝑠1 − 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿) 𝑑𝛿
0
0.927 0.45𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴1 = ∫0.412 (80 − 100𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿) 𝑑𝛿 𝛿𝑚 ′ = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 or 0.698 radian
0.70 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴1 = [80𝛿 + 100𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿]0.927
0.412 ′
𝛿𝑚 = 𝜋 − 𝛿𝑚
𝐴1 = 80(0.927 − 0.412) + 100(𝐶𝑜𝑠53.13 −
𝐶𝑜𝑠23.58)
𝛿𝑚 = 180 – 𝟒𝟎𝟎 = 140 or 2.443 radians
𝐴1 = 9.549𝑀𝑊 rads
Again Area 𝑨𝟐 𝐼𝑛 this case:

𝝅 1
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 = [(𝛿𝑚 − 𝛿0 )𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0 + 𝐾2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑚 − 𝐾1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 ]
𝐾2 −𝐾1
Area 𝐴2 = 2 ∫ (𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹 − 𝑷𝒔𝒊 )𝒅𝜹
𝟐
𝒅𝟏 1
𝝅
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 = [(140 − 26.74)𝑆𝑖𝑛26.74 + 0.7𝐶𝑜𝑠140 − 0.25𝐶𝑜𝑠26.74]
0.7−0.25
𝐴2 = 2 ∫0.927(100𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿 − 80) 𝑑𝛿
𝟐
𝝅 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 0.29
𝟐
𝐴2 = 2[−100𝐶𝑜𝑠90 − 80𝛿]0.927
𝝅
𝐴2 = 2(−100𝐶𝑜𝑠 90 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 53.13) − 80( − 0.927)
𝟐
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 [0.29] = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟒.𝟎 or 1.276 radians
𝐴2 = 16.99𝑀𝑊 rad
Since 𝐴2 is greater than 𝐴1 , then the system remains
stable. Example
A generator operating at 60Hz delivers 1 pu MW power. Suddenly a
Example three fault takes place reducing the maximum power transferable to
Asynchronious generator is connected to a large 0.40 p.u. MW where as before the fault, this power was 1.80 p.u MW
power system and supplying 0.45 pu MW of its and after the clearance the fault, it is 1.30 p.u MW. Determine the
critical clearing angle.
maximum power capacity. A three phase fault occurs
Sln
and effective terminal voltage of the generator We know from the ratios:
becomes 25% of its value before the fault. When the 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡
𝐾1 =
faults is cleared, generator is delivering 70% of the 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡
original maximum value. Determine the critical 𝐾2 =
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡
clearing angle.
Sln 𝑃𝑖 = 1.0 pu (power input)
𝑃𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 before the fault = 1.80 p.u MW
𝑃𝑑𝑢𝑟 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 during the fault = 0.4 p.u MW
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 After the fault = 1.30 p.u MW
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 0.4

𝐾1 = = = 0.222
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 1.8
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 0.3
𝐾2 = = = 0.722
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜
And
𝑃𝑖
We know from the ratios: 𝛿0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑒
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡
𝐾1 = 1
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟓𝟎 or 0.589 radians
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 1.80
𝐾2 =
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡
Again:
𝛿0 = Power angle at the time of the fault
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑚 ′
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = Critical power angle when fault is cleared
𝛿𝑚 = maximum angle of swing 𝑃
𝛿𝑚 ′ = 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 [ 𝑖 ]
𝑃𝑐
1
The generator is supplying 0.45 p.u MW of 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟎 or 0.877 radians
1.30
therefore,
91 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775
𝛿𝑚 = 𝜋 − 𝛿𝑚 ′
𝛿𝑚 = 180 – 𝟓𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟎 = 129.710 or 2.264 rads Example
1
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 = [(𝛿𝑚 − 𝛿0 )𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0 + 𝐾2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑚 − 𝐾1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 ] Asynchronous motor is receiving 35% of the power that is capable
𝐾2 −𝐾1
1
[(129.71 − 33.75)𝑆𝑖𝑛33.75 + 0.72𝐶𝑜𝑠129.71 − of receiving from an infinite bus. If the load is doubled, determine
0.722−0.222
0.222𝐶𝑜𝑠33.75]
the maximum value of the load angle.
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 0.567 Sln
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 [0.567] = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟒𝟓.𝟎 or 0.968 radians 𝑃𝑖0 = 0.35𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃
𝛿0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ 𝑎′0 ] = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 (0.35) = 0.357 radian
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
Example 𝑃𝑖 = 2 𝑥 0.35 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.70 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
Figure 1 below show a power system having two 𝑃𝑖
𝛿1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 (0.7) = 0.775 radian
parallel lines of reactance 𝑿𝟏 and 𝑿𝟐 . The System is 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
operating in equilibrium with a power of 1.5pu. If 𝛿2 is the maximum value of load angle during the swinging of the rotor.
faults occurs at appoint P and the affected line is Cos𝛿0 = Cos𝛿2 + (𝛿2 − 𝛿0 )Sin𝛿1
switched out immediately, Determine whether the (𝛿2 − 𝛿0 )Sin𝛿1 + Cos𝛿2 - Cos𝛿0 = 0
0.7(𝛿2 − 0.357) + Cos𝛿2 – Cos 0.357 = 0
system will be stable or Not
0.7𝛿2 – 0.25 + Cos𝛿2 – 0.936 = 0
0.7𝛿2 + Cos𝛿2 = 1.186
Solving the above equation, we get
𝛿2 = 1.25 rad or 720
Example
A 50Hz Synchronous generator supplies 600MW of power and is
Sln connected to a power system delivering 100MW. The maximum
When both two lines are operating: power angle - 𝟖𝟔𝟎 . A three phase fault occurs at its terminal. Take
|𝐸||𝑉| H = 10MJ/MVA on 100MVA base.
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑋 Determine (9mks)
|1.2||1|
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅1 𝑥 𝑅2 i)Initial Input Power
0.2+
𝑅1+𝑅2
|1.2||1| 1.2 Sln
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.4 𝑥 0.4 = = 3.0 pu 100
0.2+
0.4+0.4
0.2+0.2 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝 = = 33.3MW
3
When only one line is operating
|1.2||1| 1.2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 2.0 p.u ii)Pre-Clrearing angle
0.2+𝑅1 0.2+0.4
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0

Now lets sketch 600
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 200MW
3
33.33 = 200𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0
33.33
Sin 𝛿0 =
200
𝛿0 = 9.60 = 0.17 radians
𝛿1 = 860 = 1.5 radians
Cos𝛿𝑐 = Cos𝛿1 + (𝛿1 − 𝛿0 )Sin𝛿𝑜 for critical pre-clearing angle
Cos𝛿𝑐 =Cos(1.5) + (1.5 − 0.17)Sin (0.17)
= 0.071 + 0.225
= 0.296
Hence: 𝛿𝑐 = 1.27 radians
1.5 = 3𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜
And iii)Critical clearing time
1.5 2𝐻(𝛿1 −𝛿0 )
𝛿0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 300 or 0.76 Rads 𝑡𝑐 = √
𝜋𝑓𝑃𝑖
3
𝑃𝑖 (3∅) = 100MW at abase of 100
100
Again to find 𝜹𝟏 , = = 1 p.u MW
100
1.5 = 2𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1 2 𝑥 10 𝑥 (1.27−0.17)
And 𝑡𝑐 = √ = 0.37 sec
𝜋 𝑥 50 𝑥 1
𝟏.𝟓
𝜹𝟏 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 [ ] = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟓𝟗𝟎 or 0.842 Rads
𝟐
iv)Critical Clearing angle
Sln
Proceed by finding the following:
𝑑 𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 1 [(𝜋 − 2𝛿0 )𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 ]
Area 𝐴1 = ∫𝑑 1(𝑃𝑠1 − 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿) 𝑑𝛿 𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 1 [(𝜋 − 2𝑥0.17)𝑆𝑖𝑛 0.17 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0.17]
0
And 𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 1 [(𝜋 − 2𝑥0.17)𝑆𝑖𝑛 0.17 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0.17]
Area 𝑨𝟐 𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 1 [−0.52] = 58.70 = 1.029 radians
𝝅
Area 𝐴2 = 2 ∫𝒅𝟐 (𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹 − 𝑷𝒔𝒊 )𝒅𝜹
𝟏
92 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

Factors Affecting Transient Stability:- METHODS OF IMPROVING TRANSIENT STABILITY
And Methods of improving Steady state stability limit a)Use of generator of high Inertia and low reactance – Improves the
(SSSL) transient stability , However, generator of this type is costly
1)Operating the system at higher Voltages
2)Reducing the net reactance of the system by: b)Any measure to increase the steady state stability limit 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 – will
 Use of double circuit lines or Parallel line improve the transient stability limit. Increase of 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 increase the
 Mid point compensation critical clearing time. Thus increases of either or both V and E and
 Use of Series compensation of lines reduction of X improves the transient stability.
 Use of Bundle Conductors
3.By increasing Inertia constant i. Double circuit line
4)Fast switching ii. Bundle condutors
5)Single pole switching iii. Series capacitors
6)high speed fault clearing Are commonly used.
7)Breaking Resistors c)Rapid Isolation of Faults is the principle way of improving
8)Use of short circuit current limiters
transient stability. Therefore High speed relaying of circuit and
9)Full load rejection techniques
10)High speed re-closer of circuit breaker breaking are over commonly utilized to improve stability during fault
11)Static VAR compensators and flexible ac conditions.
transmission systems (FACTs) Use of circuit breakers reclose automatic fault detects.
12)Fast valving or By-pass valving
METHODS OF IMPROVING STEADY

STATE STABILITY
The steady state stability limit is given by d)High- speed excitation systems
𝑽𝑬
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = Helps to maintain synchronism during a fault by quickly increasing the
𝑿
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 can be increased by increasing either or both V excitation voltage. High speed governors helps by quickly adjusting the
and E and reducing X. generator input to the load
e) If some generators are disconnected or immediately after afault ,

1)Use of double circuit Line – The impedance of a the stability of the remaining generator is improved. Similarly,
double line is less than that of a single circuit line. A disconnection of some consumers i.e Automatic loading is useful in
double circuit line doubles the transmission capability. improving stability.
It also maintains the continuity of supply over one line
with reduced capability when other line is out of service Example
for maintenance. 4a)State three methods used to improve power system transient
stability (3mks)
2)Use of Bundle Conductors
KNEC O/N 2022
Bundling of Conductors reduces to a considerable extent
i)Use of high system voltage,small line series reactances and leakage
the level of reactance and so increases the power limits
reactances
the line.
ii)Use of static Var compensators
iii)Series capacitive line compensators
3)Series Compensation of the line reactance
iv)High speed fault clearing
The inductive reactance of line can be reduced by
v)High speed re-closures of C.B.S
connecting static capacitors in series with line. It is to be
𝑉𝐸 vi)High speed valving ofreactors
noted that 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = does not increase indefinitely as x
𝑋 vii)Fast response,high gains exciters
is reduced. viii)Using breaking resistors
The Optimum condition is X = √3 R b)Derive an expression for moment of Inertia for synchronous
X = Z = impedance machine in power system stability analysis
4)Use of Synchronous Phase Modifier (5mks)
It can be installed in intermediate substations to increase
Sln
the power limit
The Kinetic energy of the rotor of the synchronous machine in terms of
5)Use of Machine of low impedance electrical angle is
Machines of lower inherent impedances also enable the 𝟏
transmission capacity to be increased KE = 𝐉𝛚𝐬 𝟐 …………………. (i)
𝟐
Where, J = rotor Moment of inertia

𝜔𝑠 = Synchronous speed
𝑃
Speed in electrical radians 𝜔𝑠𝑒 = ( ) 𝜔𝑠 …..(ii)
2
P = Number of poles
Equating eqtn (i) and (ii)
93 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775
𝟏 2 Stability Classification at a Glance (NOT NECESSARY)
KE = 𝐉 [( )2 𝜔𝑠𝑒 × 10−6 ] . 𝜔𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝐽
𝟐 𝑝
Or
𝟏 2
KE = 𝐉 [( )2 𝜔𝑠𝑒 × 10−6 ] . 𝜔𝑠𝑒
𝟐 𝑝
Or
𝟏
KE = 𝐌𝛚𝐬𝐞 MJ
𝟐
𝑃
Where: M = J× ( )2 𝜔𝑠 × 10−6 Moment of inertia in
2
MJsec/elect.rad
c)A generator operating at 50Hz, delivers 2.pu MW

power. A three phase faults occurs reducing the
maximum power to 0.6 p.uM.W. Before the fault, the
power is 2.8p.uMW and after clearing the fault, the
power drops to 2.2puMW. Determine the
i)Ratio of maximum power during and after fault 𝑲𝟏

sln Rotor Angle Stability
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 0.6  Rotor angle stability refers to the ability of synchronous machines of
𝐾1 = = = 0.214 an interconnected power system to remain in synchronism after being
subjected to a disturbance.
ii) Ratio of maximum power during and before fault  Rotor angle instability occurs due to angular swings of some
𝑲𝟐 generators leading to their loss of synchronism with other
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 2.2 generators.
𝐾2 = = = 0.786  Depends on the ability to maintain/restore equilibrium between
electromagnetic torque and mechanical torque of each synchronous
iii)Maximum rotor angle 𝜹𝒎 machine.
Sln  At equilibrium, Input mechanical torque equals output
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑚 ′ electromagnetic torque of each generator. In case of any disturbance
the above equality doesn’t hold leading to acceleration/ deceleration
2 = 2.2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑚 ′ of rotors of machines.
2
𝛿𝑚 ′ = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟒𝟎
2.2
′
Rotor Angle Stability Classification
𝛿𝑚 = 180 – 𝟔𝟓. 𝟒 = 114.6 𝟎 0 1.Small Disturbance Rotor Angle Stability:
 It is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism under

small disturbances.
iv)Initial power angle 𝜹𝒐  Disturbances are considered to be sufficiently small such that the
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0 linearization of system equations is permissible for purposes of
2 = 2.8 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0 analysis.
2
𝛿0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟔𝟎  The time frame of interest in small-disturbance stability studies is of
2.8
the order of 10 to 20 seconds following a disturbance.
2.Large Disturbance Rotor Angle Stability:
 It is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism under
v)Critical clearing angle 𝜹𝒄 a severe disturbance, such as a short circuit on a transmission line.
1
𝐾2 −𝐾1
[(𝛿𝑚 − 𝛿0 )𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0 + 𝐾2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑚 − 𝐾1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 ]  Disturbances are large so that the linearization of system equations
1
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 = [(114.6 − 45.6)𝑆𝑖𝑛45.6 + 0.786𝐶𝑜𝑠114.6 − is not permissible for purposes of analysis.
0.786−0.214
0.214𝐶𝑜𝑠45.6]  The time frame of interest in small-disturbance stability studies is of
the order of 3 to 5 seconds following a disturbance.
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 0.669
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 [0.669] = 𝟒𝟖.𝟎

Voltage Stability
Power System Stability Classification  Voltage stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain
1.Rotor angle stability. steady voltages at all buses in the system after being subjected to a
i. Small disturbance angle stability. disturbance from a given initial operating condition.
ii. Transient stability.  A system voltage is unstable if for at least one bus in the system, the
2.Voltage stability. voltage magnitude decreases as reactive power injection is
i. Small disturbance voltage stability. increased.
ii. Large disturbance voltage stability.  Voltage instability results in progressive fall or rise of voltages of
3.Frequency stability. some buses.
i. Short term frequency stability.  Large scale effect of voltage instability leads to Voltage collapse. It
ii. Long term frequency stability is a process by which the sequence of events accompanying voltage
94 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

instability leads to a blackout or abnormally low
voltages in a significant part of the power system.
 The driving force for voltage instability is usually
the loads.
 Voltage stability problems is also experienced at
terminals of HVDC links connected to weak ac
systems
Voltage Stability Classification

a)Small Disturbance Voltage Stability:
i. Small-disturbance voltage stability refers to the

system’s ability to maintain steady voltages when
subjected to small disturbances such as incremental
changes in system load.
ii. A combination of both linear and non-linear
techniques are used for analysis.
b)Large Disturbance Voltage Stability:

Large-disturbance voltage stability refers to the system’s
ability to maintain steady voltages following large
disturbances such as system faults, loss of generation, or
circuit contingencies.
The study period of interest may extend from a few
seconds to tens of minutes.
c)Frequency Stability
Frequency stability refers to the ability of a power
system to maintain steady frequency following a severe
system upset resulting in a significant imbalance
between generation and load.
Frequency instability leads to tripping of generating
units and/or loads.
Frequency stability may be a short-term phenomenon or
a long-term phenomenon.
Rotor Angle Stability vs. Voltage Stability

Rotor angle stability is basically a generator stability
while voltage stability means load stability.
Rotor angle stability is mainly interlinked to real power
transfer whereas voltage stability is mainly related to
reactive power transfer
95 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

POWER SYSTEMS
AND
KNEC PAST PAPERS
Revision Questions
&
Answer
96 | P a g e BY: JOSEPH ODIPO

POWER SYSTEMS AND c)Draw a labelled equivalent circuit diagram of
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY magnetic core balance protection scheme (5mks)
KNEC POWER SYSTEMS AND EMFT It consists of an iron armature fastened to a
REVISION balance beam.
1:PROTECTION
FUSES AND CIRCUIT
BREAKERS/VOLTAGE SURGE
OCTOBER/NOV 2016
1.a)State three general requirements of any
power protection system (3mks)
i. Reliability
ii. Selectivity
iii. Speed Under normal operating conditions, the current
iv. Sensitivity through the relay coil is such that the beam is held in
the horizontal position by the spring. How- ever,
b)i)With the aid of a diagram, describe the when a fault occurs, the current through the relay
graded time protection in power systems (9mks) coil becomes greater than the pickup value and the
It involves time setting of relays in so graded beam is attracted to close the trip circuit. This
manner that in the event of fault, the smallest causes the opening of the circuit breaker to isolate
possible part of the system is isolated. This can be the faulty circuit.
illustrated by the use of definite time relay shown
below. 2.State two advantages of miniature circuit
breakers over high rupturing capacity fuses
(2mks)
i) Circuit breaker only trips to isolate the
fault circuit unlike the HRC fuse that have
to be replaced after each operation.
ii) In MCB Heat produced by the arc does
not affect the associated switches unlike
HRC fuse where heat affects the
associated switches
The time of operation of each relay is fixed and is iii) Circuit breaker can be used to operate
independent of the operating current. Thus relay D more than one phase.
has an operating time of 0·5 second while for other
relays, time delay is successively increased by 0·5 3a)State any three advantages of Zinc Oxide
second. If a fault occurs in the section DE, it will Surge Diverters Over Silicon Surge Diverter
be cleared in 0·5 second by the relay and circuit (3mks)
breaker at D because all other relays have higher
operating time. In this way only section DE of the
system will be isolated. If the relay at D fails to trip,
the relay at C will operate after a time delay of 0·5
second i.e. after 1 second from the occurrence of
fault.
Applicable to :
1)Radial feeder
2)Parallel feeder
3)Ring main system
4a) Define the following terms with reference to
ii)Explain three disadvantages of the protection protection:
system in (bi) above (3mks) i)Selectivity (1mk)
i. Continuity of supply cannot be maintained It is the ability of the protective system to select
at the receiving end in the event of a fault correctly that part of the system in trouble and
ii. In case there are a number of feeders in disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the
series, the tripping time for faults near the rest of the system
supply end becomes high.
iii. It is expensive in that it may require two ii)Pick – up current (1mk)
parallel feeders to be installed where It is the minimum current in the relay coil at
continuity of supply is necessary which the relay starts to operate.

1200
iii)sensitivity 1mk) Min. Earth fault current =
5
x 0.6 = 144A
It is the ability of the relay system to operate with
low value of actuating quantity. E.mf induced in the x % winding
𝑥
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
100
𝑥
b)State two disadvantages of a voltage balance = 6350.85 x = 63.5085x
100
differential relay (2mks)
i)A multi-gap transformer construction is required
to achieve the accurate balance between current Therefore : 144 A =
=
63.5085𝑥
transformer pairs. 5.2 5.2

63.5085x = 144 x 5.2
ii)The system is suitable for protection of cables of x=
144 𝑥 5.2
= 11.79
63.5085
relatively short lengths due to the capacitance of
pilot wires. On long cables, the charging current
may be sufficient to operate the relay even if a 5a; State any four causes of high voltage surges
perfect balance of current transformers is attained. on transmission lines (4mks) KNEC O/N 2018
i. Direct and indirect lightning strokes
ii. Open circuited lines
c)With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe
iii. Short circuited lines
the construction and operation of a core-balance
iv. Load interruptions
leakage protection scheme (8mks)
v. Arching ground lines
6a)Explain the following types of protective

systems (4mks) KNEC O/N 2018
i) Main protection
An earth-fault usually involves a partial

breakdown of winding insulation to earth. The
resulting leakage current is considerably less ii) Back-up protection
than the short-circuit current. The earth-fault
may continue for a long time and cause
considerable damage before it ultimately
develops into a short-circuit and removed from
the system. Under these circumstances, it is
profitable to employ earth-fault relays in order
to ensure the disconnection of earth-fault or
leak in the early stage. An earth-fault relay is b)With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe
essentially an overcurrent relay of low setting the construction and operation of a balanced
and operates as soon as an earth-fault or leak earth fault protection system. (8mks)
develops. One method of protection against
earth-faults in a transformer is the core-
balance leakage protection
d)A three-Phase, 10MVA, 11kV, star- connected

alternator is protected by the MerZ-price
system of protection. If the ratio of the current
transformer is 1200/5, the minimum operating
current of the relay is 0.6A and the neutral point
earthing resistance is 5.2Ω. Calculate the An earth-fault usually involves a partial
percentage of each phase of the stator winding breakdown of winding insulation to earth. The
which is unprotected against each fault. (7mks)
sln resulting leakage current is considerably less
Let x% of the winding be unprotected. than the short-circuit current. The earth-fault
Earthing resistance R = 5.2Ω may continue for a long time and cause
sln considerable damage before it ultimately
11 𝑥 103 develops into a short-circuit and removed from
𝑉𝑝 = = 6350.85V
√3
Min. fault current which will operate the relay = Current ratio x the system. Under these circumstances, it is
minimum operating relay current: profitable to employ earth-fault relays in order
Therefore: to ensure the disconnection of earth-fault or
leak in the early stage. An earth-fault relay is

essentially an overcurrent relay of low setting
and operates as soon as an earth-fault or leak
develops. One method of protection against
earth-faults in a transformer is the core-
balance leakage protection
c)A 60MVA,11kV, three phase star connected

alternator has an armature reactance and
synchronous resistance per phase of 2.1Ω and
0.7Ω respectively. The alternator is protected by Valve type arresters incorporate non-linear
Merz-price balanced current system which resistors and are extensively used on systems
operates when out of balanced current exceeds operating at high voltages. Fig. 24.13 (i) shows the
15% of the full load current. If the star-point of various parts of a valve type arrester. It consists of
the alternator is earthed through a resistor of two assemblies (i) series spark gaps and (ii) non-
5.5Ω per phase, determine the proportion of the linear resistor discs (made of material such as
alternator armature winding which remains thyrite or metrosil) in series. The non-linear
unprotected. (8mks) elements are connected in series with the spark
sln gaps. Both the assemblies are accommodated in
NOTE: Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 60MVA tight porcelain container.
Where 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 1 (unity), then Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴 i)The spark gap is a multiple assembly consisting of
60 𝑥 106 60 𝑥 106
Full load current 𝐼𝐿 = = = 3149.2A a number of identical spark gaps in series. Each
√3 𝑥 𝑉𝐿 √3 𝑥11000
Therefore: gap consists of two electrodes with a fixed gap
Out of balance current is: spacing. The voltage distribution across the gaps
15
Min. Earth fault current = 3149.2 x
100
= 472.4A is linearised by means of additional resistance
Let x% of the winding be unprotected. elements (called grading resistors) across the gaps.
110 00
𝑉𝑝 = = 6350.85V The spacing of the series gaps is such that it will
√3
withstand the normal circuit voltage. However, an
Earthing resistance R = 5.5Ω overvoltage will cause the gap to breakdown,
Impedance of x% winding = (0.7 + 𝑗2.1)
𝑥 causing the surge current to ground via the non-
100
linear resistors.
0.7𝑥 2.1𝑥 ii)The non-linear resistor discs are made of an
= [(5.5 + )+𝑗 ]
100 100 inorganic compound such as Thyrite or Metrosil.
E.mf induced in the x % winding These discs are connected in series. The non-linear
𝑥 resistors have the property of offering a high
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
100
= 6350.85 x
𝑥
= 63.5085x resistance to current flow when normal system
100
voltage is applied, but a low resistance to the flow
Earth fault current due to x% winding = 472.4 A of high-surge currents. In other words, the
Therefore : 472.4A = 0.7𝑥 2.1𝑥 = 0.7𝑥 2.1𝑥 resistance of these non-linear elements decreases
[(5.5 + )+𝑗 ] [(5.5+ )+𝑗 ]
Neglecting the reactance of the winding
100 100 100 100
with the increase in current through them and vice-
472.4A =
63.5085𝑥 versa
0.7𝑥
[(5.5 + )]
100
0.7𝑥
b)With the aid of a labelled typical voltage surge
472.4 (5.5 + ) = 63.5085x 𝟏
100 waveform, describe the voltage surge (4mks)
2598.2 + 3.3068x = 63.5085x 𝟔𝟎
2598.2
x= = 43.15%
60.2017
7a)Explain three functions of spark gaps of

valve-type surge arrestor (6mks)
KNEC J/J 2019
i)In case of over-voltage, the gap breaks down
causing current to ground through the non-linear
resistors bi)With reference to protective relays, explain
ii)Offers high resistances to the flow of current but the following terms: (6mks)
low resistance to flow of surge I)Pick up current
It is the minimum current in the relay coil at
which the relay starts to operate.
II)Plug –setting multiplier

It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the
pick-up current i.e.
𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙
P.S.M = .
𝑃𝑖𝑐𝑘−𝑢𝑝 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

III)Current setting Sensitivity of a relay is a function of the volt-
It is the adjustment of pick-up current to any amperes input to the coil of the relay necessary to
required value. and is usually achieved by the cause its operation. The smaller the volt-ampere
use of tapings on the relay operating coil input required to cause relay operation, the more
sensitive is the relay. Thus, a 1 VA relay is more
ii)With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe sensitive than a 3 VA relay.
the operation of induction type directional d)Reliability. It is the ability of the relay system to
power relay (8mks) operate under the pre-determined conditions.
This type of relay operates when power in the e)Simplicity. The relaying system should be simple
circuit flows in a specific direction. Unlike a *non- so that it can be easily maintained. The simpler the
directional overcurrent relay, a directional power protection scheme, the greater will be its reliability.
relay is so designed that it obtains its operating f)Economy. The relay chosen to be used should be
torque by the interaction of magnetic fields derived economical.
from both voltage and current source of the circuit
it protects. Thus this type of relay is essentially a ii)Factors to consider when selecting a protective
wattmeter and the direction of the torque set up in system for a transformer (6mks)
the relay depends upon the direction of the current
relative to the voltage with which it is associated. (a) Size of the transformer
(b) Type of cooling
(c) Location of transformer in the network
(d) Nature of load supplied and
(e) Importance of service for which transformer is
required
b)With the aid of a labelled diagram, explain the

operation of Merz-price circulating current
system as used in alternators (6mks)
c)A three phase transformer having line –

voltage ratio 415/11kV is connected in star-delta
and protective transformers on the 415 V side It is the most common system used for the
have a current ratio of 600/6A. Determine the protection of stator winding faults. It involves
current ratio of the protective transformers on comparing currents at the two ends of the
the 11kV side (6mks) protected section. Under normal operating
conditions, these currents are equal but may
become unequal on the occurrence of a fault in the
protected section. The difference of the currents
under fault conditions is arranged to pass through
the operating coil of the relay. The relay then closes
its contacts to isolate protected section from the
system. This form of protection is also known as
Merz-Price circulating current scheme.
c)A three phase 6.6kV star connected

alternators is protected by Merz-price
5a) State three: KNEC J/J 2020 circulating current system. If the current ratio
i)requirements of line protection of the current transformer is 300/1 A, the
a)Selectivity. It is the ability of the protective system synchronous reactance of the alternator is
to select correctly that part of the system in trouble 5.0Ω/phase, the minimum operating current for
and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the relay is 0.5A and the neutral point is earthed
the rest of the system. through a 2Ω non inductive resister, calculate
b)Speed. The relay system should disconnect the the:
faulty section as fast as possible for the following i)Percentage of each stator winding which is
reasons : protected against earth fault when the machine
c)Sensitivity. It is the ability of the relay system to is opening at normal voltage (4mks)
operate with low value of actuating quantity.
100 | P a g e BY: JOSEPH

ODIPO
Let x% of the winding be unprotected. produces a bias force in opposite direction to the
Earth resistance is 2Ω operating force.
6.6 𝑥 103
𝑉𝑝 = = 3810.5V b)Describe two essential characteristics of a
√3
Therefore: protection relay system (4mks)
300
1
a)Reliability – should be able to operate all the
times under any kind of faults and abnormal
E.mf induced in the x % winding conditions of the power system it is designed for
𝑥
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
100
𝑥
b)Selectivity – Ability of protective system to
= 3810.5 x = 38.1x determine the point at which the fault occurs and
100
select the nearest Circuit Breaker(CB) to trip
which will lead to fault clearance
Therefore :150A =
5𝑥 =
38.1𝑥
5𝑥
c)Descrimination
2 +𝑗100 2 +𝑗 100
d)Speed
Negleting reactance resistance
38.1x = 150 x 2
e)Simplicity
x=
150 𝑥 2
= 7.87%
f)Economic
38.1
g)stability
ii)Maximum resistance to provide protection for c)With aid of a diagram, describe the operation
95% of the stator winding (8mks) of induction type over current relay (5mks)
Let RΩ be the maximum earthing resistance.
The overcurrent relay operate when the current in
Resistance required providing protection for 95% of the stator the circuit exceeds a certain present value.
windings, then, it implies that, only 5% is unprotected.
i.e 5%
The torque is produced due to induction principle
which is opposed by restraining force producing by
Earth fault current due to 5 % winding = 150 A spiral springs.
𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝐸) 𝑥 38.1 𝑥
Under normal conditions, the restraining forces is
Therefore : 150A = = more than driving force hence distance remains
𝑅 𝑅
But x = 5 stationary.
38.1 𝑥 5
150 = Under fault condition when current increases, the
𝑅
3.81 𝑥 10
R=
150
= 1.27Ω disc rotates through apresent angle and makes
contact with fixed contacts of trip circuit.
A 66kV, 3phase, 50Hz , 50km Long has a The trip circuit opens the circuit breakers, isolating
capacitance to earth of 0.0016𝝁F/km per phase. the faulty parts from the healthy system
Determine. (6mks)
I)Line Impedance
Sln
𝑉𝐿 = 66kV , f = 50Hz , l = 50km and C = 0.016 x
10−6 x 50 = 0.8𝜇𝐹
1
Line inductance (L) = 2
3𝜔 𝐶
1
L= = 4.22H
3(2𝜋𝑓)2 𝑥0.8 𝑥 10−6
II)Capacitance Current
𝑉 66000 66000
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐿 = = = 28.74A
𝑋𝐿 √3𝑥 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 √3𝑥 2𝜋 𝑥 50 𝑥 4.22
III)KVA rating of the Arc Suppression Coil.

28.74 𝑥 66𝑘
KVA rating of the suppression coil =
√3
= 1095 kVA
d)A 6000kVA, 3300V, Star connected alternator
4a)With reference to protection system, Explain has asynchronous reactance of 4Ω and
each of the following: (4mks) resistance of 0.6Ω per phase. It is protected
i)Unit system using the MertZ price Balanced current system,
Sln which operates when out of balanced current
Unit protection system is one in which only faults exceeds 40% of the load current. Determine the
occurring within its protected zone are isolated. : (7mks)
Faults occurring elsewhere in the system have no i)Out of balance current
influence on the operation of the operation of the sln
system. NOTE: Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 6MVA
ii)Biased Differential bus Zone reduction Where 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 1 (unity), then Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴
Its designed to respond to the differential current in 6 𝑥 106 6 𝑥 106
terms of its fractional relation to the current Full load current 𝐼𝐿 = = = 1050A
√3 𝑥 𝑉𝐿 √3 𝑥3300
flowing through the protected zone. A straining coil Therefore:

ODIPO
Out of balance current is: ii)In this method there is an inherent phase
40
Min. Earth fault current = 1050 x = 420A difference between the primary and secondary
100
ii)Proportion of the Winding unprotected if the quanatities as possibility of current through the
star point is earthed by resistor of 8Ω relay even when there is no fault
Let x% of the winding be unprotected. iii)It is extremely difficult to find two identical CTs
33 00
𝑉𝑝 = = 1905.3V
√3
b)With aid of alabelled diagram, describe the
Earthing resistance R = 8Ω operation of the differential bus bar unit of
protection system (6mks)
𝑥
Impedence of x% winding = (0.6 + 𝑗4)
100 Ans
Total impedance at fault of the fault
current circuit
0.6𝑥 4𝑥
= [(8 + )+𝑗 ]
100 100

𝑥
E = 𝑉𝑝 𝑥
100
𝑥
= 1905.3 x = 19.053x
100
Earth fault current due to x% winding = 420 A -The bus-bar is fed by generator and supplies load
Therefore : to two lines, the secondary of the CTs in generator
𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝐸) 19.053𝑥 load in line 1 and line 2 are connected in parallel
420A = 0.6𝑥 4𝑥 = 0.6𝑥 4𝑥
[(8+
100
)+𝑗
100
] [(8+
100
)+𝑗
100
] -The protective relay is connected in parallel with
Neglecting the reactance of the winding such the CTs must be of same ratio
19.053𝑥
420A = 0.6𝑥
-Under normal load conditions, the sum of current
[(8+ )]
100 entering the bus is equal to those leaving it and No
0.6𝑥
current flows through the relay.
420(8 + ) = 19.053x -If a fault occurs within the protected zone, the
100
3360 + 2.52x = 19.053x currents entering the bus will no longer be equal to
3360
x= = 20.3% those leaving it. The difference of this current will
16.533
flow through the relay and cause the opening of the
5ai)Distinguish between active and passive faults generators Circuit breakers (C.B) and line C.Bs
in protection system
Sln
Active fault – When actual current flows from one 2:PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION
phase conductor to the other (phase to phase or LINES
phase to earth. Classified as solid faults 1.a)State three classifications of transmission
Passive fault –Not real faults, conditions that lines (3mks)
stress the system beyond its design capacity eg i. Short transmission line
Overloading, power swinging etc. ii. Medium transmission line
iii. Long transmission line
6:a1)State three demerits of induction type over
current relay protection systems (3mks) b) With respect to overhead transmission lines:
KNEC O/N 2022 i) Explain term voltage surge (2mks)
Ans A sudden rise in voltage for a very short duration on
the power system
i)They are only used when the system is connected
in ring but not radial
ii)Outline three causes of voltage surges (3mks)
ii)It operates only in one direction of flow of fault
i)Direct and indirect lightning strokes
quantities ii)Open circuited lines
iii)Its operation is dependent only on i ii)Short circuited lines
magnitude,strength,direction and time delays iv)Load interruptions v)Arching ground lines
iv)Requires frequent changes when loads are
increased c)With aid of a diagram, explain the operation
of Pentason Coil (7mks)
ii)Outline three limitattaions of the MertZ-Prize
protection scheme (3mks)
Ans
i)If an earth faults occurs near the neutral point,
the voltage may be insufficient to operate the relay
ODIPO
d)An Overhead transmission line having an c)A three –phase , 50Hz, 20km long overhead
inductance of 1.28mH per Km and a capacitance transmission line supplies 1000kW at 11kV,0.8
of 0.00602𝝁𝑭 per Km is connected in series with power factor lagging. The line resistance and
an underground cable having an inductance of inductance are 0.04 Ω and 0.75mH per phase
0.167mH per km and a capacitance of 0.201 𝝁𝑭 km respectively. Determine the: (7mks)
per Km. i)Sending end voltage
Determine the surge velocities in: (5mks) Sln
i)Transmission line: Sln
Sln
1 1
x= =
√𝐿𝐶 √𝟏.𝟐𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑥 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟎𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
5
=3.602 x10 m/s
ii)Underground cable
1 1
x= = −3
√𝐿𝐶 √0.167 𝑥 10 𝑥 0.201 𝑥10 –6
= 1.726 𝑥10 5 km/s Cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 lagging
11000
Receiving end voltage/phase = = 6351V
b)An overhead transmission line having √3
Inductanctance per phase = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 =
inductance of 2mH/km and capacitance of
0.01𝝁F/km is connected in series with an 2𝜋𝑥 50 𝑥 0.75 𝑥10−3 =0.2357Ω
underground cable having an inductance of Impedance/phase 𝑍 =R+ 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 0.04 + j0.2357
𝑘𝑊 𝑥 103 1000 𝑥 103
0.25mH/km and capacitance of 0.102 𝝁𝑭/𝒌𝒎. If Line current, I = = = 65.61A
3𝑉𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑅 3 𝑥 6351 𝑥 0.8
a voltage surge of 100kV travels along the
overhead line towards its junction with cable,
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 6351V
calculate the: (9mks)
i)Reflected voltage and current 𝐼 = I(Cos∅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑅 )
Impedance of line = 65.61 ( 0.8 – j0.6) = 52.5 – j39.37
𝑳 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝒁𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 =𝒁𝟎 = √ = √ = 447.2Ω Sending end Voltage/phase : ⃗⃗⃗𝑉𝑠 =𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑍
𝑪 𝟎.𝟎𝟏 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
𝐸𝑖 100 𝑥 1000 = 6351 + (52.5 – j39.37)(0.04+ j0.2357)
𝐼𝑖 = = = 0.2236kA
𝑍0 447,2 = 6351 + 2.1 + j12.37 – j1.575+ 9.28
= 6362.38 + j10.795
Impedance of cable Magnitude of 𝑉𝑠
𝑳 𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑉𝑠 = √( 6362.38)2 + (10.795)2 = 6362.39V
𝒁𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 = √ = √ = 49.5Ω Line value of 𝑉𝑠 = √3 x 6362.39 = 23938V = 11.02kV
𝑪 𝟎.𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
Travelling 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝑳 = 447.2Ω ii)% Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
𝑉𝑅
Termination R = 𝒁𝑪 = 49.5Ω 6362.39−6351
R −Z0 ZCable −ZLine = 𝑥 100 = 0.179%
Rreflection coefficient of line: ρ = = 6351
R +Z0 ZCable +ZLine
49.5−447.2
= = -0.800 2a)Derive an expression for the reflected voltage
49.5 +447.2
2R when a transmission line is terminated by a pure
R +Z0
2 x 49.5
resistor whose value is greater than the
= = 0.1993 characteristic impedance of the line (5mks)
49.5 +447.2
Emf (reflected) 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖 = -0.80 x 100000 = -8kV Sln
−𝐸 −8000 This is a case of an open circuit
𝑍0 447.2 For transmitted voltage
Emf (transmitted) 𝐸𝑡 = 𝜸 𝐸𝑖 = 0.1993 x 100000 =
19.93kV 𝑅 −𝑍0
−𝐸 19.93𝑘𝑉 𝐸𝑟 =[ ] 𝐸𝑖
Current (transmitted) 𝐼𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑅 +𝑍0
𝑍0 447.2 And R = ∞
= 0.0446kA And thus:
𝑅 −𝑍0
ii)Ralative permittivity of the cable 𝐸𝑟 =[ ] 𝐸𝑖
𝑅 +𝑍0
Surge velocity in the line 𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑖
1 1 Note that:
x= = −𝟑 −𝟔
= 𝟐. 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓
√𝐿𝐶 √𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝑥 𝟎.𝟎𝟏 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑖
m/s So:
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑥𝑐 = 𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖 + 𝐸𝑖 = 2𝐸𝑖
√𝜀𝑟
𝟑.𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟖 i.e the surge doubles
𝟐. 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟓 =
√𝜀𝑟
𝜀𝑟 = 36.63

ODIPO
b)i) With reference to line performance, state
the difference between a medium and long ii)Current (3mks)
transmission line (3mks) Sln
sln Charging current at the sending end is :
Medium transmission Long Transmission ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 78637.6<−1.9420
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶2 = 𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑥𝑗
line 𝐶2
2
Length between 50km Length more than 78637.6<−1.9420 78637.6<−1.9420
= 50 𝑥 105
𝑥 𝑗=
to 150km 150km and above 25 𝑥 105
2
Line voltage is Voltage above 100kV
between 20kV to = 0.03< −1.9420
100kV = 0.03 – j0.001
𝐼𝐶2
ii)A three-phase, 50Hz 132kV,150km Long = 130.5 –j63.22 + ( 0.03 – j0.001)
transmission line supplies a load of 30MW at 0.9 = 130.53 – j63.221
power factor lagging. Each conductor has a = 145<−25.80 A
resistance, inductance and capacitance of 0.15
Ω, 1.2mH and 0.0096 𝝁𝑭 per km per phase
respectively. Using the Norminal 𝝅 Method, 3a)State three element which form part of a high
Determine the sending end: voltage transmission line (3mks)
i)Line voltage (6 marks) Resistance (R )
Inductance L
Capacitance C
5a)With the aid of a labelled circuit phasor

diagram of Nominal 𝝅 network, show that the
sending voltage is Given by:
𝑻𝒁
𝑽𝒔 = (𝟏 + +) 𝑽𝒓 + 𝑰𝒓 𝒁 (6mks)KNEC 2019
Total Resistance/phase R= 0.15 x 150 = 22.5Ω 𝟐

= 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 1.2 x 10−3 x 150 = 56.56Ω
1
Total capacitance /phase = x 150
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
1
= x 150 = 50 x 105 Ω
2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 0.0096 𝑥 10−6
132 𝑥 103 𝑉
𝑉𝑅 = = 76210.2V
√3
30 𝑥 106 𝑊
√3 𝑥 132000 𝑥 0.9
Taking receiving end voltage as the reference
phasor, we have
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 76210.2V
Load current ⃗⃗⃗𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos ∅𝑅 − 𝑗 Sin ∅𝑅 )
= 145.8(0.9 – j0.436)
= 130.5 – j63.22
Charging current at the load end is: b)A 100km long , 3-phase, 50Hz transmission
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 76210.2 76210.2 76210.2 line has the following line Constants:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶1 = 𝑅 = 𝐶 𝑥𝑗= 5 𝑥 𝑗= 5 = j0.03
𝐶1 50 𝑥 10 25 𝑥 10 Resistance/phase/km = 0.2Ω
2 2
Inductance/phase/km = 2mH
𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶1 Capacitance(line to neutral)/per km = 0.015𝝁𝑭
= (130.5 – j63.22) + j0.03 If the line supplies a star-connected load of
= 130.5 –j63.22 50MW at 13kV, 0.8 power factor lagging, use
Sending voltage ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑉𝑆 =⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 𝑍 the Nominal –T- method to determine the
⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 (𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ sending end:
= 76210.2 + (130.5 –j63.22)(22.5 + j56.5) i)Current (5mks)
= 76210.2 + (58.8<-116.5)(60.8<68.29) Sln
= 76210.2 + (3575.04< -48.21)
= 76210 + (2382.4 –j2665.52)
= 78592.4 – j2665.52
= 78637.6<−1.9420 V

ODIPO
Total reactance/phase 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑥 100 KNEC 2020
= 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 2 x 10−3 x 100 = 62.84Ω I)Sending end Voltage
1
Total capacitance /phase = x 100
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
1
= x 100 = 31.8 x 105 Ω
2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 0.015 𝑥 10−6
𝑍 = R +j𝑋𝐿
13 𝑥 103 𝑉
𝑉𝑅 = = 7505.55V
√3
50 𝑥 106 𝑊
√3 𝑥 13000 𝑥 0.8
cos ∅𝑅 = 0.8 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Sin ∅𝑅 = 0.6
𝑍 = R +j𝑋𝐿 = 20 + j62.84
Taking receiving end voltage as the reference

phasor, we have
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j0 = 7505.55V
Load current ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos ∅𝑅 − 𝑗 Sin ∅𝑅 )
= 277.6(0.8 – j0.6)
= 222.08 – j166.56
𝑍 II)Voltage Regulation
Voltage across C, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 ( )
2
= 7505.55 + (222.08 – j166.56)(10 + j31.42)
= 7505.55 + (277.6<-36.87) (32.97<72.34)
= 7505.55 + 9152.5 < 35.47
= 7505.55 + 7453.97 +j5310.98
= 14959.52 + j5310.98
= 15874.3<19.550
Charging current at the load end is:

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 15874.3<19.550
⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶 = 1 = 5 𝑥 𝑗 = 499.19< 19.550
𝐶 31.8 𝑥 10
= 470. 4 +j167.0 A
Sending end current 𝐼𝑠 = ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ 𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶
=( 222.08 – j166.56) + (470. 4 +j167.0)
= 692.08 +j 0.44
= 692<0.0360 A III)Transmission efficiency
ii)Sending end current

𝑍
⃗⃗⃗𝑆 =⃗⃗⃗⃗
Sending voltage 𝑉 𝑉1 + ⃗⃗𝐼𝑠 ( )
2
⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑆 = 15874.3<19.550 + (692<0.0360 A)
(32.97<72.34)
= (14959.52 + j5310.98) + (22815.24 <72.376)
= (14959.52 + j5310.98 ) + 6907.75 +j21744.4
= 21867.27 + j27055.38
= 34787.5<51.050
6a) With the aid of aline equivalent circuit
ci)State two assumptions made when analysing
representation, explain the Ferranti effect on
the performers of a short transmission lines
overload transmission line. KNEC 2022
(2mks) KNEC J/J2020
i)Due to small length and low voltage, capacitance
is small and can be neglected
ii)Only resistance and inductance are taken into
consideration and are considered lump instead of
being distributed
iii)Length is up to 50km and voltage less than 20kV
ii)A Three phase 11kV, 50Hz, 16km Long

transmission lines supplies a load of 1000kW at
The capacitance of the line is quite large as
0.8power factor lagging. If the line resistance
compared to inductance reactance. At No. Load,
and inductance are 0.03Ω and 0.7mH per phase
line current has a leading p.f.
per km respectively, determine the (10mks)
ODIPO
The charging current produces drop in the 6ai)State four effects of surges on power systems
reactance of the line phase opposition to the transmission lines (4mks) KNEC 2022
receiving end voltage. Therefore, The sending end
voltage becomes smaller. Reactive power i)Shatters the insulators and wreck poles
generated is more than the capacitive power ii) Huge current that can cause fires
absorbed. The Voltage at the receiving end will iii) Damages to transformer windings
obvious be greater than the sending end. iv)Electrodynamic effects: when the lightning
currents circulate in parallel conductors, they
b)A 132kV,250 km long,50Hz transmission line provoke attraction or repulsion forces between the
delivers 30MVA at 0.85 p.f lagging. The wires, causing breaks or mechanical deformations
conductor resistance is 0.12Ω/km, Equilaterally (crushed or flattened wires)
spaced 2m apart with an effective diameter of v)Combustion effects: lightning can cause the air
1.8cm. Using Normal 𝛑 method,determine the: to expand and create overpressure, which stretches
(9mks) over a distance of a dozen meters
i)The impedance of the line (Z) vi)A blast effect breaks windows or and can throw
sln animals or people several meters away from their
𝐷
Line impedance L = 0.46𝐿𝑜𝑔10 ′ original
𝑟
200 vii)A shock wave is also transformed into a sound
= 0.46𝐿𝑜𝑔10 = 1.132mH/Km
0.0242
0.07788 𝑥 0.9 wave: thunder or telephone lines or induced by the
C= 𝐷 electromagnetic induction effect.
𝐿𝑜𝑔10
𝑟 viii)The elevation of the earth potential by the
0.0242
= 200 = 0.0103 𝜇𝐹/𝑘𝑚 circulation of the lightning current in the ground.
𝐿𝑜𝑔10
0.9
R = 0.12 x 250 = 30Ω This explains indirect strokes of lightning by step
voltage and the breakdown of equipment
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋 𝑥 50 𝑥 1.132 𝑥 10−3 𝑥 250 = 90Ω
Impedance Z = R +jxL = 30 + j90  High Peak (of) Crest voltage of a surface
Admittance Y = j𝜔𝐶𝐿 = 314 x 0.0103 x10−6 x cable Flashovers in the internal winding
230< 900 hence spoil insulations.
 The steep wave-front of surge may cause
= 8.09 x x10−4 < 900
30 𝑥 1000<−31.80
internal flush over between inter turns of
𝐼𝑅 = the transformer
√3 𝑥 132
 High peak voltage of surge which can
0 damage insulators on overhead lines
131.2 < −31.8
132<00  Steep wave front results into resonance,
𝑉𝑅 per phase = = 76.2 < 00 kV
√3 hence oscillations of electrical apparatus.
ii)Sending end Voltage, 𝐕𝟐
1
𝑉𝑠 = [1 + 𝑌𝑍] 𝑉𝑅 + Z𝐼𝑅 ii)Outline three features of an overhead earth
2
1 wire with reference to surge protection in power
= [1 + 𝑥8.09 𝑥 10−4 < 900 𝑥 95 < 71.60 ] 76.2 +
2 systems (3mks)
95 < 71.60 𝑥 131.2 < −31.80 i)A reliable electrical connection with the earth so
= [1 + 0.0384 < 161.60 ] 76.2 + 12.469 < 39.80 that the leader stroke may pass to ground.
= [76.2 − 0,0364 + 𝑗0.012 + 9.58 + 𝑗8] ii)Low impedance path connecting Earth wire to
= 85.74 + j8.012 ground for discharge to flow.
= 86.11 < 5.340 kV iii)Low resistance connection with the ground.
|𝑉𝑠 | line = √3 x 86.11 = 149kV b)With aid of a labelled voltage characteristics

curve, explain the operation of surge diverter
iii)Voltage regulation (5mkas)
1 1
1 + 𝑌𝑍 = 1 + 𝑥8.09 𝑥 10−4 < 900 𝑥 95 < 71.60 Ans
2 2
= 1 + 0.038 < 161.60 -A surge diverter is a device that is connected
= 1- 0.0364 + j0.012 between the lines and earth.
= 0.963 + j0.012 -It is connected in parallel with the equipment to be
= 0.96 < 0.710 protected.
149
𝑉𝑅𝑜 (line No Load) = = 155kV
0.96
𝑉.𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑−𝑉.𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100
𝑉.𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
155 −149
Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100 = 4.2%
149

ODIPO
600−80
𝑉3 = [ ] 12.6 = 9.63kV
600+80
7i)State two limitations of Horn- gap arrestor in

power system protection KNEC 2022
iv. The bridging of gap by some external agency

(e.g. birds) can render the device useless.
v. The setting of horn gap is likely to change due
to corrosion or pitting. This adversely affects
the performance of the arrester.
vi. The time of operation is comparatively long, say
When the traveling wave reaches the diverter, it about 3 seconds. In view of the very short
sparks over at a certain fixed point (A). A path of operating time of modern protective gear for
low impedance is created between the line and the feeders, this time is far long.
ground (B).
The surge impedance of the line restrict the 8a) Explain why an actual surge is less severe
amplitude growth of correct to flow to equipment than a theoretical one (2mks) KNEC J/J 2020
hence protect its insulation.
c)The terminal ends of along transmission lines

A and C are connected by a cable B of length
1km. The surge impedance of A,B and C are
300Ω, 80Ω and 600 Ω respectively. A
rectangular voltage wave of 30kV and infinite
Length is initiated in A and Travells to C:
i)Sketch the diagram of Arrangement
b)An overhead transmission line having an

inductance of 10.5mH and a capacitance of
0.048𝝁F is connected in series with a cable
having an inductance of 2.4mH and a
capacitance of 1.6𝝁F. If asurge of 300kV travels
along the overhead transmission line towards
the junction, determine the reflected:
ii)Determine :
i)Voltage (3mks)
I)Transmitted wave voltage (𝑽𝟐 ) to the cable.
Impedance of line
Sln
On reaching junction 𝐽1 , transmitted wave 𝑉2 = 𝑳 𝟏𝟎,𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝒁𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 =𝒁𝟎 = √ = √ = 467.7Ω
2𝑍𝐵 𝑉 𝑪 𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
𝑍𝐴 +𝑍𝐵 𝐸𝑖 300 𝑥 1000
2 𝑥 80 𝑥 30 𝐼𝑖 = = = 0.641kA
𝑍0 467.7
𝑉2 = = 12.6kV
300 +80
Impedance of cable
II)Transmitted wave voltage( 𝟒) to transmission
𝑳 𝟐.𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
line C 𝒁𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 = √ = √ = 38.72Ω
𝑪 𝟏.𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
Sln
On reaching junction 𝐽2 ,part is reflected and
another reflected onto line C. Thus transmitted NOTE: From line to cable:
2𝑍 𝑉 Travelling 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝑳 = 467.7Ω
voltage 𝑉4 = 𝑐 2
𝑍𝐵 +𝑍𝐶 Termination R = 𝒁𝑪 = 38.72Ω
2 𝑥 600 𝑥 12.6 𝑅 −𝑍0 𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 −𝑍𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑉4 = = 22.28kV Rreflection coefficient of line: 𝜌 = =
80 +600 𝑅 +𝑍0 𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 +𝑍𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
38.72−467.7
= = -0.850
38.72 +467.7
𝑉4 - is the first order impressed voltage = 22.3kV 2𝑅
of the transmitted voltage line Transmission coefficient of cable 𝛾 =
𝑅 +𝑍0
2 𝑥 38.72
= = 0.1529
38.72 +467.7
Emf (reflected) 𝐸𝑟 = 𝜌𝐸𝑖 = -0.85 x 300000
III)Reflected wave voltage (𝑽𝟑 ) back to the cable
= -255kV
Sln −𝐸 −255000
(𝑍𝐶 −𝑍𝐵) Current reflected) 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑟 = = 0.545kA
𝑉3 = [ ] 𝑉2 𝑍0 467.7
𝑍𝐶 +𝑍𝐵

ODIPO
ii)Currents (3mks) Sln
Emf (transmitted) 𝐸𝑡 = 𝜸 𝐸𝑖 = 0.1529 x 300000 = R = 0.08 x 200 = 16Ω
45.870kV
−𝐸 45.87𝑘𝑉
𝑍0 467.7
9a)Define the following with respect to overhead

transmission lines KNEC O/N 2022
i)Crest (1mk)
It is the maximum amplitude of the wave and is
usually expressed in kV or kVA D equivalent = 3√𝐷1 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥𝐷3
3
ii)Front (1mk) 𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.7788 xr = 0.7788
It is the position of wave before the crest and 𝟐
expressed from the beginning of the wave to the r = = 1cm, d = 3m = 300cm
𝟐
𝑑
crest value in milliseconds or micro seconds L == 2𝑥10−7 𝑙𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 H/m
𝑟1
b)A three phase transmission line has −7 300
L == 2𝑥10 𝑥 200 𝑥1000𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 H/m
conductors of diameter 3cm,spaced 2m apart in 0.7788
an equilateral formation. A voltage wave of = 0.238H
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋 𝑥50 𝑥0.238 = 74.8Ω
11kV travels along the lines. Determine the:
Z = R + j𝑋𝐿
i)Inductance per unit length (2mks)
sln = 16 + j74.8 = 76.5<77.930 Ω
𝑑
Inductance per unit length L = 2𝑥10−7 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 1
𝑟 ii)Capacitive susceptance (2mks)
H/m 2𝜋𝑙𝜀0
C= 𝑑 F/m
D equivalent = 3√𝐷1 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥𝐷3 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟
3
D equivalent = √2 𝑥 2 𝑥2 = 2 2𝜋𝑥 200 𝑥1000 𝑥 8.85𝑥 10 −12
= 300
𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.7788 xr =0.7788 x0.15 = 0.011682 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
1
−6
L = 2𝑥10−7 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
200
= 1.028𝑥10−6 H/m = 1.95𝑥10 F
0.011682
iii)Receiving end current in complex form

ii)Capacitance per unit length (2mks)
(2mks)
Sln
𝟐𝝅𝜺 Sln
C per unit length = 𝑑 F/m 𝑃 30 𝑥106
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟 𝐼𝑅 = = = 309𝐴 at 0.85pf
√3𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑟 √3 𝑥66000 𝑥 0.85
𝟐𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟗 𝟐𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟗 −11
= 𝑑 = 200 = 1.136𝑥10 F/m lag
𝟑𝟔𝝅𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝟑𝟔𝝅𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟 1.5 𝐼𝑅 = 309 (0.85 – j0.53) = 262.7 – j164 A
= 308.74<−31.790 A
iii)Natural impedance (2mks) iv)Voltage drop 𝑽𝟏 across the capacitor (2mks)

𝐿 1.028𝑥10−6 Sln
𝑍𝑛 = √ = √ = 300.82Ω
𝐶 1.136𝑥10−11 𝐼 𝑍
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑅
2
(77.57.9)(308.74<−31.79)
iv)line current (2mks) = 38105 + = 46105 + j8112
2
Sln V
𝑉
Line current =
𝑍𝑛
11000
𝑉𝑝ℎ = = 635V0.85
√3
6350.85
Line current = = 21.11A
300.82
10.A 200km long, three phase, 50Hz

transmission line delivers 30MW at a power
factor 0.85 lagging to a 66kV balanced load. The
resistance of the line is 0.08 Ω/km. The
conductor diameter is 2cm equilaterally spaced
3m between the centres. Using the nominal T
method, determine the
i)Impedence per phase (2mks)
KNEC O/N 2022

ODIPO
3:SAG AND CONDUCTOR VIBRATION 𝑤𝑙2 1.39 𝑥 2052 58414.75
AND CORONA EFFECT And sag S = = 2 𝑥 7266 =
2𝑇 14532
1a)State four types of conductor vibration = 4.02𝑚
(4mks)
Ans KNEC OCT/NOV 2017
i)Aeolian vibration – They are vibrations of low 2a)State three advantages of connecting a
amplitudes (max 0.50) and High frequency (50 – synchronous phase modifier to transmission line
100Hz) and of low speed of (10 – 30km/h) (3mks)
ii)Galloping Vibration – These are vibrations of i)It is possible to carry increased power for a given
Low frequency (0.25 – 2Hz) and high Amplitude conductor size in case of long distance having
(up to 6m) and caused by asymmetrical layers of power transmission
ice for motion,(dancing/swinging ii)Improves power factor at times of moderate and
iii)Sub-span oscillation occurs only at bundle heavy loads
conductors with sub conductors arranged one after iii)Possibility of better protection for the line due to
the other in wind direction. The frequency of sub- higher terminal reactance
span oscillation is between 1 and 5Hz. The wave iv)Improvement of system stability due to inertia
length being equal or twice the sub-span length. effects of synchronous phase modes
iv)High frequency vibration
v)Swinging b)With reference to corona , Explain, the terms:
vi)Dancing i)Critical disruptive voltage (2mks)
It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which
b)Explain the importance of synchronous phase corona occurs.
modifiers in a transmission line (3mks)
Sln ii)Visual Critical Voltage (2mks)
i)It is possible to carry increased power for a given It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which
conductor size in case of long distance having corona glow appears all along the line conductors.
power transmission
ii)Improves power factor at times of moderate and iii)Corona power Loss (2mks)
heavy loads Energy loss which is dissipated in the form of light,
iii)Possibility of better protection for the line due to heat, sound and chemical action
higher terminal reactance
iv)Improvement of system stability due to inertia ci)Explain the effects of Wind and Ice loading on
effects of synchronous phase modes the Sag of an Overhead Line Conductors (3mks)
i)Ice coating increases the cross-sectional area of
c)An overhead transmission line hangs in the the conductor
form of a catenary ii)Ice coating increases vertical sag of the
𝒙 conductors
y = Cosh , where C = 1025 m and x is half the
𝒄
ii)Wind pressures increases tension on the
span.
conductor
The span is 205m and the conductor mass is
1.39 kg per metre.
ii)A transmission line has a span of 320 metres
Determine the:
between level supports. The conductors has a
i)Length of the conductor (6mks)
diameter of 2.5cm, weight 15N/m and has an
ultimate tensile strength of 139kN. Each
Sln
𝟏𝟎𝟐.𝟓 conductor is covered with ice of radial thickness
y = Cosh = Cosh 0.1 9.2mm and is subjected to Horizontal wind
𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 0.1 + 𝑒 −0.1 pressure of 357 N/𝒎𝟐 . If the factor of safety is 2
y= Cosh 0.1 = = and one cubic metre of ice weigh 8.96kN,
2 2
1,105+0.905 calculate the vertical sag (11mks)
= = 1.0049
2 Sln
𝑙
x=2 Span length l = 320m
Wt . of conductor/m length, w = 1.5kg
and length l = 2x = 2 x 102.5 = 205m Conductor diameter d = 2.5cm
Ice coating thickness, t = 0.92 cm
Working tension T = 13.9x 1000/2 = 6950 kg
ii)The sag (5mks) Volume of ice = 𝜋𝑡 (𝑑 + 𝑡) x length per metre.
𝑤𝑥 2
But y = where T = tension = 𝜋 𝑥 0.92 𝑥 ( 2.5 + 0.92)𝑥 100 = 988.6𝑐𝑚3
2𝑇 Weight of ice per metres length of conductor is
1.39 𝑥 102.52
Hence 1.0049 = 𝑾𝒊 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
2𝑇
2 𝑥 1.0049 = Density of ice x volume per unit length
T = 1.39 𝑥 = 7266 N = 0.91 x 988.6 = 899.62 g = 0.89962kg
102.52
Wind force /m length of conductor is

ODIPO
𝑾𝒘 = wind force per unit length 3.92𝑏 3.92 𝑥 76
= wind pressure per unit area x projected area 𝛿= = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟓
273 + 𝑡 273 + 42
per unit length 30
𝑔0 = = 21.2𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚 (r.m.s) since
= [𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆] 𝒙 [(𝑑 + 2𝑡)𝑥 100] √2
= 3.57 x (2.5 + 2 x 0.92) x 100g = 1549g=1.549kg Critical disruptive voltage per phase is
𝒅
Total weight of conductor per metre length of 𝑽𝒄 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒈𝒐 𝒓 𝛿𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 kV/phase(rms)
𝒓
conductor is 200
= 0.85 x 21.2 x 0.945 x 1.5𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 125𝑘𝑉
1.5
220
𝑊𝑡 = √(𝑤 + 𝑤𝑖 )2 + (𝑤𝑤 )2 Supply voltage /phase = =127kV
√3
𝑊𝑡 = √(1.5 + 0.8996)2 + (1.549)2 = 2.856kg Substituting the above values, we have corona
𝑊𝑙2 2.856 𝑥 (320)2 loss as:
S= = = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟔 𝒎 50+25 1.5 𝑘𝑤
8𝑇 8 𝑥 6950
P = 242.2( ) 𝑥√ (127 − 125)2 𝑥 10−5 /
In case of vertical sag 0.945 200 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑘𝑚/
75
P = 242.2( ) 𝑥 0.0866𝑥 4 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤/𝑘𝑚
0.945
/phase
= 0.0666 kW
Total corona loss for 3∅ = 0.0666x 3 = 0.05998
Vertical sag = S cos 𝜃 = 0.199kW
𝑤
But cos 𝜃 =
𝑊𝑡
𝑤 1.5 4ai)Describe the phenomena of corona in
Vertical sag = S = 5.26 x = 2.763m overhead transmission lines (3mks)
𝑊𝑡 2.856
The existence of cosmic rays, ultra-violet
3ai)Explain two methods of reducing corona radiations and radioactivity leads to ionization of
effects (4mks) air around conductor.
Answers
1.Increasing conductor size. This leads to free electrons and positive and
By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which neutral molecules.
corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects When p.d.is applied between the conductors,
are considerably reduced. This is one of the potential gradient is set up in the air which will
reasons that conductors which have a larger cross- have maximum value at the conductor surfaces.
Under the influence of potential gradient, the
sectional area are used in transmission lines.
existing free electrons acquire greater velocities.
2) Increasing conductor spacing. The greater the applied voltage, the greater the
By increasing the spacing between conductors, the potential gradient and more is the velocity of free
voltage at which corona occurs is raised and hence electrons.
corona effects can be eliminated. When the potential gradient at the conductor
However, spacing cannot be increased too much surface reaches about 30 kV per cm (max. value),
otherwise the cost of supporting structure (e.g., the velocity acquired by the free electrons is
bigger cross arms and supports) may increase to sufficient to strike a neutral molecule with enough
a considerable extent. force to dislodge one or more electrons from it.
This produces another ion and one or more free
ii)Explain the term ‘’visual critical voltage’’ electrons, which is turn are accelerated until they
(2mks) collide with other neutral molecules, thus
producing other ions.
It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which Thus, the process of ionisation is cummulative.The
corona glow appears all along the line conductors. result of this ionisation is that either corona
is formed or spark takes place between the
b)A three phase 220kV, 50Hz transmission line conductors.
consists of 1.5cm radius conductors spaced
180cm apart in equilateral triangular formation.
The atmospheric pressure is 76cm of mercury at ii)Outline Three factors affecting corona
a temperature of 𝟒𝟐𝟎 𝑪. If the irregularity factor (3mks)
is 0.85, determine the corona power loss per km a)Atmosphere.
of the line. Assume dielectric strength of As corona is formed due to ionization of air
air = 30kV/cm (maximum) (11mks) surrounding the conductors, therefore, it is affected
Sln by the physical state of atmosphere.
Corona loss is given by: In the stormy weather, the number of ions is more
𝑓+25 𝑟 than normal and as such corona occurs at much
P = 242.2( ) √ (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 )2 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤/𝑘𝑚/
𝛿 𝑑 less voltage as compared with fair weather.
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

ODIPO
b) Conductor size.
Depends upon the shape and conditions of the 5)a)State two: KNEC 2018 O/N
conductors. i)effects of corona (2mks)
-The rough and irregular surface will give rise to i)Leads to virtual increment of the diameter of the
more corona because unevenness of the surface conductor
decreases the value of breakdown voltage. ii)Makes the air surrounding the conductor to
-Thus a stranded conductor has irregular surface conduct
and hence gives rise to more corona that a solid iii) Corona reduces the effects of transients
conductor. produced by surges.
c) Spacing between conductors.
If the spacing between the conductors is made very ii)Factors affecting corona (4mks)
large as compared to their diameters, there may a)Atmosphere.
not be any corona effect. As corona is formed due to ionization of air
-It is because larger distance between conductors surrounding the conductors, therefore, it is affected
reduces the electro-static stresses at the conductor by the physical state of atmosphere.
surface, thus avoiding corona formation. In the stormy weather, the number of ions is more
than normal and as such corona occurs at much
c) Line voltage. less voltage as compared with fair weather.
The line voltage greatly affects corona.
If it is low, there is no change in the condition of b) Conductor size.
air surrounding the conductors and hence no Depends upon the shape and conditions of the
corona is formed. conductors.
However, if the line voltage has such a value that -The rough and irregular surface will give rise to
electrostatic stresses developed at the conductor more corona because unevenness of the surface
surface decreases the value of breakdown voltage.
This make the air around the conductor -Thus a stranded conductor has irregular surface
conducting, then corona is formed and hence gives rise to more corona that a solid
conductor.
b)A Three phase 275KV,50Hz Transmission line
is 40Km long. It consists of three conductors c) Spacing between conductors.
each of Diameter 2.05cm symmetrically spaced If the spacing between the conductors is made very
2.66m between centres. The barometric pressure large as compared to their diameters, there may
is 76cm of Mercury and the Temperature is 𝟖𝟎 𝑪. not be any corona effect.
The irregularity factor is 0.72. Determine the -It is because larger distance between conductors
total corona power loss in the line. (11mks) reduces the electro-static stresses at the conductor
Sln surface, thus avoiding corona formation.
Corona loss is given by:
𝑓+25 𝑟 c) Line voltage.
P = 242.2( ) √ (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 )2 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤/𝑘𝑚/
𝛿 𝑑
The line voltage greatly affects corona.
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 If it is low, there is no change in the condition of
3.92𝑏 3.92 𝑥 76 air surrounding the conductors and hence no
𝛿= = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔
273 + 𝑡 273 + 8 corona is formed.
Assuming 𝑔0 = 21.2𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚 (r.m.s) However, if the line voltage has such a value that
Critical disruptive voltage per phase is electrostatic stresses developed at the conductor
𝒅
𝑽𝒄 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒈𝒐 𝒓 𝛿𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 kV/phase(rms) surface
𝒓
266 This make the air around the conductor
= 0.72 x 21.2 x 1.06 x 1.025𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 92.2𝑘𝑉
1.025
275 conducting, then corona is formed
Supply voltage /phase = =158.8kV
√3
Substituting the above values, we have corona b)A three –phase 132kV, 50Hz transmission line
loss as: 180km long consist of three conductors each of
P = 242.2(
50+25
) 𝑥√
1.025
(158.8 − diameter 1.2cm and spaced 2.7m apart in an
1.06 266 equilateral triangle formation. The temperature
𝑘𝑤
92.2)2 𝑥 10−5 /𝑘𝑚/ and atmospheric pressure are 𝟑𝟎𝟎 C and 750mm
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
75 of mercury respectively. If the breakdown
P = 242.2( ) 𝑥 0.062𝑥 4435.6 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤/𝑘𝑚
1.06 strength of air is 30kV/cm (peak) and the
/phase irregularity factor is 0.94, determine the:
= 47.09 kW i)Critical disruptive voltage (3mks)
Total corona loss for 3∅ = 47.09 x 3 = 0.05998 Sln
= 141.2kW

ODIPO
𝑑 6a)Explain the operation of a synchronous phase
𝑟
modifier as used in transmission lines
r = 0.6 and d = 2.7m = 2.7 x 100 = 270cm
3.92𝑏 3.92 𝑥 75
(4mks)KNEC J/J 2019
𝛿= = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕 For constant voltage transmission , especially
273+𝑡 273+30
𝑑 designed synchronous motor , called the
𝑟 synchronous phase modifiers, are installed at
270
𝑉𝑐 = 0.94 𝑥 21.2 𝑥 0.97 𝑥 0.6 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 receiving end , which maintain the voltage drop
0.6
= 70.86kv/phase across the line constant with the change in load,
power factor of the system is changed by the
ii)Total corona power loss (3mks) synchronous motors and thus voltage drop along
the line remains constant.
𝑓+25 𝑟
P =3 × 242.2( ) √ (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 )2 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤 b)A transmission line has a span of 280m
𝛿 𝑑
132
between level supports. The conductor has an
But Phase voltage V = = 76.2kV effective diameter of 2.04cm and weigh
√3
50 +25 0.6 0.75kg/m. Its ultimate strength is 8080Kg. The
P =3 × 242.2( )√ (76.2 − 70.86)2 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑤
0.97 270 Conductor has an ice coating of radial thickness
P =1602018.1 x 0.0471 x 10−5 𝑘𝑤 1.3cm and subjected to wind pressure 0f
4.01gm/𝒄𝒎𝟐 of projected area. If the factor of
= 0.755kW
safety is 2, determine the vertical sag (10mks)
c)Explain two factors that affects sag in an
overhead line (4mks)
1)Conductor weight - Either at equal level support
or at different support levels, Weight is directly
proportional to Sag
2) effects of Wind and Ice loading –Which leads
to:
i) Increased cross-sectional area of the
conductor leading to high tension and
consequently increased sag
ii) increased vertical sag of the conductors
3)The tension increases when the temperature
decreases and there is a corresponding decrease in
the sag. Icing-up of the line and wind loading will
cause stretching of the conductor by an amount
dependent on the line tension.
d)An overhead transmission line at a river

crossing is supported from two towers at heights
of 55m and 95m above the water level. The
horizontal distance between the towers is 240m.
If the weight of the conductor and the allowance
tension are 1.3kg/m and 1050kg respectively,
calculate the clearance between the conductor ci)State three factors that determine the choice
and water at the point midway between the of span length of an overhead transmission line
towers (6mks) (3mks) KNEC 2020
i)Cross-sectional area of the conductor
Try this on your own ii)Topography of the land where the lines supports
are to be installed
iii)Density of the conductor
ii)An Overhead transmission line at a river

crossing is supported by two towers of heights
45m and 75m above water levels with a span of
300m. If the weight of the conductor is 0.92kg/m
and the working tension is 2040kg, determine
the clearance between the conductor and water
level mid way between the towers. (8mks)
KNEC J/J 2020

ODIPO
7i)Explain two types of conductor vibration in
power systems (4mks) KNEC J/A 2022 Sln
i)Aeolian vibration – They are vibrations of low L = 600m
amplitudes (max 0.50) and High frequency (50 – Conductor weight = specific gravity x volume of
100Hz) and of low speed of (10 – 30km/h) 1m conductors
ii)Galloping Vibration – These are vibrations of = 9 x 0.2 x 100 = 180gm
Low frequency (0.25 – 2Hz) and high Amplitude = 0.18kg
(up to 6m) and caused by asymmetrical layers of 4 𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Diameter of conductors d = √
ice for motion,(dancing/swinging 𝜋
4 𝑥 0.2
b)With aid of a labelled diagram, derive an d=√ = 0.504 cm
𝜋
expression for sag for supports at unequal levels windforce/m length 𝑤𝑤 = Pressure x projected
(6mks) area (𝑚2 )
= 3 x 0.504 x 1
= 1.514kg
Effective weight 𝑤𝑒 = √0.182 + 1.5142
= 1.525Kg
ii) Safety factor

𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑎𝑔 8 𝑥 1.514
Actual Sag d = = = 68.4 m
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 0.18
7000 𝑥 0.2
Working tension =
𝑠.𝑓
= 1400
𝑤𝑒 𝑙2 𝑤𝑒 𝑙2
But d = ,l= ,
8𝑇 8𝑑
1400 1400 𝑥 8𝑑
s.f = =
𝑇 𝑤𝑒 𝑙2
1400 𝑥 8 𝑥 68.4
=
1.525 𝑥 360000
l- is the span length between the supports = 1.39541

h – elevation difference s.f =1.4
𝑤𝑥 2
y= , y = 𝑑1 , x = 𝑥1 d)State four merits of constant voltage
2𝑇
𝑤𝑥1 2 𝑤𝑥2 2 transmission using a synchronous phase
𝑑1 = , 𝑑2 = ,
2𝑇 2𝑇
ℎ = 𝑑2 - 𝑑1 modifier (4mks)
𝑤(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 )
2 1
∆ℎ = ----- eqn 1 sln
2𝑇
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑡𝑛 1 i)It is possible to carry increased power for a given
2𝑇ℎ 2𝑇ℎ conductor size in case of long distance having
𝑥2 - 𝑥1 = = ---- (ii)
𝑤(𝑙) 𝑤(𝑥2 + 𝑥1 )
power transmission
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 eqtn 1 and ii ii)Improves power factor at times of moderate and
𝑙 ℎ𝑇
𝑥1 = - heavy loads
2 𝑤(𝑙)
𝑙 ℎ𝑇 iii)Possibility of better protection for the line due to
𝑥2 = +
2 𝑤(𝑙) higher terminal reactance
𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 values of 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 , 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 , can be iv) Improvement of system stability due to inertia
solved for sag. effects of synchronous phase modes
c)An overhead transmission line of length 600m, 8i)A 200kV, 50 Hz, Three phase line 180km long
is supported at equal levels. The cross-sectional has a conductor diameter of 2cm, with a delta
area of the conductor is 0.2𝟎. 𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟐 . The line is spacing of 4m. The surrounding air temperature
subjected to the following conditions: (6mks) is 𝟑𝟎𝟎 C, while the altitude is 2500m,
KNEC 2022 corresponding to barometric pressure of
vertical permissible sag = 8m 73.15 cmHg. KNEC 2022
Breaking stress = 7000kg/𝒄𝒎𝟐 Take:
Wind Pressure = 3kg/𝒎𝟐 of the projected area -Irregularity Factor = 0.85
Specific gravity of conductor = 9g/𝒄𝒎𝟑 -Surface irregularity factor = 0.75
Determine the: Determine the:
i)Effective weight of the line i)Air Density Factor 𝜹
Calculate :
i) Effective weight
ODIPO
Sln  Wind loading – Will increase the projected
3.92𝑏
Air density 𝛿 = area of the conductor amd hence increases sag
273+𝑡
3.92 𝑥 73.15 and tension
= = 0.95
273+30  Ice Loading – Increases the dead weight per
ii)Critical disruptive voltage 𝑽𝒅
metre of the line hence increases sag and
Sln
tension
In this case
30 - Also increases the projected surface area of
Dielectric strength of air 𝑔0 = = 21.2𝑘𝑉(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
√2 the line hence increase sag and tension
per cm
𝑑
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑔𝑜 𝑟𝛿 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ii)Describe two factors which affects sag on
𝑟
2 overhead lines (4mks)
Conductor radius r = = 1𝑐𝑚
2
400𝑐𝑚 Sln
𝑉𝑐 = 21.2 𝑥 0.95 𝑥 0.85 𝑥 1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 vi. Conductor weight –Sag of the conductor is
1𝑐𝑚
= 102.1kV line to neutral directly proportional to its weight. The weight
of conductors is increased due to ice loading
iii)Visual Critical voltage 𝑽𝒄
0.3 𝑑
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 𝑔𝑜 𝛿𝑟 (1 + ) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑘𝑉/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 vii. Span –Sag is directly proportional to the
√𝛿𝑟 𝑟
0.3 400 square of the span length. Longer span,more
= 21.2 x 0.75 x 0.95 x 1 x [1 + ] 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
√0.95𝑥 1 1
sag
= 109kV
viii. Tension – Sag is inversely proportional to
9)A conductor of diameter 3cm is palced tension and hence sag
centrally through aporcelain bushing of relative ix. Wind loading – It increases sag in the inclined
permittivity 5.The internal and external direction
diameters of the porcelain bushing are 4cm and x. Temperature –Sag is reduced at low
10cm respectively. The voltage between the temperatures and increases at high
conductor and an earthed clamp surrounding temperatures
the porcelain is 25kV rms. Determine the
i)maximum Gradient on the surface of b)Figure 1 shows an overhead transmission line
conductor, 𝒈𝟏 max; (4mks) over unequal levels of gradients 1:2 supported
KNEC O/N 2022 by two towers 𝑷𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝟐 .The conductor weight
Sln is 0.85 kg/m. The maximum breaking stress is
Let 𝑔1 max; maximum gradient of conductor 3000kg, withsafety factor of 2. The conductor is
surface fixed 20m below the top of each tower.
𝑔2 max; maximum gradient of porcelain
insulators
Maximum gradients on surface of conductor
𝑄
𝑔max 1 =
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑄
𝑔max 2 =
2𝜋𝜀1 𝑟1
𝑔1 max r =𝑔2𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜀1 𝑟1
𝑔1 max x 1.5 =𝑔2𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑥 5 𝑥 2
𝑔2𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.15𝑔1 max
2 5
25 = 𝑔1 max r𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 + 𝑔2 max 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
1.5 2
2 5
25 = 1.5𝑔1 max r𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 +0.15𝑔1 max x 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
1.5 2
𝑔1 max = 35.4kV/cm Determine the :
i)Vertical distance between the two supports
Sln
ii)Corona value at 𝒈𝟏 max; (4mks)
Sln Effective height of the tower
800
Corona value at 𝑔1 max Vertical distance btwn the supports AF = =40m
20
Since value at 𝑔1 max excceds 21.1kV/cm
Corona value = 35.4 – 21.1 = 14.3kV/cm ii)Horizontal distance between the two supports
Sln
10ai)Explain the effect of wind and ice loading AC = √8002 − 402 = 798.9m
on conductor sag tension (3mks)
KNEC O/N 2022 iii)Sag𝑺𝟐 𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐏𝟐
Sln 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑒𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Working tension = T =

ODIPO
3000 4:SYMETRICAL AND UNSYMETRICAL
= = 1500kg
2
𝑙 𝑇ℎ 800 1500 𝑥 40 FAULTS
𝑥2 = + = + = 488.235m
2 𝑤𝑙 2 0.85 𝑥 800
1a)State four types of power line faults (4mks)
𝑤𝑥2 2 0.85 𝑥 (488.235)2
Sag 𝑆2 = = = 67.47m i. Single Line to ground faults
2𝑇 2 𝑥 1500
ii. Double line –to-ground faults
c)Explain two effects of voltage variations in iii. Line to line faults
power systems (2mks) iv. Arcing ground faults
Sln v. Three phase balanced faults
vi. Wide variation of voltage causes over heating
in transmission elements hence reduce their b)With aid of phasor diagrams, explain the
performance. following: (6mks)
vii. Results to reactance power which increases i)Positive phase sequence
magnetic field patterns which inturn affects
synchronizing torque, power factor
viii. Results into harmonics and undamped surges
which limits faults clearing in devices
ix. Results to power losses
x. Shutting down in the systems
ii)negative phase sequence
iii)Zero phase sequence
c)Determine the values of the positive phase

sequence of symmetrical components of a system
of current 𝑰𝑹 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 < 𝟎𝟎, 𝑰𝒀 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 < 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 ,
𝑰𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 < 𝟗𝟎𝟎 . The phase sequence is RYB.
(10mks)
Sln
1
𝐼1 = (𝐼𝑅 + 𝑎𝐼𝑌 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝐵 )
3
1
𝐼𝑅1 = (( 300 < 00 ) + (1 < 1200 ))( 400 <
3
2400 ) + ( 1 < 2400 )(200 < 900 ) )
1
𝐼𝑅1 = ((300 + (400 < 3600 ) + (200 < 3300 ) )
3

ODIPO
1 c)A three –phase 8MVA, 11kV star connected
𝐼𝑅1 = ((300 + (400) + (173.2 − 𝑗100))
3
alternator having its star point solidly earthed,
1
supplies a feeder. The impedance in ohms are as
𝐼𝑅1 = ((873.2 − 𝑗100) shown in table 1
3
= [(281.06 − 𝑗33.33)] Alternator Feeder
= [283.0 < −6.7630 ] Positive j2.4 j2.0
sequence
2a)State the four assumptions made in the impedance
analysis of unsymmetrical faults (4mks) 𝒁𝟏 Ω
Sln Positive j1.8 j2.0
i. The generated e.m.f. system is of positive sequence
sequence only. impedance
ii. No current flows in the network other than 𝒁𝟐 Ω
due to fault i.e. load currents are Positive j0.8 j6.0
neglected. sequence
iii. The impedance of the fault is zero. impedance
iv. Phase R shall be taken as the reference 𝒁𝟑 Ω
phase.
If a line to ground fault occurs at the far end of
b)In a three phase system, 𝑬𝑹 , 𝑬𝒀 and𝑬𝑩 are the feeder, determine the :
three phase balanced voltages whose algebraic i)fault current (8mks)
sum is Zero. Using phasor diagrams to show
that the positive sequence components Assuming the fault occurs in the Red phase, and
𝟏 taking Red-phase as the reference line
𝑬𝟏 = [𝑬𝑹 + 𝒂𝑬𝒚 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑬𝑩 ] (8mks)
𝟑
11 𝑥 103
Sln Phase e.mf of R-phase = 𝐸⃗𝑅 = = 6350V
√3
i)Total impedance to any sequence current is the
sum of generator and feeder impedances to that
sequence current
Total 𝑍1 = j 2.4 + j 2.0 = j 3.6 Ω

Total 𝑍2 = j 1.8 + j 2.0 = j 3.8 Ω
by means of operator ‘a’ as shown in fig (ii) above. Total 𝑍0 = j 0.8 + j 6.0 = j 6.8 Ω
Hence from the above figure:
For line to Ground fault :
⃗𝑬𝑹 = ⃗𝑬𝑹𝟏 + ⃗𝑬𝑹𝟐 + ⃗𝑬𝑹𝟎 ….. (i) 𝐼0 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 =
𝐸⃗𝑅
𝑍0 +𝑍1 +𝑍2
𝐸⃗𝑌 = 𝐸⃗𝑌1 + 𝐸⃗𝑌2 + 𝐸⃗𝑌0 6350 6350
= = = -j447.2A
=𝒂𝟐 ⃗𝑬𝑹𝟏 + 𝒂 ⃗𝑬𝑹𝟐 + ⃗𝑬𝑹𝟎 ….. (ii) 𝑗3.6 +𝑗3.8 +𝑗 6.8 𝑗 14.2
𝐸⃗𝐵 = 𝑬
⃗ 𝑩𝟏 + 𝑬⃗ 𝑩𝟐 + 𝑬 ⃗ 𝑩𝟎
Fault current 𝐼𝑅 = 3𝐼0 = 3 x (-j447.4) = -j1341.5 A
=𝒂𝒆 ⃗ 𝑹𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑬⃗ 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑬⃗ 𝑹𝟎 ……(iii)
Multiply ex (ii) by ‘a’ and exp. (iii) by ′𝑎2 ′ (iii) and
then adding these expressions to exp. (E ) we get: ii)Line to neutral voltage at the alternator
terminal
𝐸⃗𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐸𝑌 + 𝑎2 𝐸⃗𝐵 = 𝐸⃗𝑅1 (1 + 𝑎3 + 𝑎3 ) + 𝐸⃗𝑅2 (1 ⃗ 𝑅 = 𝐸⃗𝑅 - 𝐼1 𝑍1 - 𝐼2 𝑍2 - 𝐼0 𝑍0
𝑉
+𝑎2 + 𝑎4 ) +3𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑅0 (1 + a + 𝑎2 )
𝐸⃗𝑅 + 𝑎𝐸
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑌 + 𝑎2 𝐸⃗𝐵 = 3𝐸⃗𝑅1 + 𝐸⃗𝑅2 (0)+𝐸⃗𝑅0 (0) = Where
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
3𝐸𝑅1 𝑍0 , 𝑍1 and 𝑍2 are the sequence impedances of
𝟏 generator
And 𝐸⃗𝑅1 = (𝑬 ⃗ 𝑹 + 𝒂𝑬 ⃗ 𝒀 + 𝑎2 ⃗𝑬𝑩 )
⃗ 𝑅 = 𝐸⃗𝑅 - 𝐼0 (𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍0 )
𝟑 𝑉
Omitting subscript R, we have, = 6350 – (-j447.2)(j2.4 + j1.8 + j0.8)
𝟏
𝐸⃗1 = (𝑬⃗ 𝑹 + 𝒂𝑬
⃗ 𝒀 + 𝑎2 𝑬 ⃗ 𝑩) = 6350 + j447.2 (j5)
𝟑
= 6350 – 2236
NOTE; As the red phase is always taken as the
= 4114 V
reference phase, therefore , subscript R is usually
omitted.

ODIPO
3a)Distinguish between symmetrical and c)Figure 1 Shows an unloaded three-phase
unsymmetrical faults (4mks)KNEC 2019 system with a single –line to ground fault at F.
Sln The system neutral is solidly grounded.
Symmetrical faults. That fault which gives rise to
symmetrical fault currents (i.e. equal faults
currents with 120o displacement) .
Unsymmetrical faults - Those faults on the power

system which give rise to unsymmetrical fault
currents (i.e. unequal fault currents in the lines
with unequal phase displacement)
b)The line currents of a 3-phase system

supplying unbalanced load are (8mks)
𝑰𝑹 = (𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝒋𝟔𝟎)𝑨
𝑰𝒀 = (𝟏𝟐𝟎 − 𝒋𝟏𝟐𝟎)𝑨 Show that the fault current: (8mks)
𝑰𝑩 = (−𝟏𝟓𝟎 + 𝒋𝟏𝟎𝟎)𝑨 𝑰𝑹 =
𝟑𝑬𝑹
Determine the following symmetrical faults 𝒁𝟎 +𝒁𝟏 +𝒁𝟐 +𝟑𝒁𝒇
i)𝑰𝑹𝑶 Where 𝒁𝒇 = Fault impedance

𝒁𝟎 = Zero sequence impedence
Sln 𝒁𝟏 = Positive sequence impedance
𝐼𝑅 = (120 + 𝑗60)𝐴 = 134.16 < 26.60 𝒁𝟐 = Negative sequence impedence
𝐼𝑌 = (120 − 𝑗120)𝐴 =169.7 < −450
𝐼𝐵 = (−150 + 𝑗100)𝐴 = 180.3 < 146.30
1
𝐼0 = (𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 )
3
1
= [120 + 𝑗60 + 120 − 𝑗120 + −150 + 𝑗100]
3
1
= [90 + 𝑗40]
3
1
= [98.49 < 23.960 ]
3
= 32.83 < 23.960 A
ii) 𝑰𝑹𝟏
𝟏
𝐼1 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝐚𝑰𝒀 + 𝑎2 𝑰𝑩 )
𝟑
1
= [134.16 < 26.60 + 1 < 1200 𝑥169.7 <
3
−450 + 1 < −1200 𝑥 180.3 < 146.30 ]
1
= [134.16 < 26.60 + 169.7 < 750 + 180.3 < 4ai)State two types of :
3
26.30 ] i)Unsymmetrical faults that occurs on a power
1 systems (2mks) KNEC J/J 2020
= [120 + 𝑗60 + (43.92 + 𝑗163.9) + (161.6 + i. Single Line to ground faults
3
𝑗79.9] ii. Double line –to-ground faults
1 iii. Line to line faults
= [325.52 + 𝑗303.8]
3
iv. Three phase balanced faults
= (108.5+ j101.3) = 148.4 < 43.030 A
ii)Symmetrical components (2mks)
iii) 𝑰𝑹𝟐
𝟏
i)Zero sequence
𝐼2 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝒀 + 𝑎𝑰𝑩 ) ii)Positive sequence
𝟑
1 iii)negative sequence
= [134.16 < 26.60 + 1 < −1200 𝑥169.7 <
3
−450 + 1 < 1200 𝑥 180.3 < 146.30 ]
Proceed to accomplish this

ODIPO
b)With the aid of a phasor diagram, Show that 𝟏
𝑰𝑹𝟎 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒀 + 𝑰𝑩 ) , where 𝑰𝑹 , 𝑰𝒀 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑰𝑩
𝟑
the negative phase sequence components of
are phase currents in red, yellow and Blue
current for a three phase unbalanced system is
respectively (8mks)
given by:
𝟏 Sln
𝑰𝑹𝟐 = [𝑰𝑹 + 𝝀𝟐 𝑰𝒀 + 𝝀𝑰𝑩 ] where λ is the The unbalanced phase currents in a 3- phase
𝟑
operator and 𝑰𝑹 , 𝑰𝒀 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝑩 are currents in the system can be expressed in terms of symmetrical
red, yellow and blue phases. (7mks) components as under
Attempt this 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅0

The figure above shows the vector representation

of symmetrical components. It is usually profitable
in calculations to express the symmetrical
components in terms of unbalanced phase currents.
NOTE: That the positive sequence current can be

expressed in terms of = 𝐼𝑅1 by means of operator
‘a’. Thus positive sequence current 𝐼𝐵1 in phase B
leads = 𝐼𝑅1 by 1200 and therefore = 𝐼𝐵1 = 𝑎 𝐼𝑅1
Similarly , Positive sequence current in phase Y is

2400 a head of = 𝐼𝑅1 so that = 𝐼𝑌1 = 𝑎2 𝐼𝑅1
c)The voltages across a three-phase unbalanced In an exactly similar manner, the negative
load are: 𝑽𝑹 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 < 𝟎𝟎 𝑽, 𝑽𝒀 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 < −𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝑽, sequence set can be expressed in terms of = 𝐼𝑅2 by
𝑽𝑩 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 < 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝑽. Determine the components means of operator ‘a’ as shown in fig (ii) above.
of voltages in the red phase (9mks) Hence from the above figure:
Attempt this
𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟎 ….. (i)
=𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝒂 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟎 ….. (ii)
𝐼𝐵 = 𝑰𝑩𝟏 + 𝑰𝑩𝟐 + 𝑰𝑩𝟎
= 𝒂 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟎 ……(iii)
i)Zero sequence current . By adding exps. (1),(ii)

and (iii) , (add the abeve 3 eqtns vertically )we get,
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑅1 (1 + a + 𝑎2 ) + 𝐼𝑅2 (1 + a +
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑅0
𝑎2 )+3𝐼
1 + a + 𝑎2 = 0
5a) State three types of unsymmetrical faults
that occur on a three –phase power system ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑅0 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑅1 (0) + 𝐼𝑅2 (0)+3𝐼 3𝐼𝑅0
𝟏
(3mks) And 𝐼𝑅0 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒀 + 𝑰𝑩 )
𝟑
a)Single line-to-ground fault
b) Line-to-line fault
c)The current in a-phase unbalanced system are
b)Double line-to-ground fault
𝑰𝑹 = (𝟏𝟎 + 𝐣𝟐𝟎 ), 𝑰𝒀 = (𝟏𝟐 − 𝐣𝟏𝟎) 𝐚𝐧𝐝
b)Using phasor diagrams, show that the 𝑰𝑩 = (-3 – j5)A. The phase sequence is RYB.
expression for Zero sequence 𝑰𝟎 for the red- Calculate the positive, negative sequence
phase unbalanced system is given by: components of current in the red-phase
(8mks)

ODIPO
Sln ii)Derive the expression for zero components in
b)The current in a-phase unbalanced system are (i) (7mks)
𝑰𝑹 = (𝟏𝟎 + 𝐣𝟐𝟎 ), 𝑰𝒀 = (𝟏𝟐 − 𝐣𝟏𝟎) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑰𝑩 = (-3 Sln
– j5)A. The phase sequence is RYB. Calculate 𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟎 ….. (i)
the positive, negative sequence component s of
current in the red-phase (8mks)
sln =𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝒂 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟎 ….. (ii)
1 𝐼𝐵 = 𝑰𝑩𝟏 + 𝑰𝑩𝟐 + 𝑰𝑩𝟎
Zero phase sequence 𝐼𝑅0 = (𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 )
3
1 = 𝒂 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟎 ……(iii)
= [(10 + 𝑗20) + (12 − 𝑗10) + (−3 − 𝑗5)]
3 Zero sequence current . By adding exps. (1),(ii)
1
= [(19 + 𝑗5)] and (iii) , (add the abeve 3 eqtns vertically )we get,
3
1
= [(19 + 𝑗5)]
3 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑅1 (1 + a + 𝑎2 ) + 𝐼𝑅2 (1 + a +
= [(6.33 + 𝑗1.666)] ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑅0
𝑎2 )+3𝐼
= [6.54 < 14.70 ] 1 + a + 𝑎2 = 0
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑅0 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑅1 (0) + 𝐼𝑅2 (0)+3𝐼 3𝐼𝑅0
Positive sequence component 𝟏
1 And 𝐼𝑅0 = (𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒀 + 𝑰𝑩 )
𝐼𝑅1 = (𝐼𝑅 + 𝑎𝐼𝑌 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝐵 ) 𝟑
3
1 0
𝐼𝑅1 = ((10 + 𝑗20) + ( 1 < 120 )(15.6 < ii)State five merits of limiting the phase to
3
−39.80 ) + (1 < 2400 )(5.83 < −1210 ) ) ground faults by use of resistance grounding
1
𝐼𝑅1 = ((10 + 𝑗20) + ( 15.6 < 80.20 ) + (5.83 < method (5mks)
3
KNEC O/N 2022
1190 ) )
1 sln
𝐼𝑅1 = ((10 + 𝑗20) + ( 2.66 + 𝑗15.37) +
3 i. Reduces the burning and melting effects in
(−2.83 + 𝑗5.1 ) faulted electrical equipment, Txs, cables etc.
1
= [(9.83 + 𝑗40.5)] ii. To Reduces mechanical strength in
3
= [(3.28 + 𝑗13.5)] circuits/equipment carrying faults current
iii. To reduce electrical shock hazards to
= [13.89 < 76.30 ]
personells caused by stray ground faults
iv. To reduce arc blast or flash hazard
Negative sequence component v. To reduce momentary line voltage dip
1
𝐼𝑅2 = (𝐼𝑅 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝑌 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝐼𝐵 ) vi. To improve detection of earth faults in power
3
1 systems
𝐼𝑅2 = ((10 + 𝑗20) + ( 1 < 2400 )(15.6 <
3
−39.80 ) + (1 < 1200 )(5.83 < −1210 ) ) d)Explain each of the following terms with
1
𝐼𝑅2 = ((10 + 𝑗20) + ( 15.6 < 80.20 ) + (5.83 < reference to time graded overcurrent protection
3
1190 ) ) of overhead lines KNEC O/N 2022
1
𝐼𝑅2 = ((10 + 𝑗20) + ( 2.66 + 𝑗15.37) + i)Radial feeder (2mks)
3 Sln
(−2.83 + 𝑗5.1 ) Power can flow only in one direction from the
1
= [(9.83 + 𝑗40.5)] generator or supply end of the load
3
= [(3.28 + 𝑗13.5)] - It can be achieved by use of :
= [13.89 < 76.30 ] - I)Definite time relay
- Inverse time relays
6i)Draw the labelled vector diagrams of the
positive, negative and zero sequence components ii)Ring main system (2mks)
in reference to overhead line faults (3mks) Various power stations are interconnected by
KNEC O/N 2022 alternate routes forming a closed ring.
Sln Power is supplied from both ends of the ring, hence
continuity in supply.
5a)Outline four power line faults in power

systems transmission (2mks)
 Single phase earth faults
 Line to line ground faults
 Line to line faults
 Arcing ground faults
 Line to line to line faults
ODIPO
b)Two 33kv, 20MW, three phase, star connected 5:POWER STABILITY
generators operate in parallel as shown in figure 1) Explain the ‘steady state stability’ with
2. The positive, negative and zero sequence are reference to power systems (3mks)
j0.08p.u,j.006p.u and j0.04pu respectively. Ability of the power system to go back to normal
Asingle line to ground faults occurs at the and stable operation after being subjected to small
disturbance gradual or slow change in the load.
terminals of one of the generators. (8mks)
2a) Explain the following methods of improving
steady-state stability
i)fast tracking (2mks)
ii)High- speed excitation systems (2mks)

Helps to maintain synchronism during a fault by
quickly increasing the excitation voltage. High
speed governors helps by quickly adjusting the
generator input to the load
iii)Series compensation of the lines (2mks)

Determine the: The inductive reactance of a line can be reduced by
i)Actual positive sequence reactance The inductive reactance of line can be reduced by
connecting static capacitors in series with line. It is
𝑉𝐸
𝑋1 = j
0.08
= j0.04 P.u [𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛] to be noted that 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = does not increase
𝑋
2
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 indefinitely as x is reduced.
i.e
𝑠𝑢𝑚 The Optimum condition is X = √3 R
X = Z = impedance
ii)Actual negative sequence reactance
0.06 3.An alternator supplying an infinite bus-bar
2
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 through two transmission lines operating in
i.e parallel, the steady state limit being 100MW. If
𝑠𝑢𝑚
one of the line is suddenly switched off when
iii)Impedance transmitting 80MW, use the equal area criterion
𝑍𝑜 = j0.04 + 3𝑃𝑖𝑛 to determine whether the system will remain
20 stable.
= j0.04 + 3 x 1 x Sln
(33)2
= j0.04 + 0.055 Ω For the two transmission line:
2x 100 =200MW
iv)Fault current
Sln
3𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑎 = 3𝐼𝑦 =
𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3
3 𝑥 1.0
=
𝑗0.04+𝑗0.03+𝑗0.04
0
= 24.6< −63.43 A
v)Current in the grounding resistor

Sln
𝑝
|𝐼𝑓 | = 𝐼𝑓 𝑥
√3𝑥𝑉
20
= 24.6 x = 8.61kA
√3𝑥33
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿
But
Thus , to find the initial 𝜹𝟎

ODIPO
80𝑀𝑊 = 200𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜 3a)With reference to power system stability,
And define the following terms: (3mks)
80 KNEC O/N 2018
𝛿0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 23.380 or 0.1420 Rads
200 i)Steady state limit
– Is the maximum power that can be transferred
Again to find 𝜹𝟏 , from source to load without the system becoming
80𝑀𝑊 = 100𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1 And unstable (without loss of synchronism) , when the
𝟖𝟎 load is increased gradually, under steady state
𝜹𝟏 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 [ ] = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝟎 or 0.927 Rads
𝟏𝟎𝟎 condition.
Now we get the areas 𝑨𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟐 ii)Transient stability

Using eqtn 25 Ability to regain normal and stable operation after
𝑑 being subjected to sudden & large disturbances in
0
0.927 the load.
𝐴1 = ∫0.412 (80 − 100𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿) 𝑑𝛿 Examples : Losses-generator excitation,
𝐴1 = [80𝛿 + 100𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿]0.927
0.412 transmission, switching operations and line faults.
𝐴1 = 80(0.927 − 0.412) + 100(𝐶𝑜𝑠53.13 −
𝐶𝑜𝑠23.58) iii)Dynamic stability
𝐴1 = 9.549𝑀𝑊 rads Refers to artificial stability given to an inherently
unstable system by automatic control devices. It is
Again Area 𝑨𝟐 concerned with small disturbances lasting for 10 to
𝝅
30 sec.
Area 𝐴2 = 2 ∫𝒅𝟐 (𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹 − 𝑷𝒔𝒊 )𝒅𝜹
𝟏
𝝅
𝐴2 = 2 ∫0.927(100𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿 − 80) 𝑑𝛿
𝟐 -System is said to be dynamically stable if this
𝝅 oscillations do not acquire more than a certain
𝟐
𝐴2 = 2[−100𝐶𝑜𝑠90 − 80𝛿]0.927 amplitude and die out quickly. It results from
𝝅 interconnection between control systems.
𝐴2 = 2(−100𝐶𝑜𝑠 90 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 53.13) − 80( −
𝟐
0.927)
b)Derive the swing equation of synchronous
𝐴2 = 16.99𝑀𝑊 rad
machine (7mks)
Since 𝐴2 is greater than 𝐴1 , then the system
remains stable.
c)A generator is supplying power to an infinite

bus bar system through a a double line circuit.
The steady state limit of each circuit is 80MW.
The generator is transmitting 50MW when one
of the lines is suddenly switched off due to a
fault. Determine, using a power-angle curve
whether the generator is likely to remain in
synchronism (10mks)
And
Consider a synchronous generator:

-developing an electromagnetic torque 𝑇𝑒
- and a corresponding electromagnetic power 𝑃𝑒
-While operating at the synchronous speed 𝝎𝒔
The generator receives mechanical torque input 𝑻𝒊
via the shaft and develop an the output and
electromagnetic torque 𝑻𝒆 which opposes 𝑻𝒊 ,
Then under steady state conditions: (without any
disturbance)
When there is no disturbance,
𝑻𝒆 = 𝑻𝒊 ……………………….. (14)
ODIPO
Here we have neglected any retarding torque due c)A loss free alternator supplies 80MW to
to rotational losses. Therefore we have: infinite bus-bars. The maximum steady state
limit of the system is 30MW. If the prime mover
𝑻𝒆 𝝎𝒔 = 𝑻𝒊 𝝎𝒔 ……………….. (15) input is increased by 40% of the original value,
determine, using a power-angle curve, whether
𝑻𝒆 𝝎𝒔 - 𝑻𝒊 𝝎𝒔 =𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒆 = 0 …...( 16) the alternator will remain in synchronism
(10mks)
Where 𝝎𝒔 = Synchronous speed
Sln
When a change in load or a fault occurs, then the
difference between input power 𝑷𝒊 and
electromagnetic power 𝑷𝒆 , results into an
accelerating torque.
Let 𝑷𝒂 be the acceleration (or decelerating)

power, then
𝒅𝟐 𝜽𝒆 𝒅𝜽𝒆
𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒆 = M +𝑫 = 𝑷𝒂 ………. (17)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
Where :
M = Inertia Constant or Momentum
D = damping Coefficient
𝜽𝒆 = electrical angular position of the rotor For stability, Area A2 = Area A1
The angular position 𝜃𝑒 of the rotor continuously
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿
varies with time .It is therefore more convenient to
measure the angular position of the rotor with But
respect to synchronously rotating reference axis 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 120MW
than with stationary axis. Thus , to find the initial 𝜹𝟎
70𝑀𝑊 = 120𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜
Let And
𝛿 = 𝜃𝑒 - 𝝎𝒔 𝒕 …………………………..(18a) 70
𝛿0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 35.690 or 0.623 Rads
Differentiating eqtn (18) with respect to time t for 120
the 1st time
Again to find 𝜹𝟏 , and 50 + 30 = 80MW
𝒅𝛿 𝒅𝜃𝑒
= − 𝝎𝒔 ………………… (18b) 98𝑀𝑊 = 120𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
And
And differentiating equation (18b) for the 2 nd time 𝟗𝟖
𝜹𝟏 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 [ ] = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟕𝟓𝟎 or 0.956 Rads
𝒅𝟐 𝜽𝒆 𝒅𝟐 𝜹 𝟏𝟐𝟎
So that = ………………………(19)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝛿𝑚 = 𝜋 − 𝛿1
Where 𝜹 is power angle of synchronous machine.
𝛿𝑚 = 180 – 54.75 = 125.250
Neglecting dumping D = 0, and substituting
equation (19) into eqtn 17 Now we get the areas 𝑨𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝜹
Using eqtn 25
M = 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑷𝒂 MW …… (20) 𝑑
𝒅𝒕𝟐
0
0.956
The above equation (20) is the Swing equation 𝐴1 = ∫0.623 (98 − 120𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿) 𝑑𝛿
𝐴1 = [98𝛿 + 120𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿]0.956
0.623
Where : 𝐴1 = 98(0.924 − 0.623) + 120(𝐶𝑜𝑠54.78 −
M = Momentum 𝐶𝑜𝑠36.69)
Pa = accelerationg power 𝐴1 = 4429𝑀𝑊 rads
Pi = Mechaniacal input power
Pe = Electrical output power Again Area 𝑨𝟐
𝒅
Area 𝐴2 = ∫𝒅 𝒎 (𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜹 − 𝑷𝒔𝒊 )𝒅𝜹
𝟏
2.14
𝐴2 = ∫0.956(100𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿 − 80) 𝑑𝛿
𝐴2 = −120[𝐶𝑜𝑠125.25 − 98𝛿]2.19 0.956
𝐴2 = −120(𝐶𝑜𝑠 125.25 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 54.75) −
98(2.19 − 0.956)
𝐴2 = 17.58𝑀𝑊 rad
Since 𝐴2 is greater than 𝐴1 , then the system
remains stable.
ODIPO
4a)State thee methods of reducing the system Maximum power is inversely proportional to the
transfer reactance for improving-steady state transfer reactance X
stability (3mks) KNEC J/J 2019 ii)Steady state limit
– Is the maximum power that can be transferred
i)Use of Bundle conductors from source to load without the system becoming
ii)series Compensation unstable (without loss of synchronism) , when the
iii)Use of synchronous phase modifier load is increased gradually, under steady state
iv)Use of machines of low impedance condition
v)Use of double circuit line
b)Figure 1 shows a synchronous generator
connected to a synchronous motor through a
b)Derive the swing equation of a synchronous series impedance (R + jx)Ohms.
generator (6mks)
Show that the maximum power delivered to the

synchronous motor is given by:
|𝑬𝒎 ||𝑬𝒈 |
𝑷𝒎 = where 𝑬𝒎 is the internal voltage of
𝑿
the Motor , 𝑬𝒈 is the internal voltage of the
generator and X is the total Series reactance
c)The ABCD constant of a nominal 𝝅 network (8mks)
representing a three phase transmission line are Let:
A =D =0.94< 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 , B =66< 𝟕𝟐𝟎 , C =0.002< 𝟗𝟏𝟎 𝑬𝒈 = Excitation phase voltage of the generator
Siemens. 𝑬𝒎 =Phase voltage delivered to the motor
Given that both sending-end and receiving end Z = The total synchronous impedance from the
voltages are kept constant at 132kV, Determine generator to the infinite bus bar
in steady –state stability limit with: I=The Current applied by the generator to the
i)The ABCD Constants as indicated infinite bus-bar
𝜹 = load angle (phase angle between E and V)
Formula
E = V + I.Z
(𝑬 < 𝜹 ) = V< 𝟎𝟎 ) + (I< - ∅) (Z<𝜷)
(𝑬<𝜹) −(𝐕<𝟎𝟎 ) 𝑬<𝜹 𝑽<𝟎𝟎
(I < - ∅ ) = = -
𝐙<𝜷 𝐙<𝜷 𝐙<𝜷
𝑬 𝑽
(I< - ∅ ) = (𝜹 − 𝜷) − (−𝜷)
𝒛 𝒛
Taking cos on both sides

𝐸 𝑉
I Cos< - ∅ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(−𝛽)
𝑧 𝑧
By making, angle 𝛽 positive
𝐸 𝑉
I Cos< ∅ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽 − 𝛿) − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽)
𝑧 𝑧
And multiplying all through by V
𝐸𝑉 𝑉2
ii)both series resistance and admittance 𝑧 𝑧
neglected
5a)With reference to power system stability,

define the following terms: KNEC 2020 𝑅
Cos 𝛽 = and R= Z Cos 𝛽
𝑍
i)transfer reactance And P = VI Cos< ∅
It is the total reactance X between two voltage And substituting into the above equations
source V and E. 𝐸𝑉 𝑉2
𝑧 𝑧

ODIPO
𝐸𝑉 𝑉 2𝑅 7.A generator operating at 50Hz delivers 1.0 p.u
𝑃𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽 − 𝛿) − 2
𝑧 𝑍 power to an infinite bus through a transmission
Z=R+X line in which the resistance is ignored. A fault
R = is very negligible and hence neglected takes places reducing the amount of power
The equation reduces to: transferable to 0.45p.u whereas before the fault
𝐸𝑉
𝑃𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽 − 𝛿) this was 1.85 p.u and after clearance of the fault,
𝑋
0
𝛽 = 90 the power is 1.15p.u. Use equal area criterion to
𝐸𝑉 determine the critical clearance angle. (10mks)
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛿)
𝑋
|𝑬𝒈 ||𝑬𝒎 |
But 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝑿
6.A generator generating at 50Hz delivers 1.0

per units power to an infinite bus-bar through a
transmission line in which the resistance is
ignored. A fault takes place reducing the current
of the power transferable to 0.5 per unit power,
whereas before the fault, there power was 2.0
per unit. After the clearance of the fault, it will
be 1.5 per unit. Use equal area criterion to
determine the actual angle.
Sln
Reference to fig 17 above :
𝑃𝑖 = 1.0 pu (power input)
𝑃𝑑𝑢𝑟 = 0.5 pu (during-fault)
𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑒 = 2.0 pu (pre-fault)
𝑃𝑐 = 1.5 pu (post- fault)
bi)Explain the term Dynamic stability with

reference to power stability (2mks)
(KNEC 2022)
Refers to artificial stability given to an inherently
unstable system by automatic control devices. It is
concerned with small disturbances lasting for 10 to
30 sec.
-System is said to be dynamically stable if this

oscillations do not acquire more than a certain
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜 amplitude and die out quickly. It results from
And interconnection between control systems.
𝑃𝑖
𝛿0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] ii)State two area of applications of the equal
𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑒
1 𝝅 criterion in power generation and transmission
=𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 𝟑𝟎 or 𝟎
2 𝟔 of voltages. (2mks)
Again: 1) Sudden Loss of One of parallel Lines:
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿1 ii) Sudden short circuit on one of parallel lines
a) Short circuit at one end of line
𝑃
𝜹𝟏 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 [ 𝑖 ] b) Short circuit at the middle of a line
𝑃𝑐
−1 1
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛 [ ] = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟖𝟏𝟎 8.A 50Hz Synchronous generator supplies
1.5
600MW of power and is connected to a power
𝛿𝑚 = 𝜋 − 𝛿1 system delivering 100MW. The maximum power
angle - 𝟖𝟔𝟎 . A three phase fault occurs at its
𝛿𝑚 = 180 – 𝟒𝟔. 𝟖𝟏𝟎 = 133.20 or 2.412 rads terminal. Take H = 10MJ/MVA on 100MVA
base.
𝜋
𝑃1 (𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝛿0 )−𝑃𝑚𝑎𝐼𝐼 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 + 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 Determine (9mks)
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 180
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼𝐼𝐼 −𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼𝐼
1.0 (2.412−0.524)−0.5𝐶𝑜𝑠30+ 1.5𝐶𝑜𝑠 138.7 i)Initial Input Power
1.5 −0.5 Sln
= 0.3369 100
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝 = = 33.3MW
3
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [0.3369] = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟎

ODIPO
ii)Pre-Clrearing angle 𝟏 2
KE = 𝐉 [( )2 𝜔𝑠𝑒 × 10−6 ] . 𝜔𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝐽
𝟐 𝑝
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0 Or

𝟏 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
600
= 200MW KE = 𝐉 [( )2 𝜔𝑠𝑒 × 10−6 ] . 𝜔𝑠𝑒
3 𝟐 𝑝
Or
33.33 = 200𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0 𝟏
KE = 𝐌𝛚𝐬𝐞 MJ
33.33 𝟐
Sin 𝛿0 = 𝑃
200 Where: M = J× ( )2 𝜔𝑠 × 10−6 Moment of inertia
𝛿0 = 9.60 = 0.17 radians 2
𝛿1 = 860 = 1.5 radians in MJsec/elect.rad

Cos𝛿𝑐 = Cos𝛿1 + (𝛿1 − 𝛿0 )Sin𝛿𝑜 for critical
pre-clearing angle
c)A generator operating at 50Hz, delivers 2.pu
Cos𝛿𝑐 =Cos(1.5) + (1.5 − 0.17)Sin (0.17)
MW power. A three phase faults occurs
= 0.071 + 0.225
= 0.296 reducing the maximum power to 0.6 p.uM.W.
𝛿𝑐 = 1.27 radians Before the fault, the power is 2.8p.uMW and
after clearing the fault, the power drops to
iii)Critical clearing time 2.2puMW. Determine the
2𝐻(𝛿1 −𝛿0 ) i)Ratio of maximum power during and before
𝑡𝑐 = √ fault 𝑲𝟏
𝜋𝑓𝑃𝑖
𝑃𝑖 (3∅) = 100MW at abase of 100 sln
100 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 0.6
= = 1 p.u MW 𝐾1 = = = 0.214
100 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 2.8
2 𝑥 10 𝑥 (1.27−0.17)
𝑡𝑐 = √ = 0.37 sec
𝜋 𝑥 50 𝑥 1 ii) Ratio of maximum power during and before
fault 𝑲𝟐
iv)Critical Clearing angle 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 2.2
Sln 𝐾2 = = = 0.786
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 1 [(𝜋 − 2𝛿0 )𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑜 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 ]
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 1 [(𝜋 − 2𝑥0.17)𝑆𝑖𝑛 0.17 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0.17] iii)Maximum rotor angle 𝜹𝒎
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 1 [(𝜋 − 2𝑥0.17)𝑆𝑖𝑛 0.17 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0.17] Sln
𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 1 [−0.52] = 58.70 = 1.029 radians 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑚 ′
2 = 2.2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑚 ′
2
𝛿𝑚 ′ = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟒𝟎
2.2
9a)State three methods used to improve power ′
system transient stability (3mks)
i)Use of high system voltage,small line series 𝛿𝑚 = 180 – 𝟔𝟓. 𝟒𝟎 = 114.60
reactances and leakage reactances
ii)Use of static Var compensators
iii)Series capacitive line compensators iv)Initial power angle 𝜹𝒐
iv)High speed fault clearing 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0
v)High speed re-closures of C.B.S 2 = 2.8 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0
vi)High speed valving ofreactors 2
vii)Fast response, high gains exciters 𝛿0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 [ ] = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟔𝟎
2.8
viii)Using breaking resistors
b)Derive an expression for moment of Inertia
for synchronous machine in power system v)Critical clearing angle 𝜹𝒄
1
stability analysis (5mks) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 = [(𝛿𝑚 − 𝛿0 )𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿0 + 𝐾2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑚 − 𝐾1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿0 ]
𝐾2 −𝐾1
1
Sln 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 =
0.786−0.214
[(114.6 − 45.6)𝑆𝑖𝑛45.6 +
The Kinetic energy of the rotor of the synchronous 0.786𝐶𝑜𝑠114.6 − 0.214𝐶𝑜𝑠45.6]
machine in terms of electrical angle is
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 0.669
𝟏
KE = 𝐉𝛚𝐬 𝟐 …………………. (i) 𝛿𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 [0.669] = 𝟒𝟖.𝟎
𝟐
Where, J = rotor Moment of inertia

𝜔𝑠 = Synchronous speed
𝑃
Speed in electrical radians 𝜔𝑠𝑒 = ( ) 𝜔𝑠 …..(ii)
2
P = Number of poles
Equating eqtn (i) and (ii)

ODIPO
ODIPO

All Topics Power System

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PROTECTION

RELAYS a)Selectivity. It is the ability of the protective system to select

The system can be divided into the following protection zones

b)Current setting. It is the adjustment of pick-up current to

1.Induction Type Overcurrent Relay (non-

Constructional details. The figure above shows the essential

3|Page BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

Constructional details :It consists of two relay elements

The secondary’s of CT’s are connected in series in such a way

Biased Beam Relay. The biased beam relay (also called

6|Page BY: MR. ODIPO 0729692775

It consists of two identical double winding induction type

Protection Systems for transformers

B)PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 1.Buchholz relay

Common transformer faults.

1.Differential protection. This is the basic method for busbar

A fault involving a connection between a conductor and

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i)Time graded overcurrent protection

One of the terms we need to understand include:

1)Radial feeder. The main characteristic of a radial system is

3.Ring main system. In this system, various power stations or

2.Translay scheme. This system is similar to voltage balance

The modified Distance protection is as shown below

In this scheme of protection, three distance elements are

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Where 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 1 (unity), then Power = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴

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0.75Ω per phase. It is protected using the MertZ 100 100

Let x% of the winding be unprotected.

E.mf induced in the x % winding

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E.mf induced in the x % winding

Earth fault current due to x% winding = 262.4 A

Let x% of the winding be unprotected.

E.mf induced in the x % winding

Earth fault current due to x% winding = 150 A

𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝐸) 38.1𝑥

ii)Maximum resistance to provide protection for 95% of

Earth fault current due to 5 % winding = 150 A

𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝐸) 𝑥 38.1 𝑥

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4) Swinging of conductors – Is caused by the changes in the

5) Dancing of conductor – It is caused by irregular coating of

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a)When supports are at equal levels. Con- sider a conductor

If w is the weight per unit length of the conductor, then

Again moment due to weight wx , about O will be

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Reasons for calculations of sag

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Alternatively : 𝑾𝒘 = [𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆] 𝒙 [(𝑑 + 2𝑡)𝑥 100]

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𝑤𝑥2 2 1.2 𝑥 (358.3)2

Minimum clearance = 75 – 30.8 = 44.19m

Mid-way = (150 – 122) = 128m