GLOBAL MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT

ELECTRONICS TROUBLESHOOTING ILT

SWITCHES/SENSORS/SOLENOIDS
MODULE 7 - TEXT REFERENCE

SERV1877

Electronics Troubleshooting ILT

Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids
Text Reference

© 2010 Caterpillar Inc.

SERV1877 - 03/10 -2- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

2_1

Switches

Electronic control systems use several types of switches. Switches may either
monitor an engine or machine parameter or may be operator activated. They all
have similar functions and are typically two-state devices (ON or OFF) that provide
power or grounded inputs in order to control devices.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -3- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

SWITCHES (ON / OFF INPUT DEVICES)

Parameter
Switch Makeup
Monitored

Temperature Variable Input with Thermistor or Thermocouple

Strain Gauge with Variable Resistor and Switch

Pressure
Bellows w/Induction or Capacitor and Switch

Fluid Flow Paddle with Switch

- Toggle
Operator - Push / Pull
Activated - Momentary (Hold)
- Push to Set / Push to Release

3_1

level switches include a variable resistor or some other method of turning the switch
on or off such as a thermocouple. When the machine conditions exceed or decrease

activated by the operator.

SERV1877 - 03/10 -4- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

4_1

Main Display Module

GN 116 BK 18
Ground 2 BK 2
16 BK 18
T°
Rear Brake Oil
Temperature 29 Rear Brake Oil
Temperature Switch

4_2
Temperature Switch

The top photo shows a brake oil temperature switch (arrow) located on an articulated
truck. The temperature switch contacts are normally closed. When the engine
is running and brake oil temperature is within the desired range determined by
engineering, the contacts stay closed and complete the ground circuit. The switch
opens once the brake oil temperature exceeds an acceptable limit, alerting the
operator of the condition.

This type of temperature switch can be tested using a digital multimeter on the volts
or ohms scale. An excessive voltage drop across the terminals would indicate a
defective switch.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -5- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

5_1

Main Display Module

Ground 2 BK 16 B RD 16
Brake Oil Pressure 20 PK 16 BK 16
Brake Oil
Pressure Switch

5_2

Pressure Switch

The top photo shows a brake oil pressure switch (arrow). The pressure-type switch
contacts are normally open (engine not running/low oil pressure). When the engine
is running and brake oil pressure is within the desired range, the contacts close and
complete the ground circuit.

If brake oil pressure drops to a level where the contacts open, the switch will interrupt

a low pressure event.

This type of pressure switch can be tested using a digital multimeter on the volts
or ohms scale. An excessive voltage drop across the terminals when adequate
pressure is present would indicate a defective switch.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -6- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

6_1

Engine ECM
BU 16 BK 18
Ground 2 BK 16 BK 18

Coolant Flow 18 Coolant Flow Switch

6_2

Flow Switch

This type of switch can be tested using a digital multimeter on the volts or ohms scale.

when the paddle is hand actuated) would indicate a defective switch.

SERV1877 - 03/10 -7- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

7_1

Transmission ECM J1

Sensor Ground
12 BN 16 1
Return
PK 16 2
3
Parking
4
Parking Brake Brake Switch
44
Op Switch

7_2
Operator-Activated Switch

perform an action. In this application a parking brake switch (arrow) on an articulated

the signal and sends an output signal to engage the parking brake.

This type of switch can be tested using a digital multimeter on the volts or ohms
scale. An excessive voltage drop or excessive resistance across the terminals while
the switch is closed would indicate a defective switch.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -8- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

SENDERS / SENSORS (VARIABLE INPUT DEVICES)

Parameter Sensor Active or DMM
Monitored Makeup Passive Measurements
Pickup Coil Passive (2 Wire) Volts / Hz / Ohms
Speed
Hall Effect Active (2/3/4 Wire) Volts / Hz / Duty Cycle
Variable Resistor Passive (2 Wire) Volts / Ohms
Temperature Variable Resistor Active (3 Wire) Volts / Ohms
Variable Resistor Active (3 Wire) Volts / Hz / Duty Cycle
Strain Gauge with Active (3 Wire) Volts
Pressure
Variable Resistor Active (3 Wire) Volts / Hz / Duty Cycle
Variable Resistor Active (3 Wire)
Position Hall Effect Active (3 Wire) Volts / Hz / Duty Cycle
Magnetostrictive Active (3 Wire)
Variable Resistor Passive (2 Wire) Volts / Ohms
Fuel Level
Ultrasonic Active (4 Wire) Volts / Hz / Duty Cycle

8_1

Sensors

the chart above. This chart shows the typical sensors and senders found on Cat
engines and machines.

monitored. Other sensor characteristics include:

Sensor Makeup: Internal components that determine the type of signal

produced.

battery and must be powered to check operation. A passive sensor

applied.
DMM Measurements: Type of electronic signals for a sensor that a
digital multimeter can measure.

NOTE: Most variable input devices are referred to as sensors. The fuel level
input device with a variable resistor is normally referred to as a sender. All
variable input devices will be referred to as sensors in this presentation.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -9- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

9_1 9_2

Passive Sensors

Do not have to be powered in Passive sensors are typically two-wire sensors, with the exception of single-wire
order to test.
and test. Testing can usually be accomplished by checking the resistance of the
Can test off engine or machine sensor. All passive sensors will be of the analog type.
(static test).
Pin assignments for passive sensors are as follows:

Position 1: Signal
Position 2: Return/Ground
SERV1877 - 03/10 -10- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

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10_2

Active Sensors

Active sensors are typically three-wire sensors, but can be two- or four-wire. Active

fall into one of two categories:

Analog (top photo): A signal that varies smoothly over time and in
proportion to the measured parameter. These signals are typically DC
voltage.
Digital (bottom photo): Digital signals are usually associated with
computerized electronic controls and measuring devices. The signal(s)
will switch between two distinct levels, such as 0 to +10 Volts, or more
simply stated as low and high. The internal electronics of a sensor
determine the amplitude or level.

Pin assignments for active sensors are as follows:

A or 1 position: Power
B or 2 position: Return/Ground
C or 3 and 4 position: Signal
SERV1877 - 03/10 -11- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

+
DC Volts

0
Pressure (kPa)

11_1

Analog Signals

As previously mentioned, an analog signal is a signal that varies smoothly over time
and in proportion to the measured parameter. Analog signals on Cat equipment are
typically AC or DC voltage.

The above illustration shows a DC analog signal trace of a pressure sensor. This
type of electronic signal is proportional to the amount of pressure sensed in a system.
As pressure increases, the resistance of the sensing device changes. The change in

NOTE: Analog sensors that have a DC output will have a typical operating
range of 0.2 volts to 4.8 volts. Voltage ranges may be different, depending on
application.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -12- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

One Cycle

Time 12_1

The above illustration depicts a sine wave produced by analog speed/timing sensors.
Sine waves are types of signals that change direction (alternating current). In the
above example, the voltage rises to a peak positive value, drops to zero, reverses
polarity, rises to a peak negative value, and returns to zero. One positive and one
negative alternation produces one cycle. The cycle is repeated continuously.

The number of cycles that occur in one second is called frequency, expressed in Hertz
(Hz). As the speed of the measured parameter increases, so will the frequency.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -13- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

High

Two Distinct
Amplitude Levels

Low

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Digital Signals

Hall Effect: Varying Frequency, As previously stated, digital signals switch between two distinct levels such as 0 to
Constant Duty Cycle +10 Volts, or more simply stated as high and low. The internal electronics of a

PWM: Constant Frequency, are typically of the Hall-Effect or pulse width modulated (PWM) type.
Varying Duty Cycle.
The above illustration depicts a typical Hall-Effect signal. Hall-Effect sensors

one side of the semiconductor (remember—like forces repel and opposites attract).
When current is forced to one side of a semiconductor, a difference in potential
(differential voltage change) can be detected. The gear tooth moving across the Hall
cell gives a “high” state. The “low” state indicates the Hall cell is located in the valley
between two teeth.

Digital signals created by Hall-Effect will have a frequency that varies with the speed
of the parameter being measured, and will typically have a constant duty cycle of
50%.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -14- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

On ON (80%) OFF (20%)

+

0
Off One Period

14_1

The above illustration shows a PWM signal. A PWM signal is measured in duty

example above, the signal is on (or high) for 80% of the pulse and off (or low) for 20%
of the pulse. This would indicate a duty cycle of 80%.

On Cat equipment, a position sensor would be a good example of a device that

produces a PWM signal. A PWM signal has a constant frequency output and the
duty cycle (percentage of time on versus time off) of the signal varies as conditions

is processed.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -15- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

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Sensor Types

Sensors convert a physical parameter into an electronic signal. Electronic controls

use this signal (input information) to monitor engine and machine conditions and
determine appropriate output signals.

include:

Speed/Timing
Temperature
Pressure
Position
Fluid Level
SERV1877 - 03/10 -16- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

PASSIVE SPEED SENSORS

- Two-Wire Sensor
- Magnetic Pickup Coil

16_1 16_2

DMM MEASUREMENTS

- Volts
- Hz
- Ohms
16_3 16_4
Basically a small generator. A passive (two-wire) magnetic frequency-type sensor converts mechanical motion to
an AC voltage. A typical magnetic pickup consists of a coil, pole piece, magnet, and
The Speed/Timing sensor
provides AC signals to the ECU. a gear tooth, generates an AC voltage in the coil. The AC voltage and the frequency
of the AC signal is proportional to speed.
The signals are created as the
timing wheel rotates past the Magnetic pickup sensors rely on the distance between the end of the pickup and
sensor pickup. the passing gear teeth to operate properly. Typically, when the pickup is installed, it
is turned in until it makes contact with the top of a gear tooth and then turned back
Unique pattern of teeth indicates out a partial turn before it is locked in place with a locking nut. A weak signal may
engine position (timing) to the indicate that the sensor is too far away from the gear. It is important to check the
ECU. Each tooth is spaced
apart the same number of
degrees, with one extra tooth sensors are becoming more commonplace.
in the pattern. The ECU detects
this extra tooth and uses it as
a reference point to determine designed for optimum performance at slower engine speeds which occur during
timing.
performance at normal engine operating speeds. The mounting for the sensors
differ from each other to keep them from being interchanged.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -17- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

from the remaining sensor as a backup in case of a failure.

A magnetic pickup may be checked for both static and dynamic operation. With the
pickup disconnected from the machine electrical harness, a resistance reading of the
pickup coil (measured between pins) should indicate a coil resistance referenced in

resistance measurement would indicate an open coil, while a zero reading would
indicate a shorted coil.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -18- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

ACTIVE SPEED SENSORS

- Two, Three, or Four-Wire Sensor

- Hall-Effect

18_1 18_2

SPEED SENSOR CIRCUIT

Engine ECU J1
DMM MEASUREMENTS
+V Sensor 11 OR 18 A OR 18 +V
Supply

Sensor Ground 12
BR 18
YL 18
B
C
BK 18
YL 18
Ground
18
18
Signal - Volts
Engine
Return
Speed

Engine Speed 62
Sensor
- Frequency

18_3 18_4

Lower speed sensitivity; much Some Caterpillar electronic systems use a Hall-Effect sensor for detecting magnetic
more accurate than mag pickup
type transmission output speed, and the electronic unit injection system uses this type of
sensor to provide pulse signals for determining the speed and timing of the engine.
Almost all are three-wire (Active) Both sensor types have a Hall cell (sensing element) located in the tip of the sensor.

Dependent on metal passing small signal. The internal electronics of the sensor process the signal and sends a

Frequency (Hz) varies The sensing element is extremely accurate because it is not speed dependent. The
sensing element operates down to 0 rpm over a wide temperature operating range.
Duty Cycle constant

Square wave signal

Voltage may change some but

is a signal carrier, not the main
signal to be measured
SERV1877 - 03/10 -19- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

19_1

The timing measurement function of a speed/timing sensor uses a change in the

the pattern (unique tooth pattern) of the pulses, and compares that pattern to a
designed standard to determine crankshaft position and direction of rotation.

This view shows a timing wheel and sensor. As each square gear tooth (arrow)
passes the cell, the sensing element generates a small signal. If the signal is below
average (gap), the output will be low. If the signal is above average (tooth under
cell), the output will be high.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -20- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

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Temperature Sensors

Temperature sensors measure the temperature of coolant, oil, intake air, fuel,
exhaust, etc. Temperature sensors can be active (three-wire) or passive (two-wire).

This sensor includes a temperature-sensitive variable resistor (thermistor). The

voltage drops of passive sensors and the voltage output of active analog sensors

(DC Volts) can be checked with power ON. The sensor resistance of passive sensors
can be checked with power OFF.

Active digital temperature sensors also use a thermistor that is sensitive to changes
in temperature. The circuitry inside the sensor body converts the analog output of
SERV1877 - 03/10 -21- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

21_1

Pressure Sensors

Pressure sensors are used to measure pressures of oil, fuel, intake manifold (boost),
atmosphere, crankcase, injection actuation, etc. Most pressure sensors found on
Cat equipment are active (three-wire) analog sensors.

Pressure sensors contain a strain gauge which changes resistance when a pressure
is applied to it. The sensor circuitry detects this change in resistance and outputs a
voltage in accordance with this resistance. The voltage output of a pressure sensor
SERV1877 - 03/10 -22- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

22_1

Position Sensors

Position sensors convert mechanical component position into an electrical signal

this PWM signal and determines the position of the component, such as a throttle
position. The above illustration depicts a lever or throttle position sensor.

NOTE: The duty cycle output of a lever position sensor should be approximately
5% to 95% from stop to stop.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -23- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

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Magnetostrictive Position Sensor

A magnetostrictive position sensor is shown in the above photo. This type of position

In a magnetostrictive sensor, a pulse is induced in a specially-designed

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In magnetostrictive sensors, a thin piece of wire (wave guide) is placed inside a

protective tube. The wave guide transmits the input and output signals. An electronic

is sent back to the sensor electronics at a sonic speed along the wave guide.

The position of the moving magnet is precisely determined by measuring the elapsed
time between the release of the electronic pulse and the arrival of the return signal
(wave guide twist).
SERV1877 - 03/10 -25- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

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Level Sensors

A level sender assembly is located in the top or side of a tank and measures the
depth of fuel or oil in the tank.

sender is attached to the lever or rod, and changes resistances as the lever moves

mechanical gauge.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -26- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

26_1

Some Cat machines are equipped with an ultrasonic level sensor. This type of sensor
is used on fuel systems and replaces older types of sensors that used a resistive
sending unit inside the fuel tank.

The ultrasonic fuel level reacts to the level of fuel in the tank. The sensor emits an

sensor. The sensor measures the amount of time it takes for the signal to leave the

The sensor has four contacts. The open or grounded status of contact three on the

tank. Contact three should be open for a deep tank and grounded for a shallow
tank.

Troubleshooting procedures for the ultrasonic sensor would be the same as those
used for other PWM sensors. The ultrasonic sensor must be installed in a fuel tank
to be tested.
SERV1877 - 03/10 -27- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

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Solenoids

Many Caterpillar electronic control systems use solenoids to perform a control

function. Some examples are shifting the transmission, raising an implement, fuel
injection, etc.

Solenoids are electronic devices that work on the principle of an electrical current

Although voltage is typically of

the measured parameter solenoid that is used is determined by the task that is to be performed. The
for troubleshooting, current transmission shift solenoids in the above photo divert oil when the spools are moved
performs the work.

Solenoid valves in Cat equipment are either two-state (ON/OFF), or variable (PWM).
Two-state solenoids actuate with a constant voltage, usually +12 or +24 VDC.
Variable solenoids actuate using a PWM current. The less current needed, the lower
the duty cycle of the source voltage. As more current is needed, the duty cycle is
increased.

A simple compass may also To quickly check if a solenoid is energizing, set a screwdriver on the coil nut. If the
be used to check for electrical
functionality of a solenoid, as
well as checking the resistance
of the coil and comparing it to
SERV1877 - 03/10 -28- Module 7 - Switches/Sensors/Solenoids

600

500

400

300

200

100

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Solenoid Current (Amps)

28_1

ground, or shorted to battery.

The red dashed line shows The above graph shows the relationship between the current sent by the Implement
the “baseline current versus
pressure” for a solenoid valve
used in the Electro-Hydraulic
Implement System. The area
between the two solid lines is the
acceptable tolerance bands for
solenoid valve performance.