Vietnamese literature is literature, both oral and written, created largely by Vietnamese-

speaking people, although Francophone Vietnamese and English-speaking Vietnamese authors in

Australia and the United States are counted by many critics as part of the national tradition. For a
millennium before the 11th century, Vietnam was dominated by China and as a result, much of
the written work during this period was in Classical Chinese. Nom characters, created around the
10th century, allowed writers to compose in Vietnamese using modified Chinese characters.
Although regarded as inferior to Chinese, it gradually grew in prestige. It flourished in the 18th
century when many notable Vietnamese writers and poets composed their works in Nom
characters and when it briefly became the official written script.

While the Quoc Ngu, the script was created in the 17th century, it did not become popular
outside of missionary groups until the early 20th century, when the French colonial
administration mandated its use in French Indochina. By the mid-20th century, virtually all
Vietnamese works of literature were composed in Quoc Ngu.

THE LANGUAGE AND SCRIPTS

Among the 54 Vietnamese ethnic groups, some have had their own scripts for a long time and
some have not preserved their ancient scripts. As a matter of fact, some ethnic groups consisting
of some hundreds of individuals living in remote areas have their own languages.

Throughout the years, these languages have been enriched in terms of vocabulary, precision, and
expression. However, the Viet language is most commonly used. In terms of script, for a long
time under northern domination, Chinese was widely used in trade, education and state
documents. This lasted until the beginning of the 20th century. During the eighth century,
parallel to the use of Han, the Vietnamese created the nom script, which used the pictography of
Han to note the sounds of the Viet language. The appearance of the nom script marked a point of
maturity in the national conscious of the Viet and led to the development of literature in
Vietnam.

The Romanized script produced by French missionaries appeared in the 16th century and was
substituted for both the Han and Nom scripts.

THE MODERN VIETNAM LITERATURE

The Vietnamese literary tradition has evolved through multiple events that have marked the
country’s history. New literary movements can usually be observed every ten years but in the last
century, Vietnamese literature underwent several literary transitions.

The revolutionary campaign occurred at the beginning of Romanized Vietnamese literature, in an

attempt to standardize its styles such as prose, poetry, and criticism. All the writings produced
had one thing in common: the authors were using a powerful and flexible style to update events
and trends and therefore predict social events.

The Vietnamese people fought two wars of resistance, and at the present time, are in a period of
construction, industrialization and modernization. In this situation, in Vietnamese literature,
movement and vital force currently exist.
THE FOLK LITERATURE
The Vietnamese literature has been rich in folklore and proverbs; tales that have been handed
down from generation to generation, gradually becoming valuable treasures.

The Muong ethnic group in northern has an epic poem called giving birth to the earth and water”,
the white Thai ethnic group in the north-west has “seeing off and instructing the loving heart”.
This list could go on for quite some time.

The folk literature grows during the processes of activity, labour, construction and struggle of the
people. It is the soul and vital power of the nation. At the present time, all kinds of artistic and
folk literature from each ethnic group are being collected and maintained.

THE HAN CHARACTERS

During the 1,000 years of Chinese rule over what is now northern Viet Nam, classical Han
Chinese, also known as became firmly established as the language of the Vietnamese royal court
and would remain so until as late as 1918 when the ancient system of mandarin examinations
was finally abolished.

The oldest extant literature written in classical Han Chinese comprises a corpus of 11th-century
poems written by Buddhist monks. By the 13th and 14th centuries, poems in classical Han
Chinese were written for the court by Confucian scholars such as Le Quat, Mac Dinh Chi (
1346), Truong Han Sieu ( 1354), Chu Van An ( 1370) and Nguyen Trung Ngan (1289-1370),
along with important historical works such as Le Van Huu’s Dai Viet Su Ky (‘Brief History of
Dai Viet’) and a range of geographical and encyclopaedic volumes.

THE NOM CHARACTERS

From an early period, a special ideographic script known as classical Han Chinese was also
devised for transcribing spoken Vietnamese. According to annals dating from the late 13th
century, the poets Nguyen Thuyen and Nguyen Si Co were the first to write in classical Han
Chinese. At the turn of the century, King Ho Quy Ly (1400-1407) himself translated the
Confucian classic Kinh Thi into nom. Thereafter an increasingly large number of other works
were composed in the new script.

The era of the Le kings (14th and early 15th centuries) was a significant period of development
for classical Han Chinese literature. Of particular note were the works of Nguyen Trai, scholar
and strategist to Le Loi (later King Le Thai To, 1428-1433) during the resistance war against the
invading Ming Chinese. Trai, whose “Proclamation of Victory over the Ngo” remains one of the
finest works of Vietnamese national literature, left an important collection of 254 poems written
in classical Han Chinese known as Quoc Am Thi Tap. Though classical Han Chinese was the
official the language of the Vietnamese royal court, two Le monarchs – Le Thai Tong (1434-
1442) and Le Thanh Tong (1460-1497) – are remembered for their poems written in nom; some
300 works of great historical and literary significance written by Le Thanh Tong may be found in
the anthology “Collected Poems of the Hong Duc Period”.
However, nom poetry did not really begin to break free from Chinese influence until the 16th
century, a process signalled by the appearance of 100 remarkable works in nom by Confucian
scholar Nguyen Binh Khiem (1491-1585), brought together as the “Compilation of B?ch Van’s
Poems”.

The slow demise of the Le dynasty and the corresponding rise of the powerful Trinh and Nguyen
families during the 16th and 17th centuries seriously undermined respect for the concept of
absolute monarchy, leading to the collapse of the Confucian system. This, in turn, had important
consequences for the development of Vietnamese classical Han Chinese literature, which now
entered a new and exciting phase of development – fresh themes appeared, and the language
itself became richer, more concise and more flexible. A particular feature of the period was the
appearance of stories and fables which contained thinly-veiled criticisms of official corruption
and the shortcomings of feudal society.

However, the golden age for classical Han Chinese was the 18th century, which witnessed a truly
remarkable literary flowering. Particularly popular at this time were long narrative poems known
as a story, which borrowed elements of popular oral tradition, fusing them with classical
language to create new and vibrant works of literature. These works, with their complex plot,
characterization and structure, were the first to express in writing the personal feelings and
desires of the protagonists. Amongst the greatest narrative poems of this period are “Lament of a
Warrior’s Wife” by Dang Tran Con, translated into nom from the original classical Han Chinese
by Doan Thi Diem (1705-1748), and “Lament of a Royal Concubine”, written in nom by Nguyen
Gia Thieu (1741-1798). During the brief reign of King Quang Trung (Nguyen Hue, 1788-1792)
classical Han Chinese was adopted as the national script for official texts and in education, to
replace the classical Chinese which had been used for centuries.

The 18th century is known too for its satirical poems and stories, many of which vehemently
attacked the ruling Confucian elite. Perhaps best known are the feminist poems of Ho Xuan
Huong (late 18th-early 19th century) and the anonymous popular stories “Doctor Pig” and
“Doctor Quynh”.

Also of significance during this period were historical works written by scholars such as Le Quy
Don (1726-1783), whose “Complete History of Dai Viet” and “History of the Le Dynasty”
marked a major advance in the development of historical studies.

Notwithstanding the revival of a strong monarchy after 1802 under the Nguyen dynasty,
Vietnamese literature continued for some time thereafter to convey the humanistic aspirations
and sentiments which had featured so strongly in the literature of the previous century. The best-
known work of the early 19th century and today perhaps the most famous work in the history of
Vietnamese literature is the narrative poem “The Story of Kieu”, written by poet, scholar,
mandarin and diplomat Nguyen Du (1765-1820). Highly regarded for its elegant language and
style, this masterpiece relates the story of a beautiful and talented young woman condemned by
the actions of a wicked mandarin to 15 years of tribulation and suffering.

During the second half of the 19th century, some notable works of nom literature were created
by leading figures in the various patriotic movements set up to fight against French colonialism.
These included proclamations, appeals to struggle, funeral orations, stories of combat and
patriotic poems by the likes of Phan Dinh Phung, Nguyen Quang Bich, Phan Van Tri, Nguyen
Thong and Nguyen Xuan Du, together with lengthy but eloquent appeals to the monarch by
Nguyen Truong To and Nguyen Bo Trach. Perhaps the best-known writer of this period was
blind poet Nguyen Dinh Chieu, who composed several volumes of patriotic literature before his
death in 1888.

THE “QUOC NGU”

Modern Vietnamese literature finds its roots during the French colonial period when
popularisation of the romanised script Quoc Ngu finally allowed it to break free from the
restrictions of classical Chinese literature.

Originally devised by French Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes (1591-1660) as a means of

propagating Roman Catholicism, Quoc Ngu became a cornerstone of the French colonial
educational system in the late 19th century and was initially rejected by Confucian scholars such
as Nguyen Dinh Chieu, who referred to Quoc Ngu as ‘the script of heretics’. However, following
the “Renovation” movement of 1907 Vietnamese intellectuals began to realise the potential value
of Quoc Ngu as a medium for disseminating patriotic and anti-colonial ideas.

As literacy gradually spread throughout the country, the development of modern printing
methods facilitated the production of books, newspapers and magazines in Quoc Ngu and both
journalism and literature written in the romanised script began to flourish.

THE MODERN VIETNAM LITERATURE BEFORE 1945

Amongst the earliest attempts at Vietnamese creative writing in Quoc Ngu was a collection of
folk tales entitled Chuyen Doi Xua published in 1876 by Truong Vinh Ky (1837-1898), editor of
Viet Nam’s first French-sponsored Quoc Ngu newspaper, the Sai Gon-based Gia Dinh Bao. This
work was followed in 1887 by the publication, also in Sai Gon, of a rather rudimentary short
story by Nguyen Trong Quan entitled “The Story of Sad Teacher Lazaro”.

However, the first real flowering of modern Vietnamese literature took place in the north under
the influence of the romantic styles, themes and techniques of French literature. Between 1907
and 1909 pioneering Ha Noi journalist Nguyen Van Vinh (1882-1936) translated and published
numerous foreign short stories and drama scripts in his newspaper Dang co tung bao, but perhaps
the most important catalyst in the propagation of western cultural ideas was the northern cultural
magazine Indochina Review, launched by Vinh in 1913, which not only showcased western
literature in translation but also provided an important platform for the work of aspiring Quoc
Ngu writers, thereby laying the essential groundwork for the acceptance of Quoc Ngu as a bone
fide literary medium.

In the years which followed, the novels of leading French writers such as Balzac, Hugo,
Flaubert, Rolland, Gide, Pascal, Malot, Moliere and Corneille became increasingly available in
translation, contributing to a growing popular interest in prose literature. In 1917 a rival Sai Gon-
based cultural magazine known as South Wind Journal was launched by Pham Quynh (1890-
1945), though much of the work featured in this publication remained heavily influenced by
Chinese literature. Perhaps more significant in terms of the development of new Vietnamese
writing was the role of “Women’s News”, Viet Nam’s first influential women’s periodical,
which was established during the early 1920s and devoted much of its column space to creative
writing in Quoc Ngu serving as a significant forum for the development of modern literature in
both content and form.

Viet Nam’s first home-grown novel was Hoang To “The Unjust Suffering of Hoang To Anh”,
written by Tran Chanh Chieu and published in Sai Gon in 1910. Other works quickly followed,
including “Who Can Do It?’, 1919” and “The Playing of the Wind, 1926” by Ho Bieu Chanh,
“Pure Hear, 1925” by Hoang Ngoc Phach (1896-1973), “Watermelon” by Nguyen Trong Thuat
and several short stories by Nguyen Ba Hoc and Pham Duy Ton.

However, not until the 1930s did there develop a truly satisfactory language for modern prose
writing, in particular, the capacity to handle vocabulary and syntactic structures. Literary
historians and critics alike have emphasised the great contribution made to this process by the Ha
Noi-based “Self Reliance Literary Group”, established in 1932 by Nhat Linh (Nguyen Tuong
Tam, 1906-1963) and Khai Hung (Tran Khanh Giu, 1896-1947), which published many
important literary works in its popular weekly journals Phong Hoa (‘Customs and Mores’, 1932-
1935) and “Today, 1935-1940”.

The beginnings of modern Vietnamese poetry may be traced back to the early years of the
twentieth century when poet Tan Da (1888-1939) began to experiment with irregular verse
lengths, signalling the first serious attempt to break away from the classical model. During the
1930s, under the direct influence of works by early 20th century French poets such as Mallarme,
Musset, Baudelaire, Valery and Chateaubriand, Tan Da’s pioneering work was taken a step
further by the New Poetry Movement which was established in Ha Noi in 1932 by The Lu
(Nguyen Thu Le, 1907-1989) to forge a new literary direction free from the strict rules of
Chinese poetry. The Lu himself later devoted his life entirely to drama, but his work laid the
groundwork for a whole new generation of poets who demanded freedom both in form and
content.

Thereafter the work of leading lights in the New Poetry Movement such as Xuan Dieu (1917-
1985), Luu Trong Lu (1912-1991), Huy Can ( 1919), Pham Huy Thong (1916-1988), Che Lan
Vien (1920-1988), Tre Hanh ban Te Hanh, 1921) and pioneering female poet Anh Tho (Tuyet
Anh, 1921) gave free expression to their inner emotions and feelings, rejecting the symbolism
and strict rules of Chinese-style classical verse.

By this time a powerful current of realism was also developing under the growing ideological
influence of the Communist Party. By the late 1930s, revolutionary literature was flourishing, as
evidenced by the novels of Ngo Tay To (1894-1954) and Nguyen Cong Hoan (1903-1977) and
the short stories of Nam Cao (1917-1951) and Nguyen Hong (1918-1982), which vividly
described the trials and tribulations of the peasantry at the hands of oppressive government
officials. A new and militant style of poetry also emerged at this time, its chief exponent being
To Huu (1920-2002), whose famous work Viet Bac was later awarded First Prize by the Viet
Nam Literature and Arts Association.
Thereafter many writers joined the struggle for independence. In the field of poetry established
names from the pre-war period such as Xuan Dieu, Huy Can, Che Lan Vinn, Te Hanh and Anh
Tho repudiated their earlier work and turned their pens in support of the revolution. They were
joined by many others, most noteworthy being Doan Van Cu ( 1913), Hu Loan ( 1916), Nguyen
Binh (1918-1966), Quang Dung (1921-1988), Xua Miexm n (Hai Phong, 1922-1990), Tran Dan
(1926-1997), Ho Dai (Ho Nam, 1926) and Ta Hu Ye (Le Huu, 1927). Meanwhile, revolutionary
prose literature continued to flourish with the work of Nguyen Huy Tuong ( 1912-1960), Bui
Hien ( 1919), To Hoai ( 1920), Nguyen Van Bong ( 1921), Kim Lan ( 1921), Chu Van (1922-
1994), Thanh Chau ( 1922), Nguyen Dinh Thi (1924-2003), Nguyen Sieu Hai ( 1926), Vu Tu
Nam ( 1929) and Phung Quan ( 1932-1995), who wrote of the patriotism and self-sacrifice
required to overthrow a brutal colonial regime.

Several leading writers lost their life at the front during the final struggle with the French,
including poets Hoang Loc (1920-1949) and Tham Tam (1917-1950) and novelists Tran Dang
(1921-1949) and Nam Cao (1917-1951).

THE MODERN VIETNAM LITERATURE FROM 1945-1975

Prior to 1945, comparatively few southern writers had achieved recognition or success, but
against a background of relative stability, prosperity and artistic freedom in the late 1950s and
early 1960s a small but active literary scene began to emerge in South Viet Nam, initially under
the influence of a circle of writers, linguists and educators who had relocated from the north. An
important catalyst in this development was the proliferation of private publishing companies,
particularly in Sai Gon.

Numerous important literary magazines were established in the south after 1954, including
“Literature Today”, Literary News, Expound, Create and Opinion) which introduced new
currents of thought from the west such as existentialism and humanism. Together with the
newly-established Sai Gon branch of PEN International and the Front for the Protection of
Cultural Freedom, these publications did much to facilitate the development of new writing.
Southern literary development was further encouraged by the establishment of various state
literary prizes.

Emigre prose writers from the north regrouping in the south after 1954 included not only
established figures such as Nhat Linh, Tam Lang (Vu Dinh Chi, 1901-1986), Trong Lang (Tran
Tan Cuu, 1906-1986), Lang Nhan (Phung Tat Dac, 1907), Dai Duc Tuan (Tchya, 1908-1969), Y
Uyen (Nguyen Van Uy, 1911-1969) and Vu Bang (1913-1984) but also younger novelists and
short story writers such as Nguyen Thi Vinh ( 1924), Duong Nghiem Mau (Phi Ich Nghiem, b
1936), Duyen Anh (Vu Mong Long, b 1936), Nhat Tien (Bui Nhat Tien, b 1936), Thao Truong
(Tran Duy Hinh, b 1939), Le Tat Dieu ( 1942) and Trung Duong (Nguyen Th? Thai, b 1944).

It was largely under their influence that southern prose writing came of age during the period
1954-1975 with the works of Binh Nguyen Loc (To Van Tuan, 1914), Vo Phien ( 1925), Son
Nam (Pham Minh Tay, 1926), Ngoc Linh (Duong Dai Tam, 1935) and Nguyen Thi Thuy Vu
(Nguyen Bang Linh, 1939) from the south and Linh Bao (Vo Thi Dieu Vien, 1926), Minh Duc
Hoai Trinh (Vo Th? Hoai Trinh, 1930), Nguyen Xuan Hoang ( 1937), Tuy Hong (Nguyen Thi
Tuy Hong, 1938), Nha Ca (Tran Thi Thu Van, 1939), Nguyen Thi Hoang ( 1939) and Nguyen
Mong Giac ( 1940) from the central provinces.

Leading poets of the 1950s and 1960s included northern emigres Tuong Pho (Do Thi Dam,
1900-199?), Bang Ba Lan (1912-1988), Vu Hoang Chuong (1916-1976), Dinh Hung (1920-
1967), Nguyen Sa (Tran Bich Lan, 1932) and Cung Tram Tuong (Cung Thuc Can, b 1936);
Quach Tan ( 1910), Nguyen Vy (Co Dieu Huyen, 1910-197?), Bui Giang ( 1926), Quach Thoai
(Doan Thoai, 1929-1957), Thanh Tam Tuyen (Dzu Van Tam, 1936) and Nguyen Duc Son (Sao
Tren Rung, b 1937) from central Viet Nam; and Dong Ho (Lam Tan Phac, 1906-1969), Kien
Giang ( 1929) and To Thuy Yen (Dinh Thanh Tien, 1938) from the south.

However, the southern literary flowering proved short-lived; whilst the overthrow of the Diem
government in 1963 brought greater artistic freedom, growing political instability, the escalation
of war with the north and the steady slide into official corruption and decadence which attended
the influx of large numbers of American troops in the period after 1963 engendered what one
scholar has called a ‘culture of entertainment’. In a radical departure from the past, a people
brought up to associate literature with education and moral improvement turned increasingly for
escapism to cheap imported martial arts novels and sentimental romances.

In order to survive in this new climate, many members of the literary community began writing
daily feuilletons (serialised stories) for the newspapers, whilst others turned out novels featuring
unusually racy subject matter. Nonetheless, the last years of the Sai Gon regime did see some
literary works of note, notably the novels of Nhat Tien, Le Tat Dieu and Nha Ca with their vivid
descriptions of the horrors of war.

In the north, the immediate aftermath of the August Revolution saw the establishment of the Giai
Pham writer movement, the name of which was drawn from its two journals Nhan van
(Humanism) and Works of Beauty. Established by a group of northern intellectuals which
included writers Tran Dan, Hoang Cam ( 1922), Phan Khoi (1887-1959), Nguyen Huu Dang,
Truong Tuu, Tran Duc Thao and Thuy An, this movement aimed to secure a greater measure of
intellectual independence for the Vietnamese literary community.

However, the trial which followed firmly established the principle that Vietnamese literature
existed to advance socialism and must be guided by the Communist Party vanguard. With the
establishment of the Viet Nam Writers Association in 1957 northern literature became firmly
subordinated to the task of building the socialist future.
During the 1960s and early 1970s, the northern literary was continued to identify closely with the
national and ideological cause.

Amongst the best-known patriotic poems of this period were “the Campaign Trail, 1960” by
Xuan Mien, “The Red Farewell, 1964” by Nguyen My (1935-1971), “To the Front, 1972” by To
Huu and “Poems Against the Enemy, 1972” by Che Lan Vien. Important revolutionary poems
were also written during this period by Minh Hue (Nguyen Duc Thai, 1927-2003), winner of
numerous awards for his works on the Xo Viet Nghe Tinh uprising of 1930-1931 and the life of
Ho Chi Minh; Giang Nam (Nguyen Sung, 1929) and Thu Bon(Ha Duc Trong, 1935-2003), both
recipients of the Southern Revolutionary National Fatherland Front’s Nguyen Dinh Chieu Award
for Literature; and a group of younger poets which included Hoang Minh Chau (b 1930), Pham
Ngoc Canh (Vu Ngan Chi, b 1934), Nguyen Xuan Tham (b 1936), Vo Van Truc (b 1936), Van
nghe (Literary Arts) Newspaper Awards winners Duong Huong Ly (Bui Minh Quoc, b 1940),
Pham Tien Duat ( 1941), Bang Viet (1941), Huu Thinh ( 1942), Nguyen Khoa Diem (b 1943),
Anh Ngoc (Ly Son, 1943), Nguyen Duy (b 1948), Nguyen Duc Mau (Huong Hai Hung, 1948)
and Hoang Nhuan Cam ( 1952), playwright Luu Quang Vu (1948-1988) and war martyrs
Nguyen Trong Dinh (1939-1968), Tran Quang Long (1941-1968) and Le Anh Xuan (1940-
1968).

Throughout the American War leading prose writers of the 1940s and 1950s such as Nguyen
Cong Hoan, Nguyen Hong, Bui Hien, To Hoai, Nguyen Van Bong, Chu Van, Thanh Chau and
Nguyen Dinh Thi continued to devote their work to the revolutionary cause.

Other important novelists and short story writers emerging during this period included Thep Moi
(anh Hong, 1925-1991), Vo Huy Tam (1926-1996), Nguyen Trong Oanh (1929-1993), Ngo
Ngoc Boi ( 1929), Nguyen Minh Chau (1930-1989), Nguyen Khai (1930), Vu Thi Thuong (
1930), Phan Tu (Le Kham, 1930-1995), Vu Bao ( 1931), Ma Van Khang ( 1936), Do Chu (
1944) and war martyrs Le Vinh Ha (1932-1967), Nguyen Thi (Nguyen Ngoc Tan, 1928-1968)
and Chu Cam Phong (1941-1971). Of particular importance was a small group of southern
writers who had regrouped in the north after 1954 and now returned south into enemy territory to
gather material for their compositions; these included novelists Nguyen Quang Sang (b 1932),
Anh Duc (Bui Duc Ai, 1935) and Nguyen Ngoc (1932).

THE MODERN FROM 1975

With national integrity finally secured in 1975, it was not long before the literary community
began to explore in their work themes which had largely been set aside during the long struggle
for self-determination. This trend received a boost with the implementation of “Renovation” in
1986, which afforded Vietnamese writers a measure of creative freedom, allowing them to look
at life from an individual point of view rather than focusing on the role of society as a whole.

Since that time Vietnamese writers have begun to question established views and to tackle such
sensitive issues as the enormous cost of victory in terms of human suffering, the problem of
official corruption, the disappointments of the post-war era and the social effects of the change
from a subsidised to a market economy, including ‘social evils’ such as prostitution and drug
addiction. Such themes have provided the raw material for some of the most exciting
contemporary literature emanating from modern Viet Nam, though to date only a handful of the
works which tackle them have been translated into other languages.

A small group of contemporary Vietnamese prose writers has already achieved considerable
success internationally. This group includes Nguyen Huy Thiep (b 1950), author of several
important short stories including “The Retired General”, “The Winds of Hua Tat” and “Daughter
of the Sea Gods” novelist and short story writer Ph?m Thi Hoai (b 1960), now resident in
Germany, whose best-known works include the novels “The Crystal Messenger” and Marie Sen;
Duong Thu Huong (b 1947), who attracted wide international attention for her novels “Beyond
Illusions”, “Paradise of the Blind”, “Novel Without a Name” and “Memories of a Pure Spring”;
Ho Anh Thai (b 1960), author of the acclaimed novels “Beyond the Red Mist” and “The Women
on the Island”; and Bao Ninh (b 1952), whose complex, dream-like work “Destiny of Love,
1987”, republished in 1991 as “The Sorrow of War” transformed writing about human conflict.

However, a much larger body of work by talented contemporary Vietnamese writers has yet to
be made available to a wider international audience. Foremost amongst the older generation of
prose writers referred to earlier whose work still attracts a large readership is Ngo Ngoc Boi,
writer of short stories and author of the novels “Village Pond”, “Nightmare”, “The Wind Carries
the Bamboo Branch” and “Infinite Gate of Heaven”; the late Nguyen Minh Chau, whose works
include the novels “Coming Out of the Forest”, “Land of Love” and “Reeds” plus numerous
short stories; and short story writer Nguyen Khai, whose best works were published in a
collection entitled Truyen Ngan Nguyen Khai.

Other important contemporary Vietnamese prose writers include the afore-mentioned Ma Van
Khang (b 1936), whose works include the short story collection Truyen Ngan Ma Van Khang
and the award-winning novel “Season of Falling Leaves”; short story writer and novelist Nguyen
Manh Tuan (b 1947), whose best-known works include “Melaleuca Tree Island” and “Standing
Before the Sea”; Le Luu (b 1942), short story writer and author of the novels “Time Far Past”
and “Waves on the River Bed”; short story writer and novelist Duong Huong (b 1949), whose
works include “Haven for Single Women” and “This World of People”; and Ta Duy Anh (b
1959), author of numerous short stories and novels including “The Miserable Old Man” and
“Karma”.

The contribution of women writers to the development of the short story as a distinctive
Vietnamese literary medium has been especially noteworthy; in addition to the afore-mentioned
Pham Thi Hoai, leading contemporary female short story writers include Da Ngan (Le Hong
Nga, b 1952), playwright and theatre director Nguyen Thi Minh Ngoc (b 1953), Ly Lan (b 1957),
Vo Thi Xuan Ha (b 1959), Pham Thi Minh Thu (b 1956), Y Ban (Pham Thi Xuan Ban, b 1961),
Nguyen Thi Thu Hue (b 1966), Phan Thi Vang Anh (b 1968) and Tran Thanh Ha (b 1971).

However, perhaps the best known female short story writers currently working in Viet Nam are
Le Minh Khue (b 1949), whose works have been published in the award-winning anthology
Truyen Ngan Le Minh Khue, and Vo Thi Hao (b 1956), author of the highly popular short stories
“Sea of Saving” and “Survivor of the Laughing Forest” and the collected works short story Vo
Thi Hao: “Selected Short Stories of Vo Thi Hao: One Hundred Stupidities of Men”.

Leading Vietnamese poets of the past 25 years such as Pham Tien Duat, Nguyen Duy, Hoang
Nhuan Cam, Bang Viet, Huu Thinh, Pham Ngoc Canh, Anh Ngoc and Nguyen Duc Mau
continue to play an important role in today’s literary scene. Other important contemporary poets
include Viet Nam Writers Association Awards winners Quan Phuong (Ngoc Vu, b 1940), Thanh
Thao (Ho Thanh Cong, b 1946) and Nguyen Quang Thieu (b 1957); and Literary Arts
Newspaper Awards winners Hoang Tran Cuong (b 1948), Van Le (Le Chi Thuy, b 1949), Tran
Manh Hao (b 1949) and Tran Dang Khoa (b 1958).
During the past 25 years, women poets have also truly come into their own. One of Viet Nam’s
best-known modern female poets, Xuan Quynh (Nguyen Thi Xuan Quynh, 1942-1988), was
tragically killed in 1988 in a car accident along with her playwright husband Luu Quang Vu.

Amongst the most exciting contemporary women poets are Phan Thi Thanh Nhan (b 1943), Thao
Phuong Nguyen Mai Huong, b 1949), Pha Thi Ngoc Lien (b 1952), Giang Van (b 1958), Thanh
Nguyen (b 1962), Phan Huyen Thu (b 1972), Ngan Hoa (b 1973) and Ly Hoà ng Ly (b 1975),
Literary Arts Newspaper Awards winners Nguyen Thi Hong Ngat (b 1950) and Nguyen Khanh
Chi (b 1965) and Viet Nam Writers Association Awards winners Y Nhi (Hoang Thi Y Nhi, b
1944), Lam Thi My Da (b 1949), Le Thi May (Pham Tuyet Hoa, b 1949) and Le Thi Kim (b
1950). The Women’s Publishing House recently published an excellent collection of poems by
150 women poets, around half of whom were born since the end of the American War.

At the turn of the new millennium, a literary group is known as “Six Faced Circle” emerged in
the southern capital of Ho Chi Minh City, attracting recognition from leading Vietnamese
intellectuals. In 2001 four young writers from this group – Ly Doi (1978), Bui Chat (1979),
Khuc Duy (1976) and Nguyen Quan(1977) – formed the “Open Mouth” underground poetry
movement. In recent years this group has held regular poetry readings and its work has become
increasingly linked with contemporary developments in performance art.

Over the past quarter-century the Viet Nam Writers Association, the Ha Noi Writers Association,
the Ho Chi Minh City Writers Association and several other literary organisations have
continued to promote the development of creative writing through their annual awards for the
best prose, poetry, theory and criticism and translated works. There has also been corresponding
development in the field of literary criticism and literary research. Mention should also be made
of the Nguyen Du School of Writing, Ha Noi, modelled on the Pushkin Institute in Moscow,
which was established in 1981 by the Ha Noi University of Culture with the aim of training
writers in the two key areas of prose and poetry.