CHAPTER-1 INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE:

Definition: Industrial (Environmental) hygiene is defined by the American Industrial Hygiene

Association (AIHA) as that science and art devoted to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation and
control of those environmental factors of stresses, arising in or from the workplace, which may
cause sickness, impaired health and well-being or significant discomfort and inefficiency among
workers or among the citizens of the community.
Control Methods: Control method includes engineering and administrative controls, safe disposal
of wastes, medical examination, use of PPE, education, training and supervision.
The control measures can be applied at following three levels.
(1) At Source:
1. Substitution e.g. toluene in place of benzene, silicon carbide in place of silica in
grinding stone, or water in place of solvent.
2. Change of processor technology (airless paint spraying).
3. Enclosure of process (cover).
4. Isolation (by space or time).
5. Wet methods (water blasting).
6. Local exhaust ventilation (Capturing at source).
7. Waste disposal (pollution control).
8. Good maintenance.
(2) At Airpath:
1. Increasing natural ventilation.
2. Proving exhaust ventilation (fans).
3. Increasing distance between source and the receiver (semi-automatic or remote
control).
4. Dilution or Mechanical ventilation (supplied air).
5. Continuous Area monitoring (pre-set alarms).
6. Good housekeeping.
7. Good maintenance.
(3) At Receiver:
1. Personal Hygiene Methods (Washing, bathing, good diet methods, no smoking, no-
intoxication etc.).
2. Use of personal protective equipment and good maintenance.
3. Use of protective cream or lotion.
4. Personal monitoring device (Dosimeter).
5. Enclosure of worker (AC cabin).
6. Rotation of worker (Split up of dose).
7. Training and Education.
8. Medical Examination and follow up.
The control measures (technology) can also be classified as under:
Engineering Controls:
In this category are included those procedures which are applied to the working
environment rather than to the individual. They are as follows:
1. Substitution and Modification:The highly toxic material (carcinogenic, mutagenic or
teratogenic) and processes should be replaced by less hazardous materials and processes.
Following table gives such examples:

Substance Substitute

White phosphorous Phosphorous Sulphide

 Mercury compounds Mercury free materials.
Leaded glaze, paint, pigments Leadless glaze, paint, pigment
Benzene Cyclohexane or certain ketones
CCI4 Methyl chloroform, Dichloromethane
Solvents with low B.P. and high V.P. Solvents with high B.P. and low V.P.
Organic solvents Detergent and water cleaning solutions
Chlorine Argon for degassing
Asbestos Fiberglass
Quartz and Non-silica aggregates
Sand blasting Steel or silicon carbide shot
Silica bricks Magnesite or Aluminium oxide bricks
Sandstone grinding wheel Synthetic grinding wheel
Broom cleaning Vacuum cleaning
Precaution required while selecting safer substitute is that it should not bring any new hazard.
Modifications in the process or equipment can reduce the hazard. Reduction in noise, vibration,
excessive light and temperature, speed, grinding or mixing speed, mechanical handling instead of
manual, use of tongs instead of fingers, sitting posture instead of long-standing etc. help in
decreasing the health effects. Following table gives some examples –
Modification Instead of

Toxic pellet or lump Powder

Closed charging of toxic material Open charging of toxic material
Electrical motor Internal combustion engine
Covered containers Open containers
Mechanical gauges Mercury gauges
Mechanical pump seals Gasket pump seals
Material of the required size Odd size and then cutting
Copper electric wiring Aluminium electric wiring
Airless spray Hand spraying
Low pressure, Low temperature process High pressure, high temperature process
Water or air jet looms Ordinary power looms

Use of catalyzers (to convert CO into CO2), silencers, suppressing chemical (urea can suppress
generation of NO2), tank-size reduction, content reduction, dikes to reduce evaporating surface
area etc. are also necessary modification/ alterations.
2. Isolation and Enclosure of a Process: This has its widest application in the chemical
industries where frequently it is possible and practicable to design totally enclosed systems
for carrying out the manufacture or processing of chemical compounds. Enclosure may be
 total or partial. Closed systems, barrier walls, cabins and isolation by distance or time are
possible.
3. Segregation: This may be accomplished by shifting a potentially dangerous process to a
segregated or enclosed area to prevent contamination of adjacent work spaces. In some
situations, segregation can be accomplished by locating a process in an open shed or even
completely out of doors.
4. Ventilation:This is perhaps the most important engineering control measure. Ventilation
may be general or local. General ventilation consists in rapid dilution of contaminated air
with fresh air usually by fan. Local ventilation usually consists in providing air suction
close to the point where potentially harmful dusts, fumes, vapours, mists or gases are
generated. Safe collection and disposal of contaminants removed by local exhaust
ventilation is necessary. For volatile chemicals, it is common practice to install a recovery
system as part of the ventilating equipment,
5. Wet Process:The use of water to limit the dispersal of atmospheric contaminants finds its
chief application in the control of dust. This procedure is widely used in rock-drilling and
useful when sweeping is done in a dusty work room. Water spraying on coal heaps
suppresses coal dust.
6. Neutralization or inactivation of chemical compounds is sometimes useful in connection
with local exhaust ventilation and in cleaning up contaminated areas. See Chapter-18 also.
7. House Keeping:Regular clean up schedules, particularly where dust is a problem are
essential in any control programme.
Planning and follow-up for Control of House-keeping should include -
 Deciding policy and technique for good housekeeping.
 Proper layout of work area.
 Marking of aisles, ways and storage areas.
 Cabinets and holders for tools and equipment.
 Storage arrangements for materials.
 Containers for materials in process.
 Efficient sequence ofoperations to avoid bottlenecks.
 Anticipation of waste, scrap, dust, spillage, splashes etc., and inclusion of methods of
their control stated in Part 5.2.
 Efficient transportation of raw material, finished: products and refuse. Use of
mechanical feeding belt conveyor etc.
 Efficient cleaning methods including vacuum cleaners etc., and without interrupting
the production schedule.
 Necessary training of workers.
Waste Disposal (Air Pollution Controls):
1. Industrial ventilation systems viz. dilution ventilation, hood, duct, fan etc.
2. Settling chamber and dust collector.
3. Inertial devices viz. cyclone collector, centrifugal collector, multiple cyclones etc.
4. Electrostatic precipitators.
5. Particulate scrubbers viz.cyclone scrubber venturi scrubber, spray chambers etc.
6. Filters viz. filter bed, packed filter, bag filter etc.
7. 7. Absorption devices viz. gas scrubbers, absorption towers.
8. Adsorption devices viz. fixed-bed absorbers, moving bed absorbers etc.
9. Combustion devices viz. combustion chamber, flares, incinerators, catalytic
afterburners etc.
10. Condensation devices viz.direct contact condensers, surface heat exchangers etc. For
the details of such system study Reference No. 5 given at the end of this Chapter.

a. General safety measures to control air pollution in an industrial area are:

11. Air pollution control technique should be adopted from the design stage.
12. The allowable emission rate should not be exceeded by individual plant.
13. Total load of pollutants in any area should not be exceeded the prescribed limit
(community exposure).
14. A continuous air monitoring should be conducted in the locality.
15. Site appraisal Committee (Section 41A of the Factories Act) should consider
meteorological and ecological conditions to decide a sitting of a new factory.

Air Pollution Control Systems:

1. The stack height should be sufficient depending upon pollutants, meteorological condition
and statutory standards. See Table 12 to 14 of Chapter-32. Heated and unheated emissions
should be considered for stack design. High stack disperses the pollutants over a wider
area thus reducing their concentration.
2. Settling chambers (inertial separators, dynamic separators, wet and multiple cyclones and
other devices)
3. Filtration by fibrous mats, aggregate beds filters, paper filters, and fabric filters.
4. Liquid scrubbing by spray chambers, packed towers, plate towers, orifice" scrubbers and
mist eliminators.
5. Electrostatic precipitators.
6. Gas solid absorption.
7. Thermal decomposition and
8. Combination systems.
Thermal Incineration is an effective waste disposal method and is defined as engineered process
that use high temperature thermal oxidation to convert waste to a less bulky, less toxic or less
noxious material. The flue gases may generally contain CO, water Vapour and inert gases. But
depending on the residues being incinerated, it may also contain acidic gases such as halides and
their acid oxides of phosphorous, Sulphur, nitrogen and entrained salts of metals. Incineration
process can be employed to burn solid, liquid or gaseous wastes. Some such processes are given
below.
Incineration Process Temperature Range. Residence Time

Rotary kiln 820 to 1600 Liquids, gases- seconds Solids-

hours.
Liquid injunction 650 to 1600 0.1 to 2 seconds
Fluidized bed 450 to 980 Liquids, gases-seconds. Solids-
longer.
Multiple heart Drying zone 320 to 540
Incineration 760 to 980
Incineration 150 to 1600 Seconds to hours.
Starved air 480 to 820 0.1 second to hours/
Combustion

Venturi Scrubber is a simple, high efficiency unit to collect dust or fume by direct
contact with water and is useful where the gas to be treated is at elevated temperature or when the
contaminant is a difficult or sticky material. A venturi scrubber occupies little space, iseasy to
maintain and has a further advantage of predictable collection efficiency (dependent upon particle
size and density) for a given pressure loss. It may be a low-pressure loss unit (6 to 20 in wig
range) or a high-pressure loss unit (20 to 60 in wg range).
Personal and Medical Controls:
This term is used to describe those procedures which are applied to the employed person
(biological sampling, diagnosis and applying remedy). It includes-
1. Preplacement medicalexamination: Purpose of this examinations is to protect workers
with known susceptibility against any potentially harmful exposure, e.g. worker affected
by pulmonary tuberculosis should not be placed in exposure of silica and chlorinated
hydrocarbon atmosphere.
2. Periodic medical examination:A major purpose is to detect any existing evidence of
poisoning at an early stage when corrective measures can be expected to result in complete
recovery. Corrections may call for improved industrial hygiene practices for temporary or
permanent change of job assignment or both of these.
3. Personal Protective Devices:Protective clothing, masks, and respirators should be
properly selected for the purpose for which they are intended and usually worn to prevent
injuries. A programme of using, cleaning and replacing worn out parts is highly desirable.
4. First-aid:Keep first aider to take charges in the event of an emergency due to poisoning.
Give proper first-aid training to workers.
5. Laboratory Procedures:Check blood, urine, stool, lungs, skin etc. to detect onset of
symptoms of health effects.
Special Control Measures:
Above mentioned control measures are general measures applicable to most of the industries, but
special control measures are required depending on the specialty of the process or material. Such
measures may vary with the nature of industry. See Chapter-23 for 38 types of different industries
and more than 500 control measures.
Biohazards exist due to bacterial, fungal, viral, rickettsia, chlamydial, parasitic agents etc. (see
Part 10.9 of Chapter-28) and places where they exist include laboratory, hospitals, agriculture,
animal area etc. Their control measures include good housekeeping, personal hygiene, laboratory
safety, animal care and handling, biological safety cabinets, use of sterilization (autoclave) and
disinfection and precautions from Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and
Legionnaires' disease.
Maintenance:
Keeping all the Control equipment in good working condition, maintenance is necessary.
 Regular maintenance
 Break-down Maintenance
 Annual Maintenance Schedule
 Weekly Maintenance Schedule
1.3 Introduction to Chemical Hazards:
(A) Gases and Vapours:
(1) Gases:Normally formless fluid which occupy the space of enclosure and which can
be changed to the liquid or solid state only by the combined effect of increased pressure and
temperature. Gases diffuse. The particle size varies from 0.0005 to 0.01 micron. Example: Cl2,
NH4, SO2, H2S, HCN, CO
Main pollutants are oxides of carbon, Sulphur and nitrogen.
(2) Vapours:The gaseous form of substance which are normally in the solid or liquid
state and which can be changed to these states by either increasing the pressure or decreasing the
temperature alone. Vapours diffuse. The particle size varies from 0.005 to 0.01 micron.
Examples are vapours of lead oxide, benzene, xylene, trichloroethylene and other solvents. Gases
and vapours are also classified as under-
1. Organic solvent vapours e.g. alcohol, acetone, CS2, CCI4, benzene, xylene.
2. Pulmonary irritant gases e.g. C12 NO2, phosgene.
3. Upper respiratory irritant gases e.g. NH3, SO2, formaldehyde, acetic acid.
4. Chemical asphyxiant gases e.g. CO, HCN.
5. Simple asphyxiant gases e.g. N2, CO2, methane, its homologues and acetylene.
6. Other inorganic and organic gases e.g. H2S, arsine and pesticides vapours.
(B) Particulate Matters:
These are solid tiny particles produced by blasting, crushing, drilling, grinding, mixing etc.
and suspended in the air. Examples are as under:
(1) Dusts:Solid particles generated by handling, crushing, grinding, rapid impact, detonation
and decrepitation of organic or inorganic materials such as rocks, ore, metal, coal, wood,
grain etc. Dusts do not tend to flocculate except under electrostatic forces. They do not
diffuse in air but settle under the influence of gravity. The particle size varies from O.I to
1000 microns. Fly ash from chimneys varies from. 3 to 80 microns.
(2) Fumes: Solid particles generated by condensation from the gaseous state, generally
after volatilization from molten metals etc. and often accompanied by a chemical reaction
such as oxidation. Fumes flocculate and sometimes coalesce. The particle size varies from
0.001 to 100 microns. Examples: lead, zinc, or nitrous fumes.
(3) Mists:Suspended liquid droplets generated by condensation from the gaseous to the liquid
state or by breaking up a liquid into a dispersed state, such as by splashing, foaming and
atomizing. The particle size varies from 50 to 100 microns. Example:Sulphur acid mist.
(4) Smokes:Small gas-borne particles resulting from incomplete combustion and consisting
predominantly of carbon gaseous material are grouped in this category. The particle size
varies from O.I to I micron.
(5) Aerosols:It is a colloidal system m which the dispersion medium is a gas and the dispersed
phase is solid or liquid. The term aerosol is applicable till the solids or liquids remain
suspended in the gaseous media. The particle size varies from 0.01 to 100 micron. Dust,
smoke or mist are examples. Aerosols affect weather, damage materials and impair health.
Atmospheric aerosols like hydrocarbons, lead, arsenic, Sulphur acid etc. may injure human
health because of their toxic nature.
1.4 Routes of Entry (Avenues) to Human System:

Following are the four main routes of entry of toxic material into human body:(1) Absorption
through skin (Dermal tract):Skin absorption attains its greatest importance in connection with
the organic solvents. The significant quantities of these compounds may enter the body through
the skin either as a result of direct accidental contamination or indirectly when the material has
been spilled on the clothing. Using industrial solvents for removing grease and dirt from the hands
and arms is a source of dermatitis. Some
solvents penetrate the intact skin, get into the
blood stream and produce ill effects on the
blood and throughout the body, e.g.
nitrobenzene, aniline, phenol, nicotine.

Occupation involving handling and

spraying pesticides, liquid splashes may enter
through skin and cause toxic effects. Vapours
of pesticide can enter through nose and solid
or liquid pesticide if taken through mouth
(unfollowing, accidentally or suicidal) it can
pass through digestive route also. Safety
measures are suggested in Part 24 of Chapter-
23.
Volatile material like phenol, aniline,
nitrobenzene, cresol, tetraethyl lead and many
organs phosphorous or organo-chlorine pesticides pose greater hazard through skin than through
inhalation. Absorption through losings of the epidemic is more rapid than through the intact skin.
Cut skin may absorb quickly. Therefore, safety gloves, aprons, face shield, goggles and overalls
are always desirable.
(2) Absorption through Tongue. (Ingestion or Digestive Tract): Use of contaminated and
dirty vessels used for eating and drinking is the most common route of ingestion. Accidental
swallowing of chemicals is also possible. The detoxification affects the liver exerts when the
ingested quantity is small. However, massive dose can lead to fatalities in absence of medical
attention.

1.5 Concept of Threshold limit values

Threshold Limit Values (TLVs)
 - Prepared by ACGIH volunteer scientists
- Denotes the level of exposure that nearly all workers can experience without an
unreasonable risk of disease or injury
- An advisory limit; not enforceable by law
- Generally, can be defined as ceiling limits, short-term exposure limits, and/or time-
weighted averages
- Usually equivalent to PELs
Air Sampling:
Basic need of air quality sampling and work environment monitoring and analysis is to
find the level of pollution and to work out strategy to reduce it. Need of sampling and monitoring
is statutorily suggested by Form no. 37, Rule 12B of the Gujarat Factories Rules. The format calls
for identification of airborne contaminants, sampling instruments and methods, number of samples
and comparison of measured value with the TWA concentration in 2nd schedule of the Factories
Act to assess the working environment and also the number of workers exposed to that. Correct
record of such workplace monitoring is essential for good health and good housekeeping.
Need of sampling and monitoring is also inferred from the types, sources and hazards of
air pollutants mentioned below. Monitoring is more than air sampling or medical examination of a
worker. It includes a series of actions to assess the protection necessary.
Purpose & Types of Air Sampling:
Purpose of sampling are (1) To determine type and concentration of exposure due to health
hazards to workers (2) To determine the types and effectiveness of the control measures provided,
any change if necessary in them and new control measures to be provided (3) To investigate
complaints and (4) For research purposes.
Types of Air Sampling:They are (1) Personal sampling (2) Area sampling (3) Grab
sampling and (4) Integrated sampling.
In personal sampling the sampling device is worn by the worker near his breathing zone to
evaluate personal or individual exposure to him.

In area sampling the air samples are taken at fixed places in a workroom or confined
spaces to evaluate general concentrations of flammable, explosive or toxic material in air for the
purpose of isolation or restriction to work or to design the control measures. It includes continuous
monitors for leak detection, ventilation failure, equipment malfunctions etc.
Short period (instantaneous) sampling is called grab sampling and long-period sampling is
called integrated sampling. Grab sampling is used to measure concentration at a particular time (at
least two samples within 5 minutes) e.g. peak value of NH3 or Cl2 at a particular time. The sample
is collected in evacuated flask or plastic bag, sealed and sent to a laboratory where trace analysis is
carried out by gas chromatography, IR spectrophotometry etc. Direct reading instruments can also
be used for grab sampling. Temperature and pressure should be recorded during sampling. It
should not be used for reactive gases.
Integrated air sampling is carried out by direct reading instruments (e.g. gas detector tubes
or digital meters) to measure STEL value for 15 minutes and TLV for 8 hr. TWA limits. An air-
sampling train consisting of air-inlet orifice, collection media (solid or liquid sorbent, filters and
passive monitors), air-flow meter, flow-rate control valve and suction pump, is used by qualified
and trained personnel. Direct-reading gas and Vapour monitors include (1) Colorimetric devices -
stain tubes and hand or battery-operated pump (2) Colorimetric paper tape samplers (3) Electrical
instruments (4) 0 monitors (4) CO monitors and (5) IR analyzers.
Types of sampling is also classified as
(1) Passive or diffusive' air sampling which involves collection of airborne gases/
vapours through a diffusion barrier onto absorbing medium without the use of air
sampling pump and
(2) Active air sampling which involves collection of airborne contaminants by means
of a forced movement of air by a sampling pump and through appropriate
collection medium i.e. filter.
Selection of equipment for air-sampling is important and depends on many factors such
as purpose of sampling, type of sampling, type of equipment available, nature of toxicant,
environmental conditions, required accuracy and sensitivity, reliability, property of air-
contaminant, presence of other chemicals which may mix or interfere, duration of sampling, cost
etc.
Sampling Calculations:Calculations for gas and Vapour concentrations depend on gas laws that
where temperature, volume, pressure, Concentration (mass/volume), molecular wt., density of gas
is considered
Concentration is normally expressed in ppm or mg/m3.
The following equation is used –
Samples are collected in the areas of (1) Breathing zone of the worker (2) General
atmosphere of the room (3) Operation itself.
The factors determining the duration of sampling or the volume of the air to be sampled
are: (1) Sensitivity of the analytical procedure (2) TLV, STEL etc. (3) The expected air
concentrations.
 The number of samples to be collected depends on (1) The purpose of sampling (2) The
concentration of the contaminant.
A minimum of 3 to 5 samples are necessary.
Air Sampling Methods:
Two basic methods employed to collect the gaseous contaminants are:
1. Use of a gas collector, such as an evacuated flask. The collector is resealed immediately to
prevent loss before to the sample is analyzed and
2. Passing a known volume of gas or air through an absorbing medium to remove the desired
contaminants from the sampled atmosphere. The absorbing medium is chosen according to
its efficiency for a particular contaminant.
Field methods require (1) Survey of work environment to collect basic data (2) Sampling
principles or strategies to decide location of measurement (nose level of the worker, at source of
emission and in general atmosphere of the workroom) (3) Types of samples (4) Minimum and
optimum volume of sample (5) Duration and time of sampling and (6) Number of samples.
Then air sample is collected and the contaminant is removed for analysis. Gas detection
tables, papers and liquids are used and finally the results are interpreted.
Sampling Strategies:Factors to be considered while deciding sampling strategy are as under:
1. Collection techniques:The sampling device is attached to the worker who wears it during
his presence in the workplace. It can be held at his breathing zone (nose level). For
environmental monitoring, it is placed in a fixed location in the work area. For designing
engineering control, it should be placed near the source of emission.

2. Place of Sampling:Purpose of sampling should be decided and accordingly the place, e.g.
breathing zone, source of emission, work area, confined space, place of highest
concentration, garage, tunnel etc. should be decided.
3. Selection of highly exposed worker:A worker who is closest to the source of toxic
emission should be selected. Individual differences in work habits can show different
levels of exposure at the same place - the same job, or the same material. Their work
methods should be noticed. Air movement pattern should be studied. The ventilation
booths, air supply inlets, open doors, windows, combustion or heating processes are some
factors which can produce higher concentrations away from the source.
4. Time of Sampling:When there is wide temperature difference during different seasons
(e.g. summer & winter), samples should be taken during all such seasons. When there are
more than one shifts, it should be taken in all shifts. For A.C. area, normally the
contaminants remain same throughout the year. The time of highest degree of hazard
should be selected.
5. Duration of Sampling:The volume of air and duration of sample depend on the type of
measurement i.e. 8-hour TWA TLV or 15 minutes STEL value and also on the sensitivity
of the analytical procedure or direct-reading instrument.
6. Types of Samples:They may be instantaneous or spot samples collected within short
period of 2 to 10 minutes and continuous samples collected over a long period in different
shifts or on different days for the same spot or the same worker.
7. Minimum Required Volume (MRV): If the volume is insufficient, false result is
possible. For detection of lower concentration, larger air samples are required. The
minimum required volume is given by -

MRV = S x 22400x 760x 273+t

M x TLV P 273

where MRV = minimum required volume of sample (liters), S = sensitivity of analytical

method mg, M = molecular weight of contaminant, TLV in ppm, P = barometric pressure in mm
Hg and t = air temp °C.

If t = 25 °C (or near about) and P = 760,

MRV = S x 24450

M x TLV

and if TLV is in mg/m' instead of ppm,

MRV = S x 1000

1. Number of Samples:Again, depending on purpose, the number of samples can be

decided. For TLV or STEL value, several dozen samples may be necessary to have
accurate result Amount should be sufficient for laboratory use and decision.
2. Accuracy and Precision:They should be maintained for meaningful data, reliability and
compliance of the statutory requirement.
1.6 Biological Monitoring
Biological monitoring is defined as the respective and regular measurement and
assessment of agents or their metabolites either in blood, urine, secrete, expired air or combination
of these to evaluate exposure and health risk compared to an appropriate reference.
The personal air monitoring provides airborne concentration of a contaminant, not
necessarily the absorption of the contaminant by an exposed individual. Biological monitoring
has distinct advantages over air measurement, mainly because it is the absorbed chemical, and/or
its biomarker, is measured.
Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs) are' analogues to TLV, except for BEIs apply to
biological monitoring and TLVs to air monitoring.
Biological or biochemical samples are the blood, urine, faces, breath (expired air),
plasma, body fluid, sweat, tissues, hair, nails, saliva etc. They are analyzed to measure any change,
deformation or damage due to absorption of a toxic material. Measurement of quantity deposition
or effect of lead, mercury, cadmium and fluoride in blood or urine gives evidence of their health
effect. By establishing baseline levels, such monitoring indicates need of personal or
environmental monitoring and also the need of necessary environmental control or improvement
in work method or need of personal protective equipment.
 Biological monitoring is not a replacement of any other form of monitoring. It is
complementary. Work environment monitoring does not give evaluation of individual's exposure
which is given by the biological monitoring.
Analysis of biological samples obtained from exposed workers provides information of
body burden of the substance, the amount circulating in the blood or the amount being excreted.
Though every tissue and fluid in the body can be analyzed, but mostly the urine or blood samples
are analyzed. Previous exposure of CO and many solvents can be known from the exhaled breath
samples. In addition to the air measurement, biological assays and determinants are more reliable
indicators (markers) of health risks and strengthen the evidence.
Biological analysis can be performed -
1. for unchanged substance in body fluids and tissues, e.g. Pb, Hg, As, Acetone, MEK,
phenol, ' styrene etc. This is called Direct Biological Monitoring.
2. for changed substance i.e. metabolite, e.g. phenol formed in urine due to exposure to
benzene, aniline or phenol and Hippuric acid formed in urine die to exposure to Toluene.
This is called Indirect Biological Monitoring.
3. for changed level of enzyme or other biochemical substance present in body fluids or
tissues, e.g. depression of cholinesterase activity in red cells due to exposure to organo-
phosphorous. Following tables give some examples.
Indications of Breath, Blood & Urine analysis
Breath analysis may indicate the effect of
Alcohols, aliphatic hydrocarbons, chloro-hydrocarbons, Co, ketones etc.
Blood analysis may indicate the effect of Lead, mercury, CO, zinc, manganese, aluminium,
cadmium, methyl bromide etc.
Urine analysis may indicate the effect of
Most of the toxic metals, gases and compounds such as mercury, nickel, zinc, cobalt, thallium,
vanadium, arsine, stibnite, benzene, HCN, HF, HBr; aniline, nitrobenzene, acrylonitrile, fluoride,
parathion etc.
Metabolic products as Determinants or Indicators or Markers

Product in Urine Indicates presence of

Phenol Phenol, Benzene, Aniline
TTCA CS2
Formic acid Methanol
Thiocyanate Cyanate, Nitriles
Hippuric acid Toluene, Styrene, Ethyl benzene
Methyl hippuric
acids Xylene
Trichloroacetic acid Trichloroethylene
p-Nitrophenol. Parathion
2.5 Hexane Dione n-Hexane
p-Aminophenol Aniline
BEIs or BELs:The ACGIH of USA publishes biological limits known as Biological
Exposure Indices (BEIs) for a limited chemical. They represent the levels of determinants (i.e. the
chemical itself or its metabolite(s), or a biochemical change induced by the chemical) which are
most likely to be observed in specimens collected from a worker exposed to chemicals. BEIs
apply to 8 hr. exposures, 5 days a week. Timing is indicated with BEI. The sample should be
collected at the same time, otherwise BEI is not applicable. Some BEIs are reproduced below from
the ACGIH booklet (2007).
 Adopted Biological Exposure Indices
Substance and Metabolite Time of Sample BEI

Acetone
in urine End of shift 50 mg/L
Aniline
p-aminophenol in urine End of shift 50 mg/L creatinine
Benzene
t.t. muonic acid in urine End of shift 500 g/g creatinine
S-phenyl Mercure acid in urine End of shift 25 g/g creatinine
Cadmium and
Inorganiccompounds
Cadmium in urine Not critical 5 g/g
Cadmium in blood Not critical creatinine 5 g/L.
CO
Carboxyhemoglobin in blood End of shift 3.5% of hemoglobin
CO in end-exhaled air End of shift 20 ppm
Chlorobenzene
4-chlorocatechol in urine
p-chlorophenol in urine End of shift 100 mg/ g creatinine
End of shift 20 mg/ g creatinine
Chromium
Total chromium in urine Increase during shift 10 g/L
Total chromium in urine End of work week 25 g/L
Lead
In blood Not critical 30 g/100 MI
Mercury
Hg in urine Prior to shift 35 g/g creatinine
Hg in blood End of workweek 15 g/L
Phenol
Phenol in urine End of shift 250 mg/g creatinine
Toluene
Hippuric acid in urine End of shift 1.6 g/g creatinine
O-Cresol in urine End of shift 0.5 mg/L
T in blood Prior to last shift of work 0.05 mg/L
week
Xylenes
Methyl hippuric acid in urine End of shift 1.5 g/g creatinine
These values (markers) - BEIs or BELs - can be developed for those substances only
which
1. can appear in biological sample.
2. appear as metabolites.
3. change type or amount of body constituent.
 4. change activity of an enzyme or
5. change quantifiable physiological function.
a. Such values cannot be developed for substances which are body constituents and
normal metabolites of the body itself and do not show any change.
2. do not dissolve, are rapidly decomposed or have local effect (e.g. corrosives, irritants).
3. produce allergic effects.
4. produce carcinogenic effects.
Initial studies on animals and later on human volunteers, defined the relationships between
exposure, absorption, biotransformation, retention and excretion of exogenous substances.
Response (damage) of the organism depends on concentration reached in the sites and the
concentration depends on physical, chemical and environmental properties, the mode of impact
and the person's own biological factors.
Biological Indicators, Determinants or Markers:
Biological indicators are determined from the biological samples - blood, urine, breath,
sweat, faces, hair, nails, body fluid, tissue etc. - and their biological analysis. For correct result
time of collection of samples is most important because, different chemicals show their significant
effects at different time, e.g. metabolite 'methyl hippuric acid' in urine is completed within 16 hr.
after the end of exposure and therefore its sample should be collected at the end of the shift.
Similarly sample for determination of effect of trichloroethylene should be taken at the end of
week as its metabolite 'trichloroacetic acid' in urine is metabolized slowly.
Thus, after taking biological samples (bioassays) at the correct time after allowing
biotransformation (metabolic transformation) biological analysis of these samples is carried out to
study the biological indicators, determinants or markers. These indicators are (i) the substance
itself i.e. exogenous agent (ii) metabolite formed if any and (iii) the metabolic effect (change)
produced.
Useful information:Above indicators provide some useful information which cannot
otherwise be available, as under:
1. Long-term effect of exposure/absorption.
2. Amount absorbed in body.
3. Routes of absorption.
4. Evaluation of total exposure due to workplace and outside environment.
5. Amount absorbed due to workplace effect, climatic factors, age, sex, genetic
characteristics, physical effect, condition of the organs for biotransformation and
elimination processes etc.
 6. Type and time of risk (exposure) which cannot be proved in any other way.
a. This is the usefulness of biological monitoring.
Medical monitoring means medical examination by the occupational health doctors of the
workers exposed to health hazards. Pre, periodical and post medical examination or monitoring
gives better judgement.

CHAPTER 2:PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

2.1.1: Need for personal protection equipment, selection, applicable standards, supply, use,
and care & maintenance respiratory and non-respiratory PPE

NEED for PPE

For any accident prevention work, engineering control is the best control, and aid of personal
protective equipment should be the last resort or a supplementary control. Nevertheless,
importance of personal protective equipment (PPE in short) is not less, its scope and utility have
been tremendously increased during last few years and wide varieties of such equipment are
available in the market. This requires proper selection of quality and utility for specific purpose.
The problem is not of the availability, but is of its use by workers on the shop floors. Particularly
in a country like ours where the majority of workers are illiterate, not safety conscious and not
trained to wear such equipment, the problem becomes more acute mostly in small and medium
scale factories.
The statistics of accidents exclusively due to non-use, misuse or defects of PPE is not available as
there is no such distinct accident classification. But if we consider causes No. 7 to 15 in Table
5.20, Chapter5, it can be said that in 1997, out of total 246 fatal accidents due to these causes, at
least 160 i.e. 65.04% could have been prevented by the proper use of PPE. Total of causation No.
120 to 131 in the last row of Table 5.22, Chapter-5, gives 65.89% (10334 out of 15683 accidents
during 1994) fatal and non-fatal accidents. Of this at least half i.e. 33% of total accidents could
have been prevented by the effective use of PPE. The conclusion is that @ 30 to 40% of total
accidents can be prevented or controlled by the proper use of personal protective equipment. This
figure is not small and highlights the need of PPE.
Most of the minor accidents are due to material handling, striking against objects, hurt by falling
bodies, falling or slipping, injury by hot substances or chemicals and neglecting PPE. Such
accidents can certainly be reduced to great extent by the effective use of appropriate PPE.
The PPE provides good defense against hazards of toxic exposure, oxygen deficiency, dusting,
chemical splashes, steam, water and liquids, flying particles, hot substances, radiation, sharp
edges, welding, cutting, grinding, striking against and stepping over objects, glare, personal falls
and injury due to falling bodies, noise, scrap cleaning, material handling, opening of pipe lines or
any hazardous work, electric shocks, burns and firefighting. Many fatal accidents are caused due
to these reasons and use of appropriate ' PPE can prevent or lessen many of them.
Limitation of the protection by PPE should be well understood. Respirators have limited use for
the concentration and time mentioned by the manufacturer. They cannot be used in higher
concentration for longer time. In heavy concentration, only self-breathing apparatus (SBA) is
recommended and that too for a limited time. Instead of providing hood and suction on flying
particles, there is no meaning of giving respirator to a worker. Instead of providing guard on a
grinding wheel, it is meaningless to provide eye protection to workers. Instead of sealing leakage
of gas or dust or allowing to continue, it is unsafe to advise the worker to use gas mask. Similarly,
instead of trying to reduce pollution, it is of no use to tell the workers to use PPE only. It is
always safer to improve the working conditions by engineering controls first. Then only the use of
PPE may be recommended. It is the second line of defense.
PPE is a second line of defense. The first line is to eliminate or minimize the workplace hazards.
PPE cannot eliminate the hazard, it can help eliminate an injury or reduce its severity.
I remember a few fatal accidents from my investigation where I was of the opinion that besides
engineering controls, PPE could have prevented such accidents. When an engineering control fails
or becomes ineffective, what is the protection? Then this line of defense (i.e. PPE) comes to help
and protect in most of the cases. In one case a worker died due to phosphine exposure and in
another case due to chloroform Vapour in a tank. In third case due to a splash of 2-4
dichlorophenol a worker died within 15 minutes. In still other case, a worker died due to pesticide
exposure in delayed effect. All four were young workers and died due to these toxic chemicals. If
they would have worn appropriate PPE, they could have been survived. This shows the
significance of need of PPE. Though PPE cannot eliminate the hazard (like engineering control) it
can certainly protect from it.

1. The need of PPE can be well judged from:

1. Visual and foreseeable hazards.

2. Accident experiences.
3. Report of the safety committee/ representatives.
4. Safety audits, surveys, sampling, job safety analysis and risk assessment.
5. Legal requirements and remarks of the authorities.
6. Record of the medical department.
The need of PPE exists because

1. Chances of failure of engineering controls, materials, process, equipment and safety

devices cannot be denied and, in those circumstances, the PPE can act .as a barrier
between the man and hazard and to save from the injury.
2. There arecertain operations or accidental situations where engineering controls are less
possible and PPE becomes necessary. For repair or maintenance or to enter into toxic or
 oxygen deficient atmosphere, or while working at height or doing jobs like welding,
cutting, grinding, chipping, PPE gives good protection.
3. It effectively avoids the contact of dangerous substances, noise, vibration and radiation.
4. It protects from atmospheric contaminants.
5. It is a legal as well as moral duty to provide suitable PPE.
2 STATUTORY PROVISIONS
As per Factories Act 1948, PPE should be provided by the occupier for the protection from
hazards due to dust, fume, gas, Vapour, flying particles, glare, revolving machinery, hot or
dangerous contents, entry in confined space, explosive or flammable atmosphere, fire, dangerous
operations and hazardous processes. Rules prescribed under above sections provide further
details. Noise induced hearing loss is an occupational disease under the 3rd Schedule of the
Factories Act.
OSHA standards prescribe tremendous details for PPE. requires noise reduction below 90 dBA
or to provide ear protectors to workers and their auditory examination by a doctor. Sch. 27
required protection against cotton dust.
INDIAN AND OTHER STANDARDS
Some IS Nos specify for protection of Head, Eye & Face, Ears, Hands, Feet & Legs, Body, Lungs
& standard of Breathing Apparatus
PPE Selection
Once it is decided that PPE is needed,
1. Select proper type of equipment (IS mentioned in Part 3 should be referred) and then
2. Make it sure that the supervisor sees to it that the worker uses and maintains-it correctly.
Proper selection, training and use of PPE are essential.
Factors of selection or requisite characteristics of PPE are:
1. It should give adequate protection against the nature, severity and type of hazard.
2. It should be of minimum weight, should give minimum discomfort with protective
efficiency.
3. Attachment to the body should be flexible yet effective.
4. The wearer should not be restricted in movement" or perceptions required for the job.
5. It should be durable and attractive.
6. It should not cause any hazard through its material, design, defect, use or failure.
7. It should conform Indian Standards and tests required
8. It should be easy to clean, repair and maintain. The parts, piece and service should be
easily available.
If all above criteria are not available effort should be made to get maximum of them.
Classification of PPE for selection and understanding is given below Table
For Protection of Head, Eyes, Ears, Face, Hands, Arms, Feet, Legs and Body. Special work
clothing- e.g. asbestos, aluminized, leather and wool garments, lead clothing, disposal clothing
etc.
Table Selection and Classification of PPE according to the body part and hazards:
Body-Part Hazard PPE necessary
Head Falling objects, shock, chemical spurting Safety helmet, hard hats, safety caps,
headgear
Eye Chemical splash, dust, flying, particles, Spectacles, lenses and goggles for
gas, welding radiation. chemical, welding, grinding, furnace,
dust etc.
Ear High level noise (> 90 dB) Earmuffs, plugs, inserts
Nose Dust, toxic gases Dust mask, cloth mask, rubber mask,
fume mask, respirators for dust, gas
and Vapour, rescuer plus pressure suit,
breathing apparatus (O2 or Air),
Canister gas masks, airline respirators,
chemical / mechanical filters.
Face Chemical splash, flying objects, hot Face shield, welding screen, furnace
substance. mask, face guard.
Hand Hot substance, acid, alkali, pigments, Hand gloves of rubber, PVC, hosiery
chemicals, handling, cut, sharp edge. cotton, leather, asbestos, canvas, fiber
glass, electrical rubber gloves, surgical
gloves, arm sleeves.
Body Chemicals splashes, hot substance, fire, Aprons, coats and pants, pressure suit,
handling, suits of rubber, PVC etc.
Foot / Leg Striking against objects, chemicals Leather or rubber sole shoes, steel toe-
falling bodies boots, antiskid sole shoes, ammunition
boots, gumboots, leg sleeves.
Overall Falling from heights, hurt by falling Safety belts, pole strap belt, nylon
bodies, chemicals safety harness, all-purpose safety
harness belt, vertical lift safety harness,
Boatswain’s chair, rope ladders, nets,
safety hooks.
Selection and classification of Respiratory equipment based on type of hazard:
 1 Self-contained Breathing Apparatus

2 Hose Mask and Blower with escape provision

Selection of Material of Construction of PPE is given in Table 25.2:
Table: Selection of Material of Construction for PPF.
No. Material For the protection from
Flying particles, falling body, sharp
1 Metal
edge, abrasion.
Sparks, falling body, flying particles,
2 Fiber metal
sharp edge, abrasion, machinery
3 Metal screen Sharp edge & abrasion
Hot liquid, moisture, water, petroleum
product, acid, alkali, spark, falling
4 Plastic, PVC
body, flying particles, electric shock,
sharp, edge, abrasion, skin protection
 Hot liquid, moisture, water, acid,
5 Rubber alkali, electric shock, machinery, skin
protection
6 Conductive rubber Explosive substance
Hot substance, flying, particles sharp
7 Chrome leather
edge, abrasion, sparks
Flying particles, sharp edge, abrasion,
8 Canvas
machinery
9 Asbestos Heat, hot substance, sparks
10 Acid proof fabric Acid & alkali
11 Reflective fabric Hot liquid
Heat, hot substance, sparks, chemicals,
12 Flameproof duck
flying particles, machinery
Heat, sparks, machinery, skin
13 Cotton wool
protection
14 Cotton canvas Sharp edge & abrasion
15 Steel hoe boot Falling body, striking
16 Non-skis shoes Moisture, slippery surface
Heat, hot substance, moisture, water,
17 Wooden sole boot or scandal acid, alkali, slippery surface, sharp
edge, abrasion.
18 Soft silicon rubber or plastic Molded type ear plug
19 Plastic goggles with hydrophilic coating To prevent fogging
20 Widescreen lenses (face shield) Heavy fog or dampness
Laser safety goggles (Antiglareseye
21 Laser beams
shield)
22 Aluminized welding helmet Infrared rays and to reduce heat effects
23 Polarizing lenses (filter shade lenses) To prevent glare
24 Steel, reinforced plastic & hard rubber Safety toe boot for foot protection
Boot with non-ferrous coating and Static charge, friction sparks, and to
25
conductive sole reduce fire and explosion possibility
Work with hot metal in foundry, quick
26 Congress or gaiter type shoes
removable shoes without lash
Non-conductive or insulating (non-
27 Electric work
metallic shoes)
Flexible metal reinforced stole or inner Construction work and cold metal
28
sole work with possibility of foot injury
Pharmaceutical factory needing higher
29 Plastic shoe cover or cap
product safety.
30 Specially made asbestos clothing To work with hot metal up to 1650 oC
To work near a furnace at temperature
Aluminized asbestos or glass fiber and
31 up to 540 oC for firefighting. Such
wool lining
proximity clothing should to be utilized
 to enter into the fire. they are for
working from a distance.
Flameproof or flame-resistant cloths – Fireproof cloths to work in the fire
32
THPC, Nomex or Modaphrilic fabrics flames
To carry heavy or sharp-edged load on
33 Cushion pads or padded duck
shoulder or back.
Apron of padded leather, fabric, plastic, For protection of abdomen or middle
34
hard fiber or metal body parts.
Thermal net cotton goes quilted material To work in cold weather (unsuitable to
35
(decron or nylon) work in hot or fire).
For construction and maintenance
36 High visibility and night hazard clothing Police and Fire brigade and Traffic
hazards
Disposable clothing (Plastic or In less radioactive work or drug or
37
reinforced paper) electronic industry
Leaded clothing (lead glass fiber, leaded Laboratory work, protection against X
38
rubber, leaded plastic) and Gamma rays
39 Electromagnetic radiation suit Radar field
For linemen to work at extra high
40 Conductive clothing voltage. Such clothing keeps the
linemen at the proper potential.
 APPLICABLE INDIAN AND OTHER STANDARDS
Some IS on PPE are as under:
Head - Helmets, industrial safety 2925, for two wheelers 4151, non-metal for
police force 9562, wooden head- form for testing of helmets 7692,
miner's cap lamps 5679 3
Eyes and Face- Guide for selection of eye, face and ear protection 8520, 8521,
maintenance and care 8940, for welding 1179, methods of test 7524
(Part& 2), eye protectors, filters 5983, safety glass 2553, eye and face
showers 10592
Ears - Guide for selection 8520, ear protectors 9167, earmuffs, method for
measurement 6229
Hands - Guide for selection 8807, Gauntlets and mittens, leather 2573, gloves -
safety 6994, rubber - electrical 4770, surgical 4148, postmortem 4149
Feet & Legs - Footwear, selection 6519,10667, Ankle boots for general purposes 583,
boots and shoes safety, leather 1989, leather for firemen 4128, rubber -
canvas for miners 3976, 10665, gaiters, protective 2472, knee boots,
rubber 3736, 3738, leather for leg guard 3946, toe caps, steel for footwear
5852, boots for oilfield workmen 9885 (Part I & 2), footwear for steel
plants 10348, for mines and heavy metal industry 13295, safety shoes for
women workers in mines and steel plants 11225, footwear with direct
molding sole 11226, rubber footwear 11264, PVC boots 12254, chemical
resistant 13292, 13695, PVC boots, oils and fats resistant 13038, code of
practice for manufacture 13295, lined antistatic rubber footwear 13575,
wooden, heavy duty 5520, rubber lined boots 5557, conducting 13996
Body - Guide for selection of body protection 8519, aprons - rubberized acid and
alkali resistant 4501, rubber for hospital use 6407, lead rubber, X-ray
protective 7352, Clothing - fire resistant 4355, fire (flame) resistant suit
7612, leather 6153, sheath rubber 3701, fabrics, PVC coated for foul
weather 3322, belt and strap, leather, lineman's safety 3521, material
(nylon webbing) for aircraft safety belts 8947, maintenance and care of
safety clothing 8990, evaluation of whole body vibration 13276 (Part I to
3), mechanical vibration and shock affecting man 13281
Lungs - Glossary of terms relating to respiratory protective devices 8347,
 selection, use and maintenance of respiratory, protective devices 9623,
colour identification of air purifying canisters and cartridges 8318,
mouth-piece assemblies 14170, full face mask 14166, threads for face
pieces 14138. Respirators - chemical cartridge 8522, canister type (gas
mask) 8523, filter type for particulate matter 9473, CO filter 9563, bag
type, positive pressure, manually operated 6194.
Breathing apparatus 10245 -
Part 1: Closed circuit (0, cylinder).
Part 2: Open circuit.
Part 3: Fresh air line.
Part 4: Escape type, short duration, self-contained.
Breathing apparatus for fire brigade self-contained 1910, Resuscitators for use with
humans 13366, life jackets 6685
Use, and care & maintenance respiratory and non-respiratory PPE
General Precautions to use PPE:
Following precautions are useful for training and practice
1. Hazards at workplace must be thoroughly studied, gas, oxygen, contamination, noise etc.
should be measured and their level should be minimized by engineering controls first and
then only the need of necessary personal protective equipment (PPE) should be ascertained.
2. PPE should be kept ready and in sufficient number. Gloves, shoes, goggles, aprons, earplugs
etc. should be given individually and kept clean by the worker in his locker.
3. PPE should be of approved (IS) quality and tested before use. Manufacturer's instructions,
limitations, time limit if any, procedure or method of use, symptoms of malfunctioning,
emergency action if it does not work and instructions for maintenance and care should be well
understood before using any PPE.
4. Written instructions should be prepared and displayed or given to the workers for the safe use
of the equipment. After medical examination of the worker, need and type of the equipment
shall be reconsidered. Change if any, should be incorporated.
5. Laziness in using PPE is not good. A cloth in place of effective respirator is insufficient.
Avoiding PPE because the use is for a few seconds or minutes, is unsafe.
6. Loose PPE should be kept away from the moving machine parts.
7. While entering in a tank or working at height, safety belt must be worn, in addition to good
sitting and supporting arrangement (safe platform or fencing). Gas and oxygen level should
be measured and kept safe as far as possible. PPE shall be selected based on its level.
8. Cotton clothing in hot days, woolen clothing in cold days and tight-fitting clothing while
working near machinery are 'basic requirement. Synthetic cloths are unsuitable to health. PPE
on cotton clothing gives more comfort.
9. A man working on electricity should wear nonconductive helmet. Conductive shoes or
clothing are required to discharge static electricity induced in a human body.
10. Canister gas mask and dust mask are useful for low concentration (100 to 200 ppm) and for
the gas and duration mentioned on the mask only. Filter is to be changed or cleaned soon after
choking. Canister gas mask is not useful if oxygen is insufficient (less than 18%) in air.
Different types of gas masks are recommended for different level of concentration.
a. Canister mask is not safe while working in a tank. When gas is less than 5% of LEL, canister
mask may be worn just to clean the tank. If this level is from 5 to 20% of LEL, airline
respirator may be used. If concentration is more than this it should be diluted.
b. Six months old canister mask should not be used. Every six months its chemical is to be
freshly filled. It should not be used after 100 hours after breaking its seal. If face piece is used
by another person, it may be reused only after sterilization. User of a gas mask should get his
heart and lungs checked by a doctor.
c. Canister mask of a gas which has no smell (e.g. CO, PH3), should be used new every time.
Gas mask should be kept away from moisture and heat and should be regularly checked.
11. Chemical cartridge and dust respirators can be used where flammable gas, fume or dust
concentration is so low that canister mask is not necessary. When the gas is poisonous or in
high concentration, eye burning, or without smell or where oxygen is insufficient, chemical
cartridge or dust respirators cannot be used. The cartridges should be kept dry. If they are
moist or giving smell, they should be changed. Valves for inhale and exhale should be
checked and kept efficient.
12. Where oxygen is less, gas, dust or smoke are more, toxic gases like C12, CO, H2S, PH3
phosgene exist, proper canister gas mask is not available or where one has to work in a tank
for a long time, an airline respirator is useful, because fresh air is available through blower or
air compressor and polluted air is being driven away near the nose. But because of the limited
length (80 mt maximum), where one has to move at a longer distance or upstairs and
downstairs at different floors, only SCBA is useful.
d. Connections (joints, clamps, clips etc.) of air line should always be checked before use,
otherwise accidental detachment of air supply will cause harm to. the wearer. Air drawing
point should not be kept in polluted air. Air filter (cleaner), air control valve, safety valve and
alarm are all necessary. Air flow should not be less than 6 ft3/min and its temperature should
 be comfortable. If hydrocarbon gas content is more than 20% of LEL, it is unsafe to enter into
a tank with air hose mask. Air inlet valve should not be completely closed (it should remain
partially open).
e. Cooling effect and circulating air type suits are also available which are useful in working
near high temperature.
13. Earplugs should be washed with soap and' water, dried and put into its box after every use.
Earplugs used by others should be sterilized before use. Earplugs should be supplied
individually to the workers. Ear muffs should also be cleaned before and after use.
14. Fire rescue (proximity) suit should be worn by two persons at a time so that one may act as a
standby. Air cylinder and lifeline should also be kept ready.
2. 15. Safety belt should be kept clean, dry and in sound condition. Its
connections and wear and tear should be checked before every use. Its free end should be tied
with a fixed (immovable) structure while working at height or given in another person's hands
while entering in a tank.
a. Strength members of a safety belt should be of very sound material other than leather.
Buckles should withstand 1315 kg tensile test and be quickly openable.
b. Lifeline should not be of pieces tied together. Nylon rope of '/2-inch diameter is safe. Wire
rope should be made oily before and after using it in acidic atmosphere. Metallic life line
shall not be used near electric work.
15. Nothing should be kept in helmets. It should be checked for crack and proper fitting.
16. Contact lenses are to beprotected against gas, Vapour, fumes, excessive heat, molten metal
and chemical splashes. Therefore, safety goggles over the lens or numbered glass are always
necessary. Safety. goggles are also necessary with the face shield. When goggles or face
shield are splashed with chemicals, they should be washed by a water shower before taking
out from the face. Plastic lenses are more useful than glasses. Side shields are useful.
17. Mechanical filter respirators are useful for dust and smoke. Filters are to be changed or
cleaned when choked. Mechanical filter respirators are not suitable for solvent Vapour, toxic
gas or oxygen deficiency. In firefighting work, only SBAis useful and not the gas mask.
18. A respirator should be carefully selected while working in IDLH (immediately dangerous to
life and health) environment. An operator is necessary with blower hose mask. One can run
away till the air is available from the hose even when the blower is closed. While working
with SBA, one should come out after hearing the low-pressure alarm.
19. No other gas mask than SBA or airline is useful where oxygen is less than 18%. Level of
oxygen should be measured with oxygen meter.
20. When gas concentration is more than its safe limit or within explosive range (between LEL
and UEL) or oxygen is less than 18% in a tank, (or confined space), it should be ventilated by
air (not by oxygen), the levels should be again measured and when they are safe, permit to
enter should be signed.
21. Air supplying hoods are useful in hot or dusty atmosphere to work for a longer time.
22. Where atmospheric pressure is more than 2 bar, oxygen SBA should not be used because of
the possibility of oxygen poisoning. Quick start canister used in closed circuit oxygen self-
generating (recirculating) SBA, may prove dangerous in atmosphere of gas having less than
315 °C auto ignition temperature. Venting device to release excess oxygen is required in that
case. Used canister should be disposed safely. SBA should be used by a healthy and trained
worker only.
23. In empty air cylinder, oxygen should not be filled. It may cause fire due to contact with oil or
grease.
24. Safety toe shoes should withstand 300 ft pound impact load. Resistance of conductive shoe
should not exceed 450 kilo ohms.
c. Electrician's boots should not have any metal parts, and steel toe if any, should be insulated.
d. Sole with flexible metal sheet inside, give protection against nails and sharp edges.
25. Where full hand gloves are not required, stalls for fingers, mittens or pads for palms, and
another PPE for thumb, wrist, palm and elbow are also available.
e. Leather gloves are Useful to work with glass or metal sheet or sharp edges but not useful to
work above 65 °C temperature.
f. Natural rubber is not suitable to work with oil, grease or organic solvent.
g. Hand gloves with any metal part are not suitable for electric work. High voltage tested rubber
gloves are suitable for such work.
26. After the use is over, PPE should not be left anywhere. They should be returned to the proper
person or put in a cupboard meant for it.
27. Arrangement for keeping, cleaning, testing and disposal of PPE should be provided and every
such person should be properly trained in addition to the user.
Respirator Care:

Proper inspection, maintenance and repair of respiratory protective equipment is

mandatory to ensure success of any respiratory protection program. The goal is to maintain the
equipment in a condition that provides the same effectiveness it has when first manufactured.
Inspection
 All equipment must be inspected periodically before and after each use. A record shall be
kept of all inspections by date with the results tabulated. Follow precisely the recommendations of
the manufacturer. Maintenance
All respiratory protective equipment shall be cleaned and decontaminated after each use.
Repair
Replacement of other than disposable parts must be done only by personnel with adequate
training to ensure the equipment is functioning properly after the work is accomplished. Only
parts supplied by the manufacturer for the product being repaired shall be used.
Maintenance:
It is a cooperative activity between the employee who takes care of his equipment and the
safety professional who teaches him how to use it and provides proper instructions. After
inspections, cleaning and necessary repair, personal protective equipment shall be stored to protect
against dust, sunlight, heat, extreme cold, excessive moistures or damaging chemicals to retain its
original effectiveness. When in doubt about the maintenance of any type of personal protective
equipment, it is a good practice to contact the manufacturer. All PPE should be cleaned and
examined after each use. Respirators should be cleaned daily. Face-piece should be washed in
warm water with soap or a detergent. Filter and chemical cartridge should be replaced when
needed.

2.1.2: Non-Respiratory PPE (Head protection, Ear protection. Face and Eye protection.
Hand protection, Foot protection, body protection.)
Selection and Classification of PPE according to the body part and hazards:
Body-Part Hazard PPE necessary

Head Falling objects, shock, chemical spurting Safety helmet, hard hats, safety caps,
headgear
Eye Chemical splash, dust, flying, particles, Spectacles, lenses and goggles for chemical,
gas, welding radiation. welding, grinding, furnace, dust etc.
Ear High level noise (> 90 dB) Earmuffs, plugs, inserts

Nose Dust, toxic gases Dust mask, cloth mask, rubber mask, fume
mask, respirators for dust, gas and Vapour,
rescuer plus pressure suit, breathing
apparatus (O2 or Air), Canister gas masks,
 airline respirators, chemical / mechanical
filters.
Face Chemical splash, flying objects, hot Face shield, welding screen, furnace mask,
substance. face guard.
Hand Hot substance, acid, alkali, pigments, Hand gloves of rubber, PVC, hosiery cotton,
chemicals, handling, cut, sharp edge. leather, asbestos, canvas, fiber glass,
electrical rubber gloves, surgical gloves, arm
sleeves.

Body Chemicals splashes, hot substance, fire, Aprons, coats and pants, pressure suit, suits
handling, of rubber, PVC etc.

Foot / Leg Striking against objects,

chemicals Leather or rubber sole shoes, steel toe-boots,
falling bodies antiskid sole shoes, ammunition boots,
gumboots, leg sleeves.
Overall Falling from heights, hurt by falling Safety belts, pole strap belt, nylon safety
bodies, chemicals harness, all-purpose safety harness belt,
vertical lift safety harness, Boatswain’s chair,
rope ladders, nets, safety hooks.

NON-RESPIRATORY EQUIPMENT IN DETAILS

Head and Hair Protection:Head protectors are hard hats, caps and helmets made of aluminium,
PVC fiber glass, laminated plastic or vulcanizedfiber. They may be fitted with brackets for fixing
welding masks, protective face screen or a lamp. The hats and caps are provided with replaceable
harness which provides sufficient clearance between the top of the head and shell. Selection is as
follows:

Material Protects against

1 Asbestos Sparks, hot materials, heat

2 Hot liquids, moisture, acids, alkalis, electric

Plastic rubber
shocks, dermatitis

3 Cotton wool Sparks and heat, dermatitis, machinery

4 Metal Falling objects, flying particles, cuts, abrasions.

5 Sparks, falling objects, flying particles electric

Plastic
shock, cuts, abrasions.

Head Protectors
Type Protects Against Characteristics
 Generally made of aluminium alloy, PVC,
fiber- glass, or vulcanized fiber. Saddle
(geodetic strap suspension) inside to dissipate
Falling objects, hitting against
Safety impact pressure over wide area of head and to
obstructions such as low
Helmet provide clearance between the head and the
ceilings, beams, scaffold
(Hard hat) shell of helmet. Chin strap or other device to
members etc.
prevent displacement. Peak and full brim to
protect face, neck, ears. Ventilation holes for
comfort.
Electrical Electric shock when working Made of synthetic electrically non-conductive
Safety near live electrical lines. materials (PVC etc.)
Helmet
Welder’s Falling welding spatters from
Made of leather with cloth lining inside.
Cap above.
Usually fiber / plastic material with saddle
Crash Skull injuries in road inside, without peak or rim and with chin
Helmet accidents. strap. Covers forehead, temples and lower
portion of head (above neck)
Soft caps and hoods are also used for protection against heat, spark and other dangerous
materials and are made of appropriate materials. Sometime hoods are made with rig frame which
is held away from the head.
Long hair or beards may be caught in moving machine parts (e.g. belts, chain, in-running
nips etc.) while seeing or leaning down or by heavy static charges. Protective caps covering the
hairs are useful. Hair net is not a full protection. The hair cap should be of flame- retardant
material for protection against sparks or hot metal. It should be cool, lightweight, adjustable and
with visor in front.
Ear Protection:
Hearing loss is an occupational disease under the Factories Act, 1948
 Noise level above 90 dBA is hazardous for an exposure more than 8 hrs./day or 48
hrs./week. It may cause deafness, fatigue, loss of efficiency, irritation and also loss of hearing.
Noise level can be measured by a noise
average meter or a noise dose meter. Ear
plugs or Ear muffs reduce to @ 25 to 40
dBA. Ear plug is made of plastic, rubber or
polyurethane foam. Ear muffs covers
external ear and provides better attenuation
than ear plug.
Face and Eye Protection:
Eye injuries can be caused by
mechanical, chemical, thermal and radiation hazards such as dusts, flying particles, splashes and
harmful radiation. Eye protectors are safety spectacles, mono goggles, impact goggles, welding
goggles, foundry goggles, chemical goggles, gas tight goggles, face shields, welding helmets etc.
Possible hazards are:
Chipping, fettling, riveting, sledding,
1 Large flying particles from
chalking.
Scaling, grinding, stone dressing, wood
2 Dust and small flying particles from
working.
Pouring of liq. metal from ladle, crucible etc.,
3 Splashing of metals from casting of metals, galvanizing and dipping in
molten metals.

Splashing of liquids, gases and fumes

4 Handling of acids and other chemicals.
from

Reflected light, glare and radiant Foundry work, glass furnaces, gas welding
5
energy from and cutting, arc welding.

Utility and characteristics of eye protectors are shown in Table

Type Protects Against Characteristics

Spectacle-type Flying bodies (dust, metal chips, Plain, shatter – proof, toughened
 Goggles etc.) glass or plastic lenses.
With or without side shields.
Metal or heat –resistant frame.
Panorama Oil and paint splashes, dust and chip Light in weight, Non-fogging
Goggles exposure cellulose clear visor.
Ventilation holes on either side.
Soft pliable plastic frame wide
enough to wear over prescription
glasses.
Leather-mask Smoke, dust, foreign bodies Sweat lining along edges, ventilation
Goggles holes with baffles for light and dust.
Shatter-proof lenses.
Chemical Chemicals and toxic dusts Acid / alkali – resistant rubber frame
Goggles with clear lenses and shielded
ventilating ports.
Gas-tight Goggles Irritating fumes, Vapour or gases Airtight – fitting without ventilating
ports.
Welding Goggles Gas Welding/ Cutting. Flames & Similar to panorama goggles with
sparks filter glass of suitable grade and
indirect ventilation ports.
Welding Shields Arc Welding / Cutting flames and Fiber or fiberglass shield, hand-held
sparks or suspended from helmet, with
window for filter glass.

Eye and face protection standards are provided for - Rigid and non-rigid welding helmets.
Welding hand shields. Attachments like lift fronts, chin rests, aprons, magnifiers, snoods etc.
Face-shields, Flammability, Goggles for welder, cutter, chipper (eye cups) and dust & splashes
and Spectacles of metal, plastic or combination.
Face Protection: Plastic face shield with acrylic visor, and Daric guard
with fiber/PVC head band, with adjustable head gear helmet attached
to face shield. Welding screen shield. Furnace masks. Large vision red
vinyl goggles with Perspex lens and sponge lining.
Laser eyewear should be marked with optical density values and
wavelengths for which they are to be used. Laser glasses or goggles
designed for specific wavelengths should not be used for different
wavelengths of laser radiation.
Hand and Arm Protection:
Protection of hands and arms are required when
workers have to handle materials having sharp end, sharp
edges, hot and molten metals, chemicals and corrosive
substances. The protective equipment may be gauntlet
gloves, wrist gloves, mittens, hand pads, thumb and
finger guards and sleeves. Gloves, hand leathers, arm
protectors, finger stalls, mittens etc. should not be used
near moving machinery or machine parts. Selection
guideline is given in Table 25.5.
Selection of Gloves:
Material Protects against

1 Asbestos Sparks, hot materials, heat.

2 Chrome leather Sparks, hot materials, hot liquids, flying
particles, cuts, abrasions.
3 Flame proofed Duck Sparks, hot materials, heat, flying particles,
machinery.
4 Plastic Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis,
dermatitis.
5 Rubber Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis electric
shock, dermatitis
6 Chemical resistant material Acids and alkalis
7 Reflective fabric Hot liquids
8 Plastic rubber coated fabric Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis
9 Metal Mesh Cuts and abrasions
10 Cotton Canvas Cuts and abrasions

Glove material selection should be asunder:

1. Natural rubber gloves are stretchable and highly resistant to punctures. They perform well
in mild caustics and ketone-based solutions and in temperatures ranging from 0°F to 300
"F. These gloves work well for job which require handling rough materials or sharp-edged
objects such as plate glass and lumber.
2. Neoprene is a premium-grade, synthetic rubber. Gloves coated with neoprene are resistant
to strong acids, oils, grease, solvents and caustics. They perform well in temperatures from
0°F to 300 °F.
3. Nitrile is a super synthetic compound available in either a smooth or rough finish. They
perform well in temperatures from 25°F to 300 "F. Nitrile coated gloves offer superior
 abrasion, snag and puncture resistance for tasks such as handling coarse building materials
and rough castings.
4. Viton gloves are especially useful for resisting chemical permeation from chlorinated and
aromatic solvents as well as many other liquids and vapours.

5. Polyvinylchloride (PVC) plastic gloves resist a broad range of chemicals and abrasives.
They provide ample flexibility and durability in temperatures ranging from 25°F to 150 °F.
PVCcoated gloves are ideal for jobs which involve handling rough machine parts, castings
or petrochemicals.
6. Butyl rubber gloves offer high permeation resistance to many gases and vapours.
7. Latex gloves are not appropriate for primary chemical resistance but offer good protection
from standard grit/grime.
Hand Protectors
Type Protects against Characteristics

Leather gloves Cuts, bruises, abrasions, lacerations Plain, cut-resistant leather

during handling of metal sheets and with or without metal mesh at
other sharp-edged objects and sparks palm.
Aluminized fabric Flames, intense heat radiation, burn Heat-resistant aluminized
gloves injuries fabric or other special material
Asbestos gloves -do- Padding inside for comfort
and to withstand high
temperatures
Acid/Alkali-proof, Corrosive chemicals (organic acids or Rubber, neoprene or vinyl
rubber/ synthetic gloves petroleum products) material
Lead – lined gloves Ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, Rubber, leather or plastic with
etc.) lead lining.
Canvas gloves Grease oil, dust and dirt which may Fabric or coated fabric
cause slipping of hands
Electric gloves Low voltage electric shocks (up to 4000 Made of insulated rubber
V) High voltage electric shocks (tested having required dielectric
11 KV) strength and electrical
resistance. Generally red in
colour
Barrier Cream Contact dermatitis from solvents,
lubricants and other oils.
 Foot and Leg Protection:
Some typical risks are handling of heavy materials,
caustic and corrosive liquids, wet conditions, molten
metal’s, etc. Common foot and leg protective equipment are
safety shoes or boots, leggings and foot guards. Leg
guards (e.g. Cricketer type) are used to protect - shins
against impact. Knee pads are worn by mould lofts men and
others who do continual kneeling. Selection is as follows:
Safety shoes/boots may be conductive, non-
conductive or spark resistant. Rubber boots are useful to
work in wet conditions, steel toe boots against impact and
puncture resistant soles to walk on surfaces having nails, sharp objects etc.
Conductive shoes allow draining of static charges and non-ferrous shoes reduce possibility
of friction sparks and much useful in fire/explosion prone area. Conductive footwear resistance
should not exceed 450 kilo ohms.
Conductive shoes are used where floors are nonconductive and grounded such as in
manufacture of certain explosive compounds or while cleaning tanks that have contained solvent
or volatile hydrocarbons. These shoes have conductive soles and non-ferrous metal parts.
Foundry workers should wear gaiter or congress type safety shoes which have no fasteners
or lashes and rapidly removable. The tops of the shoes should be covered by full pant leg, spats or
leggings to keep out molten metal. Electricians need insulated shoes with non-metal parts. Leather
shoes are useful to work in wet condition. Wooden soles to walk on hot surfaces and rubber shoes
for working with acids and alkalis but not with solvents which dissolve the rubber.
Feet Protection
Hazards Protection

Falling, rolling objects and materials Shoes with steel toe-caps. Aluminium, steel fiber or
plastic instep to protect top of feet
Sharp cutting edges, wood chips, glass shards, Steel spring in –soles.
nails
Chemicals, solvents, alkalis, caustics, bleaches, Non-soluble natural rubber, vinyl, plastic footwear,
cutting oils and compounds, grease, creosol. synthetic rubber, neoprene, cord or cork soles
Oily floors Synthetic rubber or chrome leather soles
Hot surfaces, sparks, metal splashes Heat-resistant soles, slip-on wooden sandals over
shoes; foundry boots with elastic band or buckle for
quick removal; trouser legs rolled down over boot
tops
Extreme heat and direct flame Insulated or aluminized over-shoes or boots of fire-
resistant material
Fungal infection from prolonged exposure to Lined rubber shoes. Silicone- treated leather or
water rubber shoes for minor or occasional wetness
Sparks can ignite flammable gases, liquids and Shoes with non-ferrous metal parts, steel toes
explosives covered with non-sparking material.
Static electricity built up in the body can ignite Shoes with special conductive soles of cork, leather
volatile material etc.
Skids and slips; icy surfaces Cleated, wooden, non-slip or neoprene soles. Slip-on
non – skid sandals; strap – on cleats.
Live circuits or equivalent Electrically non-conductive standard safety shoes.

Sanitation hazards; Contamination and infection Special plastic over shoes; paper or shower shoes.
Disposable strictly not to be re-used.

Safety footwear must be carefully chosen for maximum protection and its suitability for the particular
hazard. Care and proper maintenance are of vital importance.
Footwear must be regularly inspected. Worn-out or defective shoes should be immediately repaired or
replaced. Defective footwear should never be worn. Footwear must always be kept clean and dry.
Material for Knee Pads, Leggings etc.

SR Material Protects against

1 Asbestos Sparks, hot materials, heat.

2 Chrome leather Sparks, hot materials, hot liquids, flying particles, cuts,
abrasions.

3 Flame proofed Duck Sparks, hot materials, heat, flying particles, machinery.

4 Plastic Dermatitis, hot liquids, moisture, acids, alkalis.

5 Rubber Dermatitis, hot liquids, moisture, acids, alkalis, electric

shock

6 Fiber metals Sparks, flying objects, flying, particles, cuts, abrasions,

machinery.

7 Chemical resistant material Acids and alkalis

8 Reflective fabric Hot liquids

Material for Shoes and Boots

SR Material Protects against

1 Steel toe caps Falling bodies

2 Non-skid shoes Moisture.

3 Wooden soles Hot materials, heat, hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis,
slips and falls, cuts, abrasions.

4 Chrome leather. Sparks, hot materials, heat, hot liquids

5 Rubber Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis, electric shock,

dermatitis.

6 Conductive rubber Explosive.

Body, Skin and Fall Protection:

Body protectors are coats, waist, aprons, overalls, jackets and complete head to toe
protective suits. Aprons of different materials are used for protection against blows, splashes,
radiant heat, flying particles etc. Pads are used to protect shoulders and back from bruises.
Impervious clothing of rubber or synthetic fabrics are used for protection against water, moisture,
dusts, vapours and liquid chemicals.
Nature of potential hazard, degree of the hazard involved and nature of activities of the
wearer are important in the selection of safety clothing. Although complete coverage of the body
and legs is not needed in many cases, unnecessary safety clothing may hamper the efficiency of
the wearer. No compromise should be made with strict safety requirements. Selection is as
follows:
Material Protects against

1 Asbestos Sparks, hot materials, heat.

2 Chrome leather Sparks, hot materials, hot liquids, flying particles,
cuts, abrasions.
3 Plastic or Rubber Hot liquids, moisture, acids, and alkalis, electric
shock, dermatitis, machinery.
4 Canvas Flying particles, cuts, abrasions, machinery.
5 Chemical resistant fabric Acids and alkalis
6 Reflective fabric Hot liquids

Types of body protection available are:

Body Protection :- Asbestos combination suit, asbestos jacket, hood, clogs, boots and
gloves, mittens, aprons, spats, leggings, furnace mask; rubber apron with hood combined, low
weight rubber coated fabric suit, low weight PVC coated fabric suit, heavy duty PVC suit or
rubber coated fabric suit, PVC or rubber coated aprons with sleeves, sand or shot blast helmet
rubber mat for electrical purpose, vulcanizedfiber face mask for radiant heat, PVC splash proof
coat, PVC hood with protected ventilator, PVC pressure suit, PV( boiler suit, overall, coat-pant
and hood.
Special work clothing includes leather or wool clothing, asbestos or aluminized clothing
and flame retardant or fireproof work cloths.
Safety Belts: -Linesman leather belt, leather safety strap or belt, man-hoisting leather belt,
safety belt of harness made from leather or cotton webbing, nylon safety belt. Quick-on coverall
harness. Suspension harnesses. Wrist rescue systems. Descent system. Total encapsulating suit
harness. Linemen's belts. Structural steelworker's, car dropper's and derrick worker's belts, Shock-
absorbing lanyards. Retractable lanyard, Retractable lifeline. Winches, Rope grabs. Horizontal
lifeline system. Rail slider anchorage connector. Sure, hold confined space positioning equipment
or system.
Skin covers the whole body and it is the first defensive barrier for body protection.
Therefore, skin protection cannot be avoided. Types of skin affecting hazards can be classified as
under:
Preventive measures should include -
1. Frequent skin washing using proper cleansers.
2. Changing contaminated clothing and washing and drying the cloths properly.
1. 3. Removal of irritants and chemicals (including oils) by effective washing using
shower bath, eye washer fountain etc.
3. Wash immediately cuts, scrapes, punctures etc. and apply antiseptic bandage and seek
medical advice.
4. Use appropriate PPE to protect skin, fingers, foot and body. Selection of proper
goggles, gloves, footwear, aprons, overalls and clothing is important. Avoid loose
clothing and exposed skin or body parts to moving machinery, high temperature, toxic
chemicals (e.g. pesticides) etc.
5. Barrier creams to protect against dermatitis, lubricants, solvents, hydro-carbons etc.

Aprons for Skin Protection

Type of Apron Protects against

PVC, Acid / alkali proof Chemical splashes

 rubber, Face shield with visor
Leather Hot materials like molten slag, chips, hot or sharp
surfaces.
Asbestos Heat radiation
Lead Ionizing radiation (X-rays, Gamma rays)
Fall protection for the body includes safety belts, lifelines (ropes) and lanyards, harnesses
(belts & straps with buckles) and fall-arrester devices or safety net.

Full body harness with Safety Belt and fall arrester

It is important to note that such safety belts and associated equipment are used when fall
hazards cannot be eliminated by strong support like railings, floors, platforms etc.
OSHA Standard has prohibited the use of a body belt-only for fall arrest and a fall arrest
system is suggested, since 1-1-1998.
Body belts are used where less than I’m free fall is anticipated and a body harness (belts or
straps on chest, shoulders and thighs) is used for a limited fall up to 2 m. A harness can spread the
shock load over the shoulders, thighs and seat (hips). The body belt or lifeline D-ring should be
arranged at the back of the worker. The wearer of the safety belt should not tie off below waist
level (to prevent turning down head). A window cleaner's belt length is limited to 8 ft (2.5 m). The
chest belt is worn loosely to allow smooth breathing.
 The lifeline may be vertical from a fixed anchorage or horizontal between two fixed
anchorage independent of the work surfaces Lanyard is a flexible. line up to 6 ft (1.8m) to secure
the wearer's harness (D-ring) to a lifeline or fixed
anchorage. Lanyards may be made of nylon or other
fibrous or metallic material and non-stretchable to
limit free fall distance. -Shock-absorber lanyards
are available to absorb up to 80% of the stopping
force of a normal lanyard. Metal lanyard must not
be used where electrical hazard is possible. Snap
hooks (locking type •preferable) and D-rings should
be maintained in good condition. Knots or
lengthening of lanyards must be avoided. Horizontal Lifeline
Body belts (work belts) are used to reduce the probability of falls. Chest harnesses are
used where there is limited fall hazard (not vertical free fall) such as for removal of a person from
a tank or bin. Body harnesses, covering chest, shoulders and thighs, are used to arrest the most
severe free falls.
Retrieval method is necessary to shorten the hanging distance after a fall up to 6 ft
(maximum limit of free falls, for more fall height, other supporting fixed structure must be
provided by fencing, railing, platform, fixed-ladder with platform and handrails etc.). Retractable
lifeline, which will be shorten automatically (e.g. spring action) after its full length, can limit falls
to inches and avoid prolonged suspension causing high discomfort to a hanging person.
Fall arrester net, if used, should be tied firmly as near as possible under the working place
to minimize the fall distance.
Belts, harnesses, lifelines, lanyards, buckles, joints, D-ring etc. should be checked for weak
points, washed regularly and kept dried at room temperature.

2.1.3: Hazard, Classification & Selection of Respiratory PPE

Respiratory Hazards:

Type of hazards to which a worker is exposed is the basis of selection of the right type of
respiratory protective equipment.
There are three basic classifications of respiratory hazards: oxygen-deficient air; particulate
contaminants; and gas and Vapour contaminants.

1. Oxygen Deficiency:
 Normal ambient air contains an oxygen concentration of 20.8 percent by volume. When
the oxygen level dips below 19.5 percent, the air is considered oxygen-deficient. Oxygen
concentration below 16 percent is considered unsafe for human exposure because of harmful
effects on bodily function, mental processes and co-ordination.
It is important to note that life-supporting oxygen can be further displaced by other gases,
such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen. When this occurs, the result is often an atmosphere that can be
dangerous or fatal when inhaled. Oxygen deficiency can also be caused by rust, corrosion,
fermentation or other forms of oxidation which consume oxygen. The impact or oxygen-
deficiency can be gradual or sudden.
Atmospheres in confined spaces such as vats, tanks, hold of the ships, etc. may contain air
with oxygen content much lower than normal (21% by volume). This may be due to dilution or
displacement of the air by other gases or vapours or because of loss of oxygen due to decay of
organic matter, chemical reaction and natural oxidation over a long period of time. A person
breathing air with oxygen content of 15% or less may exhibit symptoms ranging from increased
rate of breathing, acceleration of pulse rate to unconsciousness and death, such oxygen deficiency
condition can easily be detected as the flame of a safety lamp will be extinguished in such
atmosphere. Oxygen deficient atmosphere is immediately dangerous to life. The respiratory
protective equipment in such conditions should either supply normal air or oxygen to the wear.
Self-contained or combination breathing apparatus is suitable.
2. Gaseous Contaminants:
Gas and Vapour contaminants can be classified according to their chemical characteristics. True
gaseous contaminants are similar to air in that they possess the same ability to diffuse freely
within an area or container. Nitrogen, chlorine, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and Sulphur
dioxide are examples.
Vapours are the gaseous state of substances that are liquids or solids at room temperature. They
are formed when the solid or liquid evaporates. Gasoline, solvents and paint thinners are examples
of liquids that evaporate easily, producing vapours.
In terms of chemical characteristics, gaseous contaminants may be classified as follows:
Inert Gases - These include such true gases as nitrogen, helium, argon, neon, etc. Although they
do not metabolize in the body, these gases represent a hazard because they can produce an oxygen
deficiency by displacement of air.
Acidic Gases - Often highly toxic (corrosive), acidic gases exist as acids or produce acids by
reaction with water. Sulphur dioxide, hydrogen Sulphide and hydrogen chloride are examples.
Alkaline Gases - These gases exist as alkalis or produce alkalis by reaction with water. Ammonia
and phosphine are such examples.
In terms of chemical characteristics, vaporous contaminants may be classified as follows:
Organic Compounds - Contaminants in this category can exist as true gases or vapours produced
from organic liquids. Gasoline, solvents and paint thinners are examples.
Organo-metallic Compounds - These are generally comprised of metals attached to organic
groups. Tetra-ethyl-lead and organic phosphates are examples.
These may be toxic or inert gases or vapours. The toxic gases may produce harmful effect even if
they are present in relatively low concentrations. The inert gases produce undesirable effects
primarily by displacement of oxygen. Vapours are from volatile, evaporating liquids. Gaseous
contaminants can also be classified as:
a) Gaseous Contaminants Immediately Dangerous to life: These contaminants are
gases present in concentrations that would endanger life of a worker breathing them even
for a short period of time. In other words, a gas is immediately dangerous to life if it is
present in certain concentration. Where it is not possible to determine the extent 6f
concentration or the kind of gas, all gases should be considered as immediately dangerous
to life and health. IDLH values of many gases and dusts are available. Positive pressure
self-contained or combination breathing apparatus is suitable.
b) Gaseous Contaminants not immediately Dangerous to life:These contaminants are
gases present in concentration that could be breathed by a worker for a short time without
endangering his life but which may cause possible injury after a prolonged single exposure
or repeated short exposures. But even after the concentrations of the contaminant is
known, no exact formula can be applied to determine if the contaminant is immediately
dangerous to life or not. Air - line respirator, hose mask with or - without blower and
chemical cartridge respirator are suitable.
3. Particulate Matter or Contaminants:
Particulate contaminants can be classified according to their physical and chemical characteristics
and their physiological effect on the body. The particle diameter in microns (1 micron = l/ 25400
inch) is of utmost importance. Particles below 10 microns in diameter have a greater chance to
enter the respiratory system and particles below 5 microns in diameter are more apt to reach the
deep lung or alveolar spaces.
In the healthy lungs, particles from 5 to 10 microns in diameter are generally removed by the
respiratory system by a constant cleansing action that takes place in the upper respiratory tract.
However, with excessive "dust" exposures or diseased respiratory system, the efficiency of the
cleansing action can be significantly-reduced.
The various types of airborne particulate contaminants can be classified as follows:
Fumes - An aerosol created when solid material is vaporized at high temperatures and then cooled.
As it cools, it condenses into extremely small particles generally less than I micron in diameter.
Fumes can result from operations such as welding, cutting, smelting or casting molten metals.
Dusts - An aerosol consisting of mechanically produced solid particles derived from the
breaking up of larger particles. Dusts generally have a larger particle size when compared to
fumes. Operations such as sanding, grinding, crushing, drilling, machining or sand blasting are the
worst dust producers. Dust particles are often found in the harmful size range of 0.5 to 10 microns.

Mists - An aerosol formed by liquids, which are atomized and/or condensed. Mists can be created
by such operations as spraying, plating or boiling, and by mixing or cleaning jobs. Particles are
usually found in the size range of 5 to 100 microns.

Majority of particulate contaminants are not immediately dangerous to life. They may be solid,
liquid or a combination of solid and liquid and may be classified into three broad groups- dust,
mist and fumes. Dust and fumes are solid flying particles, fumes being extremely small. Mists are
tiny liquid droplets given off by spraying or. very fast mixing or agitating.

Dust, mist or fume respirator, air-line respirator and abrasive blasting respirator are suitable.
Types of contaminants can also be classified as under:
a) Toxic particulate contaminants:
These when inhaled may pass from the lungs into the blood stream and are then carried to
the various parts of the body. The effect may be chemical irritation, systemic poisoning or
allergic reactions. Common contaminants in this group are antimony, arsenic, cadmium,
chromic acid and chromate, lead and manganese.
b) Fibrosis-producing dusts:
These dusts do not pass into the blood stream but remain in the lungs and may cause
pulmonary impairment. The common example under this group are asbestos, coal, iron,
bauxite and free silica.

c) Nuisance Dusts:
 These may dissolve and pass directly into the blood stream or may remain in the lungs
neither producing local nor systemic effects. Examples are saw dust, chalk clay, starch,
cement dust etc.
4. Combination of Gaseous and Particulate Contaminants:
Here gaseous and particulate contaminants occur together as in case of paint spraying
where solvent Vapour (gas) and paint mists are mixed. They may be entirely of different
substances like carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen produced by blasting or volatile liquids.
For contaminants immediately dangerous to life, positive pressure self-contained or
combination breathing apparatus or gas masks with special filter and for not immediately
dangerous to life, airline respirator, hose masks with or without blower and chemical cartridge
respirator with special filter are suitable.
Respirator Selection:
Respiratory protective devices vary in design, application and protective capability. Thus,
the user must assess the inhalation hazard and understand the specific use limitations of available
equipment to assure proper selection.
The respirators fall under two classifications: air-purifying and air-supplied. Air-purifying
respirators are used against particulate, gases and vapours. These include negative-pressure
respirators that use chemical cartridges and/or filters; gas masks; and positive pressure units such
as powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs), Air-supplied devices rely on a primary air source to
deliver a steady flow of respirable air to the user's facepiece. These include SCBA and airline
devices.
Selection and classification of Respiratory equipment based on type of hazard:
2.1.4 Instructions and training (in the use, maintenance and care) of self-containing
breathing apparatus. Training in the use of breathing apparatus (opens circuits and close
unit).

SCBA Training
Instruction and Training in the use of Respirators:
Instructionsfor care should include the following aspects:
1. Why and how it is to be used.
2. Protecting the equipment from dust, heat, moisture, extreme cold and damaging chemicals.
Storing in a dry cool place.
3. Checking that it is in good operating condition. Valves should be maintained in efficient
working condition.
4. Fitting of respirator on the wearer and
5. Proper use and maintenance of the respirator.
6. Cleaning and keeping it in a sealed plastic bag with name tag of the user.
Training for respiratory equipment should include following points:
1. Reasons of need of respiratory protection and limitation or inability of other controls or
Methods.
2. Identification and understanding of the hazard for which the equipment is to be used and
selection procedure;
3. Limitation, capability, function and operation of the respirator.

4. Proper fitting, wearing, adjusting face piece & valves and removing of the respirator.

5. Maintenance and storage procedure.

6. Practice to wear first in a safe atmosphere to become familiar with its characteristics.

7. Practice to wear in a test atmosphere under close supervision of the trainer, and to do
similar activities and to detect respirator leakage or malfunction.

8. How to ascertain and handle emergency situation.

9. Statutory provisions regarding use of respirators.

10. When and how to replace filters, cartridges, canisters and cylinders.

11. Instructions for special use if any.

The trainer should be qualified safety officer, industrial hygienist, safety professional or
manufacturer's representative

OSHA Standard for Respiratory Protection:

Program Requirements:
The OSHA Respiratory Protection Standard (29 CFR 1910.1-34) lists seven key elements that
every respiratory protection program should contain. These include:
1. A written plan detailing how the program will be administered.
2. A complete assessment and knowledge of respiratory hazards that will be encountered in
the workplace.
3. Procedures and equipment to control respiratory hazards, including the use of engineering
controls and work practices designed to limit or reduce employee exposures to such
hazards.
4. Guidelines for the proper selection of appropriate respiratory protective equipment.
5. An employee training program covering hazard recognition, the dangers associated with
respiratory hazards, proper care and use of respiratory protective equipment.
6. Inspection, maintenance and repair of respiratory protective equipment, and
7. Medical surveillance of employees.
Administration:
The first step in a respiratory protection program is to establish written standard operating
procedures governing the selection and use of respirators.
Finally, there should also be regular inspection and evaluation of the program itself to
ensure its continued effectiveness.
Hazard Assessment:
Proper assessment of the hazard is the first important step to protection. This requires a
thorough knowledge of processes, equipment, raw materials, end-products and by-products that
can create an exposure hazard.
To determine an atmosphere's oxygen content or concentration levels of particulate and/or
gaseous contaminants, air samples must be taken with proper sampling instruments during all
conditions of operation. The sampling device, the type and frequency of sampling (spot testing or
continuous monitoring) will be dictated by the exposure and operating conditions. Breathing zone
samples are recommended and sampling frequency should be sufficient to assess the average
exposure under the variable operating and exposure conditions.
If contaminant concentrations exceed exposure limits recommended by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), OSHA or NIOSH, hazard control
procedures must be implemented promptly.
Exposure monitoring plays a critical role in the respirator selection process. The results
from such tests will help you determine whether respiratory protection is needed and, if it is, the
type of respirator required. Generally, respirator selection is based on three factors:
1. The results of your atmospheric monitoring or sampling programme,
2. The accepted ACGIH, OSHA or NIOSH exposure limits for the substance(s) present and
3. The maximum concentration (of a substance) for which a respirator can be used.
Exposure limits include ACGIH Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), OSHA Permissible
Exposure Limits (PELs), NIOSH Recommended Exposure Levels (RELs) and AIHA Workplace
Environmental Exposure Levels (WEELs). These values are guides for exposure concentrations
that healthy individuals can normally tolerate for eight hours a day, five days a week without
harmful effects. Unless otherwise noted, exposure limits are eight-hour, time-weighted-average
(TWA) concentrations.
In general, gas and Vapour exposure limits are expressed in ppm by volume (parts of
contaminant per million parts of air), while particulate matters (concentrations) are expressed as
mg/ 3 (milligrams of concentrations per cubic meter of air). For substances that can exist in more
than one form (particulate or gaseous), concentrations are expressed in both values.

It is important to note that exposure limits and other exposure standards are constantly
changing as more data is gathered about specific chemicals and substances. As such, you must be
certain that you are using the most recent data when determining allowable exposure levels for
employees.
Hazard Control:
Hazard control should start at the process, equipment and plant design levels where
contaminants can be effectively controlled at the outset. With operating processes, the problem
becomes more difficult. In all cases, however, consideration should be given to the use of effective
engineering controls to eliminate and/or reduce exposures to respiratory hazards. This includes
consideration of process encapsulation or isolation, use of less toxic materials in the process and
suitable exhaust ventilation, filters and scrubbers to control the effluents.
Because it is sometimes not practical to maintain engineering controls that eliminate all
airborne concentrations of contaminants, proper respiratory protective devices should be used
whenever such protection is required.
Respirator Selection:
Respiratory protective devices vary in design, application and protective capability. Thus,
the user must assess the inhalation hazard and understand the specific use limitations of available
equipment to assure proper selection.
The respirators fall under two classifications: air-purifying and air-supplied. Air-purifying
respirators are used against particulate, gases and vapours. These include negative-pressure
respirators that use chemical cartridges and/or filters; gas masks; and positive pressure units such
as powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs), Air-supplied devices rely on a primary air source to
deliver a steady flow of respirable air to the user's facepiece. These include SCBA and airline
devices.
Medical Surveillance:
 Workers should never be assigned to any operations requiring respiratory protection until a
physician has determined that they are capable physically and psychologically to perform the work
using the respiratory protective equipment.
Although instituting a sound respiratory protection program will take effort and financial
investment, the objective of such a program is sound - ensuring that every worker is protected
against potentially fatal diseases.
Cleaning Procedures for Respirators:
1. Remove filters, cartridges, or canisters. Disassemble face pieces by removing speaking
diaphragms, demand or pressure-demand valve assemblies, hoses, or any components
recommended by the manufacturer. Discard or repair any defective parts.
2. Wash components in warm (43°C/110°F maximum) water with a mild detergent or with a
cleaner recommended by the manufacturer. A stiff bristle (not wire) brush may be used to
facilitate the removal of dirt.
3. Rinse components thoroughly in clean, warm, preferably running water. Drain the
components.
4. When the cleaner used does not contain a disinfecting agent, respirator components should
be immersed for two minutes in-
Hypochlorite solution (50 ppm of chlorine made by adding approximately one
milliliter of laundry bleach to one liter of water at 43°C/110°F), or
Aqueous solution of iodine (50 ppm iodine) made by adding approximately 0.8
milliliters of tincture of iodine (6-8 grams ammonium and/ or potassium iodine/lock of
45% alcohol) to one liter of water at 43°C/110°F
5. The importance of thorough rinsing is most important. Detergents or disinfectants that dry
on facepieces may result in dermatitis. In addition, some disinfectants may cause
deterioration of rubber or corrosion of metal parts if not completely removed.
6. Components should be hand-dried with a clean, lint-free cloth, or air-dried.
7. Reassemble facepiece, replacing filters, cartridges, and canisters where necessary.
8. Test the respirator to ensure that all components work properly.

2.2 PPE TESTING PROCEDURES AND STANDARDS

Fit Testing
 Respirators should fit properly to provide protection. To obtain adequate respiratory
protection, there must be a proper match between respirator and wearer. Respirators not properly
fitting cause illusion of protection. To accommodate the variability of face size characteristics
among individuals, a number of manufacturers offer face pieces in several sizes and models.
Purpose:
The primary purpose of tit testing is to identify the (1) specific make (2) model, style and
size of respirator best suited for each employee.
In addition, fit testing also provides an opportunity to check any problem with respirator
wear, methods of donning and wearing the respirator.
Requirement:
1. Fit testing is required for all negative or positive pressure tight-fitting facepiece respirators.

2. The OSHA respiratory protection standard requires that tit testing be performed before an
employee first starts wearing a respirator in the work environment, whenever a different
respirator facepiece is used, and at least annually thereafter.
Method:

 Prior to the actual fit test, the employee must be shown how to put on a respirator
 Position it on the face, set strap tension, and determine an acceptable fit. Next, the
employee must
 be allowed to choose a respirator from a sufficient number of models and sizes so that the
employee can find an acceptable and correctly fitting respirator.
 Once an acceptable respirator has been found — which considers the position of the mask
on the face, nose, and cheeks; room for eye protection; and room to talk — a user seal
check must be conducted.
Types of Fit Testing.
 Fit testing may either be qualitative (QLFT) or quantitative (QNFT)
 Prior to the commencement of the fit test, the employee must be given a description of the
fit test and a description of the exercises that he or she will be per forming during fit
testing.
 The respirator to be tested must be worn for at least five minutes before the start of the fit
test.
 The employee must be fit tested with the same make, model, style, and size of respirator
that will be used in the workplace.
Qualitative fit testing (QLFT).
Qualitative fit testing involves the introduction of a gas, vapor, or aerosol test agent into an
area around the head of the respirator user.
A determination is then made as to whether or not the wearer can detect die presence of the
test agent through means such as odor, taste, or nasal irritation. If the presence of the test agent is
detected inside the mask, the respirator fit is considered to be inadequate.
There are four qualitative fit test protocols approved in OSHA's standard.
1. The iso-amyl acetate (IAA) test determines whether a respirator is protecting a user by
questioning whether the user can smell the distinctive odor of IAA.
2. The. irritant smoke (e.g., stannic chloride) test involves a substance that elicits an
involuntary irritation response in those exposed to it.

3. Before conducting a qualitative test, the worker must undergo a sensitivity test to
determine if he or she can taste, smell or react to the substance.
4. When performing the iso-amyl acetate test, the protocol requires that separate rooms be
used for the odor screening and fit tests, and that the rooms be sufficiently ventilated to
ensure that there is no detectable odor of IAA prior to a test being conducted.
Quantitative fit testing (QNFT).
In a quantitative fit test, the adequacy of respirator fit is assessed by numerically
measuring the amount of leakage into the respirator.
This testing can be done by either generating a test aerosol as a test atmosphere, using
ambient aerosol as the test agent, or using controlled negative pressure (CNP) to measure the
volumetric leak rate. Appropriate instrumentation is required to quantify respirator fit.
Fit Test Exercises:
The following test exercises must be performed for all fit testing methods.
Normal breathing in a normal standing position, without talking.
Deep breathing in a normal standing position, breathing slowly and deeply, taking precaution not
to hyperventilate.
Turning the head slowly from side to side, while standing in place, with the employee
holding his/her head momentarily at each extreme so that the employee can inhale at each side;
Moving the head up and down slowly, while standing in place, inhaling in the up position
when looking toward the ceiling;
Bending at the waist as if to touch toes (jogging .in place can be done when the fit test
enclosure doesn't permit bending at the waist); and normal breathing (as described above).
Retesting:
If the employee finds the fit of the respirator unacceptable, he or she must be given a
reasonable opportunity to select a different respirator and to be retested. In addition, retesting is
required whenever an employee reports, or the employer, supervisor, or program administrator
observe changes in an employee's physical condition that could affect respirator fit. Such
conditions include, but are not limited to, facial scarring, dental changes (e.g., wearing new
dentures), cosmetic surgery, or an obvious change in body weight.
Facepiece Positive and/or Negative Pressure Checks:
1. Positive Pressure Check
Close off the exhalation valve and exhale gently into the facepiece. *
The fade fit is considered satisfactory if a slight positive pressure can be built up inside the
facepiece without any evidence of outward leakage of air at the seal.
For most respirators, this method of leak testing requires the wearer to first remove the
exhalation valve cover before closing off the exhalation valve, and then carefully replacing it after
the test.
2. Negative Pressure Check
Close off the inlet opening of the canister or cartridge(s) by covering it with the palm of the
hand(s).
Inhale gently so that the facepiece collapses slightly and hold your breath for ten seconds.
The design of the inlet opening of some cartridges cannot be effectively covered with the
palm of the hand, which requires' that the test be performed by covering the inlet opening of the
cartridge with a thin latex or nitrile glove.
If the facepiece remains in its slightly collapsed condition and no inward leakage of air is
detected, the tightness of the respirator is considered satisfactory.
 CHAPTER 3: Ventilation and Heat Stress

Purpose of Ventilation and Heat Control:

The need or purpose of ventilation and heat control are summarized here as follows:
1. Air is life and fresh air is the first need for survival of living creatures. Absence of air brings
death within a few minutes. Life without breathing is not possible and the clean air is needed
for the whole life- for breathing and functioning of human body. Therefore, good ventilation
giving sufficient fresh air is the permanent requirement.
2. Human body cannot tolerate excessive temperature. Heat stresses produced by very hot or
cold exposures cause adverse effects on health and safety of work people. Therefore,
environmental temperature control is also permanently needed for well-functioning of human
body. Ventilation helps in removing excessive temperature.
3. Heavy physical work or heavy work load causes heat stress and strain and increase metabolic
heat, body temperature, sweating, heart rate etc. To maintain (control) body temperature,
ventilation is necessary. See Part 5.1.
4. Carbon dioxide is continuously exhausted by all human beings. Much more contaminants are
added by manufacturing processes to pollute air. Therefore, cleaning of air and supply of fresh
air with sufficient oxygen are also necessary. This is possible by good ventilation and pollution
control techniques only.
5. Where due to weather or atmospheric conditions or process parameters, excessive temperature
is unbearable or uncomfortable, air conditioning or HVAC systems are also necessary.
Conversely where air heating is necessary as in case of excessive cold climate, it must be
provided.
6. Basic functions of ventilation are to (a) maintain the oxygen content of the air and to prevent
CO, concentrations from rising (b) prevent or removal of body odor’s (c) prevent harmful
concentration of aerosols and air-borne contaminants and (d) maintain reasonable conditions of
thermal limits for comfort and efficiency which result in decreased heat stress, increased
productivity, reduced accident rates (hot conditions induce unsafe acts) and adverse health
effects (interaction with other hazards), higher level of job satisfaction, reduced absenteeism,
improved attitudes, reduced downtime for hot vessels and compliance of required standards.
7. While designing industrial buildings care must be taken to provide good ventilation for dilution
of inside air to prevent vitiation by causes, such as body odor’s, to remove process released
contaminants and heat exposures to maintain satisfactory thermal environments, to maintain
heat balance of body and to prevent acute discomfort and injury to the health of the workers. If
natural ventilation is not sufficient for these purposes, mechanical ventilation, cooling system
or other techniques must be employed to achieve satisfactory results.
8. As explained in subsequent part 5.1 & 5.2 of this Chapter, the basic need for ventilation is to
maintain the body heat balance equation by controlling air and surrounding temperature,
humidity and air velocity. Therefore supply, well distribution and maintenance of fresh air
throughout the factory are utmost necessary to maintain comfortable working conditions as
expected by sections 13 to 15 of our Factories Act.
Thus, main purpose of ventilation is to remove heat 'and contaminants from air in residential or
industrial building and to supply or regulate fresh and cool (or hot) air for the comfort of the
occupants or workers.
The term industrial ventilation refers to ventilation systems for the industrial use. Main four
functions of ventilation are (1) to supply sufficient fresh air (2) to distribute it throughout the work
room (3) to remove polluted and hot air and (4) to maintain comfortable working conditions.
Mainly ventilation is employed for human comfort and therefore called comfort ventilation or air-
conditioning. It is also employed for process control by mechanical ventilation (process
ventilation) as explained in Part 7.3.2.
The quantity and quality of air required for ventilation depend upon -
 Rates of heat generation in the room.
 Rates of contaminants (gas, Vapour, dust) generation in the room.
 Rates of dispersion of heat & contaminant.
 Rates of dilution and/or removal that may be achieved by ventilation.
 Electric fittings for ventilation system in flammable/explosive area should be flameproof
and of the approved type.
THERMAL ENVIRONMENT AND ITS MEASUREMENTS:
Before controlling temperature, humidity and air movement it is necessary to measure their
adequacy. Subsequent measurement is also necessary for the, satisfaction that whether they are
properly controlled or not. Some methods and equipment are explained below for this purpose.
Temperature Measurement: The mean radiant temperature of the surroundings is calculated (not
measured) from the values of dry bulb air temperature, the glob temperature and the air velocity.
Thermometers placed at the height 1.5 m above floor level and not within I’m from any heating
device are used to measure the air temperature. For precise measurement and recording of
temperature, thermographs are used. Recording period may be as per requirement.
The Glob thermometer is a black-painted (mat), hollow copper sphere, 15 cm in diameter, into
which a thermometer is inserted. It therefore measures temperatures which include radiant heat
effects. It is preferable to a dry-bulb thermometer. Rule 18A (1) of the • Gujarat Factories Rules
1963 provides for a glob thermometer of 15 cm dia to be kept in the environment for not less than
20 minutes and consideration of the temperature recorded by it, if it exceeds the dry-bulb
temperature of the air.
The glob is suspended at the point of measurement, about 1.2 m above the ground, not contacting
any solid. Thus, the globe gains heat by radiation and loses by convection (not conduction). When
thermal equilibrium is reached (by @25 minutes)/ the reading in the thermometer gives the globe
temperature to.
Humidity Measurement:
Psychrometers or wet and dry bulb hygrometers are used to measure relative humidity of the air.
Hydrographs are used for continuous recording of the air humidity where the humidity
requirements are most stringent. The two temperatures of dry and wet bulbs are used with a
psychometric table or chart to determine relative and absolute humidity, dew point and other
conditions of an air-water mixture. The direct dial hygrometers are also available.
A whirling hygrometer (sling psychro-meter) is used to assess the ambient air temperature and
humidity. The dry and wet bulb assembly is rotated at 60 rpm till the readings become steady. The
reading of the dry bulb gives the ambient temperature while drop between dry and wet bulb
temperature is an indication of relative humidity by using a psychometric chart.
Air Movement and Content Measurement:
For recommended values for air movement and air changes See Part 2 and 6.4. Values
recommended by IS:3103 are as under -
Anemometers (Velometers) are used to measure the velocity of the air. The revolving - vane and
the revolving - cup types are in common use. The Vane anemometer consists of eight vanes fixed
on a hub at 45Q to the air stream and pivoted so as to rotate in a vertical plane. The speed of
rotation is indicated on a dial calibrated to read air velocity from 0.3 to 5 m/s. 77ie Cup
anemometer consists of four hemispherical cups carried on the ends of four radial arms pivoted so
as to rotate in a horizontal plane. The speed of rotation is indicated on a dial graduated to read air
velocity from I to 20 m/s. Velocities under 0.3 m/s are measured by means of a micro anemometer
or electrical thermal anemometer.
Kata thermometer designed by Leonard Hill in 1914 measures the cooling power of the air to cool
skin surface, a power that is measured in terms of dry-bulb temperature, the radiation and the rate
of air movement. The kata thermometer is an alcohol, liquid - in glass thermometer with a large
bulb and an upper reservoir. There are two marks on the stem. It is cheap but fragile and useful for
low air velocities below 0.25 "V s (50 fpm). The bulb is warmed by a warm water so that the
alcohol fills up the whole thermometer (up to 40 "C). The thermometer is then carefully dried
and placed at the sampling point. The cooling time is measured .by a stopwatch. Then air velocity
is calculated by using the values of cooling time, air temperature and instrument factor.
Swinging van anemometer. Hot wire anemometer (another air. meter), Alnor thermo-anemometer,
Mechanical anemometer. Thermistor Bead anemometer, Heated thermocouple anemometer and
Rotating vane anemometer of clock type or electronic direct-reading type are also used in
industrial hygiene to measure the air velocity.
Pressure tubes are used to measure both pressure (total and static) and velocity of the air in air
ducts. The dynamic (velocity) pressure is determined as the difference between the total and the
static pressures. The air velocity in air ducts can be measured with a Pressure head device (static
and pilot tube connected with differential pressure U-gauge).
Indication tube or Gas detection tube is used to measure contents of air contaminants such as toxic
vapours and gases viz. Cl2, CO, SO2, NO2, PH2 ethanol etc. A common type is hermetically
sealed glass tube about 4 to 7 mm wide and 100 mm long containing a filler (crushed silica gel,
glass or porcelain crumbs) treated with solutions of various reagents. The tube is kept into intimate
contact of the air to be analyzed. By pump-strokes air sample is drawn in. The concentration of the
impurity can be read on a scale by a length or rate of change in colour of the filler material that has
completed reaction.
Air purity can be measured by air or gas analyzers of various designs. Direct techniques of gas
analysis-spectrometry, electrical-chemical and optical methods permit automatic and continuous
air analysis. In air sampling method the samples collected by air sampler pumps, are analyzed in a
laboratory to get accurate measurement.
Indoor air quality monitors are direct reading instruments for gaseous sampling.
Dust contents in the workroom are determined by passing a measured\quantity of air through
filters during a particular time and calculating the dust mass collected. Methods to measure
character and size of dust particles are also available.
Following three parameters should be measured to assess the performance of ventilating
systems:
1. Capture velocity.
2. Air volume flow rates in various places in the system.
3. The pressure losses across filters and other fittings and pressures developed by fans.
The design value of these items is specified by the manufacturer of the equipment. Therefore,
instruments and devices are required to
1. Measure air velocities in various places.
2. Measure air pressure differences.
3. Trace and visualize airflow patterns.
As stated earlier, air velocity can be measure (by vane anemometers or heated head (hot wire or
thermostat) air meters. Anemometers are most suitable for open area (e.g. large hood and tunnel).
While heated head air meters are more suitable for inserting into duct or slot but it is not suitable
where flammable gas/Vapour may be present. Average velocity (measured) multiplied by the area
of the opening gives the volume flow rate.
Pilot-static tube is used to measure air velocity above 3 m/s. If <air flow pressure P (N/m2 or Pa)
is known, considering air density d=1.2 kg/m3 for most ventilation situations, the air velocity V
(m/s) is given by-
V =  2P or P = 1 dV2
d 2
Pilot static tubes are thin and can be easily inserted into ducting. All velocity meters should be
placed parallel to the air stream and calibrated from time to time.
Pressure difference in air can be measured by a manometer or U-tube gauges filled with water or
paraffin. Diaphragm pressure gauges are also available.
Air flow patterns can be detected by smoke tubes which produce a plume of smoke when air is
puffed through them. For airborne particles, dust lamp is used to see moving particles in a light
beam.
See also Form No. 26A, GFR, for 'Test Report of Dust Extraction System'.
Thermal Limits for Comfort and Efficiency:
The effect of atmospheric condition i.e. temperature, ventilation, humidity, radiant heat,
greenhouse effect etc., upon worker's efficiency or susceptibility to accident is difficult to predict,
because, it varies with person to person and one comfortable condition may be uncomfortable for
others. Much variation from the body temperature 37°C (98.6° F) causes discomfort for the
majority of factory workers doing light work. A dry-bulb temperature of 18°C (64° F) represents
the most satisfactory condition and variations of 2 to 3 degrees from that seem to have little
discomforting effect. In Indian atmosphere 20 to 30°C is the comfortable temperature for a variety
of workers.
 American Ventilating Engineering Association recommends the following ranges as the
most acceptable:
Place 0C 0F

1 Lecture Hall 16-18 61-64

2 Sleeping Rooms 12-15 54-59

3 Workshop (moderate activity) 16-18 61-64

4 Workshop (vigorous activity) 10-15 50-59

5 Bathrooms 20-22 68-72

6 Gymnasium 15.5 60

Some recommended upper limit values of comfortable temperature are as follows:

Consideration Critical Effective Temp.

0C 0F

1. Safe tolerable limit for -

(a) Light work 32 89.6

(b) Moderate work 29.5 85.1

(c) Heavy work 29 84.2

2. Prevention of steep fall in production 28.9 84

3. For efficient production 26.7 80

4. For thermal comfort in light / sedentary work 20-24.7 68-76.5

Effects on skin in contact with surfaces at different temperatures are also noted. Temperatures
160°F, 180°F and 212°F because second degree burn on 60, 30 and 15 second contact
respectively. 140°F gives pain due to tissue 'damage (burns) and temperature below 32°F also
gives pain due to tissue damage (freezing). 120°F gives pain due to burning heat. 9U4°F gives
warm or neutral feeling (physiological zero). 37 to 54°F gives cool effect and from 32°F and
below gives pain due to freezing.
But the temperature alone is not a good indicator of comfortable conditions. In spite of
above desirable level, discomfort may be caused because of frequent drafts (wind speeds),
excessive moisture, undue dryness and high radiant heat. The recording and regulating of these
factors and equating them with experiences of comfort, .and discomfort has been an old problem
of safety engineers.
The effect of atmospheric conditions on output and accident rate has been demonstrated in a
number of studies. The optimum temperature varies with the type of work that is performed and
depends upon the state of health, age, clothing, diet and the ability of the employee to adapt
himself to different climatic ' conditions.
 Numerous studies have been reported showing a close relation between accident frequency
and atmospheric conditions. One study of collieries workers indicates that at an average
temperature of 16.5°C (62°F), the accident frequency and severity rates were minimum. Another
study pointed out 21-23.5°C (70-74°F) temps. Range to keep the accident rate minimum. One
study of hourly accident rates inferred that the accidents were higher during the last hours of the
day shift and the first hours of the night shifts.
Mental Work experiments of the New York ventilation commission demonstrated that
such work may be performed as effectively under humid (80%), hot 30°C (86"F) and stagnant air
conditions as under optimum conditions of circulating air at 30°C (68°F) and 50% humidity. The
influence of controlled ventilation on attitudes and labor turnover affects all types of workers and -
a favorable attitude of workers toward the management is an indirect benefit which should not be
overlooked.
Barometric pressure has little effect, whereas temperature and humidity have considerable effect
on behavior. Production was at its highest level when the temperature was 30°C (68°F) and the air
was fresh and circulating. Using this as a base, it was noticed that stagnant air caused production
to fall off® 9%. Relative humidity of 40-50% is desirable for comfort and hygiene. Humidity
below 30% are undesirable as they may cause dehydration of mucous membranes of the nose and
respiratory tracts.
Toxic effects of chemicals may be magnified when temperature is raised, because, toxicity
of chemicals is known to increase due to temperature rise as follows:

Toxicity at
SR. Chemical
24 0C 35 0C

1 Carbon Tetrachloride 1 3.9

2 Carbon Monoxide 1 2.4

3 Amyl nitrate 1 3

4 Lead 1 >1

Heat Disorders are noticed at higher temperatures. A man may collapse at core (body)
temperature of 39.5°C (normal oral temp. 37°C). At about 40.6°C (105°F) the sweating mechanism
fails and the core temperature rises sharply. When the temperature reaches 42 to 43.5°C (108 to
110°F) death occurs. The commonly disorders experienced by Indian workers are (1) Heat exhaustion
and collapse (2) Water depletion, heat exhaustion and heat cramps (at times).
Accident rate in hot environment was double than that under comfortable climatic conditions.
The contributing factor according to Stephen Altman (1976) was lowered physical performance.
Thus, temperature exceeds thermal limits cause discomfort, annoyance, agony and frequency of
errors and accidents ultimately resulting in poor productivity.
Other Factors affecting ability to withstand high temperatures are (1) Fatigue and lack of sleep (2)
Worry, frustration and nervousness (3) Smoke from cigarettes, dust, gas etc. and (4) Disagreeable
odor
Heat and Cold Stress and their Indices:Attempts have been made in past to evaluate the total
heat stress limits (Tolerance or Threshold limits) by integrating some climatic and non-climatic
factors which affect heat exchange between the man and surrounding environment. Heat Stress
Index (HSI) can be calculated or obtained from charts and considers clothing and work load. From
it can be recommended duration of work and rest period. Some such indices are as follows:
(1) Effective Temperature (ET): It is a sensory scale of warmth derived from the dry and wet
bulb temperature (i.e. air temperature and humidity) and air velocity from standard nomogram. ET
is not a temperature measurable with instruments. It is an index combining effects on a body of
temperature, humidity and air movement. It is equivalent to the comfort a person generally feels
(there may be exceptions) in a saturated atmosphere with the same dry bulb temperature and with
a specific movement of air. A person remains equally comfortable under different conditions,
provided the ET remains the same.
(2) Corrected Effective Temperature (CET): It is a modified ET considering the radiant
temperature measured by glob thermometer instead of dry bulb temperature. It does not include
metabolic heat.
Considering lower body weight of Indians, ET and CET proposed by the Central Labor Institute,
Bombay is as follows:
Energy Expenditure
Workload ET or CET 0C
Kcal/ hr.

Light 135 32

Medium 225 29.5

Heavy 315 29

(3) Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT): It embraces in a single value the effect of
radiation, ambient air temperature and humidity. It is the weighted value of the wet and dry bulb
temperature and globe thermometer readings, calculated using temperature measurements alone
thereby eliminating the need to measure air velocity.
For outdoors (exposure to sun light):
WBGT = 0.2 tg + 0.1 tdb + 0.7 twb
For indoors (no direct exposure to sun light):
WBGT = 0.3 tdb + 0.7 twb
Where tg = Black Globe temperature,
tdb = Dry bulb (air) temperature and
twb = Wet bulb temperature
(°C) index is adopted by many countries to set up standards for work in hot environments. Its
determination is simple and requires less expensive equipment.
It is necessary to determine the average exposure of a person over a long period of time when
WBGT varied. A time-weighted average is given by: Average WBGT =
WBGT1 x t1 + WBGT2 x t2 + ... WBGTn x tn
t1+ t2 +.....tn
Exposures should not exceed the values given in the following chart:
 50
120
45
110
40 WBGT (o F)
o
WBGT ( C) 100
35
90
30
80
25

0 60 120 180 240

Exposure time (min)

The graph shows the upper limits of exposure for feeling comfort.
Calculated time weighted or average WBGT can be compared with permissible (comfortable)
level of WBGT values (°C) given in Table .10.1
This table is changed in 'ACGIH booklet 2007'. There the words "TLV' and 'Action Limit' are
used for 'acclimatized' and 'unacclimated' respectively. WBGT figures are slightly changed. For
detail, it should be referred.
For non-cotton, non-woven clothing, overalls (double cloth) which disallow free air movements
through fabric or does not absorb sweating '3 to 5' should be added to measured and calculated
WBGT values which should be less than the values given in Table 10.1. These values (Table 10.1)
are near the upper limit of the metabolic rate category. They are also called Screening Criteria for
heat stress exposure. See Part 10 for worked examples.
(4) Oxford Index: This index of heat stress has been devised to assess the severity of hot
humid conditions 'of the working places, particularly where the ventilation is poor. It is expressed
by a simple weighting as follows:
WD = 0.15 tdb + 0.85 twb
Where WD = weighted value, tdb and twb are dry and wet bulb temperature respectively. All units
are in °C.
Table: WBGT -(heat stress) values in "C (ACGIH Booklet 2006.
Acclimatized Un-acclimatized
Work
demand Very Very
Light Moderate Heavy Light Moderate Heavy
heavy heavy

100% work 29.5 27.5 26 27.5 25 22.5

75% work
30.5 28.5 27.5 29 26.5 24.5
25% rest

50% work
31.5 29.5 28.5 27.5 30 28 26.5 25
50% rest

25% work
32.5 31 30 29.5 31 29 28 26.5
75% rest
(5) Predicted Four Hourly Sweat Rate (P4SR): This index assumes of the amount of sweat that
would be prescribed by a physically fit and acclimatized young man in the condition under review
over a period of four hours. It considers the metabolic level and type of clothing in addition to the
climatic factors, unlike other indices mentioned earlier. But this has the drawback that
cumbersome nomograms are. required which is not always practical.
(6) Cold Stress and Wind Chill Index (WCI):It refers to the cold environment and uses only dry
bulb temperature and air velocity but considers the cooling effect of the wind.
In cold countries where environmental temperature goes below °C, cold stress (hypothermia or
frostbite) is also possible. Body (core) temperature (rectal 37.6°C, Oral 37°C) should not fall
below 35°C (95"F). Hands, feet and head are most likely to be affected by cold injury. Wind speed
increases cold stress. As TLV body (core) temperature should not fall below 36°C (96.8"F).
Wind chill cooling rate is defined as heat loss from a body expressed in watts/m', which is a
function of air temperature and velocity upon the exposed (area of) body. Higher wind speed and
lower air temperature require higher insulation. Value of the protective clothing. Exposure or
working time of workers should also be reduced. Old and weak workers need such extra
precaution.
Since the physical activity level on the shop floor will remain almost constant, we may
make use of the simple indices like CET/ET or WBGT in our control programmers.
Heat Exposure Threshold Limit Values (USA) and Bolding Hatch Heat Stress Index (HSI) are
other indices.
Toxic effects of chemicals may be magnified when temperature is raised, because, toxicity of
chemicals is known to increase due to temperature rise as follows:
Toxicity at
Chemical
24 0C 35 0C

1 Carbon Tetrachloride 1 3.9

2 Carbon Monoxide 1 2.4

3 Amyl nitrate 1 3

4 Lead 1 >1

Heat Disorders are noticed at higher temperatures. A man may collapse at core (body)
temperature of 39.5°C (normal oral temp. 37°C). At about 40.6°C (105°F) the sweating
mechanism fails and the core temperature rises sharply. When the temperature reaches 42 to
43.5°C (108 to 110°F) death occurs. The commonly disorders experienced by Indian workers are
(1) Heat exhaustion and collapse (2) Water depletion, heat exhaustion and heat cramps (at times).
Accident rate in hot environment was double than that under comfortable climatic
conditions. The contributing factor according to Stephen Altman (1976) was lowered physical
performance.
Thus, temperature exceeds thermal limits cause discomfort, annoyance, agony and frequency of
errors and accidents ultimately resulting in poor productivity.
Other Factors affecting ability to withstand high temperatures are (1) Fatigue and lack of sleep (2)
Worry, frustration and nervousness (3) Smoke from cigarettes, dust, gas etc. and (4) Disagreeable
odor
TYPES OF VENTILATION: Classification of Ventilation Systems:
For better grasping, major ventilation systems are classified as below:
Ventilation systems are of two types (1) Supply air system and (2) Exhaust system. Supply air
system has two purposes (A) heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) for comfortable
environment and (B) to replace exhausted air from the plant. Exhaust system is of two types:
General and Local exhaust type. General exhaust system is for heat control and/or removal of
contaminant by dilution ventilation and Local exhaust system is for capturing contaminant at
source.
The details of these varieties of ventilation and calculation methods occupy much space. Their
design is a specialized job for ventilating engineers. Here they "are explained in brief as follows.
Natural Ventilation:
Natural ventilation is induced because of two reasons (1) outside wind pressure i.e., wind action
and (2) temperature difference of the air inside and outside the room i.e. chimney effect. There is a
positive pressure on windward side and negative pressure on leeward side. By providing adequate
openings in these pressure areas, natural ventilation can be achieved.
The rate of ventilation by natural means through windows or other openings depends on direction
and velocity. of wind outside, solar radiation, size and disposition of opening (wind action),
convection currents arising from temperature or vapor pressure difference (or both) between
 Ventilation Systems

Natural Mechanical
Ventilation Ventilation

1 Dilution or Cross
ventilation (Wind
action)
2 Roofed
ventilation (Stack
action)

(A) For Building (B) For Contaminants

1 Exhaust or Control
Negative 1 Dilution or forced
Ventilation Ventilation
(Induced draft)
2 Plenum or 2 Local Exhaust or
Positive Extract
Ventilation Ventilation
(Forced Draft)
3 Emergency
3 Combined or Ventilation
Compound
Ventilation
4 Roof Ventilation
5 Comfort
Ventilation
(Air
Conditioning)

(a) Refrigeration
(b) Heating
(c) Humidity Control or
Evaporative Cooling

inside and outside the room and the difference of height between the outlet and inlet openings
(stack effect). They are of two types as under
(1) Dilution or Cross Ventilation: Inlet openings should be located on the windward side at a low
level and outlet openings should be located on the leeward side near to the top so that incoming air
stream is passed over the occupants. Greatest flow per unit area opening is obtained by using inlet
and outlet openings of nearly equal areas. Under the Factories Rules ventilation opening area in a
work room shall be at least 15% of the floor area. At least 10% of the floor area shall be located at
not more than one-meter sill level height from the floor level. Wind velocity in hot weaver should
be 40 to 60 mt/min. Ventilation due to wind outside is given by the formula Q = kAV given in
Part-9.
Inlet openings should not be obstructed by surrounding buildings, walls, partitions, trees and
other obstructions in air path. Great advantage is available by providing windows in west and east
direction. However, if wind direction is not effectively available, openings in all four sides can
help the natural ventilation.

Fig. With flat roof, cross ventilation is effective when span is less than 20 meters.
When the room temperature is higher than that of outside because of hot processes, season etc.,
cool outside air tends to enter through openings at low level and warm air tends to leave through
openings at high level. Therefore, it would be advantageous to provide ventilators near to the
ceilings.
(2) Roofed Ventilation:: Cross ventilation suitable for narrow building is not much suitable for
large buildings and where roofed ventilation is suitable. Here ventilators are provided in roofs viz.
cowl, vent pipe,, covered roof and ridge vent to give stack effect.
For a 60 cm (24 in) diameter cowl type ventilator the formula's -
Q= A (8 H(ti-t0) +5.82V)
Where Q = capacity of the ventilator in m3/min, A = cross sectional area of the ventilator in 2
H = height of the ventilator above the inlets in m, t. and t are the inside and outside temperatures
in °C and V = wind velocity in kmph.
See fig. for different types of roof and fig. for modified roof ventilation.

Fig.: Types of roof for natural ventilation

Fig: Modified pitched roof and monitor roof.
In roofed ventilation, natural ventilation is used by chimney (stack) effect due to temperature
difference. This effect is counteracted by wind blows straight against roof openings. By suitable
design of itched roof, saw-tooth
tooth roof or monitor roof this interference can be reduced.
Cowl type Roof Ventilation: Fixed orr rotating owl (hood on roof vent) is provided to accelerate
natural roofed ventilation. The performance of roof cowls depends on temperature difference
between inside and outside air, velocity of incoming wind, cross sectional area of the ventilator
and its
ts height above air inlet. For a 60 cm (2 ft) diameter cowl, air flow capacity is given by the
formula stated above.

Rotating cowl requires a lubricant reservoir for its long service to run without jamming.
Mechanical Ventilation:Mechanical
Mechanical ventilation iiss employed for building i.e. workroom and also
for process for removal of contaminants. Both the types are explained below.
Building Ventilation: These are of many types as classified earlier. When natural ventilation is
not sufficient to keep thermal env
environment
ironment within the limits specified by dry and wet-bulb
wet
schedule under the Factories Rules, or where the span of work room exceeds 18 meters or where
any work place is more than 9 meters away from a ventilation opening, mechanical ventilation
(exhaust, positive or their combination) shall be provided and in case of positive ventilation, air
shall be cleaned and cooled before sending into the work room.
(1) Exhaust or Negative Ventilation: Exhauster induced draft fans are provided in walls on one
side of the building or in the attic and roofs to draw large volumes of air through building. These
fans are generally propeller type. The windows and other openings near the fans should be kept
closed to avoid 'short circulating of air'. Adequate inlet openings shall be provided on opposite
side of the building to limit inlet velocities. When fans are centrally located on an attic or arranged
to draw from exhaust appliances with ducting, they should be centrifugal or axial types to
overcome duct resistance. The total inlet area should be at least 3 times the total disc area of the
fan.

The exhaust fans should have wind shields on outside of the wall so that wind pressure may not
decrease their efficiency. The fans discharge should be diverted into large ducts carried vertically
upwards with rain water cap at the top. Fans should have proper guarding or fencing.
(2) Plenum or Positive Ventilation: It is provided by centrally located supply fans (generally
centrifugal type) having a wide range of capacity and quiet operation. Air-tight ducts increase the
advantage. Unit ventilators should be provided for individual rooms and may be placed against
outside wall near the central line of the room. Evaporative cooling coils can be incorporated for
cooling purpose.
Plenum ventilation is useful for large workrooms where exhaust ventilation is normally not
effective. Its air movement and regulation are more than that by exhaust ventilation. Better
dilution of contamination is also possible. The air velocities should not be excessive to disturb
manufacturing processes. Good distribution can be achieved by using diffusers or swivel type
ejector nozzles at high velocity at the inlets. For positive ventilation, the volume of air is given by
Q = AV, where Q = air volume in m"/ in, A = free area of intake openings of ducts in m' and V=
average velocity of air in m/min.
 The positive air pressure inside the room disallows outside hot or cold air leakage inside.'
Better dilution is achieved. Ducts should be smooth, straight, with minimum bends and without
sudden enlargements or contractions. The air velocity should not be too excessive to interfere with
the manufacturing process or be unpleasant. Discharge nozzles should discharge air horizontally at
a height little above the heads of the workers. Air velocity in a duct should be @10 m/s for gases
and @20 m/s for particulates.
(3) Combined (Compound) Ventilation: It is the combination of positive and negative (exhaust)
ventilation with the advantage of better air distribution over the entire area of a large building. By
supplying proper volumes of air at suitable velocities at the required areas through duct and by
extracting the air in the return duct and re-circulating this air after proper cleaning and mixing it
with cool fresh air, good results can be obtained. It is preferable to provide slight excess of
exhaust if there are adjoining occupied spaces and a slight excess of supply if there are no such
spaces. Unit exhausters can be used to match with unit ventilators exteriors and located along the
outside wall.
(4) Mechanical Roof Ventilation: It is used for augmenting natural ventilation in buildings with
large width (>30 m) or where the heat load is very heavy. Exhaust fans exercise very little
influence beyond a velocity contour at about 15 m/min which is a short distance from the fan. The
volume of air required in removal of sensible heat gained (in Kcal/hr.) can be calculated from the
formula -

Q= Kcal/hr. x 3.462
Temperature rise in °C

Where Q is the volume of air in m3/hr., and allowable temperature rise = Inlet opening temp.
Outside temp., is given by following approximate figures.

Roof elevation in mt Rise in oC

6 3 to 4.5
9 4.5 to 6.5
12 6.5 to 11
These values are at roof exit and not the floor temperatures. The maximum allowable temperature
rises for an air stream as it leaves the grills and reaches the working level is 1.7 to 2.8 °C (5 °F).
(5) Comfort Ventilation: It is the method by which the interior of a room is heated or cooled or
the humidity altered for process control or comfort conditions.
As refrigeration is very expensive, evaporative cooling may be adopted with advantage where
summers are dry with low wet bulb temperatures. The quantity of air required for ventilation could
be reduced if the outside air is cooled before the air is discharged into the building. Although the
relative humidity of supply air will be increased but due to the large sensible heat loads, the
resultant relative humidity in the workroom will be lowered after mixing with the inside air to
produce body cooling.
Water spray chamber and a fan to supply outside air into the workroom through a distribution
duct is preferable to spray which only humidifies the air where the cooling capacity of the air is
not much improved and no hot air is removed from the building.
Evaporative cooling is generally used in cotton textile mills where humidification is necessary to
meet the process conditions. It can also be used in chemical plants (where water is not reactive),
non-ferrous casting shops, tobacco factories etc. It is useful in rubber factory to prevent static
electricity due to solvent and in printing or lithographic works to maintain paper size. It is suitable
where dry bulb temperature is 35 °C (95 °C) or more, wet bulb temperature 25 °C (67 "F) or less
and relative humidity 5% or more during 15th March to 15th July as required under Rule 18A (3)
of the Gujarat Factories Rules.
The spray chamber (air washers) and single or multi bank up or down spray system can be
designed after careful considerations. Make-up water in circulation (about 1.5 to 2%) can be
calculated from evaporation losses, bleed off losses and driftage. For safety in air-conditioning
and mechanical refrigeration, IS:659 and 660 shall be referred respectively.
Process Ventilation (Contaminants Control):
Mechanical ventilation is also employed for contaminants control as follows:
(1) Dilution or Forced Ventilation:It is helpful in reducing contaminant concentration in work
area to control health and fire hazards. This is useful to control less toxic vapours such as from
organic solvents. It is not useful to control fumes, dusts and contaminants of high toxicity (TLV
less than 100 ppm) and high quantity or concentration. It is also not useful where pollutants are
released intermittently. The amount of air required for dilution can be calculated from the
following formula:
Air required for dilution in m3/kg of evaporation or generation of gas
24 x 106 x F
= Molecular weight of toxic gas x TLV in ppm of liquid or gas
Where F is a factor of safety for health hazard varying from 3 to 10 and depending on the -
toxicity, evolution rate of contaminant and effectiveness of the ventilation.
The formula for control of fire hazard is as follows:
Air required for dilution in m3/kg of flammable gas.

24 x 100 x F Molecular weight of the gas x

LEL x C
Where F is a factor of safety for fire hazard varying from 4 to
12 depending upon the percentage of LEL (Lower Explosive
Limit) and C is a constant which is 1 for temperatures up to
121 °C and 0.7 for temperatures above 121 °C.
Normally this method is adopted where it is impossible to
fit an extractor to the work point. Hourly air changes in a work
room are for dilution purpose. It should be 6 times the room
volume per hour.

The air flow volume to be provided should consider (1)

the volume of the pollutants released (2) the concentration
permitted in the workplace and (3) a factor of safety which
allows for the layout of the room, the airflow patterns created
by the ventilation system, the toxicity of the pollutant and the steadiness of its release.
(2) Local Exhaust or Extract Ventilation: It is applied
at the release points of contaminants (dust, gas, fumes,
particles etc.) to reduce their concentration in the
workroom below TLVs. Su (; h points shall be enclosed
except where access is necessary for the process, but in
that case, the exhaust appliance shall confine the
contaminants as much as possible.
The volume of air required is calculated from the area of
openings and the capture velocity sufficient to prevent
outward escapement. The sizes of the ducts shall be
calculated from the volume of air required and duct
velocities necessary to convey the contaminants with
minimum static resistance.
Fig. Elements of a local exhaust System
Capture velocities may vary from 0.25 to 10 m/ s
proportionately increasing with the contaminants velocity
as given in Table-10.3. The test report for dust/ fume
extraction system shall be in form No. 26A under the Gujarat Factories Rules.
Where the emissions of heat or contaminants are high, dilution ventilation is not fully effective
and the well-designed exhaust ventilation becomes necessary.''
Exhausted air may be re-circulated after cleaning and filtering to increase the rate of
mechanical ventilation.
Hood, duct, air cleaning device, filter or collector (to separate contaminant from the air
before discharging it into atmosphere) and fan and motor (for air flow) shall be designed or
selected properly.
Hoods are of many types - booth, canopy, side draft, cabinet, single or double lip and push
and pull type
Duct may be square or rectangular, with material to resist abrasive or corrosive action. Sharp
corners shall be avoided. Cleaning and trapping gates shall be provided. Generally, the conveying
velocity may be from 10 to 25 m/s depending upon the type of contaminant and balancing of equal
flow rate of air.
Types of air-cleaners, dust separators or collectors are settling chambers, cyclones, dry
dynamic precipitators, scrubbers, wet collectors, electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters and air
cleaners for gases and vapours. The fan selection depends upon air volume and static pressure
required. A guide for selection of collectors is given as Table-18 in Chapter-32.
Points to be considered while designing a hood are:
1. Enclose the operation as much as possible. Hood should be as near as possible to the source of
generation. Doubling the distance require approximately four times the air volume.
2. Hood should be so located as to keep the flow of contaminants away from the worker.
3. Hood should be so placed as to take advantage of initial velocity and direction of the throw of
the contaminant. For example, lighter Vapour, hot substances, gas tending to rise, should be
collected by hood overhead, while heavier particles or gas/ Vapour with Vapour density > I and
tending to settle, should be collected by placing hood down or at the side.
4. Hood should not interfere the movement of the operator and the job.
5. Portable power drills, grinders, saws etc. should have machine attached extractor and dust
collection chamber to be carried on back or on wheels to suck the particles flying at the point of
operation. Fixed machine-like carding machine also needs extract ventilation.
Minimum capture velocities are given in Table 10.3, for the capture of dusts, fumes, gases,
smokes, mists etc.
Table: Recommended Capture Velocities:
Minimum Capture Velocity in
Releasing Velocity Examples
fpm m/s
Low, into quiet air 50 to 100 0.25 – 0.5 Evaporation or fumes from
open vessels, degreasing,
pickling, plating.
Slight, into moderately 100 to 200 0.5 – 1.0 Spray booth, low speed
quiet air conveyor, cabinet, welding,
and dry dumping.
High, into rapid air 200 to 500 1.0 – 2.5 Spray painting in small booth
movement with high pressure, conveyor
loading, barrel filling, and
crushers.
Higher, into very rapid 500 to 2000 2.5 – 10 Grinding, blasting, rock,
air movement. surfacing, tumbling.

Note: Similar to Table 3, IS:3103

See part 10 for worked examples.
(3) Emergency Ventilation:It is a type of mechanical local exhaust ventilation where specialized
air ducts for delivering air may not be necessary. It is useful in gas-generating plants and
compressor-rooms where risk of sudden outburst of explosive or flammable gases or vapours
exists. At least 8 air changes per hour is necessary. Axial fans are selected for spark-free
operation. Automatic switches are required to operate the system at the time of emergency.
(4) Other Methods: Despite of above three types of ventilation system for contaminants control,
other methods of prevention are: Substitution, segregation, enclosures, natural and general
mechanical ventilation, wet methods, use of personal protective equipment and warning and
publicity. In substitution safe substitute should be found for a toxic material.
In segregation the hazardous process and persons are kept away by means of suitable partition or
increasing their distance. Enclosure prevents contaminant of surrounding by physical separation of
toxic material or process by enclosing them. Wet method uses water spray to prevent dust escape
into atmosphere. In Dust suppression method jet or spray is applied to cutting tool, chisel, grinder,
saw etc. to wet the surface for dust suppression. Dust prevention includes both, wet method and
dust suppression method. Using paste instead of powder, dipping in water, oil or other suspension
are useful for gases, dusts and clothing. Proper personal protective equipment should be utilized as
the last control against contaminants.
Air conditioning processes are as under:

1. Cooling only (without humidification or dehumidification).

2. Cooling and dehumidification.
3. Cooling with humidification
4. Cooling and/or Heating,
5. Finned cooling coils with direct expansion.
6. Desert coolers.

The desert cooler or air cooler works on the principle of evaporative cooling. A fan sucks outside
air through a wetted pad which is kept continuously wetted by circulating water through it
(independent circuit). The air passes through the wetted pad, gets cooled and humidified and
discharged into the room where it picks up sensible heat and maintains fairly comfortable
condition. The heated air escapes from the room openings i.e. the same air is not taken back in
ducting. As a fresh air it may come back through the wetted pad.
Thus, the purpose of air conditioning is to provide the most comfortable ventilation and better heat
control at home and also at some specified industries (e.g. electronic, computer/telephone, watch,
and pharmaceutical industry).
The hazards associated with industrial air conditioning plants (e.g. chilling plants, cold storage,
central AC for theatre, auditorium, dairy etc.) are:
1. Leakage of refrigerant. Ammonia leak has toxic effect and compounds of chloro-fluoro-
methane have ozone depletion effect (environmental hazard). Ammonia leak
is detected by smell or SO, torch (gives white smoke) and leakage of other
gases by Halide torch or electronic gas detector.
Common refrigerants are R-717 or Ammonia (NH3), R-11 (CCl3F), R-12
(CC12F2), R-22 (CHCIF2) and R-502 (CHCIF2, + CC1F2CF3)
(Commercial name & formulae)
2. Pressure of compressed gas in cylinder, condenser and pipelines.
Appropriate safety valve or pressure controller, pressure gauge, isolation
valve, drain, etc. are required. Periodical pressure testing (normal and
hydraulic) is also necessary.
Control of Heat Stress: Heat stress should be measured to find appropriate
control measure. Heat stress monitors with or without air probe are available and they are useful
for area heat stress monitoring. Personal heat stress monitor with sensor is
available for personal heat stress monitoring.
How to control atmospheric conditions so that varying effects on
workers can be reduced to a minimum is a good task for safety engineers.
The remedies varying from plant to plant should be determined from the
specific study of the plant (including workers) itself. Ventilating system
which moves and filters the air and which controls the temperature and
humidity is a good control. Various engineering, administrative, statutory
and personal protective controls can be applied to minimize heat stresses.
Methods of engineering control and personnel management are given
below:
Methods of Engineering Controls: Then to control the effects of
parameters M, C, R & E following control measures are necessary:
To reduce heat of metabolism i.e. gain by M - Reduce level of physical activity by sharing work
load with others or by using mechanical means. Schedule cooler periods for work. Increase rest
periods.
To reduce high air temperature i.e. gain by C -
Insulate hot equipment. Provide
ovide canopies with fans
over hot equipment to drive away hot air. Improve
general and localized ventilation over personnel.
Provide exhaust ventilation, local cooling,
evaporative cooling, refrigeration, isolation,
substitution, relocation and redesign as per need.
Use ventilated suits against excessive heat.
To reduce radiation temperature, i.e. gain by R -
Insulate hot 'equipment. Use reflective or absorptive
shielding between the heat source and man. Paint
the surface of hot equipment or shield or cloth
clothee it by using white colour for short wave of solar
radiation and aluminum colour for infra-red radiation. Wear protective clothing of reflective
surface of polished metal or paint or ventilated suits. Interpose line of sight barrier. Cover exposed
parts of the body. Use fans to move air and exhaust ventilation.
To reduce high humidity (restriction on loss by E) - Prevent steam leaks. Improve general
ventilation. Apply dehumidification in confined spaces. Use ventilated suits for high humidity.
Decrease humiditydity and increase air speed.
2. Methods of Personnel Management (Administrative efforts):
a) Provide ample supplies of cool water or flavored drinks.
b) Provide extra salt where required.
c) Ensure lightweight, loose fitting clothing. In conditions with no radiaradiant heat load, use as
little clothing as possible. With high radiant heat loads, clothing should cover skin; where
possible, clothing should be of cotton and white.
d) Ensure quickest development of acclimatization. Lack of salt, lack of water or poor
physicall condition retards acclimatization.
e) Where possible do not employ men in hot conditions if they are: obese, suffering from any
cardiovascular disease, suffering from or recovering from febrile illness, over 45 years of.
age, physically unfit and suffering from any skin disease or if they fail to sweat properly.
f) Where possible, arrange for men who are to work in hot surroundings to spend their first
two weeks working in cool surroundings in the morning and in the heat in the afternoon.
(This - will help acclimatization)
limatization)
g) Analyze Working situations for estimation of heat load through various channels. Apply
physical methods to control hazard; if necessary amplify by control of work and rest
routine.
h) 8. Rest periods should be taken in cool surroundings
surroundings.. Men may effectively 'cool off
even when they continue to work in cool conditions.
i) In extreme conditions man may: wear ventilated suits, be pre pre-cooled
cooled by immersion in cool
water and be cooled down by spraying them with cool water.
j) Train in first-aid for heat strain symptoms.
k) 11. Pre-employment
employment and periodic medical examinations for proper placement of
individuals considering their age, sex and physical fitness and
l) 12. Observation of individual physiological responses to heat and to change their jjob or
place if necessary.
3. Acclimatization: is an important factor for a worker to work for a long period in hot
environment. Acclimatization means the habit by which a person adapts himself to living and
working in a hot and humid atmosphere. It is mani manifested
fested as a reduction in the heart rate and
internal body temperature at the expense of increased sweating.
The factors affecting physiology of acclimatization are (1) Process of thermal regulation (2)
Cardiac output and heart rate (3) Sweating.
 Sweating starts when the skin temperature exceeds 33 °C. There are some 25 lacs sweat
glands in a body of 70 kg man. During the period of acclimatization, the sweating rate may rise
from 1.5 lit/ h to 3.5 lit/h. The maintenance of a body temperature 37 °C is achieved by constant
adjustment of the process of thermo genesis and thermolysis. An acclimatized person should not
lose more than I lit/h and the rectal temperature should not exceed 38 °C.
The following factors help acclimatization to high temperatures:
1. Persons having less than 50 kg body weight, more than 45 years of age and maximum oxygen
consumption less than 2.5 lit/min should not be selected. Females get difficult to acclimatize.
2. Liquids should be taken in small quantities and often from the start of exposure to high
temperatures.
3. The intake of fatty foodstuffs should be reduced.
4. Small doses of vitamins B and C are supplementary.
5. Work breaks during shift should be increased. During rest cold drinks reduce stress.
6. Heat resisting barriers which include insulation over the heat source, polished reluctant
shields, absorbent shields (being cooled by air or water) and personal protective equipment (e.g.
water jacketed clothing).
(1) Dilution or Cross Ventilation: Inlet openings should be located on the windward side at a low
level and outlet openings should be located on the leeward side near to the top so that incoming air
stream is passed over the occupants. Greatest flow per unit area opening is obtained by using inlet
and outlet openings of nearly equal areas. Under the Factories Rules ventilation opening area in a
work room shall be at least 15% of the floor area. At least 10% of the floor area shall be located at
not more than one-meter sill level height from the floor level. Wind velocity in hot weaver should
be 40 to 60 mt/min. Ventilation due to wind outside is given by the formula Q = kAV given in
Part-9.
Inlet openings should not be obstructed by surrounding buildings, walls, partitions, trees and
other obstructions in air path. Great advantage is available by providing windows in west and east
direction. However, if wind direction is not effectively available, openings in all four sides can
help the natural ventilation.

Fig. 10.9 With flat roof, cross ventilation is effective when span is less than 20 meters.
When the room temperature is higher than that of outside because of hot processes, season etc.,
cool outside air tends to enter through openings at low level and warm air tends to leave through
openings at high level. Therefore, it would be advantageous to provide ventilators near to the
ceilings.
(2) Roofed Ventilation: Cross ventilation suitable for narrow building is not much suitable for
large buildings and where roofed ventilation is suitable. Here ventilators are provided in roofs viz.
cowl, vent pipe, covered roof and ridge vent to give stack effect.
(2) Local Exhaust or Extract Ventilation: It is applied at the release points of contaminants
(dust, gas, fumes, particles etc.) to reduce their concentration in the workroom below TLVs. Su (;
h points shall be enclosed except where access is necessary for the process, but in that case, the
exhaust appliance shall confine the contaminants as much as possible.
The volume of air required is calculated from the area of openings and the capture velocity
sufficient to prevent outward escapement. The sizes of the ducts shall be calculated from the
volume of air required and duct velocities necessary to convey the contaminants with minimum
static resistance.
Capture velocities may vary from 0.25 to 10 m/ s proportionately increasing with the contaminants
velocity as given in Table-10.3. The test report for dust/ fume extraction system shall be in form
No. 26A under the Gujarat Factories Rules.
Where the emissions of heat or contaminants are high, dilution ventilation is not fully effective
and the well-designed exhaust ventilation becomes necessary.''
Exhausted air may be re-circulated after cleaning and filtering to increase the rate of mechanical
ventilation.
Hood, duct, air cleaning device, filter or collector (to separate contaminant from the air
before discharging it into atmosphere) and fan and motor (for air flow) shall be designed or
selected properly.
Hoods are of many types - booth, canopy, side draft, cabinet, single or double lip and push and
pull type. Duct may be square or rectangular, with material to resist abrasive or corrosive action.
Sharp corners shall be avoided. Cleaning and trapping gates shall be provided. Generally, the
conveying velocity may be from 10 to 25 m/s depending upon the type of contaminant and
balancing of equal flow rate of air.
Types of air-cleaners, dust separators or collectors are settling chambers, cyclones, dry dynamic
precipitators, scrubbers, wet collectors, electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters and air cleaners for
gases and vapours. The fan selection depends upon air volume and static pressure required.

Points to be considered while designing a hood are:

1. Enclose the operation as much as possible. Hood should be as near as possible to the source of
generation. Doubling the distance require approximately four times the air volume.
2. Hood should be so located as to keep the flow of contaminants away from the worker.
3. Hood should be so placed as to take advantage of initial velocity and direction of the throw of
the contaminant. For example, lighter Vapour, hot substances, gas tending to rise, should be
collected by hood overhead, while heavier particles or gas/ Vapour with Vapour density > I and
tending to settle, should be collected by placing hood down or at the side.
4. Hood should not interfere the movement of the operator and the job.
5. Portable power drills, grinders, saws etc. should have machine attached extractor and dust
collection chamber to be carried on back or on wheels to suck the particles flying at the point of
operation. Fixed machine-like carding machine also needs extract ventilation.
Minimum capture velocities are given in Table 10.3, for the capture of dusts, fumes, gases,
smokes, mists etc.
Noise and Vibration
Types of Sound / Noise:Sound or Noise is continuous when the source is constantly vibrating,
e.g. motorized bell. It may be impulsive when the source causes vibration only for a short time e.g.
sound from a drop forge hammer, explosion or a rifle shot.
Third category of sound is classified as fluctuating sound. In a large workshop where numbers
of machines are in operation, noise level varies from time to time. As a result, the noise pattern
produced throughout the day is plotted. Then equivalent continuous level should be measured as a
mean of fluctuating level.
The effect/hazard of noise on man: The harmful effects of noise depend upon a number of
factors:
1. Noise frequency and intensity.
2. Total length of exposure.
3. Length of exposure at a time.
4. Distance from the noise source.
5. Whether noise is continuous, interrupted, sudden or impulsive.
6 Whether ear protector is worn or not and
7. Individual susceptibility depending on age, health (ear disease)
Harmful Effect due to Excessive noise: -
1. Mental stress: Excessive noise produces physiological (Sleep disturbance (WHO report, even
at less than 35 dBA) and stress reaction (e.g. jet aircraft personnel exposed to 120 dBA or more)
have been noticed. Psychological effects on industrial workers, such as, mental fatigue, irritation,
annoyance (people are annoyed by noise- unexpected impulsive -noise can be more annoying.
High frequencies are more annoying than low frequencies. Distraction (The sudden ringing of a
telephone or any audio signal can distract attention and disturbs concentration), nervousness
masking (hearing interference). Continuous noise may have subtle psychological and psychomotor
effects.
2. Physical stress: Nausea, tiredness, vascular neuropathy, myopathy etc.
A very loud impulsive noise can cause ringing in the ears (tinnitus) and immediate loss of hearing
sensitivity. It can disappear if there is no further exposure to high noise levels. The impulsive or
impact level should not exceed a ceiling limit of 140 dB (OSHA).
It is also reported that noise above 115 dB (i.e. ceiling level) as 8-hour TWA and 155 dB as peak
exposure (impulsive or impact noise) to the abdomen of pregnant workers, beyond the fifth month
of pregnancy may cause hearing loss in the fetus. (Arbhak-Infant)
3. Certain illness: change in blood pressure or/and respiration or digestive system, dilatation of
pupils and headache
4. i) Hearing Loss: Hearing ability can be greatly reduced by repeated or long exposure to
high noise and this permanent effect is known as noise induced hearing loss. (temporary result
from ageing, long-term exposure to high noise which is more than 90 dBA) It is impairment in ear
that obstructs receipt of sound and understanding of speech in a sentence form (not in the form of
test words). It is deafness. It is irreversible and incurable disease and can be corrected partly by
hearing aids. Early audiometric examination can prevent further damage. Some of the men tested,
even at 30 years young, found it difficult to understand speech after about 10 years of exposure.
Men showed greater hearing loss than women because the women had regular work breaks during
each shift while the men did not. Generally hearing losses in this frequency range which are
compensable under Workmen's Compensation Laws.
ii) Deafness: Permanent hearing loss including physical damage to ear due to ruptured
eardrums by very high intensity noise which is more than 160 dBA).).
5. Accidents: Not hearing horn blown can cause accident to deaf person
6. Labor productivity: There is a Noise induced Behavioral Effects. Impulsive noise disrupts
work performance.
Hearing Loss: Temporary hearing loss can be caused by exposure to loud noise for up to a few
hours, which numbs the hair cells. Fortunately, hearing is usually restored after a period away
from noise. Permanent hearing loss occurs when exposure to loud noise permanently damages or
destroys the hair cells. Hearing cannot be restored. Signs of permanent hearing loss include -
1. Inability to hear pitched or soft sounds.
2. Trouble in understanding conversation, or speech heard over the telephone.
3. Ringing or roaring m the ears (tinnitus).
Sensor neural hearing loss is mostly irreversible. It involves the organ of corgi and
degeneration of the natural elements of the auditory nerve. It indicates sever injury to the hair
cells. This type of loss occurs due to various causes including presbycusis, viruses (e.g. mumps),
some congenital defects and drug toxicity (e.g. streptomycin).
Mixed hearing loss occurs when above both the types of losses are found in the same ear.
Central hearing loss means person's difficulty to interpret when he hears. The abnormality is
localized in the brain between the auditory nuclei and the cortex. Psychogenic hearing loss
indicates nonorganic basis for threshold elevation. It may be due to malingering and hysteria.
No cure exists for hearing loss caused by noise. Hearing aids do not restore noise damaged
hearing, although they help some people if such aids are properly selected. Exposure to intense
noise creates a temporary threshold shift (TSS) first. This is greatest from 1 to 24 hours after the
exposure and reduces gradually if the noise has not been too loud. or has not been too long. This
condition is also known as auditory fatigue. This effect is transitory i.e. removable. It is of two
types TTS, and TTS,the later persists beyond 16 hours.
While deciding whether a certain noise is a hazard, the important factors are both the sound level
and the number of hours of exposure per day. Table 12.4 and 12.5 given in Part 4 must be
followed for that.
Hearing loss is a notifiable Disease under the Factories Act 1948: Noise induced hearing loss
(exposure to high noise levels) is a notifiable disease under the Third Schedule of the Factories
Act and duty is cast upon both the manager of the factory and the medical practitioner attending
the person affected, to report to the Chief Inspector of Factories without delay (Sections 89 & 90).
MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION:
Sources of Industrial Noise: Before studying methods of measurement, it is necessary to know
the main sources of industrial noise. They are:
1. Impact: Impact noise is usually impulsive but it can be continuous as in case of
tumbling. Operations like forging, riveting, chipping, pressing, cutting, weaving,
tumbling and sheared steel plates falling one over another produce such noise.
2. Friction: Friction processes like grinding, sawing, sanding, cutting and turning on
lathes and other machine tools, brakes and less lubricated bearings produce noise.
3. Reciprocation: Vibrating, reciprocating or unbalanced rotating machinery radiate
noise and vibration directly.
4. Air Turbulence: High velocity air, steam or gases cause noise. The intensity increases
with the velocity of the air stream. Examples are exhaust noise from pneumatic tools
and jet engines.
5. Other Noises: In addition, there are other noises also, such as humming noise from
transformers
Need of Measurement:
Measurement of sound provides definite quantities which describe and rate sound. This
measurement can be useful in
1. Improving building acoustics.
2. Permitting precise, scientific analysis of annoying (Irritating) sounds, and
3. To Identify damage to hearing and suggesting corrective measures to be taken. Hearing
loss can be determined by measuring a person's hearing sensitivity by audiometry.
Methods of Measurement: (IS: 3483 describes following points :)

Intensity levels are measured by a sound level meter.

Process: The noises are picked up by a high-quality microphone, passed through an octave-band
filter and the sound pressure levels recorded on a level recorder. Alternatively, noises recorded on
a magnetic tape. It is also sometimes displayed on oscilloscope screen.
As the noise levels are not the same at all locations inside the factory or workshop, the levels are
measured mostly at locations enveloped by high integrity noises. Also, while determining damage
risk, it is necessary to measure the noise levels as close to the operator's ear position as possible.
The methods depend on the objective to be attained is to assess -
1. The hearing loss (auditory effect).
2. The interference with communication essentials for safety and productivity (Non-auditory
effect), and
3. The hazard involves in the task (to study a specific problem).
Results obtained from sound level meter should be compared with threshold
limits of National or International standards. 85 dBA is an alert threshold limit
and 90 dBA a hazard threshold limit. Ear protector is must to work in exposure
exceeding 115 dBA.
For measuring ……….
Continuous noise, the equivalent continuous sound level should be determined in
dBA and frequencies be analyzed as per standard methods.
Impulsive noise is measured either by using sound level meter in 'impulse'
Position a calculating mean value of 8 hour per day,
Risk areas (1) Where noise hazard is liable to be present (2) Supervision,
inspection or medical examination suggest that there may be a noise hazard and
(3) Workers complain such inconvenience to them.
Where speech communication at normal voice is interfered at a distance of 50
cm, noise level should be assessed.
The noise levels should be measured at a height of @ 1.5m above the work floor
and at distance of at least 1 mtr. from the walls. It is advisable to establish the
mean value of the sound level recorded in different directions.
Noise level should be measured at the worker' head level in his normal work
posture or at a distance of I’m from either side of his head position.
A noise chart should be prepared of the area where the measured noise levels are equal to or in
excess of 80, 85, 90, 100 and 115 dBA. The Measurement Report:
A measurement report should contain at least the following information.
1. A sketch of the measurement site showing applicable dimensions (e.g. size of room
machine dimensions), the location of the microphone and object being measured.
2. Standard(s) to which measurements are made. (Ref. Std. for comparison)
3. Type and serial number of instrument (s) used.
4. Method of calibration.
5. Type of sound (e.g. impulsive, continuous etc.).
6. Background noise level. (Surrounding Ambient Noise)
7. Ent. Conditions (e.g. winter, summer or rainy season)
8. Data on object being measured (e.g. Location, Area, machine type,).
9. Date when measurements were performed.
Noise Dose Measurement: (Commonly used)

A noise dose is a measurement of noise or individuals who move between many different noise
environments during the working day and can be obtained by using a
noise dose meter.
Noise dose meter is a portable instrument which can be carried in a
person's pocket. The microphone can be operated from the noise dose
meter body and should be mounted close to individual's more exposed
ear.
Noise dose meters display the percentage of daily allowable noise dose.
They directly measure the noise continuously and at the same time read
out (display) noise does as a percentage of maximum allowable (100%)
over an exposure period of 8 hrs. Beside this it also indicates when
certain levels are exceeded i.e. 115 dB(A) maximum allowable and 140
dB(A) peak.
Wearable Noise monitor (Discretely varying Noise Levels):
Many employees are exposed to varying noise levels because the job
requires them to move around the department or plant.
Noise codes describe procedures for summing a series of partial doses
that such employees receive during their working period
In addition, OSHA and many other national standards impose an
overriding limit of 115 dB(A) "S" which should never be exceeded for
any length of time.
One method of determining the noise dose of mobile employees is
through the job-study interview. First/ a noise survey is conducted
throughout the factory to determine the noise level at each working
location. Then each employee is interviewed to determine what
locations he works at and for how long. This rapidly leads to the
determination of noise doses received by a large number of employees;
furthermore, periodic updates can be performed quickly. The job-study
interview method readily lends itself to computerized record keeping. It
is also a valuable aid for setting priorities in noise control schemes by identifying locations where
the noise doses are excessive. A record form may be of the following type:
Employee noise exposure record

Employee name _________________________________________________________

Date ______________________________ Signed _____________________________

Interview Computation iso

Work location % time Db (a) 8 hr. dose Partial dose *

A-5 60 85 30% 18%

A-8 5 95 315 16

B-21 10 88 60 6

D-13 25 91 125 31

100

Total dose 71%

Recommendations:

Within ISO limits

% Time

* Partial dose = x 8 hr. dose

100

Permissible Limits of Noise and Evaluation:

The evaluation and control of noise hazards include -
1. Setting objectives for a noise abatement programme.
2. Measurement of noise levels at workplaces and also with a moving man by measuring his
doses of exposure.
3. Comparing the measured values with the permissible exposure limits and assessing the
situation whether within limit or needs control measures (90 dBA under GFR).
4. Controlling exposure of excessive noise, and
5. Monitoring the hearing of exposed persons.
 First three steps are 'evaluation' and the last two steps call for engineering control
measures, audiometric and hearing conservation programmers.
As mentioned ACGIH booklet, TLVs for noise to prevent a hearing loss at higher
frequencies such as 3000 Hz and 4000 Hz are given in Table 12.3.
Table: TLV for Noise (ACGIH, 2007)

Duration per day Sound level dBA

(exposure time) (TLV)

24 Hours 80

16 Hours 82

8 Hours 85

4 Hours 8/8

2 Hours 91

1 Hours 94

30 Minutes 97

15 Minutes 100

7.5 Minutes 103

3.75 Minutes 106

1.88 Minutes 109

0.94 Minutes 112

28.12 Seconds 115

14.05 Seconds 118

7.03 Seconds 121

3.52 Seconds 124

1.76 Seconds 127

0.88 Seconds 130

0.44 Seconds 133

 0.22 Seconds 136

0.11 Seconds 139

In measuring above values, standard sound level meter or dosimeter is to be used arid
no exposure above 140 dB is permitted. The meter response should be kept slow. A dosimeter or
integrating sound level meter should be used for sounds above 120 db. Exposure is to be limited
by noise source and not by administrative control. Method and formula to calculate the combined
effect of two or more periods of noise exposures of different levels are also suggested.

The TLVs in Table 12.3 should be used as guide in the control of noise exposure and
due to individual susceptibility. They should not be regarded as fine lines between the safe and
dangerous limits. The TLV cannot protect all workers from the adverse effects of noise exposure.
It can protect the median of the workers against slowly growing hearing loss.
It must be noted that a hearing conservation programme with audiometric testing is
necessary when workers are exposed to noise at or above the TLV levels.
Hearing impairment should be evaluated in terms of a worker's ability or inability to
hear speech under daily conditions. To hear sentences and to repeat them correctly indicates good
hearing ability. Workers working in a noisy environment should be regularly checked for any
detrimental effect on their hearing.
The critical factors to analyze noise exposures are
1. A weighted sound level.
2. Frequency composition or spectrum of the noise.
3. Duration and distribution of noise exposure during a typical workday.
dBA as a function of number of occur exposures per day.
A variety of sound measuring instruments are 1 available such as sound level meters,
octave band! analyzers, narrow band analyzers, sound survey meters, tape and graphic level
recorders, impact sound level meters and equipment for calibrating these instruments. Of these,
the first two provide ample information.
Thus, by measuring high noise levels at work places and interrogating workers regarding
hearing difficulty if any and carrying out noise surveys, noise values are evaluated and their
effects are also determined by audiometric tests on workers. This suggests the necessary steps for
noise control. For assessment of measured values and control measures, statutory provisions and
IS are useful.
CONTROL METHODS
 First step is to measure the quantity and quality of noise by sound level meter, octave band
analyzer, sound dosimeter, audiometer or vibrometer. Control areas are the source, path and the
receiver. Control methods should be aimed at
1. Controlling noise at sources.
2. Precluding the propagation, amplification and reverberation of noise, (path)
3. Isolating the workers (receiver).
Based on this, the control methods for prevention and reduction of noise can be classified as
under:

Control at the Source:

Much noise can be eliminated by good engineering design. Wire mesh screens instead of
sheet metal panels reduce vibrating noisy surfaces. Lining of absorbent materials would also
reduce noise considerably. Machines can be mounted on rubber or other materials so that vibration
and noise will be reduced. Quitter machine with plastic or rubber parts, lubrication, tuning and
well maintenance give less noise.
Noise sources are of three types (1) Mechanical forces such as vibration of solid or liquid
surface (2) Aerodynamic forces such as turbulence in air or gaseous environment and (3)
Electrical forces such as electric arc or electric corona discharge.
Vibrations can be reduced by maintaining dynamic balance, diminishing the force causing
vibration, reducing rpm, increasing duration of work cycle.
 Response of vibrating elements can be reduced by increasing their damping power and
improving fastening.
Liquid/gas flow rate should be reduced. Acoustic insulation on pipes can reduce 10 to 20
dBA.
Other measures include conversion of reciprocating movements into rotational movements,
replacement of sudden stoppage by gradual braking, helical teeth instead of straight teeth on spur
gears, prevention of impact of falling materials, installation of damping elements at points of
contact between machine and plant elements, proper design of fan blades, proper tool and cutting
speed in conformity with the material, proper design of air lines, ventilation ducts, gas mains and
liquid pipes to prevent noise propagation, providing rubber tires on trucks, trolleys etc., reduction
in noise radiating surface area, machine guards of perforated sheet or wire mesh instead of plain
sheet, reducing transmission of mechanical vibrations, inserting rubber or felt pads between the
ends of the spring and the surfaces to which it is fastened, use of felt/cork as resilient mats or pads
under machine bases, using isolators between the machine' and its foundation, heavy machines
likely to cause impact noise should be rigidly mounted on massive concrete blocks having weights
many times greater than the weights of the supported machines, loose and flexible connections in
all pipes and conduits lending from vibrating machine, reduction in clamp sizes, use of sharp
cutting edges, wobble dies in forging, quitter dies, use of anti-vibrating mounts, mufflers for
exhaust pipes and use of asphalt or tar for vibration damping.
Noisy machine may be placed in an enclosure or behind a barrier. A close-filling acoustic
(insulated) box serves good purpose. The inside of the enclosure can be lined with sound
absorbing materials. Bounding walls of enclosures should have adequate transmission loss to
provide proper sound insulation (IS:1950).
Noise propagation can be controlled by installing machines on vibration-damping bases,
using ant vibration mountings and separate installation of noisy machines.
Substitution of Less Noisy Processes:
Examples are: Welding instead of riveting, mechanical forging instead of drop forging,
grinding instead of chipping, belt drives instead of gears etc.
Other substitution includes hydraulic riveting instead of pneumatic riveting, grinding or
flame gouging (20 dB) instead of chipping (120 dB), mechanical ejectors instead of air ejectors,
slow acting process instead of high speed, hot working of metal instead of cold working, presses
instead of hammers, rotating shears instead of square shears, belt drives for gears, pressing instead
of rolling or forging etc.
Segregation and Isolation:
 Noisy machines are removed to an area where few people work (segregation). Well
insulated partition and tightly closing doors may be installed surrounding the machines (isolation).
Other isolations include providing a soundproof booth for the operator, separate location of
noisy machines and processes from quiet ones -e.g. air compressor or diesel generator rooms
should be separate and away from library, training center, conference room, medical center etc.
Similarly, office space should be segregated from the production area.
Equally noisy areas should be located together and segregated from quiet areas by buffer
zones that prod
Reflected sounds from ceiling and walls can be reduced by hanging isolators made of
rubber, felt or cork.
Enclosure of Noise Source:
Noise producing operation can be enclosed or baffled in such a manner as to prevent
dissipation of the noise into the surrounding area. Sound proofing by barrier structures.
Enclosures and barriers (partial or full, insulated or uninsulated, soundproof etc.) can
curtail sound waves and reduce noise. More surface area of enclosure will reduce more noise.
A partial reduction of noise in certain directions can be obtained by one or more sided
walls of barrier. Barrier wall facing the noise source should be coated with acoustic absorption
material on that side to reduce noise appreciably. The barrier/enclosure opening should face a wall
covered with sound absorbing material. If the top of the enclosure is open, sound absorbing
material should be applied on the ceiling overhead.
Double wall with 10 cm intervening space is more effective than single partition of the
same height. Porous materials (e.g. porous concrete) can absorb more sound than rigid material.
Sound Absorption and Silencers:

High frequency sounds can be absorbed by applying sound absorbents to ceilings and
walls in die form of acoustical tiles, plasters and blankets of porous materials such as glass wool.
Acoustic baffles can be hung from the ceilings.
Reflection of sound waves from surfaces can be prevented by using absorbents which are
usually porous materials that convert incident sound energy to heat. The amount of absorption
depends on frequency and angle of incidence and can be expressed by the absorption coefficient
which is die ratio of the absorbed energy to the incident energy.
A variety of absorbent materials are available for an acoustic engineer in the form of
vegetable or asbestos fibers, glass or mineral wool and hard but porous plaster having less
susceptibility to physical damage, fire resistance, light reflection, aesthetic qualities etc.
 By sound absorbing walls, the operator near machine is not protected from noise, but the
other workers working behind the walls would be benefited, particularly, if there are
reverberations 'in the building.
Application of acoustical material on ceiling and side walls, can reduce 3 to 8 dB noise
level and bring down the general reverberate noise level to make the noise conditions less
confusing.
Functional Sound Absorbers may be clustered as near the machines as possible. These
units may be suspended and- distributed in any pattern to obtain lower noise levels within the
machine shop. They are pyramidal or rectangular in shape. They use fiber glass as packing
material. They have higher noise reduction coefficients than conventional acoustic materials
placed directly on ceilings and walls. Noise reduction (absorption) coefficients are given in Table
12.9.
Noise Absorption Coefficients

Type Coefficient for 250-2000 c/s

1 Flat area

Fiber glass thickness

2.5 cm 0.7

5 cm 0.93

2 Functional Sound Absorber

(a) Pyramidal Shape

Fiber glass

Thickness

2.5 cm 0.91

5 cm 1.39

(b) Rectangular shape

Fiber glass

Thickness

2.5 cm 0.6

5 cm 1.18
 Most of the construction materials (concrete, bricks, glass blocks etc.) absorb less than 2 %
of sound energy incident on their surfaces reflecting the rest 98% back to the room. Note that the
level of noise produced by a source located in the room is 5 to 15% higher in loudness than that
produced by the same source in open.
The application of sound absorbing materials with high coefficient of sound absorbency
for walls and ceilings permit the reflected noise to be diminished thereby reducing the total noise
level in workroom.

Another benefit from sound absorption is the possibility of easy aural checking on
operation of machinery because a direct sound from every apparatus or a machine tool installed in
the enclosure can be detected by the ear easily.
Ceilings and upper portion of walls 1.5 to 2.00 mtrs above floor levels should be lagged
(insulated) with sound absorbing material.
Best result can be achieved when at least 60% of total area of walls and ceilings are
insulated.
Mufflers or silencers are also one type of sound absorbers. The velocity .and pressure of
the air gets reduced when it is routed through devious paths in the muffler components.
The mufflers are of two types. In absorptive or dissipative type, a lining of absorptive
material is provided and is protected by a perforated metal cover. Reactive mufflers are similar to
electrical filters and give good reduction over a narrow range of frequencies by reflecting the
sound energy.

The absorptive silencer has better performance at higher frequencies whereas the reactive
type at low frequencies. Sound reduction or insertion loss increases with length, thicker splitters
and reduced air gap.
Sound proofing:
Soundproofing includes construction or barrier structures such as walls or partitions, to
safeguard the workers from external noise.
Sound proofing utilizes the principle of reflection of sound i.e. the greater part of sound
energy incident on a surface is reflected and only it's smallest part (l/ 1000 or less) penetrates
through it.
In fact, an ideal sound proof structure should not let noise into an enclosure it safeguards.
Heavier (massive) the barrier-structure, the more soundproof it is. The sound proofness of barrier
surface is determined by its acoustic in entrance. It is more sound proof to high frequency sound
waves than to sound waves of low frequencies. Therefore, the knowledge of the characteristics of
sound is very important in sound proofing. In sound proofing following factors are required to be
considered for obtaining desired results of sound proofing.

1. Intensity of sound.
2. Frequency of sound.
3. Co-efficient of absorbency of material used for sound barriers.
A higher co-efficient of sound absorbency is preferred to that of low coefficient in order to
get good noise attenuation.
Adequate care should be taken to ensure that all openings in the noise enclosure should be
properly sealed over entire area to prevent any leakage of unwanted sound through such openings.
Doors and windows should be properly fit to match the perimeter and window frames receiving
glass panels should be adequately shut. All such measures should be essential for efficient
isolation of room with noise producing processes.
Ear Protection:
Ear plugs, ear muffs and helmets can be used by the exposed person for attenuation of
noise to a safe level. Where noise levels are very high, better attenuation can be obtained by using
both ear plugs and ear muffs.
These devices are a preventive measure, Ear plugs or
defenders (Fig. 12.10) are the simplest, cheap and convenient
devices used to reduce the harmful effect of noise. They are
conical shaped plugs of various materials for insertion into the
ear to reduce perception of noise, particularly impulse noise.
They can be soft or rigid. Rigid plugs are made of rubber or
plastic materials while soft plugs are of cotton cloth or of very
fine glass cloth impregnated with oil or a waxy mastic. Plugs
do not prevent the wearer from wearing headpieces or goggles. However, during long use, ear
defenders may cause discomfort and irritation in the ear, particularly
at elevated temperatures. Application of multi-use ear defenders
requires special medical supervision.
Earmuffs (Fig. 12.11) are large pads of rubber or similar
material attached to a band or strap and worn about the head for
reducing the effect of noise on factory workers (during impact
riveting, straightening, chopping and the like operations). The device is light, convenient to wear
and effective against noise of high frequency which is exclusively harmful to the human ear
Head-niece or helmet is an effective device against the effect of noise levels exceeding 120
dB where the above protective devices are ineffective. High level of noise affects the skull causing
the bones to vibrate. Such vibration adversely affects the auricular nerves and the brain function.
Helmets provide adequate protection of the skull, particularly its paratenic region.
The efficiency of ear protectors is expressed by the degree of attenuation of the noise
penetrating into the external ear canal. Noise attenuation by ear protectors is limited by bone
conduction for high frequencies and by skin resistance to low ones. Earmuffs offer higher
attenuation than earplugs at the same frequency. Hearing protector's attenuation capacity is known
as Noise Reduction Rating (NRR) and must be printed on the package.
Hearing protective devices are classified in four groups:
1. Enclosures (entire head) e.g. helmet.
2. Aural inserts e.g. earplugs - formable, customable&remolded type.
3. Super aural protectors - A soft rubber like material is held and inserted in the
external ear canal. Band tension holds it inside (ear plugs).
4. Circus aural protectors e.g. earmuffs. Two cups are held by a spring-loaded
suspension assembly or headband.
Rotation of personnel:
Since the effects of noise on hearing depend partly on the length of exposure, the bad
effects may be reduced by removing the worker from the noisy environment wherever audiograms
indicate a hearing loss.
Their rotation of noisy job or worker or dividing the noise period among one or more
workers to reduce their exposure time is explained. Rotation of personnel or changing their work
place should be done by taking their union in confidence so as to avoid any labor problem. As this
is for the purpose of safety and health, normally they should co-operate.
Active Control (Antipas) System:
Sound waves are intervened and obstructed by similar powerful sound waves to nullify
their effect. Thus 'sound against sound' is the principle employed here. Reference microphone,
error sensor and active control unit are used. Reference microphone detects the sound coming
from source and supplies information to controller unit. This control unit with the aid of digital
signal processing system, calculates the drive signals. Loudspeakers use these drive signals to give
antiphase sound. Upper and bottom peaks of sound waves (cycles) are flattened. Bottom curves of
drive (control) sound waves are thrown on the top curves of the sound waves to be absorbed. This
modern system is useful to control noise from diesel engine, gas turbine, aero plane, submarine
and compressors.
Most of the practical aspects to control noise at source are given as under:
1. Substitution of non-percussion tools and processes for pressure ones e.g. use of hydraulic
drives instead of (Mechanical) cam or eccentric drives and straightening instead of forged
rolling (Avoid roller noise) etc.
2. Use of rotational, preferably uniform motion instead of reciprocating motions,
3. Use of vee-belt transmission instead of chain or gear transmission,
4. Use of lubricant baths for meshed gears and forced feed lubrication for articulated joints
to minimize wear and noise caused by friction.
5. Use of lining/elastic inserts in joints to avoid or minimize transfer of vibrations from one
part to another.
6. Use of rubber lining for insides of metal containers and crates to be used for material
handling.
7. Use of plastic and mute materials for metal or combination of metal parts with plastic.
8. Keeping fans and engines off when not in use.
9. Good regular maintenance by tightening loose guards and panels.
10. Oiling, greasing and replacement or adjustment of worn, lose or unbalanced parts of
machines.
11. Reduction of forces and speeds.
12. Use of vibration dampers.
13. Reduction in radiating area and overall size.
14. Use of flexible mountings and couplings.
15. Use of resilient flooring and sound absorptive material on walls and ceiling.
16. Reduction in pressure, turbulence and increase in the cross section of the streams.
17. Elimination of air and steam leaks.
18. Increase in the distance from the noise source.
Care at the planning stage is more useful. Vendors and suppliers should be asked to
provide information on the noise levels of currently available equipment. The inclusion of noise
specifications in purchase orders is useful to get quiet equipment. If purchasers will insist, the
designers will pay more attention on noise control.
Remote control of noisy equipment or its isolation in a separate room can control the
exposure.
 Administrative controls such as providing ear protection to workers, rotation of Jobs or
workers in order to reduce their exposure times, transferring workers from high noise location to
lower one for some period, scheduling of machine operating time so as to reduce the radiating
time and also the number of workers exposed to noise, transferring more susceptible workers to
less noisy area or dividing work at high noise level or extended period among two or more
workers, if it may not cause any personnel problems.
Implementation of the legal standards and purchase agreements is also essential to reduce
noise levels in all work places.
Despite of all efforts, periodical audiometric tests of workers working in high noise areas
must be carried out and their records maintained.

Industrial Lighting & Illumination

PURPOSE AND BENEFITS OF GOOD LIGHTING

Purpose and Advantages of Good lighting:

Purpose, need, advantages or benefits of good lighting are many. There are three groups of
working conditions: (1) Physical or environmental i.e. lighting, ventilation, noise, atmospheric
conditions etc. (2) Relating to time i.e. hours-of work, rest pauses etc. and (3) Relating to social
situation within which an individual works. The lighting influences all the three categories and is
an important working condition not only in factories but at all work places. Therefore, it should be
effective and not poor.
The purpose of light is most important, because without light the things have no appearance, no
colour, no shape and no perspective. Light and colour affect human efficiency, accident-possibility
and his general well-being, morale and fatigue. Medical research has proved that a sufficient
amount of light is needed for the healthy physiological functioning of human organism. Light
regulates various physiological functions within the body and poor light adversely affect the
health.
Benefits of good lighting are also direct and manifold, because, it affects our sight as well as the
object to be seen. It helps in two ways, by better seeing for work performance and better
environment. Better seeing condition causes better discrimination, concentration, alertness and
less fatigue. Better discrimination causes less spoilage and quick fault detection. Greater
concentration causes better work. Less fatigue allows greater output and greater production. Better
environment produces better morale, comfort, supervision and interest. All these factors cause
better ability to perceive objects and keep a clear view of all details, of better conservation of
energy and material, reduced labor turnover, better housekeeping, more production with less waste
of material, energy and labor, prevention of eye strain and accidents, increased accuracy,
efficiency, productivity, speed of seeing and reading and improvement in health and safety of
work-people. It is most useful to elderly people.

PURPOSE OF LIGHT

Lighting is primarily provided for people, not for the buildings or roadways or objects
illuminated. Peoples’ needs should determine what kind of lighting is provided. Meeting those
needs is important because a good visual environment is critical to health, productivity, comfort,
aesthetics, safety, communication and mood. Lighting designers have an opportunity and
responsibility to support and improve the quality of life for everyone.
Recently, lighting has become a subject of much greater interest than for many years. This is for
three reasons:
 The ageing of the population in many developed countries. As the human visual system
ages, its capabilities deteriorate. Lighting can be used to help older people to see well and
hence to live active lives for longer.
 The need to reduce carbon emissions to minimize climate change. Lighting is a major user
of electricity and the generation of electricity is a major source of carbon emissions. This
means that lighting is under pressure to do more with less.
 The recognition that exposure to light can have significant non-visual effects on human
health. The potential for exposure to light to cause tissue damage has been known for
many years, but now its influence on the human circadian system, which operates at a very
basic level of human physiology, is also appreciated. The Health & Performance section
includes a detailed conversation regarding the circadian system.
Taken together, these developments mean that the number of factors that should be considered
when determining if a lighting installation is fit for purpose has increased. However, one factor
that will almost always need to be considered is how well the lighting enables people to see. This
is the topic of this chapter
The Benefits of Good Lighting

Did you know that approximately 80% of all information reaches us through our visual link
withthe environment?
This fact sheet is aimed at business, but the information can be used in the home.
The quality of light affects people in many different ways. For example, office worker satisfaction
and productivity can be positively affected by well-designed illumination. Building owners and
managers have the potential to add value, reduce costs and enhance performance through the
application of good lighting. People are attracted to well-lit public facilities, shopping areas and
parks. Good lighting enhances the mood and desirability of these spaces, and it contributes greatly
to people's sense of wellbeing.
Even though each lighting situation is different the basic elements are to provide a safe,
comfortable and pleasant visual environment that is easy to maintain and is as efficient and cost-
effective as possible.
What is involved in good lighting design?
It is vital to consider the effect different lamps (or globes) and fittings will have on the area and
objects you are illuminating. Differences in colour temperature and colour rendering capabilities
can change the colour appearance of objects quite dramatically. A qualified lighting designer can
help you to decide the best application for your business? choose one with experience in the
specific lighting applications that relate to your business.
Then consider how objects, people and the interior space as a whole is lit. For example, where it is
important to achieve true colour rendition for clothing, cosmetics and other instances, low voltage
lamps are used with metal halide lamps. Metal halides are used for the punch and the low voltage
are used for the color rendition. Well-designed lighting helps:
direct customers to displays and products highlight areas of service ensure true colors in spaces
such as change rooms etc. show products and staff in their best light?
The rest of the interior is then considered for ambient lighting, color warmth, wall or floor surface
characteristics, objects and structural features.
Ceiling height, color of walls, surface texture, daylight, size of the space, and energy usage are
also considered.
It is important to provide a reasonable budget. Ineffective lighting results when the design
specifications are altered in the interests of cost savings.
Common mistakes: Poor lighting design may be immediately recognized or subtly felt over time,
usually resulting in visual fatigue. For example:
not having sufficient light on the task too great a contrast between the task and its background
(e.g. working on a drawing board using a local light while the rest of the room is in darkness)
glare due to luminaries, windows or other sources, seen either directly or by reflection (e.g. the
mirror effect of display windows or showroom glass means that customers can't see the products)
flicker from lamps.
Imitating lighting from other establishments, unless the purpose, installation, natural light etc. are
the same, may not give you the desired effect.
Lighting designers for critical and demanding projects, professional lighting designers should be
considered. Their in-depth knowledge of the equipment and marketplace, as well as the techniques
of theatrical and architectural lighting, allows them to offer the most appropriate and cost-effective
solutions.
BENEFITS OF GOOD LIGHTING
New studies show the quality of light affects people in many different ways. For example, office
worker satisfaction and productivity can be positively affected by well-designed illumination.
Building owners and managers have the potential to add value, reduce costs and enhance
performance through the application of good lighting. It's no secret that people are attracted to
well-lighted public facilities, commercial shopping districts and parks.
Good lighting enhances the mood and desirability of these spaces. It contributes greatly to people's
sense of well-being. Many of the current efforts to attract people to downtown areas after dark are
being spearheaded by IALD lighting designers.
Through cost-control techniques, IALD lighting designers help clients realize improved energy
efficiency and reduce lighting costs. The initial investment in a professional lighting designer is
offset by a reduction of construction and operating costs.
An IALD lighting designer will add value to any project, whether large or small, interior or
exterior, public or private.
For greater details, see the Why Use a Lighting Designer
Types of Light Sources:
It is interesting to note that electric lamps produce more heat than light as follows:
Type of Lamp Heat (%) Light (%)

Incandescent 97 3

Fluorescent 90 10

Sodium Vapor 80 20

Other types and lamp data are given in Table

Lamp Data: There are following types of Artificial Lamps

Type of Lamp Luminous Efficiency Bulb life Hours Colour Rendering

lumens / watt Index

Incandescent 12-22 1000 100

GLS or PAR 10-13

Tungsten-filament 13-18 10000 50-69

Tungsten- 20-27
2000 70-84
halogen (T-H) 14-22

Fluorescent 75-95 5000 55-75

Tube 50 85-95

White Tubes 62-66 5000 56

Triphosphoric 69-70 7500 85

3000
Mercury Vapour
Lamps High Pressure 55 5000 25
(HPMV) with

fluorescence
35-50 6000 45
MBI
63-72 7500 70-84

Sodium

Vapour 110-140 4000 20

Lamps

Low
 Pressure

(SOX)

High

Pressure 95 8000 45

Metal halide lamps 75-125 3000 to 20,000

Apart from above factors, the selection of light source also depends on -
1. Type of application.
2. Atmospheric conditions of industrial interiors and/or exteriors.
3. Surface features.
4. Initial outlay.
5. Running cost.
6. Ease of maintenance.

Types of lamps are:

Incandescent filament lamps including tungsten and halogen are simple, compact, versatile and
suitable where artificial lighting is occasionally required, space is restricted and a powerful
concentrated beam of light is required. Short life and low efficiency is their disadvantages.
Halogen lamps are mainly used for terrain lighting and as automobile head (driving) lights.
Fluorescent lamps or tubes are good for medium height ceilings and general uniform lighting
whereas for highways HPMV lamps or their combination with tungsten filament lamps are used.
Generally fluorescent tubes are preferred because of their higher efficiency, long life, low
brightness, minimum glare and shadows, colour rendering close to daylight, less heat and linear
form. They are mostly required for regular artificial light, good colour rendering effect and
increasing illumination level.
Mercury Vapour lamps, colour corrected, are more suitable and economical in a large,
lofty building (viz. steelworks) having high height and also for exterior lighting of storage areas,
clocks, roadways etc. If colour rendering is not important, ordinary uncorrected mercury lamps
may be used.
Sodium Vapour lamps are seldom suitable for interior lighting due to their poor colour
rendering properties. Low-pressure sodium lamps are used for terrain and road lighting and also in
high halls where colour rendering is not demanded. High pressure sodium lamps are also
developed to improve colour rendering.
 High-pressure sodium lamps have efficacies that range from 77 lumens per watt to 140
lumens per watt, depending on size. The colour rendition is a distinct orange. Warm-up time for
high-pressure sodium lamps is from 3 minutes to 4 minutes. Restrike time is less than I minute,
and instant restrike devices are offered for 50-watt to ISO-watt high-pressure sodium lamps.
Power factors range from 40 percent to 99 percent depending on the heavy type and the age of the
lamp. Lamp life is 24,000 hours.
Metal halide lamps are similar in construction to mercury Vapour lamps. The difference is
that metal halides are added to the mercury and argon in the arc tube. The efficacies are improved
to the range of 75 lumens per watt to 125 lumens per watt, excluding ballast loss. The colour
rendering is quite white and is usually superior to the phosphor-coated mercury Vapour lamp. The
warm-up time for metal halide lamps is 2 minutes to 4 minutes, and re-strike time varies from 5
minutes to 15 minutes, depending on the type. Power factors in the range of 90 percent can be
obtained. Lamp life varies from 3000 hours to 20,000 hours. Metal halide lamps have more rapid
lumen depreciation than do mercury Vapour lamps and have high surface operating temperature
which must be. considered before application in classified locations. The lamp life and lumen
output are affected by burning position.
Compared with incandescent lamps, mercury Vapour lamps offer the advantages of longer
average life and higher lumen output; however, with the advent of metal halide and high-pressure
sodium lamps, the mercury Vapour lamp is considered by many to be obsolete, except in existing
plants. having similar lamps. The mercury Vapour lamp is considered obsolete because of its rapid
lumen depreciation and low lumens-per-watt characteristics.
Mercury Vapour, or mercury-halide lamps, tubular fluorescent and sodium Vapour lamps are
generally called 'electric discharge lamps' as electric current is passed through certain gases to
produce emission of light.
From above types the mercury Vapour lamps take up to 6 minutes and sodium Vapour lamps take
up to 20 minutes to reach their maximum output, the actual time will be determined by the wattage
of the lamps. In the event of a power failure, restoration of power will immediately start
machinery, while discharge lamps would take 'warming time' to relight. This time gap may cause
accident due to insufficient lighting. To avoid such situation emergency lighting is a must which
will glow during power absence.

General Principles of Good Lighting:

General Principles or requirements of good lighting are as follows:
 1. Adequate illumination.
2. Avoidance of glare.
3. Avoidance of shadow.
4. Uniform lighting.
5. Appropriate contrast.
6. Appropriate colour contrast.
7. Colour effect and
8. Avoidance of flicker and stroboscopic effect.

These are briefly explained below:

Adequate Illumination:
Adequate, rational or good illumination needs sufficient quantity of illumination necessary
for avoiding discomfort to the worker and undue strain on eyes-
The quantity or intensity of illumination is given by luminous flux, luminous intensity,
illuminance, luminance and reflection factor as explained in the foregoing part 3.1. Its
requirement varies from place to place, person to person and with the age of person also.
Therefore, by experiments, standards of illumination are recommended for a variety of places
and jobs to have sufficient quantity of light for better work performance. Such statutory
standards and Indian standards are separately given in part 4 of this Chapter.
Visual acuity (sharpness of vision) increases with light intensity and is about equal to
daylight acuity as 1000 lux is approached. However, this degree of acuity is seldom required
and it is apparent that the desired amount of lighting will vary with the amount of detail
required in the work. For example, for very fine work like distinguishing black thread on
black cloth, intensity of 2000 lux is required but for exit road, car parking, storage area 20 lux
is required.
Although individuals differ in amount of light they find most desirable, 65% of the subjects
of one study judged intensity between 10 to 30 foot-candles or 100 to 300 lux, the most
comfortable for reading.
The quality of illumination depends on three factors - diffusion, distribution and
colour value. Regardless of the quantity of illumination, its effects may be impaired because
of the unevenness, the glare or the faulty direction of the light.
Diffusion is the breaking up of a beam of light and the spreading of its rays in many
directions by a surface. It is the process of reflection of -light by a reflecting surface or of
transmission of light through a translucent material.
Thus, adequate illumination requires sufficient quantity and good
quality of light necessary for the work.
Glare:
Glare is the condition in which brightness or the contrast of
brightness interferes with vision. Glare is produced by excessive light
stimuli i.e. excessive luminance in the field of vision which disturbs
the adaptation process of retina. Sometimes glare impairs the visual
function, of the eye and reduces visual performance.
Glare causes discomfort, annoyance, eye fatigue and impairment of or interference with
vision. It is produced by excessive light stimuli i.e. too much light which affects the
adaptation process of the retina. It can be considered at three levels. (types)- (1) Direct or
disability glare (2) Discomfort glare and (3) Indirect or reflected glare.
Direct or disability glare comes directly from the light source to the eye and impairs the
ability to see clearly (e.g. dash on upward headlight of a car). This is due to excessive light
focused on the eye and scattering of light inside the eye. It depends for its effects upon the
position of the light source in the field of view and on the contrast in brightness between the
light source and its background. It can be avoided by:
1. Provide diffuser over the lamp or reflector (screen) with
minimum reflecting angle 20° below the horizontal, (dipper)
2. Reducing the brightness of the light source (e.g. by
enclosing the lamp in bowl reflector).
3. Reducing the area of high brightness (e.g. by installing
louvers below the light source).
4. Increasing the angle between the' source of glare and the
line of vision i.e. by increasing the mounting height.
5. Decreasing the source of glare so as to lessen the contrast.
Discomfort glare is due to liberal (less) or bright (more) light. It
causes visual discomfort without necessarily impairing the ability to see and may occur from
unscreened windows in bright sunlight or when over-bright or unshaded lamps in the
workroom are too strong in brightness for the workroom environment.
Reflected glare is glare that comes to the eyes as glint (flash) or reflection of the light source
from some polished or shining surface. It is caused by a mirror image of the bright light
sources reflected from shiny or wet workplaces such as glass or plated metal. These
reflections distract or distort attention, make important detail difficult to see and reduce
contrast or cause acute discomfort. It can be avoided by:
1. Changing the shining finish by matt finish.
2. Changing the task position or its surrounding.
3. Using light source of low brightness or providing lamp shade.
4. Arranging the geometry of the installation so that there is no glint at the particular
viewing direction, e.g. increasing the source height.
5. Providing supplementary lighting.
6. Painting walls and ceiling with light colour so that surrounding becomes bright.
Increasing brightness to reduce relative brightness of the glare.
Rule 32 of the Gujarat Factories Rules prescribes, for
the purpose of prevention of glare, that where any lighting
source is less than 5 mt above floor level, no part of that light
having brightness greater than 5 lamberts (1.5-foot candles=16
lux) shall be visible to persons normally working within 30 mt
from that source, except where the angle of elevation from the
eye to that source exceeds 20°. It is also suggested that local
light (lamp on the job) shall be provided with opaque shade or
effective screen to prevent glare in the eyes of workers working
nearby.
Values of limiting glare index along with average illumination
lux value are given in IS:6665 and Appendix D, Part 4 of National Electric Code.
Shadow:
Shadow affects the amount of illumination and is caused not by poor lighting but - by
fixing light sources too wide apart or in wrong positions so that light is obstructed by some
object. Light (faint) shadow may be allowed but dark (dense) shadow that conceals hazard or
indicates wrong thing is not desirable, as it may cause accident.
Shadow on staircase, near door for entry or exit, near tool rack or on the work (job) table is
not at all desirable and must be removed by providing extra or local light or shifting the light
source or the object causing shadow.
Harsh shadows should be avoided, but some shadow effect may be desirable from the general
lighting system to make more noticeable the depth and form o~ object. There are few specific
visual tasks where clearly defined shadows improve visibility and such effects should be
provided by supplementary lighting equipment arranged for the particular task.
Uniform Lighting:
The human eye can clearly perceive differences in luminance of over 50%. It takes time to
adopt sudden variation in the intensity of lighting, particularly from higher to lower intensity.
Uniform distribution of lighting is desirable. Distribution of light requires two problems to
solve (1) uniformity of
illimitations and (2) elimination of shadows.
In uniform lighting, the distribution of light with a maximum and minimum illumination at
any point should not be more than one-sixth above or below the average level in the area.
Indirect lighting is the best method for producing uniform illimitations. Here all the usable
light is reflected light, high points of light from the bulb striking the eye directly are out of
the visual field. The disadvantage of indirect light is its cost, since considerable light is lost
through absorption. However, its benefit is more worth than its extra cost.
Contrast:
The ability to see detail depends upon the contrast between the detail and its
background. The greater the contrast, difference in luminance, the more readily the seeing
task is performed. The eyes function most comfortably and efficiently when the luminance
within the remainder of the environment is relatively uniform. Therefore, all luminance in the
field of view should be carefully controlled. 15:3646 (Part I & II) provide details for this.
Reflectance should be maintained as near as practical to recommended values (For ceiling 80
to 90%, for walls 40 to 60%, for desks and bench tops, machine and equipment 25 to 45%
and for floors not less than 20%). High reflectance surfaces are desirable to provide the
recommended luminance relationship and high utilization of light. They improve the
appearance of the work place. It is also desirable that the background should be slightly
darker or paler than the seeing task. Too much contrast is not desirable.
The contrast recognizes the object easily and increases visual performance. If the
difference between the object (job or seeing task) and its background is not noticeable, it is
difficult to work. A black machine in black background (darkness) is difficult to notice. There
should be a minimum contrast between the visual target detail and its background.
The differences in luminance of visual task, its immediate background and
environment should not exceed certain maximum values i.e. a relationship of 10: 3:1 for
normal tasks and 10:5: I and 10:10: I for precision work.
3.2.6 Colour Contrast:
Eye sees an object by the light it reflects and distinguishes its details mainly by colour
contrast. Thus, in addition to luminance contrast, colour contrast may be influenced by the
choice of the colour of light. The choice of the correct colour of light depends on the task to
be performed and the requirements to be met by vision. It may be noted that there must not
only be adequate illumination to see an object clearly, but also the object must be visible in
its surroundings. It must have moderate colour contrast. The colour approximating to white
will give better colour rendering and light yield. The colour approximating to red will give
low Quality colour rendering but the light will create an emotional atmosphere.
A well painted machine inspires a feeling of personal pride and proper maintenance is
encouraged.
Colour Effect:
It refers to the appearance of colored objects when illuminated by a particular light source. It
is the property of light which facilitates the perception of surface colors and depends on the
spectral composition of the light. For example, red surface will appear red only, if the light
falling on it contains red, but it will appear brown under the yellow of sodium street lighting.
The maximum value of the index is 100 and at this value there is no shift, i.e. the colour
rendering is perfect. For example, an incandescent tungsten filament lamp has a colour
rendering index of 100, fluorescent tubes between 55 to 95, mercury Vapour lamps
approximately 45 and low-pressure sodium Vapour lamps less than 25. Where colour
discrimination and colour matching are a part of the work process, the light source selected
should have the desired colour rendering properties.
Flicker and Stroboscopic Effect:
All lamps working on alternating current give light which pulsates at twice the supply
frequency. This type of discontinuous light of almost all frequencies can produce (fleshing
rapidly to show moving object stationary) effect, in which a rotating or reciprocating object
can appear to be stationary, or moving slowly, or even appear to be rotating in the opposite
direction etc. This false belief can cause accidents in the industrial situation. It is a real hazard
in the presence of moving machinery. High intensity discharge lamps and fluorescent tubes
have some 'flicker content in their light output at twice the mains frequency. The steps to
diminish the stroboscopic effect are:
1. Light the moving object with lamps fed from two different out of phase a.c. supplies,
or from two or three phases of a three-phase supply or lead lag luminaries.
2. Select a lamp with a low flicker characteristic, e.g. a fluorescent coated high-intensity
discharge tungsten filament (GLS) lamp or ordinary filament lamp.
3. Add a local GLS lamp to augment the general lighting.
4. Use GLS or tungsten halogen lamps fed from a direct current (d.c.) supply.
5. Use the common twin-tube circuit.
RECOMMENDED STANDARDS OF ILLUMINATION
It is not a simple matter to specify suitable intensity levels based upon sound
reasoning. As there is no fixed threshold level of illumination below which a visual task is
greatly impeded, some compromise has to be made between an ideal level and adequate level.
Generally, a recommended level is arrived at after careful consideration of eyesight, the
visual task, the environment and the economy involved. Any specification is therefore, opens
to controversy, the recommended level, however, serves chiefly as a guide to good practices.
Standard illumination benefits people with normal sight and helps to faulty vision. It can be
achieved through a combined usage of day lighting and artificial lighting and maintained by
proper cleaning and re-lamping etc.
Importance of illumination level:
Illumination, noise, temperature and other environmental conditions such as chemical
exposure and vibration play an important role in the ability of humans to interact effectively
with equipment or a system.
Lighting is an important element in the design of any system as improper lighting
levels may cause system elements to be seen incorrectly or not seen at all. Improper-
illumination level may result in the eye strain, muscle fatigue, headache or accidents.
The adequacy of lighting depends upon the type of lighting provided, its quality and
quantity, the age of the worker and visual requirements of the task or system.
Illuminance ranges
Circumstances may be significantly different for difficult interiors used for the same
application or different conditions for the same kind of activity. A range of illuminance is
recommended for each type of interior or activity. Each range consists of three successive
steps of the recommended scale of illuminance. Middle value of each range, represents the
recommended service illuminance that would be used unless one or more of the factors
mentioned below apply.
Higher value of the range should be used when:
1. Unusually low reflectance or contrasts are present in the task.
2. Errors are costly to rectify.
3. Visual work is critical.
4. Accuracy or higher productivity is of great importance.
5. The visual capacity of the worker makes it necessary.
The lower value of the range should be used when:
1. Reflectance or contrasts are unusually high.
2. Speed and accuracy are not important.
3. The task is executed only occasionally.
Depending upon importance of the work, illumination level must be according to the
standards mentioned below.
Statutory Provisions:
Section-17 of the Factories Act requires sufficient and suitable lighting, natural,
artificial or both and prevention of direct or reflected glare and shadows causing eye strain or
risk of accident. Rules 30 to 34 of the Gujarat Factories Rules prescribe further details.
General level of 30 meters candles (30 lux) or more at the horizontal level of 91.4 cm (3 feet)
above the floor is prescribed. Where the light source is above 7.6-meter height from the floor,
at least 10 meters candle minimum illumination should be available. It should be at least 30
meters-candles (30 lux) where the work is actually going on. Walkways require at least 5-
meter candles (5 lux) at floor level. Rule 32 describes details to prevent glare, (see Part 3.2.2)
Minimum illumination levels prescribed by Rule 35 of the Maharashtra Factories
Rules is given in Table Minimum Illumination Levels u/r 35 MFR
S. No. Area / Workroom Minimum Intensity
of Illumination in
Lux
 Stock-yards: main entrance and exit roads, cat-walks of
1 20
outdoor plants, coal unloading and storage areas.

Passage-ways, corridors and stairways, warehouses,

2 stock' rooms for large & bulky materials, platforms of 50
outdoor plants, basements.

Engine and boiler rooms, passengers and

freight elevators, conveyor crating & boxing
3 100
departments, storerooms for medium and fine materials,
locker rooms, toilet and wash-rooms.

Where discrimination of detail is not essential (e.g.

4 handling of material of coarse nature, rough sorting, 50
handling coal or ashes etc.)

Where slight discrimination of detail is essential [e.g.

production of semi-finished iron and steel products,
5 100
rough; assembling, opening, carding drawing, spinning
(ordinary) counts of cotton].

Where moderate discrimination of details is essential

(e.g. medium assembling, rough bench work and
machine work, inspection and testing of products,
6 200
canning, sawing, sewing of light colored textiles and
leather products, weaving light thread, warping,
spinning fine counts).

Where close discrimination of S detail is essential (e.g.

medium bench and machine work, fine testing, flour
7 grading, leather finishing, weaving cotton goods or 300
light-coloredwoolen goods, welding sub-assembly,
drilling, riveting, book-binding and folding ).

Where discrimination of fine detail is involved under a

fair degree of contrast for long periods of time (e.g. fine
8 assembling, fine bench and machine work, fine 500
inspection, fine polishing and beveling of glass, fine
wood working, weaving dark coloredwoolen goods).

Where discrimination of extremely fine detail is

involved under conditions of extremely poor contrast
9 for long periods of time. (e.g. extra fine assembling, 1000
extra fine inspection, jeweler and watch manufacturing,
grading and working of tobacco products, dark cloth
hand tailoring, final perching in dye works, make-up
 and proof-reading in printing plants).

Indian Lighting Standards:

SP 32 a Handbook on functional requirements of industrial buildings (lighting &
ventilation) may be referred.
Indian Standards on Lighting
S. Area / Workroom Minimum Intensity
No. of Illumination in
Lux

1 Industrial lighting 6665

2 Day lighting of factory buildings 6060

3 Day lighting of buildings 2440

4 Principles of good lighting and aspects of design (Part I) 3646

5 Schedule for values of illumination and glare index (Part II) 3646

6 Calculation of coefficient of utilization by the BZ method 3646

(Part III)

7 Electro technical vocabulary Part 16 1885

8 Flameproof electric lighting fittings 2206

9 Dust – proof electric lighting fittings 4012

10 Dust-tight electric lighting fittings 4013

11 Miners’ Cap-lamps 2596

Out of 63 types of industrial buildings and processes, only 15 are selected from Table-
2 of 15:6665 and given in Table 9.4 as a sample recommendation.

Table: Recommended Values of Illumination (IS: 6665)

S. Industrial buildings and processes Average Illumination
No. Lux

1 General Factory Areas:

a Canteens 150

b Cloakrooms, Entrances, Corridors & Stairs 100

2 Factory Outdoor Areas:

Stockyards, main entrances, exit roads, car parking, internal 20

factory roads

3 Assembly Shops:

a Rough, work, for example, frame assembly, assembly 150

of heavy machinery

b Medium work, forexample, machined-part, engine 300

assembly, vehicle body assembly

c Fine work, for example, radio and telephone 700

equipment, typewriter and office machinery
assembly.

d Very fine work, for example/assembly of very small 1500

precision mechanism, instruments

4 Boot and Shoe Factories:

A Sorting and grading, cutting table and presses 1000

stitching

B Clicking and closing, preparatory operations, 700

bottom stock preparation, lasting and bottoming,
finishing and shoe rooms

5 Canning and Preserving Factories:

a Inspection of beans, rice, barley etc. 450

b Preparation: kettle areas, mechanical cleaning, 300

dicing, trimming, high speed labelling lines

c Cam-led and bottled goods: Rotors. 200

d Can inspection 450

6 Chemical Works:

a Hand furnaces, boilingtanks, stationery dryers, 150

stationery crystallizers, dryers, filtration
unmechanical bleaching, percolators, or gravity
mechanical evaporators, plants, crystallizing,
extractors, nitrators, electrolytic cells.

b Controls, gauges, valves, etc. 100

 c Control rooms: Vertical control panels & Control 200 to 300
desks

7 Die Sinking:

a General 300

b Fine 1000

8 Engraving:

a Hand 1000

b Machine (see Die Sinking) -

9 Foundries

a Charging floors, tumbling, cleaning, pouring, shaking 150

out, rough molding and rough core making.

b Fine molding and making inspection. 300

10 Inspection Shops (Engineering):

a Rough work, for example, counting, rough checking 150

of stock parts etc.

b Medium work, for example, 'Go' and 'No-Go' 300

gauges, sub-assemblies.

c Fine work, for example, radio and telecommunication 700

equipment, calibratedscales, precision mechanisms,
instruments.

d Very fine work, for example, gauging and inspection 1500

of small intricate parts.

e Minute work for example, very small- instruments 3000

11 Iron and Steel Works:

a Marshalling and outdoor stockyards 10 to 20

b Stairs, gangways, basements, quarries, loading docks, 100

slab yards, melting shops, ingot stripping pits, blast
furnace working areas, picking and cleaning lines
mechanical plants, pump houses.

c Mould preparation, rolling and wise mills, mill motor 150

 rooms, power and blower houses.

d Slab inspection and conditioning, cold strip mills, 200

sheet and plate finishing, tinning, galvanizing,
machine and roll shops.

e Plate inspection 300

f Tinplate inspection Special Lighting

12 Laboratories and Test Rooms:

a General laboratories, balance rooms 300

b Electrical and instrument laboratories 450

13 Machine and Fitting Shops:

a Rough bench and machine work. 150

b Medium bench and machine work, ordinary 300

automatic machines, rough grinding, medium buffing
and polishing.

c Fine bench and machine work, fine automatic 700

machines, medium grinding, fine buffing and
polishing.

14 Paint shops and Spraying Booths:

a Dipping, firing, rough spraying. 150

b Rubbing, ordinary painting, spraying and finishing. 300

c Fine painting, spraying and finishing. 450

d Retouching and matching. 700

15 Sheet Metal Works:

a Benchwork, scribing, pressing, punching, shearing, 200

stamping, spinning, folding.

b Sheet inspection. Special Lighting

ILO Recommendation:
As given by ILO Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, some
recommended illuminance is given in Table.
Table: ILO Recommendation
Class of Visual Recommended
Typical Examples
Task Illuminance (Lux)

1. Exceptionally Inspection of minute work, jeweler, watch-

2400 or more
difficult tasks making, hosiery, knitwear.

Extra-fine bench and machine work, tool & die

b. Very difficult making examining of dark goods, dye works - 1600
final perching.

Clothing trade-inspection, hand tailoring,

grading and matching dark leather, dye-works- 1200
colour matching.

Fine bench and machine work, extra fine

3. Difficult painting, spraying, matching, dye works- 800
reception, grey perching.

4. Normal range
Office work with poor contrast, drawing office,
of task and work- 600
fine painting, proof-reading, computer rooms.
places

Medium bench and machine work, typing,

5. Moderately
filing, reading, writing, wood working, steel 400
difficult
fabrication.

Chalkboards & charts, pharma-stores, bottling

6. Ordinary & canning plants, book binding, food 300
preparation, cooking, canteens

7. Simple Rough bench and machine work, counting, 200

checking, halls, waiting rooms, warehouses,
stores, parking, dispatch.

8. Rough Live storage, rough bulky material, loading 100

intermittent tasks bays, change / locker rooms.

9. Movement & Corridors with heavy traffic, walkways, stairs, 50

Orientation. rest-rooms, lanes.

Corridors with light traffic 20

CHAPTER-3
WHO definition of Occupational Health
 About occupational health the main functions of WHO (occupational health)
mandated in article 2 of its Constitution include promoting the improvement of working
conditions and other aspects of environmental hygiene. Recognizing that occupational health
is closely linked to public health and health systems development, WHO is addressing all
determinants of workers' health, including risks for disease and injury in the occupational
environment, social and individual factors, and access to health services. WHO is
implementing a Global Plan of Action on Workers’ health 2008-2017 endorsed by the World.
Health Assembly in 2007 with the following objectives:
 devising and implementing policy instruments on workers' health;
 protecting and promoting health at the workplace;
 improving the performance of and access to occupational health services;
 providing and communicating evidence for action and practice; and
 incorporating workers' health into other policies.

5.1 Occupational Health Hazards:

5.1.1 Adverse effect of Noise & Vibration
Adverse Health Effects and Controls:
Noise &Vibration:
Noise - too low or too high cause ear strain or pain. Auditory effects are temporary or
permanent hearing loss. Non-auditory effects cause nervousness, fatigue, difficulty in
conversation, decreased efficiency, annoyance and psychological and systemic effects. The
degree of injury depends on intensity and frequency of noise, exposure time (duration) and
individual susceptibility.
EFFECTS AND HAZARDS OF NOISE
Moderate sound (F < 4000 Hz) is good but high sound or noise is hazardous.
The harmful effects of noise depend upon a number of factors:
1. Noise frequency and intensity.
2. Total length of exposure.
3. Length of exposure at a time.
4. Distance from the noise source.
5. Whether noise is continuous, interrupted, sudden or impulsive.
6 Whether ear protector is worn or not and
7. Individual susceptibility depending on age, health etc.
Excessive noise harms overall health and may contribute to -
1. Mental stress
2. Physical stress
3. Certain illness
4. Hearing Loss or deafness
5. Accidents and
6. Labor productivity.
Labor productivity is declined when workers are exposed to high noise level.
The harmful effects of excessive noise have been well recognized and it has been
shown that such noise produces physiological and psychological effects on industrial
workers, such as hearing loss, deafness, fatigue, irritation, annoyance, distraction, masking.
Such effects are due to sound intensity.
J.L. McCartney’s report 'Noise drives us crazy' shows that the work of assembling
temperature regulators increased more than 37% and errors fell to one-eighth of their former
number when the work was moved from the proximity of a boiler shop to a quiet area. Office
work increased 8.8% and typists' errors fell 24% with a noise reduction of 14.5%. The noise
reduction also decreased turnover or workers by 47% and absenteeism by 37.5%.
In factory where audible warning signals are to be heard or where an operator has to
follow the operation of his machine by ear, the background noise should not be so loud as to
mask (suppress) the signal or desired sound i.e. information sound too he heard.
Another noise criterion, known as Damage-Risk Criteria specify the maximum levels
and duration of noise exposure that can be considered safe.
Whenever the noise intensity at the workers position exceeds the levels and duration
suggested by the criterion curves, ear protection is recommended, since such exposure may
cause permanent auditory damage.
Noise induced hearing loss is not ameliorated by the use of hearing aid. It may rather
accentuate the frequency distortion.
Auditory ill-effects are of two types - temporary (threshold) hearing loss and
permanent hearing loss including physical damage (ruptured eardrums). For details see Part
2.1.
Non-auditory ill effects are vibration or change in blood pressure or/and respiration or
digestive system, dilatation of pupils and diseases like peripheral vascular disturbance IDH,
vascular neuropathy, myopathy etc. Impulsive noise disrupts work performance. Continuous
noise may have subtle psychological and psychomotor effects.
 Speech or hearing interference (masking), annoyance, distraction, fatigue (mental and
physical both), muscle tension, headache, nausea, tiredness, nervousness and contribution to
other disorders are also reported. For details see Part 2.
If noise cannot be reduced at source, or its transmission to the environment cannot be
prevented, use ear protection.
Exposure to excessive noise raises our hearing threshold i.e. the degree of loudness at
which we first begin to hear.
Some health effects are discussed in details below:
Auditory Effects (Hearing Loss):
These are serious health hazards resulting in hearing loss or deafness.
Hearing Loss:
Hearing ability can be greatly reduced by repeated or long exposure to high noise and
this permanent effect is known as noise induced hearing loss.
It is impairment in ear that obstructs receipt of sound and understanding of speech in a
sentence form (not in the form of test words). It is deafness. It is irreversible and incurable
disease and can be corrected partly by hearing aids. Early audiometric examination can
prevent further damage.
A young person with normal hearing can easily detects sounds in 6 to 20000 Hz
frequency range. Important frequency range to understand speech is between 500 to 2000 Hz.
Generally hearing losses in this frequency range which are compensable under Workmen's
Compensation Laws.
Old definition of 'hearing impairment (loss)' means to begin to hear (threshold level)
at 25 decibels more at 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz.
Ability to hear less than normal speech indicates degradation. It can result from
ageing, long-term exposure to high noise (more than 90 dBA) or from a sudden, very high
intensity noise (more than 160 dBA). Much of this degradation with age may be due to
continuous exposure to environmental noise of modern society rather than to simple ageing.
It is possible therefore that even where a factory complies with standards (say 90 dBA),
workers will suffer hearing loss (due to exposure outside) and be eligible for benefits under
Workmen's Compensation Laws. Therefore, it is advisable to avoid loss claims, all attempts
should be made to reduce noise to the lowest possible level and not to be higher than 80 db.
One of the more extensive studies involving 400 men, 90 women and a period up to
40 years has been reported by LL Beranek and LN Miller, in 'The Anatomy of Noise',
Machine Design, 14-9-1967. The group was regularly exposed to noise of 90 dB in each of
the six octave frequency bands between 150 and 9600 Hz.
The study found that appreciable hearing losses at 3000, 4000 and 6000 Hz occurred
in the first 15 years. At 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz, hearing losses increased less rapidly, as
linear functions of exposure time. Some of the men tested, even at 30 years young, found it
difficult to understand speech after about 10 years of exposure.
Men showed greater hearing loss than women because the women had regular work
breaks during each shift while the men did not.
The ear's greatest sensitivity is in the 30005000 Hz range and hearing loss almost
always occurs first at about 4000 Hz. With time and continued exposure, the loss extends to a
range of 3000 to 6000 HZ. This diminishes hearer's ability to follow conversation. The most
important frequencies for speech comprehension are at 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz. Therefore,
tests for hearing losses are made at these frequencies for compensability. The lowest level at
which a person (under test) can detect sound is called hearing threshold. A loss is considered
compensable if the degradation in hearing is 15 dB or more in speech frequencies. 'This
means that the hearing threshold has been increased by at least that amount.
Effects of Chemicals on Hearing loss are also reported. Exposure to certain
chemicals, along with noise, can also cause hearing loss. Toluene, lead, mercury, arsenic, CS,
manganese, n-butyl alcohol, trichloroethylene, styrene is reported for such effect.
It is also reported that noise above 115 dB (i.e. ceiling level) as 8-hour TWA and 155
dB as peak exposure (impulsive or impact noise) to the abdomen of pregnant workers,
beyond the fifth month of pregnancy may cause hearing loss in the fetus.
In such combined effect of noise and chemicals, periodic audiograms and their careful
review are necessary.
A very loud impulsive noise can cause ringing in the ears (tinnitus) and immediate
loss of hearing sensitivity. It can disappear if there is no further exposure to high noise levels.
The impulsive or impact level should not exceed a ceiling limit of 140 dB (OSHA).
The ear can protect itself to some extent from noise by means of the reflex contraction
of certain muscles in the middle ear which tries to limit the energy being transmitted inside.
This protection is of little use when sudden very loud noise strikes the ear causing the muscle
fatigue.
Factors affecting degree and extent of hearing loss are as under:
1. The intensity of the noise (sound pressure level).
2. The type of noise (frequency spectrum).
3. The period of exposure each day (duty cycle per day).
4. The total work duration (years of employment).
5. Individual's susceptibility.
6. Age and health of the worker.
7. Co-existing hearing loss and ear disease.
8. Character of the surroundings in which the noise is produced.
9. Distance from the source, and
10. Position of the ears with respect to sound waves and wearing ear protection or not.
The first four factors are called noise exposure factors and are more important.
Because of so many factors i.e. possible contributory causes and complex relationship
of noise and exposure time to threshold shift (reduction in hearing level), time required to
establish criteria t (protect workers against hearing loss may last many years.
The signs and symptoms of hearing loss are
1. Ringing in the ear at the end of the work shift slight headache, tiredness, dizziness.
2. Intermittent ringing in ears.
3. Normal hearing is affected - if background noise is present, incapability of picking up
conversation, cannot hear ticking clock etc.
4. Feeling of hearing insufficiency is manifest.
Reduction in hearing capacity is not on) quantitative but also qualitative, that is,
sounds a; perceived in an abnormal manner.
Diagnosis and special tests include audiometric examination and monitoring noise
levels at the work place.
Hearing loss is of two types - temporary and permanent. They are also classified as
conductive sensorineural and mixed hearing loss.
Temporary hearing loss can be caused by exposure to loud noise for up to a few
hours, which numbs the hair cells. Fortunately, hearing is usually restored after a period away
from noise.
Permanent hearing loss occurs when exposure to loud noise permanently damages or
destroys the hair cells. Hearing cannot be restored. Signs of permanent hearing loss include -
1. Inability to hear pitched or soft sounds.
2. Trouble in understanding conversation, or speech heard over the telephone.
3. Ringing or roaring m the ears (tinnitus).
Any condition interfering with transmission of sound to the cochlea (inner ear part) is
classified as conductive hearing loss'. It can be due to wax in auditory canal holes in eardrum,
blockage of Eustachian tube, fluid in the middle ear secondary to infection. This type of loss
is also due to medical or surgical treatment.
Sensorineural hearing loss is mostly irreversible. It involves the organ of corgi and
degeneration of the natural elements of the auditory nerve. It indicates sever injury to the hair
cells. This type of loss occurs due to various causes including presbycusis, viruses (e.g.
mumps), some congenital defects and drug toxicity (e.g. streptomycin).
Mixed hearing loss occurs when above both the types of losses are found in the same
ear.
Central hearing loss means person's difficulty to interpret when he hears. The
abnormality is localized in the brain between the auditory nuclei and the cortex.
Psychogenic hearing loss indicates nonorganic basis for threshold elevation. It may
be due to malingering and hysteria.
No cure exists for hearing loss caused by noise. Hearing aids do not restore noise
damaged hearing, although they help some people if such aids are properly selected.
Exposure to intense noise creates a temporary threshold shift (TSS) first. This is
greatest from 1 to 24 hours after the exposure and reduces gradually if the noise has not been
too loud. or has not been too long. This condition is also known as auditory fatigue. This
effect is transitory i.e. removable. It is of two types TTS, and TTS,the later persists beyond
16 hours.

Repeated exposures produce a permanent threshold shift (PTS). If no recovery is

noticed within a week (i.e. no hearing improvement by then), a return to the level before
exposure is improbable. It is a noise induced hearing loss.
While deciding whether a certain noise is a hazard, the important factors are both the
sound level and the number of hours of exposure per day. Table 12.4 and 12.5 given in Part 4
must be followed for that.
Hearing loss is a notifiable Disease under the Factories Act 1948:
Noise induced hearing loss (exposure to high noise levels) is a notifiable disease
under the Third Schedule of the Factories Act and duty is cast upon both the manager of the
factory and the medical practitioner attending the person affected, to report to the Chief
Inspector of Factories without delay (Sections 89 & 90).

Non-auditory Effects:
 These are the effects other than the hearing loss and mostly temporary in nature. They
may be disappeared if their causative factors are removed.
Speech or Hearing Interference andMasking:
Oral communication is interfered by a noisy environment and misunderstanding may
be created about information being transmitted. It can lead to accidents. Such sound effect is
called masking.
Masking is a level in decibels, by which a sound must be increased to be understood
in the presence of another, interfering sound.
Tests were conducted of reception of pure tone (single frequencies) communications,
where masking was also provided by pure tones. It was found that the intensity of the
message to be communicated had to be increased 15 to 30 decibels to become
understandable.
Various methods to measure the effects of noise levels on speech communications are
based on relationships among noise levels, voice (speech) levels and distance between
speaker and listener.
Annoyance:
Normally people are annoyed by noise. However, types and levels differ from person
to person. Rock music annoys people who like classical music and vice-versa.
Acclimatization or tolerance to certain level is an important factor. People who have been
exposed to certain noises over a long period develop a tolerance to that level. The same
noises may annoy other persons who have not developed the tolerance and to such a degree
their efficiency is degraded. They may become more prone to errors or accidents.
Normally louder noise or unexpected impulsive -noise can be more annoying. High
frequencies are more annoying than low frequencies.
Distraction:
It is another noise effect that diverts attention of a person. For example, /passengers
talking with a driver of a bus can distract his attention which may lead to an accident. Persons
talking in the vicinity can distract the attention of other persons even if it does not annoy
them. The sudden ringing of a telephone or any audio signal can distract attention and
disturbs concentration.
Physiological Effects:
Sleep disturbance (WHO report, even at less than 35 dBA) and stress reaction (e.g. jet
aircraft personnel exposed to 120 dBA or more) have been noticed.
 Cancer: A case study was published in 'Current Science' weekly. 40 female rats were
kept under the effect of 25 kHz ultrasound waves daily for one minute and for a period of six
months. In 70% of these test-rates, cancer tumors were observed, skin wrinkles were seen and
their hairs fell off. They were feeling difficulty in movement and died earlier than normal
rates. Dr. S.N. Chatterjee of Nuclear Physics in Saha Institute and Dr. Pratima Sur of Indian
Institute of Chemical Biology carried out this experiment and warned against this ultrasound
hazard mostly found in equipment used for biological and medical diagnosis. (News 10-8-
98).
Adverse effects on work output, efficiency and morale are another non-auditory effect
of noise. Fatigue and mental health' effect may also occur. However, such effects are varying
and many a times human adaptability nullifies such effects.
Behavioral Effects:
Adverse effects on work output, efficiency and morale are other non-auditory effects
of noise. Fatigue and mental health effect may also occur. However, such effects are varying
and many a times human adaptability nullifies such effects.
Vibration of 10 to 500 Hz frequency range as normally found with pneumatic drills,
hammers and grinders affects the hands and arms. After exposure of months or years, fingers
become sensitive to spasm known as white fingers. Vibrations also produce injuries to joints,
elbows and shoulders.
Sick or Tight Building Syndrome is a health effect on workers, mostly IT personnel
due to heat or cold stress, poor ventilation, poor lighting, or monotonous work in fixed type
of environment for a longer period. Sickness is resulted in health effects like indigestion,
psychosis (mental fatigue), visual problem, mental feeling of impotency, headache, backache,
uneasiness, obesity, acidity etc. Remedial measures include-change in working environment,
new and attractive atmosphere, good lighting and ventilation, good housekeeping, rotation of
persons, recreation facility and staggered working hours instead of continuous eight or more
working hours.
Adverse effect of Cold, Heat Stress, & Illumination
(1) Adverse effect of Cold, Heat Stress
a) The cold causes chilblains, shivering, frostbite, trench foot, vasoconstriction,
hypothermia and erythromyeloid.
The control measures include (1) sufficient intake of water and salt (2) cotton and protective
clothing (3) break in exposure time and more rest intervals (4) engineering controls (5)
medical control and (6) acclimatization of the workers.
 b) Heat causes burns, exhaustion, stroke, cramps, fatigue, decreased efficiency, pain,
discomfort, heal collapse, systemic disorders, skin disorders, psychoneurotic disorders and
tendency to cause accident. Acclimatization to high temperature requires reduction in heart
rate and internal body temperature at the expense of increased sweating. Radiant heat (e.g.
ovens, furnaces), stagnant heat (e.g. textile mills), and high temperature (e.g. mines, glass
furnaces) create stress and impair health.
The amendment (1995) in Gujarat Factories Rules has prescribed certain limits -
Room temperature < 30 °C (80 °F), Air movement > 30 mt/ min. Ventilation openings > 15%
of the floor area and in summer when temperature exceeds 35 °C and humidity 50%, air
cooling is required. For humidity control dry and wet bulb temperatures are also prescribed
u/r ISA.
One UK Standard suggests the following criteria
Environmental Factor Standard
Air temperature 21 oC
Mean radiant temperature > 21oC
Relative humidity 30-70%
Air movement 30-60 mt / min
Temperature gradient (foot to head) < 2.5 oC

Microwaves (heating sources)

Uses of microwave radiation are heating sources like microwave ovens, dryers for
food products and plywood, pasteurization, ceramics, telecommunications like radio and TV
and medical applications (diathermy devices). Microwave ovens for heating or cooking food
are clean, flexible and instantly controllable. The heating rate is very high and use of any fuel
or pollution due to it should be avoided.
The primary effect of microwave energy is thermal. The higher frequency cause lower
hazard and vice versa. Frequencies less than 3000 MHz can cause serious damage. At 70
MHz, maximum SAR (specific absorption ratio) in human takes place. Exposure of high
intensity and more time can cause localized damage by skin burning, tissue burns, cataracts,
adverse effect on reproduction and even death.
The basic safety measures include restricting energy (power density in microwatts/
m2 and frequency) below the safe level, reducing time of exposure, shielding and enclosing
microwave source, reorienting antenna or emitting device, use of PPE and controlling at
source.
(3) Adverse effect of Illumination (i.e. Visible Light (Energy):
This portion lies in the range of 400 to 750 nm. The danger of retinal injury lies
between 425 to 450 nm due to peak brightness. Eye response to excessive brightness i.e.
partial or full lid closure and shading of the eyes, is a protective human mechanism.
Main sources of visible light are sun, laser beams, arc welding, highly incandescent or
hot bodies and artificial light sources such as pulsating light, high-intensity lamps, spotlights,
projector bulbs, neon tubes, fluorescent tubes, flash tubes and plasma torch sources.
The visible light is of three types: incident, reflected and transmitted light. Incident
light is that light which strikes the work surface. Reflected light is that light which bounces
off surfaces and reflected onto work surfaces by walls and ceiling. It is measured to
determine glare and shadows. Transmitted light pen
Vision is a photochemical and physiological phenomenon. Exposure to glare can
cause fatigue of eyes, iritis and Blepharisma. But these effects cannot cause pathological
changes.
Poor illumination can cause industrial accidents. Direct glare, reflected glare from the
work and dark shadows lead to visual fatigue. Better lighting provides safe working
environment, better vision and reduces losses in visual performance.
Factors of good lighting are its quantity and quality. The Quantity is the amount of
illumination that produces brightness on the task and surroundings. The Quality refers to
distribution of brightness in environment and includes the colour of light, its diffusion,
direction, degree of glare etc.
Light &Colour:
Improper and insufficient illumination causes eye strain, eye fatigue, headache,
lachrymation, congestion around cornea and miner's nystagmus (chronic effect). Glare or
excessive brightness causes visual discomfort and fatigue, tiredness and irritability.
There should be sufficient and suitable lighting natural or artificial in all work areas.

Adverse health effects of thermal radiation, ionizing and non-ionizing radiations.

Ionizing& Non-ionizingRadiation:
 Electromagnetic radiation consists of varying electric and magnetic fields, operating
at right angles to each other. It has both particulate and wavelike aspects. Following table
shows the wavelength and frequency for various electromagnetic radiation. Longwave have
low energy, short-waves have high. The higher energy wavelengths (short-waves) are more
penetrating i.e. more damaging. X-rays, Gamma rays and cosmic rays have short
wavelengths, 10" cm and less, and high frequency, 10'6 c/s and above and cause ionizing
radiation.
Others i.e. electric waves, radio waves, micro waves, visible light, IR, UV and lasers
have longer wavelength and less frequency and cause non-ionizing radiation. Lasers are
involved in visible light, IR and UV regions of the spectrum given below:
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Energy Form Frequency c/s Wavelength, cms
Non-ionizingradiation:
Electric waves 102 to 104 1012 to 106
Radio waves 104 to 1011 106 to 10-1
Infrared (IR) 1011 to 1014 10-1 to 10-4
Visible light 1015 7x10-5 to 4x10-5
Ultraviolet (UV) 1015 to 1016 10-5 to 10-6
Ionizingradiation:
X-rays 1016 to 1018 10-6 to 10-9
Gamma rays 1018 to 1021 10-10
Cosmic rays 1021 on 10-11 on

Types and Limits of Radiation:

(A) Ionizing Radiation:

Ionizing radiation means electromagnetic or corpuscular radiation capable of
producing ions directly or indirectly in its passage through matter. It is not visible by normal
eyes. X-rays, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, fast neutrons, thermal neutrons and radionuclides are
ionizing radiation. Radioactive substance (chemical) must be firmly sealed within metal
container to prevent dispersion to active material into surrounding. Radiation hazard means
the danger to health arising from exposure to ionizing radiation which may be external or
internal.
Animal and human studies have shown that exposure to ionizing radiation can cause
carcinogenic, teratogenic or mutagenic effects, as well as other sequelae. The NCRP has
formulated exposure limits. Some such limits are given below:
Exposure limits given in rems per year are as under:
Whole body exposure Long term 5 (Age in year – 18) x 5
accumulation
Testicles, Ovaries and Red bone marrow 5
Skin, Thyroid, Bone 15 to 30
Hands, Feet and Ankles 75
Forearms 30
All other organs 15
Pregnant woman, total during pregnancy, 1
0.5 in gestation period
Population
1 Individual 0.5 whole-body
2 Average 5 gonads
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) has prescribed a dose-
equivalent limit of 0.5 SV (50 rem) to prevent non-stochastic effects.
Radiation dosimetry in health physics tries to know whether individual radiation
exposures are within permissible dose. Various fixed and portable monitors (detectors and
survey instruments) are used for radiation exposure measurement. Some fixed monitors are
as under: Type of Detector For type of Radiation.
Type of Detector For type of Radiation.

Proportional or scintillation
1 Alpha
counter surface barrier diode

Geiger-Mueller tube or
2 Beta
proportional counter

Ionization chamber, scintillation

3 X and Gamma
counter

Proportional counter, insertion

4 Fast neutrons
chamber.

5 Proportional counter. Thermal neutrons

Fixed monitors are either area monitoring instruments or contamination monitoring

instruments. Area monitors are used for measurement of air, gamma radiation, neutron
radiation and radioactive effluents. The contamination monitoring instruments include hand
and shoe monitors, portal monitors, clothing monitors and monitors for contaminated
wounds. The dosimeters are to be calibrated for proper use.
Protection Techniques include:
1. Control of exposure time and distance.
2. Shielding.
3. Wearing a film badge to check dose limit.
 4. Pre and post-employment medical test.
5. Prevention of radiation disease such as skin cancer, ulceration, dermatitis,
cataract, damage to bones and blood etc.
6. Use of remote controlled containers.
7. Continuous monitoring and maintaining safe limits by engineering controls
and PPE.
8. The sealed container should be leakproof.
Health Physics is a branch of science dealing with improvement of protection against
exposure to ionizing radiation (IR). The main principles of health physics were defined in
1977 by the ICRP. Three general principles of radiation protection are - (1) justification (2)
optimization and (3) limitation of worker's exposure to radiation.
Medical radiation (x-rays) and nuclear radiation to generate electric power are
justified but nuclear weapons for war are not justified.
Optimization means to keep the exposure as low as achievable
Limitation means to limit the exposure entering a human body by protecting
individual or society by devices and observing prescribed safe dose limits.
A record for more than 30 years must be maintained even after completion of job on
ionizing radiation, of (1) doses absorbed by individual and (2) exposure measurement.
In our present-day industry, radiation generating machines and radioactive materials
for testing of materials, process control and research have found wide-spread use. X-ray
machines are widely used in industry, medicine, commerce and research. Industrial X-ray
devices include radiographic and fluoroscopic units used for the determination of defects in
materials in packaged food etc. All such uses are potential sources of exposure. The most
widely used naturally occurring radio-nuclide is Ra. 226 which is used in medicine and
industry. In its use in the medical field, many individuals, besides the patient are potentially
exposed to radiation. In industry, the principle uses of radium are for radiography in
luminous compound and in making static eliminators. Textile and paper trades, printing,
photographic processing and telephone and telegraph companies are the typical industries
where the static eliminator may be found. The use of artificially produced radio-nuclides
(radio-isotopes) in medical, biological, agricultural fields, and scientific research has been
increased. Possible exposure from such radio nuclides is involved with their preparation,
handling, application and transportation. Exposures, internal or external, might also arise
through contamination of the environment by wastes originating from 'the use of these
materials.
 Applications of ionizing radiation in industry are many. It is used mostly in
biological and chemical research, chemical pilot plants and production. It is used for curing,
grafting, testing & evaluation, free radicals, cross. linking, polymerization, disinfection,
sterilization, pasteurization etc. Product wise it is used in semi-conductors, rubber, adhesives,
spices, paints and coatings, membranes, fuels, lubricants, plastic piping, enzymes, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, medical supplies, foods, flooring, furniture, textile, medical uses,
agricultural uses etc.
Biological Effects and Controls of radiation:Occasional small dose (e.g. X-ray
photograph) does not affect much but small doses for a longer time or more frequent dose or
higher dose may cause biological damage to a human body. Radiation energy passes through
a body. The energy absorbed in a body is called dose. The time between the exposure and the
first symptom of radiation damage is called latent period. The larger the dose or the residence
time, the shorter the latent period.
Human body always generates new cells replacing dead or damaged cells. But when
ionizing radiation causes more damage than the body's repair capacity, biological damage
takes place. Injury to individual .is called somatic effect and that being passed into future
generations is called genetic effect. The. biological effect is the destruction of reproduction
capacity of a cell or carcinogenic effect (cancer) which is difficult to cure.
Biological effect of radiation can be reduced by -
1.Shielding the body portion (especially blood forming tissues and intestine).
2.Shielding by a portion between the source and the human body by a high-density
material such as lead or concrete wall. Thickness should be increased depending on
intensity of radiation.
3.Less dense (less hazardous) radiation (electromagnetic instead of charged particles).
4.Low dose rate or fractionation of the dose and decreasing the dose level.
5.Diminishing O2 concentration in the tissues.
6.Reducing the exposure time.
7.Increasing the distance from source.
8.Using sealed source of radiation.
Monitoring the environmental exposures by various instruments such as film badge,
thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLD), pocket dosimeter, Geiger-MuUer tubes (having
automatic audible. alarm), monism chambers, neutron and proton monitors and keeping
them below the permissible threshold limits. Calibration techniques for instruments is most
important.
 10. Decontamination facilities.
11. Safe disposal of radioactive wastes.
Medical Surveillance:Exposure to radiation workers may not give any clinical signs.
Therefore, according to ICRP, the medical surveillance of radiation workers should aim at-
1. To assess the health of the workers.
2. To preserve good general health standards by monitoring the work conditions,
exposure levels and the health of the workers and
3. To provide baseline information in case of accidental exposure or occupational
disease.
Functions of such medical service include--
1. Scheduling of medical and radiotoxicological examinations. Pre-employment and
during and after (post) employment examinations are necessary.
2. Evaluating the fitness of individual workers for specific tasks.
3. Medical examinations and first-aid after radiation accidents, irradiation or
contamination accidents.
4. Keeping of adequate medical records for quite a long time (30 years).
5. Contributing to safety and health training and
6. Helping to solve safety problems in the plant.
Large nuclear installations should have full time and fully equipped medical and
health physics services and facilities - including decontamination facilities and ablutions very
near the workplace. Small units should obtain part-time facilities.
Personal decontamination facilities include a separate ambulance port, monitoring
devices, sink, showers, a disrobing room, clean clothing and pharmaceutical supplies.
Plant medical service should remain in touch with local and other hospitals where
irradiated or contaminated persons can be treated.
Radiological Accidents and Controls: When radioactive irradiation or/and
contamination is likely to exceed the maximum permissible levels, such overexposure is
termed as radiation accidents.
Accidental external irradiation depends on nature of radiation, its distribution in
space (exposed area), its penetration in body (dose level) and its duration. In the exposed area
irradiation may be of whole-body or partial type. Dose level may be massive, substantial or
slight. The biological effect may be irreversible tissue damage, severe but reversible changes
or purely temporary disorders. Kind of radiation may be photon irradiation (x or y- rays),
particle irradiation by electrons, neutrons and protons or mixed photon and particle
irradiation.
Accidental radioactive contamination depends on the nature of the radionuclide (its
physical, chemical and radioactive characteristics), local distribution in the body (path of
entry through skin, wounds or inhalation), duration (initial and secondary impact following
bodily intake) and level of contamination (massive, substantial or slight).
Control Measures necessary are -
1. In case of external irradiation, measurement of exposure in the body and the space,
should soon be carried out to decide a course of action.
Urgent treatment is not essential.
2. In case of radioactive contamination, urgent treatment is essential. Therapy should first
be followed instead of measurement of radioactivity and clinical and biological
examinations, though they should be followed subsequently to assess the level of
contamination.
3. If the whole-body irradiation is more than 100 rems, the person should immediately
be transferred to a specialized hospital.
4. Cases of massive whole-body irradiation are difficult to survive, but, they are mostly
rare.
5. No immediate treatment is required for slight or partial irradiation. Persons should be
observed for some weeks for subsequent development if any.
6. Therapeutic measures are as under:
1. Cleaning and washing of skin and wounds.
2. Decontamination by surgical excision, but before that a strong chelating agent
must be applied locally as soon as possible.
3. In case of inhalation, emergency medical treatment becomes necessary if the
internal contamination exceeds the maximum 3monthly intake or exceeds (500
x Maximum permissible atmospheric contamination per hour). The person
should be transferred to a specialized hospital. In serious accidents, the
stomach must be washed out and the contaminant at the intestine should be
rendered insoluble.
4. Biological examinations and samplings are necessary. Blood samples must be
@ 20 cm3 by volume and raw i.e. without any additive. The first urine sample
and next 24-hr samples are necessary. Samples of the first three stools and one
72-hr after the accident are also necessary.
 5. To check respiratory contamination, the person's handkerchief or nasal
samplings by blowing nose into a paper tissue are useful.
6. Decontamination of substances, objects and persons.
A card containing information of possible contaminants, the time of sampling and any
treatment given before the sampling, must be sent along with the samples to the
radiotoxicological laboratory as quickly as possible.
Decontamination:The ionizing radiation cannot be neutralized or interrupted.
Therefore, rapid decontamination is one of the best safety measures to protect man against
possible or actual hazards of direct or indirect radiation. The purpose of decontamination is to
reduce its level below the safe level. Following methods of decontamination are used:
1. Mechanical decontamination i.e.removal of radioactive layer by scrubbing, shot
blasting, washing by water etc.
2. Physical decontamination i.e. evaporation, dilution, filtration, ultrasonic techniques,
or allowing the half-life time if it is in hours or up to 3 days.
3. Chemical decontamination i.e.treating with acid, alkali, chelating compounds, ion-
exchange resins etc.
4. Biological decontamination of sewage.
5. Decontamination of water, surface and clothing by selecting appropriate material, e.g.
10% solution of citric acid followed by 0.5% solution of nitric acid to clean stainless-steel
surface, mineral acids to clean glass and porcelain vessels, replacement of concrete blocks
etc. 6. Decontamination of persons by scrubbing the skin with warm water and soap and
followed by use of surfactants and absorbents. I to 3% solution of hydrochloric and citric acid
are also useful. Use of organic solvent is inadvisable. Cleaning for more than 10 min. is also
not advisable, as further cleaning cannot remove contaminant and may damage the
epithelium.
Removal of radionuclides from the human body is much more difficult and needs
experienced medical treatment. The choice of a method and reagent depends on the type and
character of the contaminant, path of penetration and time elapsed after contamination.
Surgery is the best method to decontaminate wound. Complexing reagents (viz. DTPA) are
generally effective to decontaminate blood, internal organs and tissues. To decontaminate
upper respiratory system, expectorants and vasoconstrictive preparations are prescribed.
(B) Non-IonizingRadiation:
The main difference between ionizing and nonionizing radiation is that the former is
more hazardous because of its higher frequency range and shorter wavelength comparing
with the later which has lower frequency range and longer wavelength. More safety measures
- Decontamination, medical and others- are required to prevent and control the ionizing
radiation and its damage.
Non-ionizing Radiation refers to those regions of the electromagnetic spectrum where
the energies of the emitted photons are insufficient, under ordinary circumstances, to produce
ionization in the atoms of absorbing molecules. Its lower wave length limit is 100 nm
(arbitrary). It includes ultraviolet, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radio waves,
lasers, power frequencies and radar waves.
The Spectrum Phenomenon:The sun's energy is transmitted by electromagnetic
waves. If a narrow beam of sunlight is passed through a prism and then projected upon a
surface, colorful 'spectrum' is visible from red at one end through orange, yellow, green, blue,
and indigo to violet at the other end. If a thermometer is moved slowly from violet to red
portion, it shows a rise in temperature. Beyond red (in dark space) it shows a still higher
temperature. This dark portion (beyond the red) is called infrared (IR), and the dark portion at
the other end (beyond the violet) is called the ultraviolet (UV).
There is no sharp dividing line between IR, visible and UV regions. They differ from
each other in frequency, wavelength or energy level. See the table of spectrum in foregoing
para. The common factor among them is that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same
speed and are originated from moving electric charges.
Physical & Biological Units: The entire electromagnetic spectrum is roughly divided
and studied in two parts:
1. The upper region of shorter wavelength is of more concern to physicists and physical
scientists who describe radiation in terms of wavelength.
2. The lower region of longer wavelength is of more concern to communication
scientists and engineers who describe radiation in terms of frequency.
Both these units are given in the following table

Physical Units of NI Radiation

Unit Symbol Equivalent
Wavelength
angstrom A 10-8 cm
centimeter Cm 1 cm
micrometer m 10-4 cm
nanometer Nm 10-7 cm
Frequency
hertz Hz 1 c/s
kilocycle Kc 1000 c/s
megacycle Mc 106 c/s
Gigacycle Gc 109 c/s

Biological effects of the UV, visible, IR, radio frequency and the extremely low
frequency of power transmission, have been studied. Visible light and heat waves can be
easily perceived and dark goggles can reduce their intensity to a comfortable level. The UV,
IR, microwave and lower frequency radiations cannot be perceived by eyes, but have
biological penetration as shown in the following table -
Thermal effects are produced in the skin due to exposure in IR and FM-TV-radio
region. Photochemical effects can be produced in the UV and visible regions.
Now, main divisions of non-ionizing radiation are explained below in brief.
(1) Infrared (IR) Radiation:
The IR region extends from 750 nm to 0.3 cm wavelength of microwaves.
Exposure to infrared radiation is very common in glass industry and near cupolas and
furnaces. Since long-wave infrared radiation is readily absorbed by the surface tissues of the
body, it cannot inflict deep injuries in the 'human body. Over exposure produces some
discomfort which generally gives adequate warning. However, the eyes may suffer injuries
or general discomfort to other parts of the body, there is some evidence that this may result in
cataract.
The protective measures against this radiation include the placement of reflective
screens of polished aluminium shield near the source. Those screens will direct the. rays
away from the personnel into unoccupied space or return them to the heat source. They have
been found very effective in many industrial situations. Eyes of the exposed personnel
should always be protected, by suitable glasses, from direct radiation arising from areas that
given off intense heat, even though the temperature is not necessarily high. Infrared radiation
be measured by the black-bulb thermometer and radiometers.
Main industrial IR exposures are from hot furnaces, molten metal or glass and from
arc processes. Use of enclosures, shielding, eye protection and safe distance are main safety
measures.
(2) Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation:
The UV region is subdivided as Near - 400 to 300 nm. Far - 300 to 200 nm and vacuum -200
to 4 nm.
 The effects of ultraviolet radiation are similar to sunburn. Since there is a
considerable time gap between exposure and development of injury, deep burns, may be
endured without immediate discomfort. This radiation is readily absorbed in human tissue. As
a result, superficial injuries are produced chiefly to the skin and eyes. Higher exposure can
cause skin or eye damage. The skin effect is called dermatological and the eye effect is called
ocular.
Some industrial processes, such as welding, produce considerable amount of
ultraviolet radiation. In areas where ultraviolet radiation is quite intense, potentially
hazardous chemical contaminants, such as ozone and oxides of nitrogen, are also produced
due to action of this radiation on air. In the zone where arc-welding is carried out, very high
concentrations of ozone and oxides of nitrogen have been found.
All personnel engaged in welding should invariably wear goggles and face shields.
Besides these, the use of gloves, leggings, overalls and boots is an essential necessity for the
personnel engaged in welding. Furthermore, opaque shielding should be used around welding
areas to protect other persons. Local exhaust ventilation may also be used as an effective
means for the removal of chemical contaminants produced during the arc welding.
Ultraviolet meters can be used for the measurement of. this radiation. It has been
suggested that 0.5 microwatt per square centimeter be the permissible limit of ultraviolet
radiation for a 7 hours continuous exposure.
The most common exposure to UV radiation is from direct sunlight. Solar irradiation
exhibits intense UV radiation but due to the atmosphere (ozone) shielding of the earth (God's
gift), we are not exposed to the lethal doses. Long time exposure to hottest sunlight
(afternoon) may cause skin cancer. This must be avoided.
Some commercial application of UV radiation are fluorescent lamps, mercury Vapour
lamps, germicidal lamps, electric arc welding, chemical processing, etched circuit board
production and UV lasers.
Wavelengths below 320 nm cause skin reddening and skin-burn (erythema effect).
Solar or UV radiation from artificial sources may cause skin pigmentation (tanning).
Wavelengths between 320 and 230 nm can cause carcinogenic effects.
Main safety measures are shielding of UVR source, use of eye goggles, protective
clothing and absorbing or reflecting skin creams.
(3) Visible Light (Energy):
 This portion lies in the range of 400 to 750 nm. The danger of retinal injury lies
between 425 to 450 nm due to peak brightness. Eye response to excessive brightness i.e.
partial or full lid closure and shading of the eyes, is a protective human mechanism.

Main sources of visible light are sun, laser beams, arc welding, highly incandescent or
hot bodies and artificial light sources such as pulsating light, high-intensity lamps, spotlights,
projector bulbs, neon tubes, fluorescent tubes, flash tubes and plasma torch sources.

The visible light is of three types: incident, reflected and transmitted light. Incident
light is that light which strikes the work surface. Reflected light is that light which bounces
off surfaces and reflected onto work surfaces by walls and ceiling. It is measured to
determine glare and shadows. Transmitted light penetrates a transparent or translucent
material.

Vision is a photochemical and physiological phenomenon. Exposure to glare can

cause fatigue of eyes, iritis and Blepharisma. But these effects cannot cause pathological
changes.
Poor illumination can cause industrial accidents. Direct glare, reflected glare from the
work and dark shadows lead to visual fatigue. Better lighting provides safe working
environment, better vision and reduces losses in visual performance.
Factors of good lighting are its quantity and quality. The Quantity is the amount of
illumination that produces brightness on the task and surroundings. The Quality refers to
distribution of brightness in environment and includes the colour of light, its diffusion,
direction, degree of glare etc.
(4) Radio and Microwaves:
Within the broad spectrum of radio frequencies, the microwave. region is between 10
to 3 x 105 MHz (megahertz). This form of radiation is propagated from antennas associated
with TV transmitters, FM transmitters and radar transmitters.
Uses of microwave radiation are heating sources like microwave ovens, dryers for
food products and plywood, pasteurization, ceramics, telecommunications like radio and TV
and medical applications (diathermy devices). Microwave ovens for heating or cooking food
are clean, flexible and instantly controllable. The heating rate is very high and use of any fuel
or pollution due to it should be avoided.
 Radio or high frequency electrical heaters are used in metalworking plants for
hardening cutting tools, gear-teeth and bearing surfaces and for annealing, soldering and
brazing. Use in food industry is for sterilizing vessels and killing bacteria in foods.
In woodworking plants, high frequency heating is used for bonding plywood,
laminating and general gluing. Other uses include molding plastics, curing and vulcanizing
rubber, thermocycling and setting twist in textile materials.
Induction heaters are used for annealing, forging, brazing or soldering conductive
materials. Induction furnaces are used in foundries to melt metal. Dielectric heaters are used
for non-conducting, dielectric materials like rubber, plastics, leather and wood.

The primary effect of microwave energy is thermal. The higher frequency cause lower
hazard and vice versa. Frequencies less than 3000 MHz can cause serious damage. At 70
MHz, maximum SAR (specific absorption ratio) in human takes place. Exposure of high
intensity and more time can cause localized damage by skin burning, tissue burns, cataracts,
adverse effect on reproduction and even death.

The basic safety measures include restricting energy (power density in microwatts/
m2 and frequency) below the safe level, reducing time of exposure, shielding and enclosing
microwave source, reorienting antenna or emitting device, use of PPE and controlling at
source.
Power Frequencies:
The main hazards from high voltage lines and equipment (low frequency) are shocks
and current. Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation produces electric field and magnetic
field. An external electric field induces electric current in the body.
Protection from ELF is possible by shielding of electric field by any conducting
surface. Persons working in high field strength regions (e.g. high voltage lines) should wear
electrically conductive clothing. Avoiding entry in such region is also advisable.

ELF magnetic field cannot be shielded. Therefore, the only remedy is to keep the
magnetic field below safe levels or to restrict entry of personnel into the magnetic fields.

5.2 Permissible threshold exposure limits - short term and long-term effects of
exposures – Preventive and control measures

Threshold Limit Value is abbreviated as TLV. Threshold Limit Value is the maximum
concentration of Toxic material which the workmen can tolerate or withstand for 8 hours in a
day while working in the atmosphere charged with the contaminant.
Short term exposure limit (STEL): It is a concentration of substances which can be tolerated
by workmen for 15 minutes without causing any adverse effect.
Maximum allowable concentration (MAC): It is a concentration which must not be exceeded
even for the short period of time.
Effects of exposures of TLV, STEL & MAC:
Factors influencing the effects of Toxic materials:
1. Absorption-the effects are dependent upon the rate of absorption of toxic substances
in the human body. quicker the absorption, more is the risk to the workmen.
2. Concentration and time of exposure –more the concentration and time of exposure,
more is the amount of toxic substances getting entry into the human body.
3. Personal tolerance level –certain persons can tolerate a particular toxic substance
while others cannot.
4. Susceptibility – susceptibility to toxic substances may vary from person to person.
5. Personal hygiene and behavior- personal hygiene and behavior including proper
maintenance of clothing, cleanliness, tidy habits, etc. plays an important role.
6. The state of matter – the state of the matter of toxic substances (whether solid, liquids,
or gases) plays an important role in connection with the effects of toxic substances on
the human system. As, for example, hydrochloric acid HCl as(liquid)
Harmful effect:
1. Chemicals can cause asphyxia or suffocation.
2. It causes irritation to respiratory tract or other vital organs like liver, kidney, etc.
3. Some chemicals cause coconsciousness or unconsciousness.
4. Anesthetics These are either primary or secondary

Control Measures:

1) Storage – proper storage and handling specially that of materials in bulk or in large
quantity need special care and attention. haphazard storage and handling of hazardous
material can trigger off accidents.
2) Temperature and pressure – many processes or operation in industrial plants are associated
with high temperature and pressure. In many such processes. In many such processes the
reactions being exothermic in nature in which unusual heat is unleashed. This may cause
damage to equipment’s system and can trigger off fire hazards. Hence thorough control of
temperature to permissible limits is one of the prime considerations. Unusual rise in
 pressure much above the stipulated or permissible limit may cause bursting of pipelines,
failure of valves associated with leakage of hazardous substances selection of suitable
safety valves, a proper design of all assemblies, pipeline system, pressure vessel etc. can
check these maladies.
3) Operation and processes –Any defect in design or any deviation from the design with
respect to the various operations and processes may lead to serious consequences. Hence a
proper design of the whole operational and process systems coupled with suitable follow
up in the actual practice/ working is warranted. This implies that everything involved
(notable equipment, workmen, measuring instrument, work procedures, the managers and
the supervisors) must be functional. The failure of any one of the above components or
units associated with the operations of process may lead to accident.
4) Education and training –all the personnel involved in the industrial operations
(speciallythe novices and new entrants) must be imbued with a sense of safety
consciousness. This needs formal and informal education and training. in industries
associated with hazardous chemicals, proper education and training must be imparted to
the personnel regarding use of proper label, warning signs and colour codes, proper
methods of storage and handling etc. a harmonious relation between the workmen and the
manager is necessary to synchronies the various activities of the person concerned. Clear
instructions, manuals or booklets for each hazardous job have to be supplied to the
concerned workmen etc.
5) Information, data collection and monitoring - information and data collection and their
subsequent analysis play an important role. The identification of hazardous substances or
them
Toxicity, the emergency requirements therein as well as proper handling and storage of these
materials etc. are some of the information to be recorded in the safety data sheets. Suitable
monitoring of hazardous substances can further bolster the safety measures and control.
6) Repair and maintenance –regular repair and maintenance as for example in the pipeline
system, valves, pressure gauges etc. helps to minimize accidents. Extreme precautions are
to be taken while repair and maintenance operation are being carried out,e.g., shutdown
during repairs etc. any laxity, inadvertence or carelessness during repairs may create have.
7) Personal protective equipment’s- all persons exposed to hazardous substances during
manufacturing, storage, handling etc. must be provided with personal protective equipment
the use of personal protective equipment’s.
Common Occupational Diseases as per the Sch. III of the Factory Act.

(1) Occupational Lung Diseases:

Normally dusts cause lung diseases and therefore the types of dusts and their effects
are
discussed below.
(A) Types of Dusts and their Effects:
Dust is a disperse system (aerosol) of solid small particles in air or gas whose size
distribution is like a colloid. It originates from mechanical communication of coarser
material. Mining, breaking, crushing, grinding, mixing, polishing and handling are the main
dust generating processes.
Small particles of O.I to 5 u.m size (respirable dust) can remain in the alveolar
passages of which smaller particles (O.I r-lm) behave as colloids or smoke, deposit in lungs
or other part and cause health effect. Particles of larger size (>5 (im) are driven back by the
clearance mechanism. Asbestos fiber of 3 (urn or less in diameter and up to 100 (im length
can reach the alveoli, while the smallest fibers can reach up to pleura and pleural space.
2nd Schedule of the Factories Act prescribes TLV (permissible time-weighted average
i.e. TWA concentration per 8 hours) of cotton, asbestos, coal, cement and silica dusts.
Types of dusts can be classified as under:
1. Quartz and mixtures containing quarts: Coal dust, mineral ores, sand, rock, fluorspar,
quartzite etc. They are found in mining, ceramic industries, refractories, pestering,
mixing and insulating materials. They cause nodular fibrosis and silicosis.

2. Asbestos and mixtures containing asbestos:

3. Metals and metal compounds: Metals like iron, nickel, lead, manganese, aluminium,
beryllium, chromium, cadmium, vanadium and their oxides are extensively used in
metallurgy, metal working, welding, electroplating, furnaces, sintering etc. They can
cause irritation, diffuse fibrosis and different types of lung diseases known as
synderesis, bronchial carcinoma or asthma, tracheobronchitis, aluminium lung etc.
4. Plant and Animal (organic) dust: Wood, animal hides, skins, hair, feathers, scales,
cotton flax, hemp, sisal, jute, mould hay, straw, cereals, bagasse, crushed grain and
bran, enzymes etc. They are found at wood working, agriculture, poultry, textile, grain
or sugar mill etc. and cause irritation, immune reaction, carcinoma, allergic rhinitis,
bronchial asthma, farmer’s lung, bagasse’s, byssinosis etc.
5. Other dusts: These are chemical dust like carbon dust, soot, graphite, phthalic and
maleic anhydride and arsenic dust etc. and found in mining, metallurgy, rubber,
plastic and chemical industry. They can cause irritation, carcinoma, systemic effect,
ulceration, conjunctivitis, graphite pneumoconiosis etc. Inert dusts are also hazardous.
Following table shows some dusts and lung diseases that may be caused by them.
Dusts Lung Diseases
Quartz (Silica) Silicosis.
Asbestos Asbestosis
Talc Talco is, mesothelioma, bronchial carcinoma, carcinoma of upper
respiratory tract.
Aluminium and its oxides Aluminum lung, bauxite smelter’s lung, CNSLD
Beryllium & its oxides Tracheobronchitis, pneumonitis, berylliosis
Cadmium and its oxides Tracheobronchitis, bronchopneumonia, emphysema of the lung.
Chromium, Chromate, Chromatid Ulceration and perforating of nasal sputum, bronchial asthma,
carcinoma of nasal cavity, CNSLD.
Hard metals “Fibrosis, immune reaction.
Iron, Iron oxide Siderosis.
Manganese, Manganic pneumonia, CNSLD.
Manganese oxide
Nickel, Nickel oxide, Nickel salts,Bronchial carcinoma, carcinoma of nasal cavity,
Platinum compounds (salts) Allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma.
Vanadium pentoxide Tracheobronchitis, bronchial asthma, CNSLD.
Milled or crushed grain and bran Allergic rhinitis, chronic rhinitis, bronchial asthma CNSLD.
Wood (exotic types) Allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma, carcinoma of the nose and nasal
cavity, CNSLD.
Animal hides, skin, hair, leather Allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma.
and scales.
Mould hay, straw, cereal, and Farmer’s lung, bagassosis.
bagassse
Enzymes Allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma
Cotton, flax, hemp sisal, jute. Byssinosis, CNSLD.
Arsenic, arsenic trioxide, arsenic Ulceration and perforation of nasal septum, tracheobronchitis,
salts. carcinoma of nasal cavity.

chronic non-specific lung disease. The types of effects are fibro genic, carcinogenic,
systemic, toxic, allergic, irritant and skin effects.

(B) Dust Control Methods:

To prevent lung diseases, some control measures areas under
1. Know the exposure limits of dusts. Dust below 5 microns size is invisible. Depending on
toxicity, exposure limits vary from 0.1 to 10 mg/ m3 See also 2nd Schedule under the
Factories Act (Table 15 of Chapter-32). Employ effective measures based on this safe
limit and nature of the dust.
2. Elimination ofdusty process e.g. improved casting technique to eliminate dusty
fettling process.
3. Substitution by a less toxic or non-toxic dust, e.g. shot-blasting in place of sand
blasting, metal mould in place of sand mould and glass fiber or slag wool in place of
asbestos insulation.
4. Segregation and enclosure of the process if dust generation cannot be prevented.
Dusty process should be enclosed in a room and be connected with effective exhaust
and dust collector. - Complete enclosure is the best segregation, e.g. blasting cabinet,
fuming cupboard.
5. Wet methods prevent particles becoming airborne. Powdered material is suspended
or dissolved in a liquid. The correct degree of wetting should be maintained and it
should not be allowed to dry out.
6. Local exhaust ventilation should be applied to collect the dust from the nearest
possible distance. The smaller enclosure gap requires smaller exhaust rate. Suction
flow should be away from the worker's breathing zone. Dust collection, filtration and
disposal are the subsequent steps. Various kinds of air cleaning devices are also
available.

(2) Occupational Dermatitis:

An inflammation of the skin produces dermatitis which is the most common skin
disease. The part of body most exposed is affected first, so it starts on hands. With some
dusts and fumes, the first signs may appear around the eyes, neck and face also. The disease
can be caused by many chemicals and apparently harmless substances including all forms of
mineral oils (including diesel, lubricating and fuel oil); chemicals (alkalis, chromate,
dichromate and synthetic resin), solvents (thinners and degreasers such as white spirit,
paraffin, trichloroethylene, turpentine, and petroleum product); tar pitch and other coal
products including chemicals in the phenol and cresol family; soot; radiation including X-
rays and radiant heat; friction particularly when dust or grit gets between clothing and skin.
 Chromate and dichromate used in chromium
plating, dyeing and tanning produces chrome ulcers or
holes as well as dermatitis. In one chemical factory at
Vadodara (Gujarat), 43 workers with holes in nasal
diaphragm, 3 workers with chrome ulcer and 23 workers
with dermatitis were detected. They were working with
sodium and potassium dichromate. The liquid or dust from
the process gets into cracks or cuts in skin and forms deep holes. Chromic acid, concentrated
potassium dichromate, arsenic trioxide, calcium oxide, calcium nitrate and calcium carbide
are well known ulcerogenic chemicals. Chemical or thermal burns, blunt injury or infections
resulting from bacteria and fungi may result in ulcerous excavations on the part affected.
Occupationally induced changes in skin colour can be caused by dyes, heavy metals,
explosives, certain chlorinated hydrocarbons, tars and sunlight. The change in skin colour
may be simply a chemical fixation within keratin.
Primary Skin Irritants in industry are organic and inorganic acids and alkalis, some
metal salts, nickel, phenol, trichloroethylene, solvents and acne producers.
Primary Skin Sensitizers are dyes and dye intermediates, photographic developers,
rubber accelerators and anti-oxidants, insecticides, oils, natural and synthetic resins, coal-tar
and its derivatives, explosives, plasticizers and others.
Skin cancer is caused by long periods of contact with a variety of substances
including mineral oils, paraffin, tars, arsenic and several kinds of radiation including X-rays
and ultra violet light. The cancer will usually develop in direct contact with the above
substances. Other parts can be affected. Ifthe substance penetrates the clothing.
Dermatitis is a skin disease caused by primary irritants like acids and alkalis, organic
solvents, soaps, detergents, lime, cement, turpentine, synthetic coolants, abrasives, nitro
paints, hardeners, dyes, peroxides, pesticides, weedicides, gum, inks, chlorinated diphenyl’s,
disinfectants etc. and by sensitizers like formaldehyde, fungicides, azo dyes, chromium,
nickel, mercury and cobalt salts.
Dermatitis can also be caused by physical agents (e.g. heat, cold, moisture, radiation,
friction, pressure etc.) or biological agents (e.g. bacteria, fungus, virus etc.)
Occupations involved are leather, metal, paint, printing, plastic, rubber, textile,
electroplating, engineering, construction, cleaners, chemical, bakers etc.
For diagnosis it is useful to know the occupational history and to observe many
workers, in identical situations, who develop cutaneous changes. Patch tests are indicative.
Occupational dermatitis is preventable if timely diagnosed and controlled. Preventive
measures are:
1. Engineering measures to control the harmful agents by various methods.
2. Pre-employment or pre-placement medical examination and sorting out the workers
having suspected dermatitis or pre-disposition to skin diseases and keeping them
away from the jobs having skin hazards.
3. Use of. necessary PPE and barrier creams.
4. Personal hygiene. Adequate washing and bathing facility with warm water, soap, nail
cutter and clean towels.
5. Periodical medical examinations of workers and transferring the job of the affected
workers.
(3) Occupational Cancer:
Occupational cancer is a form of delayed toxicity, serious in clinical course and
outcome, due to exposure to chemical or physical agents (carcinogens) in the workplace.
Yearly Figures of ESIC indicate incidence of cancer in our workers:
Carcinogenic substance means a substance or preparation which by inhalation,
ingestion or coetaneous penetration can induce cancer or increase its frequency. It causes an
increased incidence of benign and/or malignant neoplasm, or a substantial decrease in the
latency period between exposure and onset of neoplasm in human or in experimental specie;
as a result of any exposure which induce tumors at a site other than the site of administration.

It is unknown that how many chemicals are actually carcinogenic to humans and how
many human cancers could be prevented by improving working conditions. There may be
mixed reasons occupational and non- occupational also.
The ACGIH has classified carcinogens in five categories depending on the TLVs of chemical
sub in contact:
1. Confirmed Human Carcinogen
2. Suspected Human Carcinogen
3. Animal Carcinogen
4. Unclassified Human Carcinogen.
5. Unsuspected Human Carcinogen
Courtesy: 2007 TLVs and BEIs, ACGIH.
Some tables are also given below to understand occupation or substance and body
part (site) being affected by cancer.

Occupation, Substance and Site of Cancer:

Occupation Substance (carcinogen) Site (body part)

Asbestos & products Asbestos Lung, pleura
Metal and Mining Arsenic, Chromium, Lung, skin
 Uranium, Benzo (a) pyrene Lung
(BAP), Nickel Lung
Lung
Lung, nasal sinuses
Chemical industry Vinyl chloride Liver
BCME, CMME Lung
Dyes-benzidine, Bladder
s-naphthylamine, Bladder
4-aminodiphenyl Paranasal sinuses
Auramine, other aromatic
amines Isopropyl alcohol
Petroleum industry Polycyclic hydrocarbons Scrotum
Insecticide, Pesticide Arsenic Lung
Gas industry Benzo (a) pyrene (BAP) Lung
Coal carbonization products, Lung, Bladder
-naphthylamine Scrotum
Gas industry Benzo (a) pyrene (BAP) Coal Lung
carbonization products, Lung, Bladder Scrotum
-naphthylamine
Rubber industry Benzene Lymphatic and Leukemia
Aromatic amines Bladder
Leather industry Leather dust, benzene Nose, bone marrow
Wood pulp and paper Wood dust Nose (adenocarcinoma)
industry
Roofing, asphalt work, steel BAP Lung
prod.
Others – Diethyls Diethylstilbestrol Female genital tract, breast
Melphalan Hematomaphotobiotic system
Mustard gas Lung, pharynx
Soot’s, tars and mineral oils Skin, lung, bladder, GIT
Conjugated estrogen Uterus
Cyclophosphamide Bladder

Body part and Substance having risk of Cancer:

Body part Substances (carcinogen)

Bone Beryllium (benzene – bone marrow)
Brain Vinyl chloride
Gastrointestinal tract Asbestos
(GIT)
Hematomaphotobiotic Benzene, styrene, butadiene and other synthetic rubber, alkylating
tissue (leukemia) agent, cyclophosmamide, melphalan, bushman, vinyl chloride
Kidney Lead, coke oven gas, finasetin
Liver Alcohol, vinyl chloride, steroids, aflatoxin, DDT, PCB, trichloro
ethylene, chloroform, aldrin, dieldrin heptachlor, chlordecone,
murex, CCl4
Liver Alcohol, vinyl chloride, steroids, aflatoxin, DDT, PCB, trichloro
ethylene, chloroform, aldrin, dieldrin heptachlor, chlordecone,
murex, CCl4
Larynx Tobacco smoking, alcohol, asbestos, chromium, mustard gas.
Lung Tobacco smoking, arsenic, asbestos, iron, chromium, nickel, vinyl
chloride, cadmium, uranium, biocalorimetry ether (BCME),
chloromethyl methyl ether (CMME), benzo(a) pyrene (BAP),
coke oven gas, mustard gas, tar, polyclinic hydrocarbons (PCH)
Lymphatic tissue Arsenic, benzene
Mouth Alcohol, pan, lime, tobacco, Gurkha, textile fiber
Nose Chromium, nickel, wood dust, leather dust, tanning, formaldehyde,
IPA, benzene
Pancreases Benzidine, PBC
Peritoneum Asbestos
Pharynx Tobacco smoking, alcohol, mustard as, textile fibers
Plural cavity Asbestos
Prostate Cadmium
Scrotum Soots, tar –naphthylamine, chloroprin, polyclinic hydrocarbons
(PCH)
Skin Arsenic, cutting oil, mineral oil, sots, tar, cock oven as, PCH
Bladder Tobacco smoking,  or -naphthylamine, benzene, benzidine, 4-
aminodiphenyl, alkylating agent, chlorpromazine,
auramine, 4-nitrodiphenyl, aromatic amines
Vagina Estrogen
Female genital tract, Diethylstilbestrol
breast
Central nervous system Vinyl chloride
(CNS)
Uterus Conjugated estrogen
Buccal cavity Oil mist, solvents, dyes, cadmium, lead
Multiple myeloma Solvents
Diagnostic methods for assessing cancer should consider detailed occupational history
to know whether in past the worker was exposed to any carcinogen. If worker does not know
it, factory records should be gone through or interrogated with his supervisors. A
questionnaire may be useful in 'collecting such past information. Screening may be useful to
some extent.
Preventive measures are
1. Not to use carcinogenic. substances or processes.
2. Research to find safe substitutes should be developed.
3. To eliminate contact of workers from carcinogenic substances by
(1) Employing closed system of work (i.e. no manual handling or direct
exposure).
(2) Work environment monitoring, biological monitoring and keeping the
exposure far below the permissible limits.
(3) Using personal protective equipment.
(4) Following safe waste disposal methods.
4. Avoiding personally susceptible workers at the time of recruitment.
5. Rotating workers exposed to risks and thus reducing their exposure time.
6. Advising to stop smoking and to improve personal hygiene.
7. Referring serious cases to a cancer hospital or onco-surgeon.

6.2 Pre-employment, periodic medical examination of workers

73-V. MEDICAL EXAMINATION: -
All the workers in the Factory shall be medically examined once in a year by Certifying
Surgeon appointed or recognized by the Govt.
1). workers employed in a “hazardous process “shall be medically examined by a qualified
medical practitioner hereinafter to as factory medical officer in the following manner,
namely: -
(a) Once before employed to ascertain fitness of the person to do the particular job.
(b) Once in a period of 6 months, to ascertain the health status of all the workers in respect of
occupational health hazard to which they are exposed, and in cases where in the opinion of
the factory medical officer it is necessary to do so at a shorter interval in respect of any
worker.
(c) The details of pre-employment and periodical medical examination carried out as
aforesaid shall be recorded in the health register in form 7.
2). No person shall be employed for the first time without a certificate of fitness in form 6
granted by the factory medical officer. If the factory medical officer declares a person unfit
for being employed in any process covered under sub-rule (1), such a person shall have the
right to the appeal to the certifying surgeon whose opinion shall be final in this regard.
(3). Any finding of the factory medical officer revealing any abnormality or unsuitability of
any person employed in the process shall immediately be reported to the certifying surgeon
who shall in turn, examined the concerned worker and communicate his finding to the
occupier within 30 days. If the certifying surgeon is of the opinion that the worker so
examine is required to the surgeon is of the opinion that the same process. However, the
worker so taken away shall be provided with alternate placement unless he is fully in
incapacitate in the opinion of the certifying surgeon in which case the worker affected shall
be suitably rehabilitated.
(4). The worker taken away from employment in any process under sub-rule (2) may be
employed again in the same process under sub-rule (2) may be employed again in the same
process only after obtaining the fitness certificate from the certifying surgeon and making
entries to that effect in the health register.
(5). An inspector may, if he deems it necessary to do so, refer a worker to the certifying
surgeon for medical examination as required under sub-rule (1). the opinion of the certifying
surgeon in such a case shall be final. The fee require for this medical examination shall be
paid by the occupier.
(6). The worker required to undergo medical examination under these rules and for any
medical survey conducted by or on behalf of the central or the state government shall not
refuse to undergo such medical examination.

CHAPTER 5:FIRST AID

4.1First aid and Ambulance aid

Prevention is better that cure but when prevention is not possible and an injury does take
place, cure is the only prevention of further injury and this cure is primarily to be provided by
the First Aid.
First aid can be defined as an immediate treatment given to the victim of an accident or
sudden illness, before medical help is obtained. It is a combination of simple but quite
expedient, active measures to save the victim’s life and prevent possible complications. It
needs to be immediate in severe accidents complicated by bleeding, shock and loss of
consciousness.
Ambulance Aid-
The ambulance room shall be in charge of a qualified medical practitioner assisted by at least
one qualified nurse and such subordinate staff as the chief inspector may direct.
There shall be display in the ambulance room a notice giving the name, address and
telephone number of the medical practitioner in charge. The name of the nearest hospital and
its telephone number.
The ambulance room shall be used only for the purpose of first-aid treatment. It shall have a
floor area of at least 24 square meters and smooth, walls as per F.A and shall be adequately
ventilation and light, drinking water, room shall contain at least: -

Sink,table,stretcher, buckets, hot water bags, wooden splints, woolen blankets, forceps,
bottle of spirit, sponges, towels, trays, toilet, thermometers, teaspoon, measuring glasses,
wash bottle, chairs, electric hand torch, one cupboard with require first aid medicine and
instruments.

4.2 fire incidents and range of casualties

Year
Plant & Place Death Serious Injuries

Coal dust explosion,

1942 1572 -
china

Ship explosion,
1944 231 476
Bombay

Ship fire/ explosion,

1947 576 2000
Texas, USA

Truck explosion,
1956 1100 -
Columbia

Mine explosion,
1975 431 -
Chasmal, India

1984 Petrol line fire, Brazil 500 -

1984 LPG fire, Mexico 500 7000

Fire in a toy factory,

1993 211 -
Thailand

Huge fire in oil

1994 132 -
refinery, Cairo, Egypt

Fire in a dance hall,

1994 233 16
Beijing, China
 Fire in a moving train,
1995 375 -
Moscow, Russia

Fire due to short

1995 368 -
circuit, Sirsa, Haryana

A leaking gas pipeline

1995 exploded, Taegu, 109 160
South Korea

Gas fire in pilgrims’

1997 tents, Mecca, Saudi 343 -
Arabia

Fire following
explosion in a
1997 60 -
refinery,
Vishakhapatnam, AP

Fire while mopping up

petrol spillage from a
1997 burst pipeline in 500 -
southern Nigeria
Egypt.

Gas explosion in a
1999 coal mine, Beijing, 35 8
China

Fire Christmas party

2000 (discotheque) in city in 309 -
China on 26-12-2000

4.3Wounds-

A wound is an injury or an abnormal break in the continuity of the skin or other tissues. In
an external wound there is a danger that germs will enter the wound and cause an infection. If
the wound is deep severe bleeding may occur or there may be serious damage to the
structures within the body such as heart, lungs or brain.
 Types of wounds -
Wounds may be open or closed in the opened or closed. In the open wound skin is
broken and blood escapes out in a closed wounds skin is not broken.
 Other types of wounds
1) Arabism /Graze –
Cause – friction or pressure of rough object.
 Features – A superficial injury involving the other layers of the skin.
It is painful but bleeds slightly or oozing.
2) Bruise – cause- blunt force e.g. stonestick etc. features- It is red due to
infiltration of blood in to tissues skin over it in intact. It becomes blue, black,
green, yellow and finally disappears with time.
3) Lacerations – cause – blunt force e.g. Fall from roof, fall in house, fall on rough
surface or rough spicks.
They are much have difficult to treat and need medical attention stop
bleeding by applying pressure only remove large and loose pieces of it to the
experts. This sort of injury particularly calls for tetanus protection
Features- The skin and underlying tissues are torn. It has irregular and abrasions.
4) In used wounds – cause – A weapon with sharp cutting edge e.g. knife razor,
glass, etc. features - The edges of the wound are clean cut. It bleeds more than
laceration. If less than one cm long will probably heal well. If you stop bleeding
pull edges together and apply adhesive dressing. Do not fiddle about with design
reactant wash your hands clean the area around the wound ensuring that no
water enters into the open wound. Dry it carefully then apply the dressing
 Wounds on first aid –
1) Place the victim in a sloping position.
2) Apply pressure to control bleeding
3) Treat shock
 How to manage an infected wound
Any wound that has begun to heal after 24 hours, it gets infected. It contains
bacteria, dirt and may contain a florin body. The infection may spread elsewhere in
the body and cause further damage.
Feature of an infected wounds are as follows.
1) Pain and soreness in the wound
2) Swelling and redness around the wound clean the wound with sterile swabs
soaked in an antiseptic solution.
 Bleeding –
Introduction-
The human body contains approximately 5 lit of blood. A healthy adult can lose
up to half a liter of blood without any ill effect is loss of more than this can be
threating to life.
Bleeding is an escape of blood from in other words vessels bleeding is a flow of
blood from an artery vein or a capillary.
Effect of bleeding or hemorrhage-
There are four different types of hemorrhage of bleeding
1. Arterial bleeding –
i. The bleed is bright red in color
ii. It spurts at each contraction of heart
iii. Flow is pulse tile
2. Venous bleeding –
Bleeding from the veins which carries blood to heart
 (i) Bleed is dark red in color
(ii) If close not spurt
(iii)Stray how of blood.
2) Capillary bleeding – i) blood is red in color
ii) If dose no spurt
iii) Slow but even how
3) External and Internal bleeding –
Bleeding may occur externally due to an injury to the body or internally from
an Injury in which blood escape in tissue spacesor.
 The body cavity
First aid management
Aim- 1) control of bleeding as soon as possible
2) Keep the wound clean and dress it to minimum blood loss to prevent infection.
 Management – i) control the bleeding ii) place the person in such a position that
he/she will be least affected by the loss of bleeding due to gravity. Iii) maintain
airway clear iv) prevent the loss of body heat by belting blanket unclear and over
the person. V) keep him /her at rest as movement will increase the heart action
which will cause the blood to flow faster and will interfere clot formation.
 Burns –
Burns is defined as tissue damage caused by burn of open flame not object molten
metal or electricity Injury or mark, cause by fire heat or acid, small steam is called
burn.
 Burns are classified according to the area and depth of the injury as follows.
i) First degree- The outer skin is reddened and welted or slightly swollen.
ii) Second degree- The under skin is affected and blisters are formed.
iii) Third degree- The skin is destroyed and tissues underneath are damaged.
The objective in the treatment of burns and scalds are to relieve pain by excluding
air, prevent contamination and treed for shock.
 Scald we heat such as steam hot water hot. Oil etc. produces scalds. The scald is
superficial but often extensive. Blisters and red areas on the surface.
Assessment of burns: The dangers from burn depend upon the area of burn rather
than the degree. Superficial burns over large area is more dangerous than the
complete charging of a part any burn more than 30% should be hospitalized,
calculation for the percentage of the burn is to be done in following manner – The
skin area involved in burn case is more important than the depth. Even a superficial
burn involving more than 5% of the body surface is serious. It more than 15% the
patient may suffer from shock.
By following the rule of nine the percentage of skin area is to be calculated.
Rule of nine – 1) head and neck -9%
2)check -9% 3) Abdomen- 9% 4) Genital area -1% 5) front of each leg 9% 6) back of
each leg 9% 7) each hand 9 % 8) Back – 18 %
* General action –
1) Remove the source or burning or scalding
2) Cool the affected area at once
3) Treat shock if present.
4) Get medical help if the person is severely ill.
Do not -1) Do not put cotton wool or any other fluty dressing on the burn.
2) put, grease oily creams or butter on the wound
Lear blisters airline as if bursts then you what to do-
1) Place the part under running cold water for several minutes or until pain is
released.
2) Do not pull off any clothing around the burnt area unless the burn has affected only
a small confined area never palmary adherent charred cloth from this is an expert
job
3) Once the area has been cooled you can gently remove clothing from the affected
area around the scald this can be done for chemical burns also with excess of case
so that you will not get any harm from the chemical-soaked cloths.
4) Decides whether the person needs medical attention.
5) If you cannot put the burnt area under water from a container and apply soaking to
wets.
It the scald or burn is small i.e.- less than 2.5cm across shallow, easily
covered by – dressing and the person is well then there is no need of medical
attention.
 The medical attention is needed if –
1) The victim is a child
2) The burn is large and specially it involves the areas of the body that more affect
face eye palm or fingers or such parts which can’t be easily covered by dressings
3) Caused by a chemical, electricity or molten metal.
Be prepared to treat shock and call an ambulance or doctor it the victim has 10%
more burns or scalds of his body.
 First aid treatment for burns that you can treat.
1) Dry the area carefully
2) Remove burning or burnt cloths
3) Bandage the area lightly to hold the dressing in place.
4) Apply a dry dressing (can’t of cotton wool) preferably no adhesive burns
dressing from your first aid box.
5) If burn is of chemical nature due to acid naturalize the part with mild alkaline
(preferably 2% soda bicarb solution) and if it is due to alkaline neutralism the
part with mild acid 2% boric acid solution.
 Burns scalds and accident caused by electricity-
Burns scalds are dangers Rous because not only they can cause death but
delayed effects like scarring or deformities can quite dressing hence promit and
corvette treatment of burns and scolds are essential.
 Burns –
 Burns are injuries that result from dry heat like fire contact with hot metals
chemicals electricity and redaction.
 Scalds –
 Scalds are the injuries that results from most heat like boiling hot water steam,
oil hot tar and hot liquids.
The injuries in both burns and scalds are the same.

 Aims: - The aims of first aid are as follows.

1) To save life by removing any danger immediately treating life.
2) To prevent further injury and deterioration of patient’s condition.
3) To release pain.
4) To make medical case available at the earliest.
The Steps to be taken as ----
1) Assessment of the situation observes what has happened quickly and calmly.
Look danger to yourself and the victim never put yourself at higher risk.
2) One should inform the sinuousness of the problem to the relatives of the
victim.
3) One should inform police about the serious accident.
4) Loosen clothing around the neck and waist to aid breathing
5) Treat shock.
6) Release pain
7) Avoid handling the casualty (victim) unnecessarily.
8) Arrange for safe removed of the casualty (victim) to the hospital.
 Qualities of a person giving first aid
1) One should be a good observe and should be able to note the cause and effect of the
injury
2) She/he should be able to act quickly.
3) In case these are multiple injuries one should have for ability to judge the injuries to
be managed first.
4) Self-confident and able to judge which injuries need to be taken first.
5) Able to reassure the apprehensive victim and his/her anxious or nervous relative by
demonstrating competence sympathy and providing reassurance.
6) Able to lead and control the crowd and take help from on lookers.
Structure and function of human body
The human body is an amazing combination of different systems which are well coordinated
for smooth functioning as a unit
All the systems are equally important for health and no particular system can be called as
more important than other system.
A first aider needs to have knowledge of structure and function of various systems so as to
be able to clearly understand sickness and efficiency of injury on the body.
The human body can be comparing to well-oiled machine which is required to perform
various functions as essential. Every first aider should be familiar with the various systems of
body and their functioning so that they can understand and treat any type of abnormality in
emergency.
Human body is made up of bones muscles, blood and every part and organs of the body is
performing similar functioning forms a system of the body. So, the function of human body is
carried out by different system the body.
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF HUMAN BODY

We all know that the smallest functioning unit of every human being is cell. A group of cells
together forms tissue various tissues together form organ. There may be a number of organs
in a system for a specific purpose

Part of organs involved in different system, some of the system are as follows-

Term Meaning

Midline ---------- It divides the body into right and left halves with

A vertical line.

Lateral ------------- Anything away from the middle is said to be

Lateral.

Superior ---------------- Towards the head end

Inferior ---------------- Towards the foot end

Posterior --------------- Back of the body

Anterior ------------ front of the body

Proximal ------------- To words the root of the limb

Disted ------------ To words the end of the limb

1) Skeletal system – It deals with bones and their functions

2) Circulatory System – It deals with circulation of blood in the body with different type
of blood vessels.
3) Respiratory system – It deals with breathing and function of the respiratory organs
4) Urinary system – It deals with formation of urine and removed from body
5) Digestive system – It deals with digestion of food
6) Muscular system – It deals with different type of muscles of the body
 Skeletal system
The skeletal system consists of 206 bones joined together by ligaments and cartilage
and muscles. The various parts are as follows –
The human body consists of head trunk and limbs. The frame work of the body is as
follows—
The human bodies consist of head trunk and limbs. The frame work of the body is as follows
– All bones like long bones, short bones, irregular shaped bones and bone marrow.

I) Skull- A bony frame work of the head under the skin. The seven bones of the skill
and14 bones of the face are firmly united and incapable of movement. The bones of
lover jaw mandible however can be moved up and down as well as side to side.
 Skull is made up of many that bones joined together so that no movement is allowed in
between the bones. It holds the brain. Eyes are located in bony cavities on the front of the
skull.
The nose is made up of small bones attached to the skull.
II) Spine – Back bone or the vertebral column. It consists of 33 small bones called as
vertebrae there are 7 vertebrae, in the neck are called cervical vertebrae 12 in back are
called as thoracic vertebrae, and 5 vertebrae joined together in the lumber region 5 in
sacrum and 4 in the coy.
These are small bones with central cavities and joined end to end forming a central
canal that- contains the spinal cord.
iii) Thorax – it is made up of the thoracic vertebrae behind, sternum in front and12
ribs on the side’s. It pockets the hard and lungs. There are twelve ribs on each side
attached to the thoracic vertebrae at back- except the lowest four the ribs are
attached to breast bone in a front.
iv) Scapulae or breast bone also known as sternum – It is a flat bone of the thoracic
sternum there are two flat triangular bones on the back that connect the upper limbs
to the thorax. Upper limbs – hands each upper limb consist of 19 bones long bone in
the arm called as hummer us two long bones called radius ulna in the forearm and
small bones in the wrist and remaining small bones in the hand (paw).
v) Lower limbs – (legs)
Each lower limb consists of a long bone called femur in thigh, two
long bone called tibia and fibula in the leg and many small bones in the ankle and
foot.

vi) Collar bone or clavicle – It extends from sternum i.e.-breast bone to the shoulder

vii) Shoulder blade or scapula –It is a thin flat bone forming the part of shoulder
girdler.

viii) Hip bone or in nominate bone –there are two Hip bone attached to the sacrum
each hip bone is made up of three (3) bones ilium ischium and pelvic bone.

The main functions of the skeleton system are: -

1) Supporting frame work for soft tissue of the body.

2) Protecting vital, organs like brain, heart lungs and abdominal organs.
3) Permitting movement by functioning as levels at the joints.
4) Formation of blood cells.

4.4 Unconsciousness-
 Any disturbance with the normal functioning of the brain and nerves is called
unconsciousness. It may be not only due to some disease or injury to the brain but
also of other organs in the body.
Various types of unconsciousness are as follows: -
1) Stupor – It is a state of semi consciousness in which person response only two
external stimuli or loud noise, pupils of the eyes contract in respect of light.
2) Coma- It is a state of complete loss of consciousness the person doesn’t respond
to even painful steal eye movements are absent of
Causes of unconsciousness
1) Acute fever
2) Diabetes or overdose of insulin
3) Heat stroke or exhaustion
4) Sever loss of body fluids.
No breathing
Ventilate two times (pinch nostrils and feel for movement of air, take adequate breath and
place your mouth around the casually to make a light seal and blow in to his lungs.
1) Check for pulselessness- Feel for neck pulse present – continue to ventilate once in every
5 seconds. No pulse – locate the lower margin of the rib cage. Run the fingers up to the
notch where the ribs meet the breast bone.
Place the middle finger on this notch with index finger next to it.
Place the heed of the other hand next of the index finger on the long axis of the breast
bone.
Remove the first hand from the notch and place on top of the other hand with fingers
interfaced with elbows locked arms straightened position your shoulders directly over your
hands and perform external chest compression. Depress 4 to 5 cm for adults 2.5 to 4 cm for
children from 1 to 14 years old check carotid pulse after 4 cycles and every five minutes then
on.
 First aid against electric shock
Remove of contact with live conductor. The first action to be taken during electric
shock is to remove the contact between the person and live conductor without
touching the person/conductor with bare hands. Rubber glows/rope/walking
stick/Dry cloth /dry paper/insulating rod/Bamboo pole/Rubber soled shoes any
available insulating rods may be used for pushing the person away from away
conductor.
Simultaneously nearest circuit breakers should be opened from local control to with off the
supply to the particular conductor. These actions must be taken with a fraction of second. For
this the personnel should be trained and rehearsals should be conducted at site.
 First principles of action after electric shock -
Assume that the person is alive and will regain normal state with your fast aid.
Have confidence in yourself and in God.
If breathing is weak or breathing has stopped, try to restore it by artificial respiration and or
external cardiac massage promptly

- Stop bleeding it any.

- Lower the head of the person under physical
- Keep crowd, keep the area well ventilated.
- Avoid rapid movement of patient, movement should be slow.
- Loosen the light cloths of the patient and keep him warm with cloth sheet /worm cover
particularly in winter.
- Do not give water to drink to an unconscious patient.
- Arrange medical help at the earliest
- Assure the patient that he will regain normal state.
- Avoid excitement panic, commotion
- Keep calm and alert
- Get ambulance and take the patient to hospital while conducting artificial respiration and
or heart massage.
 Secondary actions - Notify about the accident to the head of the organization, head
of the safety department, police, insurance companies and relatives of the patient.
 Dressings and bandages
The first rule in any treatment majority for the wounds is cleanliness prevention
of infection is the only assurance that the wound will heal well. In wounds caused
by accident where dirt and dust are spread around for example –road accidents,
earthquakes, tricolons etc. there are greater chances of infection wounds caused by
metals, burns or heat inside. Cuts acquired through glass, such injuries are generally
clean wounds.
 Dressings-
A dressing is a material or fabric piece, applied to a wound or to injured part
and primarily used for three purpose –
1) To control bleeding.
2) To protect a wound from further infection.
3) To prevent or less infection.
 Types of dressing –
1) Prepared sterile dressing-

This is the ideal for all wounds and consists of sterilized piece gauze or lint to which
sometimes a pad or roller band age is stitched. This dressing is enclosing and sealed in a
protective covering. Before using a sterile dressing, hands must be thoroughly washed with a
disinfectantpreferablychlorohexidine 7.5% or with soap water.

2) Gauge or lint – It a sterile dressing is not available cover the wound with piece of
clean gauze
3) Emergency dressing – It a prepared sterile dressing is not immediately available soft
sav material, cotton, bed sheet, table cover, sanitary pads, the inside folding of clean
handkerchief or freshly laundries towel.

The great care that must be taken in handling and applying dressing is to avoid touching
with the naked fingers any part of the wound or any part of dressing which will be in contact
with the wounds.
 Dressings must be covered with an adequate pad of cotton wool which must extend well
beyond the dressing and kept in place with a bandage.
Note - A bleeding wound needs a pressure pad dressing.
 Bandages
Objectives of bandaging
1) To retain or fix dressings and splints in position and to immobilize fractures knots
should never be tied over feature.
2) To afford support to an injured part or form slings.

*To prevent infection

* To control bleeding
* To reduce or prevent swelling.
* To assist in lifting and carrying casualties’signs and symptoms of tight
bandages.
*Skin distal to bandaging may become bluish.
*Numbness and tingling.
Treatment immediate loosening of the bandage.

1.5 Heat and cold injuries and its first aid

HEAT STROKE AND HEAT EXHAUSTION/ HEAT INJURIES
Heat stroke proper is an entirely different reaction in the human body than Heat
Exhaustion. It is serious and often fatal condition. Hot, still, humid atmosphere and
inadequate drinking of water favor’s development of Heat Stroke. Alcohol
consumption and constipation also favors its onset.
Casualty shows mental excitement, restlessness, vomiting muscular cramps and
high temperature in the range of 104 ºf or above. If temperature reaches 106 º f
patients may become unconscious.
HEAT EXHAUSTION

Heat exhaustion occurs among the workers in stuffy atmosphere or in overheated,

poorly ventilated room. There may be feeling of giddiness or fainting. Prevention by wearing
loose clothing, drinking large quantities or water is possible.
Heatstroke and heat exhaustion can occur when the body becomes overheated. Heatstroke
is the more serious of the two conditions. A person suffering heatstroke feels hot but cannot
sweat. The skin becomes hot, dry, and red. The body temperature rises so high that it can
cause brain damage if not lowered quickly. Undress the victim, and apply cold, wet towels to
the entire body. Fanning also helps cool the body. Get medical attention as quickly as
possible.
A person suffering heat exhaustion also called heat prostration, displays many of the
symptoms of shock. Such symptoms include headache, nausea, and feeling faint. The skin is
cold, grey, and wet with perspiration. In most cases, the body temperature remains about
normal. Treat the victim as if he or she were in shock. Place the victim on his or her back,
with the legs raised slightly. If the victim has trouble breathing in the position, place the
person in a half-sitting, half-lying position. Take the victim to a hospital, keeping him or her
as cool as possible.
First aid treatment of heat stroke

- call a doctor.
- Commence active treatment before temperature reaches 104º F.
- Strip the patient naked and wrap him up completely in cold water socked bed sheet.
- Fan vigorously and when temperature of body comes down to 102ºF cooling process
should be stopped.
- Later on, patient should be dried and covered with light blanket.
- Water can be given to drink to gain normal condition.

FROSTBITE/COLD INJURIES
Frostbite may occur when the skin is exposed to extreme cold. It most frequently
affects the skin of the cheeks, chin, ear, fingers, nose, or toes.
Frostbitten skin appears whitish and feels numb. It should be handled gently.
First Aid
1) Warm the affected area with the heat of your hand or cover it with a heavy cloth until
you can get the victim indoors.
2) If warm water is not available, wrap the frostbitten area in blankets. Obtain medical
assistance as quickly as possible.
3) If a victim of frostbite must be moved, protect the person from additional exposure.

6.3 Fundamentals of First-Aid-Burns, Fractures, Suffocation, Toxic Ingestion - Bleeding

Wounds and Bandaging, Artificial Respiratory Techniques.
Burns:
1. Act quickly.
2. Put the affected part in cold water.
3. Pour water on burns that cannot be immersed (Cold water relieves pain, reduces fluid
loss).
4. Cover with a sterilized dressing.
BURNS AND SCALDS
Causes of Burns and Scalds:
1. Burns are injuries that result from dry heat like fire, flame, a piece of hot metal, the
sun, contact with wire carrying high tension electric current or by lightning or friction.
Scalds are caused by moist heat due to boiling water, steam, oil, hot tar etc.
2. Chemical burns are caused by strong acids (Sulphur acid. Nitric acid etc.) or by strong
Alkalis (Caustic Soda, Caustic Potash, quick lime or strong Ammonia).
3. A nuclear burn is caused by the instantaneous flash of intense heat given off by a
nuclear explosion. It is capable of causing superficial burns on the exposed skin of
persons several miles away.
Degrees or Depth of Burns:

The degrees of burns indicate the degree of damage to the tissues. There are five degrees of
burns:
First Degree:When the skin is reddened
Second Degree:When there are blisters on the skin, and
Third Degree:When there is destruction of deeper tissues and of charring.
Fourth Degree:Steam blebs
Fifth Degree:Carbonization

Percentage of Burn:
The danger from burns depends on the area i.e. percentage of the body part of the burns
rather than the degree. Superficial burns over a large area of the body are more dangerous
than the complete carrying of a part of the limb. It must be noted that in the same person,
different parts of the body may show different degrees of burns. Any burn of over 30%
irrespective of deep degree - should be hospitalized as priority. More than 50% burns are
more serious.
Above figure shows the percentage (extent) of burns. It follows the rule of 9. For
more area, add the percentage appropriately. For example, burns of both hands and both legs
indicate 9+18 = 27% burns.
Helping a person whose clothes have caught fire:
The First Aider should know how to deal with a person whose clothes have caught
fire.
1. Put out the flames by whatever means available. Most of the causes of burns occur in
homes and drinking water is readily available to quench the flames, water also cool
the burnt area causing less damage to occur.
2. Do not allow the person to run about. This only fan the fire and makes the flames
spread.
3. Hold a rug, blanket, coat or table cover in
front of you, while approaching a man
whose clothing have caught fire.
4. Lay him down quickly on the ground and
wrap tightly with any thick piece of cloth,
rug or coat. Smother the flame by gently
rolling the causality or by gentle pats over
the covering.
5. If the clothes in front of the body have
caught fire, lay him on his back and vice
versa, till suitable material is brought to
smother the flame.
Rescuing Persons from Fire:
5. When there is fire in a room in which the doors and windows are closed, do not open
the windows and door to let in air. The rush of air will increase the fire and it will
burn more intensely.
First Aid of minor Burns and Scalds:
In the case of minor burns:
1. Clean the area gently with clean water.
2. Submerge the burned area in cold water.
3. Apply a solution of salt and water (one teaspoonful to a pint of water) in out of the
way places.
4. Cover with dry dressing.
5. Do not apply cotton wool direct to the burnt.
6. Do not apply any greasy substance.
7. Give warm drinks for example sweetened tea or coffee.
First Aid of Serious Burns and Scalds:
Immediate attention that required in serious burns are:
First Aid of Chemical Burns:
1. Wash off the chemical with a large quantity of water for 15 minutes by using a
shower or hose if available as quickly as possible. This flooding with water will wash
away most of the irritant.
2. Cut out contaminated clothing.
3. Do not touch.
4. Treat as for burns.
Burns of the Eye:

Acid Burns:

1. First aid for acid burns of the eye should be given as quickly
as possible by thoroughly washing the face, eyelids and the
eye for at least fifteen minutes by water.
2. If the casualty is lying down, turn his head to the side, hold the
eyelids open and pour water from the inner corner of the eye
outward. Make sure that the chemical does not enter into the
other eye. Cover the eye with a dry, clean protective dressing
(do not use cotton) and bandage.
3. Neutralizing agents or ointments should not be used.
4. Caution the victim against rubbing his eye.
5. Get medical help immediately (preferably an eye specialist).

Alkali Burns:
Alkali burns of the eye can be caused by drain cleaner or other cleaning solution. An
eye that first appears to have only a slight surface injury may develop deep inflammation and
tissue destruction and the sight may be lost.
1. Flood the eye thoroughly with water for 15 minutes.
2. If the casualty is lying down, turn his head to the side. Hold the lids open and pour
water from the inner corner outward. Remove any loose particles of dry chemicals
floating on the eye by lifting them off gently with a sterile gauze or a clean
handkerchief.
3. Do not irritate with soda solution.
4. Mobilize the eye by covering with a dry pad or protective clothing. Seek immediate
medical aid.
Fractures:
It may be open or closed. Open fractures in which not only the bone but also the skin
is damaged are most dangerous. Germs can get into die wound formed by the break in the
skin and cause suppuration gas gangrene or tetanus. In closed fractures the outer coverings
(skin and mucous membranes) are intact and prevent the entry of germs.
The signs of fractures of the long tubular bones include pain, hemorrhage, distortion
of the injured part of the arm or leg, abnormal mobility in a place where there should be none,
crackling, swelling, deformity and inability to make any movement.
The fragments of the bone may be displaced to a varying degree in length, width, or at an
angle to each other causing some deformation of the limb.
First Aid; The limb affected must be immobilized. This is especially important
during transportation of the patient. The bone fragments should be tied so that they cannot
move. The rules for immobilizing fractures should be observed. If they are not observed,
grave complications can develop menacing the patient's life.
Treatment:
1. Immobilize the fractured limb with splint like wooden stick, hardboard or
umbrella
2. Make a padding of cotton or hanky on the splints.
3. Do not tighten the splint too tight or loose
4. Elevate the injured limb.
5. Use natural splints, like if a leg is fractured the other leg can be used as natural
splint.
Spine Fracture:
Falling from height can cause spine fracture
Treatment:
Move the patient on a hard surface like table or bench etc.
1. Do not allow to sit, stand or walk
2. Tarn the patient by log rolling
3. Shift the patient to hospital.
Backbone (Spinal) Fracture:
1. Transport on a rigid frame. This frame may be improvised by using available boards
or a door.
2. The rigid frame may be placed on a stretcher for transportation.
3. If a firm frame cannot be improvised, transport patient on abdomen on a stretcher
made of canvas or blanket.
4. In neck fracture cases it is much better to get a doctor to the scene because danger to
the life is great.
5. Immediate hospitalization is necessary.
Suffocation:
1. Remove the patient from the source of danger.

2. Make a rapid examination to ensure that the air passages are free and to clean them if
necessary.

3. Restore natural breathing by artificial respiration, if breathing has ceased.

Toxic Ingestion:
Poisoning by Swallowing (Mouth route):

Sometimes acids, alkalis, disinfectants etc., are swallowed by mistake. They burn the
lips, tongue, throat, food passage and stomach and cause great pain. Other swallowed
poisons cause vomiting, pain and later on diarrhea. Poisonous fungi, berries,' metallic
poisons and stale food belong to the latter group. Some swallowed poisons affect the nervous
system. To this group belong (a) alcoholic drink (methylated spirit, wine, whisky etc.) when
taken in large quantities, and (b) tablets for sleeping, tranquillizers and pain killing drugs
(Aspirin or Largectil). All these victims must be considered as seriously ill. The symptoms
are either delirium or fits or coma (unconsciousness). Some poisons act on nervous system
(belladonna, strychnine).

Poisoning by Gases (Nose route):

Fumes or gases from charcoal, stoves, household gas, motor exhausts, chemicals and
smoke from explosions etc.; cause choking (asphyxia) which may result in unconsciousness
in addition to difficulty in breathing.
Poisoning by Injection (Skin route):
Poisons get into the body through injection, bites of poisonous snakes and rabid dogs
or stings by scorpions and insects. Danger to life is again by choking and coma.
General First Aid in Poisoning:

1. Poisoning is a serious matter. Patient must be removed to a hospital/or a doctor be

sent for, at once with a note of the findings and, if possible, the name of the poison.
2. Preserve packets or bottles which you suspect contained the poison and also any
vomits, sputum etc., for the doctor to deal with.
3. If poison is' not known:
 Make a quick assessment of the likely route of exposure by examining the eyes,
mouth, nose and skin of the victim for signs of the chemical itself or damage it has
caused such as swelling, redness, bleeding, burns, discharge of fluid or mucous or
pallor. Drooling, difficulty in swallowing, a distended, painful, hard, or rigid abdomen
all indicates possible ingestion of a corrosive or caustic substance. If respiration is
rapid, shallow, noisy or labored, suspect inhalation. If the face has been splashed with
chemical, eye contact is likely.
4. Poisoning by inhalation:
Remove victim from exposure while protecting yourself from exposure.
If breathing has stopped, administer artificial respiration using a bag-valve mask. Do
not use mouth to mouth resuscitation. Instead, use chest pressure-arm lift technique.
Maintain an open airway.
Arrange for transport of the victim to a medical facility.
5. Poisoning by Ingestion
Do not induce vomiting if he has abdominal pain or burns in mouth. If no such
problem, then induce vomiting by syrup of ipecac. Lastly give I or 2 cups of water to
drink.
6. Poisoning by skin contact:
Remove the victim from the contaminated area: Be careful to protect your lungs, skin
and eyes while doing so. Remove the victim's clothing, shoes and jewelry from the
affected areas, cutting them off if necessary. Do this under a shower or while flushing
with water. Continue to flush with water until all traces of the chemical are gone and
any feeling of soapiness has disappeared also. Rinse for at least 15 minutes cover the
victim with a blanket or dry clothing. Inform and refer the victim immediately to. a
physician for his advice.
In case of inflammation, burns, blisters or pain-
Loosely apply a dry sterile dressing if available or use a clean dry cloth for it. Inform
and refer the victim immediately to a physician for his advice.

If the victim is in a state of shock -

Lay him down on his side and cover him with a blanket. Elevate his feet. Inform and
refer the victim immediately to a physician for his advice. Do not break open blisters
or remove skin. If clothing is stuck to the skin after flushing with water, do not
remove it.
 Do not rub or apply pressure to the affected skin

Do not apply any oily substance to the affected skin.

Do not use hot water.

7. Poisoning by eye contact:

Remove the victim from the contaminated area. Be careful to protect your lungs, skin
and eves while doing so. Act quickly. Flush the victim's eyes with clean tepid water
for at least 15 minutes. Has the victim lie or sit down and tilt his head back Hold his
eyelids open and pour water slowly over the eyeballs starting at the inner corners by
the nose and letting the water run out of the corners.
The victim may be in great pain and want to keep his eyes closed or rub them but you
must rinse the chemical out of the eyes in order to prevent possible damage.
Ask victim to look up, down and side to side as you rinse.
Transport victim to the medical facility as soon as possible. Even if there is no pain
and vision is good, a physician should examine the eyes since delayed damage may
occur.

If eyes are painful,

1. Cover loosely with gauze or a clean, dry cloth.

2. Maintain verbal and physical contact with the victim.
8. If unconscious - (a) Do not induce vomiting (b) Make the casualty lie on his back on
a hard, flat bed without any pillow and turn the head to one side. As there is no
pressure on the stomach and the gullet is horizontal the vomited matter will not get
into the voice box and the tongue will not close the air passage. This is also the best
posture for giving artificial respiration, if needed (c) Sometimes when there is excess
of vomiting the three-quarter prone posture (i.e. the casualty is made to lie on his side
with one leg stretched, the other bent at knee and thigh) will make things easier for
the casualty (d) If breathing is very slow or stopped, start artificial respiration and
keep it up till the doctor comes, (e) Maintain open airways (f) Do not use mouth to
mouth resuscitation (g) Do not give any thing by mouth (h) In case of signs of shock,
 elevate-his feet, 20-30 cm and cover him with a blanket (i) Arrange for sending to
medical facility.
9. If conscious - (a) Aid vomiting by tickling the back of throat or make him drink tepid
water mixed with 2 tablespoons of common salt for a tumbler of water (b) Even if
conscious, when the poison is a corrosive do not induce vomiting. Signs of corrosives:
Lips, mouth and skin show grey white or yellow, patches which are to be looked for:
acids, alkalis etc., cause such burns.
First Aid: Factories which use certain poisons shall have the respective antidotes
ready and displayed in an easily available place. The personnel should be taught
about the use of antidotes - so that anyone can render assistance in case of emergency.
For antidotes see Part-10.6.

The poison must be diluted by giving large quantities of cold water (chilled, if possible) This
will dilute the irritant and delay absorption and will replace fluid lost by vomiting.
Tender coconut water will be even better as this will be a food and also a diuretic.

Soothing drinks should be given. Milk, egg beaten and mixed with water or
some congee are good for the purpose.

Alcohol Poisoning:
Alcohol taken in considerable (toxic) quantities may cause fatal poisoning, A fatal
dose of ethyl alcohol is 8 g per I kg body weight. Alcohol affects the heart, blood vessels,
gastro intestinal tract, liver, kidneys and mainly the brain. In a case of severe intoxication,
sleep is followed by unconscious state. • Vomiting and involuntary urination are frequent
symptoms. The respiratory center is drastically inhibited, which is manifested by irregular
breathing. Death ensues when the respiratory center becomes paralyzed.
First aid:Fresh air should be provided (a window open or the victim taken outside)
and vomiting induced by 'minor lavages'. If the patient is still conscious, he should be given
hot strong coffee. A respiratory arrest is managed by artificial respiration.
Poisoning with Acids and Alkalis:
In poisoning with concentrated acids and alkalis, a grave condition rapidly develops,
in the first place, to extensive burns in the mouth, throat, esophagus, stomach and often the
larynx. Later, the absorbed toxins affect the vital organs (e.g. liver, kidneys, lungs, or heart).
Concentrated acids and alkalis are able to destroy. tissues. The mucous membranes, being
less resistant than the skin, are destroyed and necrosis occurs more rapidly involving deeper
layers.
Burns and scabs form on the mucous membrane of the mouth and lips. In a bum due
to Sulphur acid, the scabs are black, in a burn due to nitric acid they are greyish-yellow, in
one due to hydrochloric acid they are yellowish-green and in one due to acetic acid greyish-
white.
Alkalis more easily penetrate the skin and affect deeper layers. The burnt surface is
loose, decomposed and whitish in colour.
As soon as an acid or alkali is swallowed the patient feels strong pain in the mouth,
behind the breast bone and in the epigastrium. When laid down he tosses in bed from
unbearable pain. There is almost always tormenting vomiting often with admixtures of blood.
Painful shock rapidly develops. The larynx may swell and asphyxia develops. When an acid
or alkali is taken in great amount, cardiac weakness and collapse rapidly develop.
Poisoning with ammonium hydroxide takes a grave course. The pain syndromes are
attended by asphyxia because the airways are also affected.
The person -who is rendering first aid must find out at once which chemical caused
the poisoning because the treatment varies according to the type of poison.

If the poisoning was caused by concentrated acids and the symptoms of esophageal or
gastric perforation are absent, the stomach should be leveraged through a thick stomach tube
using for it 610 liters of warm water mixed with magnesium oxide (20 g per litter of liquid)
or lime water. Sodium carbonate is contraindicated for a gastric lavage. "Minor lavage " i.e.
drinking 4-5 glasses of water and then inducing vomiting, will not alleviate the patient's
condition and sometimes may even promote absorption of the poison.

If a stomach tube is unavailable, the patient may be given milk, oil, egg, white,
mucilaginous decoctions, or smoothing substances. In poisoning with carbolic acid (Phenol,
Lysol) milk, oil or fat should not be taken. Magnesium oxide mixed with water or lime water
should be given in this case, as in poisoning by all other acids. Cold compresses or ice
should be put on the epigastric region to lessen pain.

When the poisoning is due to concentrated alkalis, the stomach should be immediately
lavage with 6 10 liters of tepid water or a I per cent citric or acetic acid solution within four
hours of the poisoning. When a stomach tube is unavailable and the patient's grave condition
(swelling of the larynx) prevents a stomach lavage, mucilaginous solutions are given, 23 per
cent citric or acetic acid solution (I tablespoonful every 5 minutes), or lemon juice. Rinsing of
the mouth or administration of sodium hydrochloride solution is contraindicated.

The patient should be immediately admitted to a medical institution where he will be

given the necessary urgent medical help.

It should be kept in mind that when a perforation of the esophagus or stomach is

suspected, they being manifested by severe pain in the stomach and unbearable pain behind
the breast bone, drinking and moreover, lavage of the stomach is not permitted.
Poisoning with Toxic Chemicals:
The latent course of the disease is 15-60 minutes, after which the symptoms of the
affection of the nervous system appear (e.g. enhanced salivation, discharge of sputum and
perspiration). Breathing accelerates and becomes noisy, as rail heard at a distance. The
patient becomes restless and excited. Cramp appears in the legs and the intestine undergoes
increased peristalsis which is followed by muscular paralysis and paralysis of the respiratory
muscles. The respiratory arrest that follows, causes asphyxia and death.
In accidents connected with the inhalation of the toxic chemicals the victim must be
immediately hospitalized. If possible, he should be given 6-8 drops of a 0.1 per cent atropine
solution or 1-2 tablets of belladonna. When respiration is arrested, artificial respiration
should be carried out. When the poisoning is caused by toxins getting into the gastro-
intestinal tract, the stomach should be washed with water mixed with suspension of activated
carbon Saline purgatives should also be prescribed. The toxic substances should be removed
from the skin and mucous membranes with running water.

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning:

Carbon monoxide poisoning may occur in the chemical industry where it is used for
synthesizing certain organic compounds (acetone, methyl
alcohol, phenol etc.), in poorly ventilated garages, in
furnaces or in stuffy, freshly painted premises. It may
also happen in households when the stove shutters are
closed too early in premises with stove heating.
The early symptoms are headache, heaviness in
the head, nausea, dizziness, noise in the ears and
palpitation. Later muscular weakness and vomiting
occur. If the victim remains in the poisonous
atmosphere, the weakness intensifies, somnolence, clouding of consciousness and dyspnea
develop. The skin turns pale and sometimes bright red spots appear on the body. In further
exposure to carbon monoxide the patient's respiration becomes shallow, convulsions develop
and paralysis of the respiratory center terminates in death.
First Aid: The victim must be immediately removed from the poisonous surrounding,
better into the open air in warm weather. If his breathing is weak and shallow or arrested,
artificial respiration should be continued until adequate natural breathing or the true signs of
biological death appear. Rubbing should be carried out and hot water bottles applied to the
legs. A brief whiff of ammonium hydroxide is beneficial A patient with severe carbon
monoxide poisoning must be immediately hospitalized in order to prevent possible grave
complications in the lungs and nervous system which may develop later.
Antidotes for some commonChemicals:
Antidotes are therapeutic agents used to counteract the toxic effects of specific
xenobiotics. These are heterogenous group of substances consisting of pharmaceuticals,
biological agents and immunoglobulin fragments. Different mechanisms of action are
involved Some specifically act at the receptor sites while others exert their effect by changing
the metabolism of the poison counteracting the toxic injury or just forming the inert complex
with the poison.
Antidotes acting at receptor sites: Drug intoxications are mostly treated with these
antidotes. However, Atropine is a specific antidote for organophosphate or carbamate
pesticide poisoning. Similarly, physostigmine for Datura and neostigmine for Curare
poisonings are useful. Others include, naloxone for opioid, flumazenil for benzodiazepines
and physostigmine for atropine poisoning.
Antidotes changing the metabolism of the poison: These antidotes either interfere
with the metabolism of the toxic agent thereby reducing the toxicity or strengthen the
detoxifying capacity of the body. Antidotes included in this group are ethanol, 4-methyl
pyrazolo, acetylcysteine, sodium thiosulphate, fulminic acid and pyridoxine.
Antidotes binding with the poison and forming fewer toxic complexes: In this
category, poison may be adsorbed or chelated by the antidote. Activated charcoal effectively
adsorbs a large variety of drugs and toxins, thereby decreasing their bioavailability and
enhancing elimination. Role of multiple doses of activated charcoal as gastrointestinal
dialyzer is being recognized in the treatment of poisoning, due to drugs. On the other hand,
chelating agents like BAL, penicillamine and DMSA form complexes with heavy metals,
thereby preventing or reversing the binding of metallic cations to body ligands.
 Antidotes counteracting the toxic injury: The agents in this group reverse a chemically
induced damage or functional disturbance and restore physiological conditions. Amyl nitrite,
sodium nitrite, sodium thiosulphate, methylene blue, dantrolene, benzyl penicillin, glucagon,
oximes, etc. are common examples.
In general, antidotes should be given in adequate doses as early as possible in cases of
poisoning. Some antidotes cause serious adverse reactions. Hence, both the risk and the
benefits of the antidotal therapy must, therefore, be carefully evaluated and the patient must
be monitored regularly. At times the half-life of some antidotes like naloxone, atropine is
much shorter than the toxin, in which cases the antidotal therapy must be continued till the
symptoms of the poisoning subside.

Bleeding Wounds and Bandaging

Wounds:

1. Stop the bleeding by any one of the following methods:

(1) Direct pressure.

(2) Direct finger pressure into the wound in case of larger bleeding wound.

(3) Tourniquet (seldom needed) use only as a last resort.

2. Avoid touching the wound with hands or unsterile material.

3. Clear the wound with running water and surrounding area with soap or spirit
with clear gauze washing away from the wound. Apply ready-made adhesive gauze bandage
or sterile gauze and roller bandage as needed.

4. Keep the patient quiet; raising the extremity if it is the bleeding part. Give no
stimulants.

5. Never apply antiseptic ointment, lotion or iodine or germicide to the wound.

6. Elevate injured part above the patient's heart level.

7. Try and use rubber gloves.

Abdominal wounds:

1. No time must be lost in sending the patient, to the hospital.

 2. Keep the patient flat.

3. Give nothing by mouth.

4. Maintain warmth.

5. If. intestines protrude from the wound do not attempt to touch or replace them.

6. Apply sterile dressing and binder as for wounds.

7. Provide careful and immediate transportation to the hospital.

Eye-Wounds:

1. Removal may be attempted if foreign body is not embedded.

2. Do not apply- oil or ointment.

3. If there is a foreign body embedded in the eye ball, send the patient
immediately to the doctor after applying pad and loose bandage.

ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION

Treatment when not breathing:

1. Loosen all clothing at waist, chest and neck.

2. Tilt the head backwards, while supporting the back of neck with your palm. This will
lift the tongue to its normal position. Thus, the air passage will be cleared and the
casualty may begin to breath after a gasp.

3. If breathing does not begin after the above treatment, help movements of chest and
lungs four or five times. This will be usually enough to start breathing. If breathing
does not start even now, mouth to mouth (-to-nose) breathing should be begun.

Mouth-to-Mouth breathing:

1. Place the casualty on his back. Hold his head tilted back.

2. Take a deep breath with mouth open widely.

3. Keep nostrils of casually pinched.

4. Cover the mouth of the casualty with your mouth smugly.

5. Watching the chest, blow into his lungs, until the chest bellows up. Withdraw your
mouth. Note the chest falls back (It is hygienic to cover the mouth of casualty with
your handkerchief or some clean cloth).

6. Repeat the above 15 to 20 times a minute.

7. If casualty is young (baby or child) the operations are as above, but your open mouth
should cover both the mouth and nose of the casualty and blow gently.

8. If the chest does not rise (as in 5 above) look for an obstruction.

- Turn the casualty to a side and thump his back. This will make the obstructing
material come to the front of throat. Open the mouth and remove it with your
finger covered with a piece of the cloth.

- If a child, hold it up by the feet and thump the back.

9. Use mouth-to-nose respiration if mouth to-mouth is not possible, but now the
casualty's mouth should be closed by the First Aider's thumb.

10. If heart is working, continue artificial respiration until normal breathing occurs. Send
for Ambulance.

11. If the heart is not working, you will notice:

- The face is blue or pale.

- Pupils are dilated.
- Heart beats and pulse at the root of neck (carotid) are not felt.
Then treat as follows: (a) Place the casualty flat on his back on a hard surface (bench,
table etc.) (b) Give a smart hit with the edge of your hand on the lower and left angle of the
sternum. This usually stimulates the heart to work. (c) In case the heart does not work,
persist the striking for 10-15 seconds at the rate of one stroke a second. Feel for the pulse at
the root of neck all the time. If the pulse becomes regular and continuous, stop beating, all the
while artificial respiration has to go on.
Even if the casualty is breathing, but the breathing is not normal, it is wise to start
artificial respiration. Do not begin thumping the heart or compression until you are sure that
the heart has stopped beating.
External Heart Compression:
(If there are two trained persons):
1. This should go on along with artificial respiration. Therefore, ask the First Aider
giving mouth-to-mouth breathing to sit to the right of the casualty and place yourself
on the left side.
2. Feel and mark the lower part of the sternum.
3. Place the heel of your hand on the marked part (make sure that the palm and fingers
are not in contact with the chest).
4. Place the heel of the other hand over it.
5. With your right arm, press the sternum backwards, towards the spine. (It can be
pressed back 1 to 1.5 inches in adults).
6. Adults should be given about 60 pressures a minute. For children from two to ten
years 3 pressures with one hand (heel) will be enough, but pressure should be 80 to 90
times a minute. For babies up to two years, 2 pressures with two fingers is good
enough if applied 100 times per " minute.
7. Press firmly but carefully. Carelessness (over pressure) may cause injury to ribs and
deeper tissues.
8. If the treatment is effective (a) Colour will become normal (b) Pupil will contract as
improvement beings; and (c) Carotid pulse begins with each pressure.
9. When pulse is not restored, continue compression till the patient reaches
hospital.
10. Inflation of lungs to heart pressure should be as 2.15. If there is only one First Aider,
he has to be very smart and active. Finish 15 heart compression, rush to head-side,
give two inflation to the lungs, and get back to the heart and give 15 compression.
Repeat these. If there are two First Aiders, No. 1 makes 5 heart compression and then
No. 2 gives two lungs inflation. These are repeated. At the same time No. 1 can
watch the pupils and No. 2 can feel the carotid pulse.

Fractures and joint Injuries –

Bone injuries are the injuries which are resected of fractured directly at the point a blow is
applied, an indirect force may cause the bone to break away from the spot of application of
force.(transmission of force from one part to another) e.g. fracture of clavicle after a fall on
the out stretched hand violent contraction of a group of muscles may pull pieces of bone
away from the point where the muscles are attached e.g. fracture of patella by powerful
contraction of quadriceps muscles wrenching of a joint can cause its ligament to pull so hard
at the bones forming the joint that one of the bone may fracture e.g. fracture of lower leg
bone at the ankle after stumbling. Pathological fractures are called when the bone may be the
seat of number of diseases which weaken it and make it liable to break even with very minor
injuries.

 How to distinguish whether there is a fracture

i. There may is usually pain over the fractured bone.
ii. There may be swelling or brushing
iii. There is loss or severe restrictions of use of the affected area.
iv. Bones may pace through the skin.

Types of fractures
1) Simple (closed) fractures – In this type the skin surface is infect.
2) Compound (open) fracture- In this type this skin surface over the fracture is
broken and fracture communicates with outside. There is a risk extensive blood
loss and infection.
3) Complicated closed or open fracture – In this type there is injury to never and
blood vessels in addition to fracture.
 Fracture of skull –
The skull is a closed box made up of many bones which are united immovable
joints. It protests the brain it can be fractured by a direct blow e.g. falling from a
height instead of landing on feet direct blow usually fracture the skull and also cause
injury to the vertebral column.
Fracture of skull is a serious injury because it may be associated with brain
damage. The brain can be bruised or there may be bleeding outside the brain and
hematoma compresses the brain. The fracture may be line or depressed or
complicated.
 Fracture of arms –
It is caused by a direct blow but it is much more common especially in elderly
persons. It is a stable injury hence the victim may walk around for same time before
reporting to a doctor for treatment. It is difficult fracture to treat as the muscles
produce overlapping of ends that are broken and angulations.
 Fracture of hand and fingers –
The hand is made up of many small bones with movable joints which may be
injured by direct or indirect trauma. Crash injuries because multiple fractures are
hand fracture of the knuckle between the little fingers and the hand may occur due
to misplaced punch. There may be server bleeding and swelling sprains and
dislocation may affect any fingers. The thumb is particularly prom to dislocation
caused by fall on to the hand.
 Fracture of bones of the foot –
This is due to direct crashing by heavy objects. The condition is diagnosed by
following features -1) there is pain in the foot increasing by movement
2) Loss of movement
 3) There is an inability to walk properly.
4) Swelling and brushing are seen at the site of the fracture.
5) Deformity may present e.g. irregularity or bony crash of that foot.
 Fracture of leg bone-
One of the leg bones (tibia) is quite sturdy and usually requires a heavy blow to
fracture it. The other (fibula) in thinner and can be broken by twisting force as
during twisting of ankle. Since the weight bearing is done by tibia a fracture of
fibula does not cause much problems the victim. The condition is diagnosed by
following fractures-
1) There is pain in leg.
2) Swelling and brushing have been at the site of fracture.
3) Angulations or twisting of leg may be present at the site of fracture.

 Injuries to muscles and joints-

Muscles are of two types voluntary and involuntary Injury occurs to the voluntary
or skeletal muscles. These may be due to overstitching or tearing due to violent and
sudden movements. Muscle injuries are of following types: -
1) Strain- There is partial tearing or the muscles often and the junction of the
muscles and its tandem.
2) Rupture – There is complete tearing of the muscles in it fleshy by or taken.
3) Deep bruising – It occurs when there is serve injury to a large bulk of muscles.
 The condition is diagnosed by the following features-
1) There is severe and sharp pain over the site of injury to the muscle.
2) The victim is unable to move the part on trying of moving it there is sharp pain
locally.
3) The muscles may be swollen and stiff.
 Types of joints-
A joint is a junction of two or more bones
1) Movable joints – Two or more bones are held together by means of ligament
muscles and tendons. The movement is possible both the bones. There are
different kinds of moveable joint as follows- I) ball and socket joint
ii) Tilling joint and joint with limited movements.

 Sprain – Sprain is an injury to the regiments and joints capsule, it is due to a sudden
movement or twisting of the part involving joint. Ankle is the most commonly
sprained joint.
 Dislocation – This is more severe injury than sprain, this occurs when the strong
force act directly on a joint pulling a bone into and abnormal position, it can occur
as result of sudden muscular contraction too.
 Strain – strain involving muscles are common in a back first aid calls for rest and
milled head to relive pain. Seek medical attention is needed.
 First aid for fractures or broken bones, general principles of treatment of fractures: -
 1) Careless handling will increase the pain and shock. It may increase the bone
displacement and turn simple fracture to a more serious compound one, hence
the victim should be handled very carefully.
2) If fracture is compound and severe, bleeding must be controlled at once. Don’t
attempt of replace the protruded bone. Cover the bone wound with a large sterile
dressing and handset firmly.
 The fracture may then be splinted. Splinting of fractures-
I) always the splint the fracture before moving the patient. Select sprints that are
long enough wide enough and strong enough to hold the fracture and to firmly
immobilize the joints.
ii) Improvise splints from material at hand strips of wood straight branches of
trees, shovels, trap iron called up magazines etc. Remember, you can always
splint a broken leg to the sound leg or an arm to the side of the body.
iii) Pad the splints wherever necessary, using cotton wool, old wags or even grass
or moss.
iv) Tie the splints firmly using folded triangular bandage roller bandages or strips of
sheeting or rope.
There must be no movement.
 Poisoning- Anything which when taken into the body affects it adversely is called
poisoning. Poison can be tablets taken in excess, of which the commonest are pain
killers, sleeping tablets, fruits and plants e.g. mush rooms and berries, chemicals e.g.
Weed killer, domestic cleaning fluids and turpentine taken in excess cause
poisoning bites such as snake bite, dog bite also cause poisoning. Gases like coal
gas, or industrial waste gas which can be absorbed by the lungs through breathing
and cause poisoning. Agricultural pesticidal can be absorbed through skin as well as
mouth and breath also because poisoning. Everybody in fire service should have the
knowledge of poisoning as with knowledge we can save the person affected with
poison.
For necessary treatment as can send that person in hospital.
Poisoning is of various types, so it is elder classified in main two types.
1) Accident of poisoning
2) Suicide poisoning – In suicide-
Poisoning there is a sub type – homicide poisoning
Poison contained material entered in the body through by smelling or though
mouth, it mixes in blood and this blood get circulated to the whole body and the
person suffers with poisoning. In this case the brain systems i.e., the nervous
system gets failure and the person become – uneasy unconscious with adverse
effects like vomiting and drowsiness.
1) Accidental poisoning –
Toxic gas leakage in the factory /industry, Gas container leakage on road, snake bite,
dog bite etc. is accidental poisoning.
2) Suicide poisoning –
In this case a person commits to take poisonous material to end up his /her own
life, and suffer from all adverse effects of poisoning.
 * swallowed poisoning –
Usually for a child it is difficult to know how much to swallowed to unless you
know how much the contains was filled with when it was placed. Any swallowed
poison must be treated seriously. Get medical help as soon as possible. Ask
someone to help hone a doctors /ambulance for take the person to hospital by car or
other means at once.
 Do not delay because children can go down very quickly even though they see all
right at first.
 While awaiting medical help –
I) Remove excess poison from mouth, keeping pills, hems of container for
the doctor.
* If the person is conscious and has swallowed a corrosive substance gets him to drink
water or milk to preserve the lining of mouth and to dilute the stomach contents. Remove any
soaked clothing you will know if the poison is corrosive by chemical burning and white
discoloration it leaves on the mouth lips and clothes.

* Never make a person vomit if he has taken petrol, turpentine or any corrosive chemical
such as strong acids and alkalis.The substance will already have done plenty of damage while
going down to stomach and can only do more on its way up. Give this people milk or water to
drink as this help to protect the stomach lining and to some extend prevent absorption of the
chemical.

Drugs are among the commonest causes of accidental poisoning in children. Aspirin and
other painkiller iron tablets anti-depressant sleeping are the drugs which it is taken in excess,
lead to serious illness all even death in children. The drugs should be kept preferably in a
proper medicine cabinet. Many medicines come in foil strips with each tablet sealed
safety away from children.

 Agricultural poisons absolved through skin. There are so many chemicals used
today in Agricultural that is difficult to generalize about them. The disturbing thing
is that many of them are not available for domestic market and so can present as
hazardous even if you live in city as the symptoms are so variable, it does not make
scene to say. If you ever get any strange feelings after using pesticides, weed killers
or fertilizers, do not neglect them.
Early stage the symptoms can quickly change to serious once so do not delay to visit
a doctor.
Some of these poisons affects breathing, some other nerve conduction and many
are absorbed through the skin or lungs through breathing.
*what to do?
1) Stop the person using the chemical
2) Remove him gently from the area.
3) Remove contaminated clothing.
4) Take him to hospital if these are adverse effects.
 Poisoning by gas or smoke (fumes)
 Although the industrial gases and vapours of various kinds are encountered by
those working with them. The gases most of us come across are domestic gas,
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. It possible to be killed by gas because if a
person is trapped in air tight room the gas displaces the oxygen and the person
suffocates.
If an appliance is burning improperly poisonous carbon mono oxide may
be produced which is harmful for human being.
Something happens with smoke also but smoke has the additional disadvantage
of actually damaging of the lungs.
If you find someone in gas and smoke-filled room -1) Go quickly holding
your breath and lift the victim to self-safer place. Ii) If the person is over coming by
exhaust fumes in a closed rage open door, switch of the engine and proceed as
above.
A house contains many substances such as belch insecticide paint, strippers
that are highly dangerous to children. If a child or anybody swallows one of the
above substances, get medical help quickly. The rocctes through with the substances
inter in the body are swallowing breathing and injection.
 First aid management –A-if the person is unconscious –do not induce vomiting
*lie him on his back on hard and flat bed.
*Turn the head to one side
*No pillow
*If excessive, vomiting put to lie on his side one leg stretched and another bent at
knee on thigh
*If breathing is slow or stopped, give artificial respiration.
B- If the person conscious –
* Include vomiting
*Plenty of cold water to drink which will delay the absorption and replace the fluid
loss.
*milk is also good for the purpose
* Common poisons are –
1) Aspirin- first aid – Induce vomiting-adding sodium-bi-carbonate one table spoon to a
tumbler of water strong tea, or coffee.
2) Mercury – first aid – give white of the egg in water then milk then induce vomiting.
3) phosphorus- first aid – Induce vomiting then large quantity of water tender coconut do not
give oils as the dissolves phosphorus.
4) Acids – first aid –do not induce vomiting give cautery or soeto bicaeb to drink.
5) Petrol, phenol and other disinfectants- first aid- do not induce vomiting mug sap 4 tea
spurn in a lite of water.
* Alcohol poisoning –
The alcohol poisoning the casually will have the following signs: -
1) Breath will smell alcohol.
2) Vomiting
3) Eyes blood red.
4) Partly conscious or already unconscious.
First aid –maintain the open airway take to hospital.
 Industrial poisoning –
In industry some people may come in contact with dangerous chemicals or gases at
their work places, those are grouped as
a) Irritants- e.g. Ammonia, nitrous fumes etc.
b) Asphyxiates- e.g. carbon dioxide
c) Toxic gases- carbon monoxide hydrosensitive
d) Toxic vapours- Those given off volatile chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride
or trichloroethylene.
If the casualty is trapped in an enclosed space never attempt to reissue, unless
you are fully equipped with a practiced in using of breathing apparatus and life
lines.
First aid- Take the patient to open air.

*Transport to hospital /medical center

* If required start ABC resuscitation.

* Bite –

*Frost bite-

Frost bite may occur when the skin is exposed to extreme cold. It most frequently affects
the skin of cheeks, chin, ear, fingers nose and toes.

Frost bitten skin appears whitish and feds numb it should be handled gently, never massage
frost bitten skin and do not rub with it in cold water. Warm the affected area with the help of
your hand or cover it with a heavy cloth until you can get the victim incurs. Treat the effected
skin by soaking it in lake warm water. The temperatures of this water should be between 39
ºCand 41º C,keep the temperature in this range by adding more warm water as needed never
use water later them 40-degree C. If warm water is not available wrap the frost-bitten area
with blankets, obtain the medical assistance as quickly as possible. If a victim of frost bite
must be moved protect the person from additional exposure.

Never treat frost bite with heat from a fire or stove or with heating pad, Hot water bottle or
heat lump. Such treatment may produce temperature that can damage frost bitten tissue. If
frost bite blisters occur do not break them bandage them to prevent infection.

4.7Snake bite-

The treatment of snake bite depends on whether or not the snake is poisonous. If the snake is
nonpoisonous the bite should be washed thoroughly with soap and water. A person bitten by
a poisonous snake, bite cause deep during pain along with swelling and discoloration within
minutes the victim may begin to feel numb and have difficulty in breathing, call doctor, take
the victim to hospital if the possible, kill the snake and bring it along for identification.
Keep the victim still and quite because activity increase spread of poison, place the victim so
that the bite is below the level of the heart, if the bite is on an arm or leg tie the band above
the wound between it and the heart. The band should be loose enough for you to slip your
figure under it. Rebase the band go seconds every 10 minutes to prevent damage from lack of
circulation. Treatment of snake bite should always help prompt
 Arrange for medical help immediately in the meanwhile arrest blood circulation in
the snake bitten limb by using constrictive bandage between shoulder and elbow
between hip and knee joint as the case may be till the pulse is not felt beyond the
constrictive bandage. The constrictive bandage should be kept for 20 minutes then
release for one minute for or until skin become pink and again tightened. Repeat the
procedure till the arrival of doctor
 Immediately after the constrictive bandage is applied, wash the wound with the
solution of potassium permanganate in order to remove the venom which may have
dried on the skin.
 Make a deep cut with sharp knife or razor blade at the bitten site in order to bleed
the bitten site.
 Assure the patient and keep him warm by means of blanket, patient should be
absolutely still If he able to swallow, give him to strong coffee or tea heating stops
give the artificial respiration by mouth to mouth method, or Nelson method.
4.10 Stretcher and casualty handling –
Shifting and carrying victim -
After accidental injury victim needs to be shifted and carried to first aid and to hospital.
While shifting the victim care should be taken to see that pains to victim should be bearable
and wound is not getting aggravated. Other considerations are available equipment and
manpower how much long is to be shifted and probable obstacles on the route, considering
such problems some of the method to shift victim are as follows-
1) When assistance is not available and victim can’t not stand on his legs, let the victim lie
on floor, lift it heat little about the floor and insert both of your hand through his armpits,
lift his shoulder along with head of the floor and pull him outside, put his hands on his
chest while pulling out, so that they will not be dragged on floor.
2) When the victim is conscious and can stand you as a first aider should stand closely,
decide the victim put his arm on your shoulders for support, hold his free hand and allow
him to take support of your and allow him to take support of your body while walking. If
one of leg is injured them you may tie his injured leg to your leg, this will reduce stress
on his injured leg if travelling distance is long walking, stick may be provided to victim
as support
3) If helper is available and victim can stand, let victim stand between you and helper hold
your right-hand left hand, let the helper also do likewise your and helper right hand will
be free now, hold each other wrists with free hands this will make a seat allow the victim
to rest on this seat putting his arm around your shoulders as support.
4) If helper is available but victim can’t stand or victim is unable to assist while carrying –
let the victim on floor between you and helper, sit on your knees beside the victim and
taking victim in between while taking seating position, see that you both can stand easily,
insert you lift hand and allow the helper his right hand below the victim near to his
 shoulders If possible, try to hold each other’s wrist now, insert your free hand below
victim’s knees grip firmly in wrist and lift above marginally taking support of victims
thighs and wresting his back on other hands, lift him gently the position A victim will be
like seating on the chair while walking on the route, use outer soles.
5) To shift outside the factory premises requires stretcher and ambulance. In case ambulance
is not available private vehicle is necessary to carrying in private vehicle may cause pains
to victim and complicate injury if it is from the bone fracture. It is convenient to shift
victim from factory to hospital on stretcher by ambulance, victim can be easily shifted to
ambulance and hospital bed without causing pain to him.
6) More persons are regarding to shift and carry victim via stretcher this is specific method
to lift and place victim from to strand stretcher. Keep stretcher on the floor beside the
victim with help of four persons gently lift the victim marginally above the floor taking
care that his hand or legs are closed to the body and not hanging. Then one person should
slide stretcher below victim over it place victim gently.
7) Prior to shift victim difficulties and obstacles on journey from accident place to
ambulance or other destination should be considered, this can be many such as distance
may long equipment stair cases on the routs, narrow lanes etc. It will be convenient to
have more helpers on journey avoid haste. If someone from group fells tired over
strained, he should inform other to keep operation in a control.
8) While climbing up the staircase victims head should be at front and at back while coming
down. However, if the victim is very seriously injured. His head should be at front so that
all members caring him can watch the face watch his face.
9) So far as possible it necessary that the stretcher should be parallel to the ground for this,
while coming down the stair case stretcher needs to be raised from victim head side.
10) In many instance victims trapped at accident place is unconscious, in such occasions
atmosphere around like to be hazards contaminated by smoke obnoxious gases etc. person
attempting rescue operation likely to be get affected personal protective equipment’s such
self-contained breathing apparatus is needed to rescue the victim, if such apparatus is not
available special care needs to be taken by rescue team or otherwise there can be danger
to their life.
 Insect bite and stings –
Insect bite and stings can cause an immediate skin reaction. The bite from fire ants
and the stings from bees and other bomets are usually painful, bites caused by
mosquito’s flies and mites are likely to cause itching than pain symptoms – The
nonemergency symptoms very according to the type of insect and the individual.
Most people have localized pain redness swelling or itching you may feel burning
numbers and tingling.
 First aid –
For emergencies (severereaction)
1) Check the persons air way and breathing. If necessary call 911 and begin rescue
breathing.
2) Reassure the person Try to keep him/her calm.
3) Remove nearby rings and constructing items because affected area may swell.
4) Use the person emergency kit if they have it.
 5) If appropriate treat the person for of signs seek remain with the person until
medical help arrives.
 General steps for most bites and stings –
1) Remove the stinger if still present by scraping the back of a credit card or other
straight edged object across the stinger. Do not use tweezers- These may squeeze
the renon sac and increase the amount of venom released.
2) Wash the site toughly with soap and water
3) Place ice wrapped in a wash cloth on the site of the sting for 10 minutes. Repeat
those processes.
4) If necessary take an antihistamine, or apply creams that reduce itching.
5) Over the next several days. Watch for signs of infection.
6)
4.11Types of bandages –
i. Triangular bandage
ii. Roller bandage
iii. Adhesive bandage and dressing
I. Triangular Bandage -
This is most useful multipurpose bandage for first aider. It is made by cutting a piece of
linen of fiber not less than 38 inches square, diagonally in to two pieces. The bandage may be
applied.
 As a whole cloth – This can be spread out to its full extent e.g. Chest bandage.
 As a board bandage – This can be done by bringing the point down to the center of
the base and then folding the bandage again in the same devotion.
 A triangular bandage secures dressings or pads in place.
 A narrow bandage – This is made by folding the broad bandage one again the same
direction.
To secure the ends of the bandage a reef knot must be used.
To make a reef knot, take the ends of the bandage one in each hand.
II. Roller bandage-
Roller bandages are made up of various materials like canton or leman with loose
mash and are of various lengths and widths according to the use which they are put.
They are used in hospitals and first aid boxes use of roller bandage.
1) To keep dressing in position.
2) To apply pressure to control bleeding.
3) To support a painful part.

Part bandaged width of bandage

Fingers 1’’ (2.5 cm)

Hand 2’’ (5 cm)

Hand and arm 2’’ to 21/2’’

Leg 3’’ to 3 ½
Trunk 4 ‘’to 6’’

Basic of application
1) Face the casualty.
2) Apply each layer of the bandage so that it covers two third of the preceding one.
3) Secure the bandage by a safety pin or other suitable method such as adhesion
Strapping.
Methods of application
1) Simple spiral
2) Figure of eight
3) Spice

Bandaging special body parts

i. Hand bandage
ii. Elbow bandage
iii. Finger bandage
iv. Shoulder etc.

4.9The respiratory System

The respiratory is concerned with breathing for exchange of carbon dioxide from the body
with the oxygen in the air. Air is a mixture of gases containing 21% oxygen. The aim of
breathing is to transfer oxygen from the air to the lungs where it is exchanged for carbon
dioxide is in blood, oxygen is essential for liften.
The oxygen is circulated to body while the carbon dioxide is expelled out by expiration
breathing is an automatic function.
1) Inspiration - breathing in
2) Expiration – breathing out
The respiratory system is composed of the parts – lungs, respiratory track which consist of
nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea or windpipe, bronchi and bronchioles. The bronchioles finally
break in to small sac alveoli which are surrounded by pulmonary capillaries, Gaseous
exchange between inspired air in the alvidi and the impure blood in the capillaries occurred at
this level the hangs are covered by a sea called pleura’s. Inside the sac is smooth and filled
with a thin layer of fluid to allow.
Expansion of lungs without friction when the thorax expands the lungs expands and air is
drawn into alveoli which is known as inspiration with collapsing of thorax to the original size
the air is thrown out is called as expiration. The normal respiratory rate is 16-20 per min. in
adult. It is more rapid children being 40 per min. in a new born baby and30 to 32 per min. at
the age of 5 years. The ratio of respiratory system is
A) Take or inhale air atmosphere to the body
B) Take or observed oxygen from normal air
C) Remove CO2 from the body.
 Method of artificial respiration
The important methods of artificial respiration are –
1) Schafer’s prone pressure method
 2) Silvestre’s method (Arm lift, chest pressure method)
3) Nielson’s Arm- lift back pressure method
4) Mouth to mouth method.
Duration of these processes is 12 to 15 minutes. When the patent begins to
breathe on his own then operation should be synchronized with natural breathing
and continued till be breath strongly on his own.
 Schafer’s method is recommended also for fractures and drowning cases.
 Silvestre’s method is recommended when person cannot be laid on stomach with
chest touching the ground due to burn injury.
1) Schafer’s prone method – lay the victim on his belly kneed over the victim’s back
and place the palms of your hand on victim’s thin portion of the back with fingers
spreading on the ribs and the two thumbs parallel to the spine and almost touching
each other. You should assure with arms held.
Straight lean forward and apply pressure on the body of the victim for about three
seconds. Now reduce the pressure gradually and come back to original position
for about two seconds repeat this process for about 12 to 15 times till such times the
victim starts breathing this method of respiration expands and contracts the lungs of
the victim so as to help him to starts normal breathing this great patient on the part
of the person helping the victim.
2) Silvestre’s method –
This method is used when the patient has gotten burns or injuries on the chest or
on from side so that he cannot be laid with his chest down the victim is laid on
his back with a pillow or rolled coat under his shoulders. His cloths are loosened
his arms are grasped above the wrist and drown first upward and then taken over
his head until they are horizontal as position I and II. Remain in position II for
about 2to 3 seconds. The patients’ hands are then brought back to the chest and
pressure is applied in the downward direction by kneeling over the victim hands.
The cycle is repeated after about two Seconds.
3) Nielson’s Arm lifts back pressure method –
The subjects lie prom with both arms folded and hands resting one on another
under his head. The arms are grasped above the elbow and lifted until firm
resistance is made. This induces active inspiration. Then they are let down and
pressure applied on the back to cause active expiration. The movement in this
method follows the sequence given below.
*Position I- place the victim prone i.e.- face down with his arm folded with one
palm on the other and head resting on a cheek over the palms kneel on one or
both knee at victim’s head. place four hand on victims back beyond the line of
armpit with your fingers spread of up words and down words the thumbs just
touching one other.
*Position II- Then gently rock forward keeping arms straight until they are
nearly vertical the thus steadily pressing the victim’s back. This complete
expiration.
 *Position III – Synchronizing the above movement rock backwards releasing
pressure and slide your hands downwards along victims’ arms and group his
upper arms just above the elbows continue to rock backwards.
*Position IV - As you rock back gently raise and pull victim arms towards you
until you feel tension in his shoulders. This expands his chest as results in
respiration to complete the cycle lowers the victim’s arms and move your hand’s
up for initial position.
This method is considered to be the best being most effective easy to teach
and perform.
*Holger - Nelson method of artificial respiration.
i) place the victim face down prone position, bend his elbow and place the hands
one upon the other turn his face to one side placing the check upon the hand.
ii) knee on either the right or left knee at the head of victim facing him place the
knee at the side of victim head close to the forearm place the opposite foot near the
elbow. It is more comfortable, kneel on both knees, one on either side of the
victim’s head place your hands that upon the victims back in such a way that the
heels of the hands lie just below a line running between armpits with the tips of the
thumbs just touching spread the fingers downwards and outwards.
iii)Rock forward until the arm are – approximately vertical and allow the weight of
upper part of your body to exert slow steady even pressure downwards upon the
hands. This force air out of the lungs your elbow should be kept straight and the
pressure exerted almost directly down-wards on the back.
iv) Release the pressure avoiding a final thrust and commence to rock slowly
backwards place your hands upon the victim’s arms just about above his elbows.

v) Draw his arms upwards and towards you apply just enough lift to feel resistance
and tension at victim’s shoulders. Do not bend your elbows and as you rock
backward the victim’s arms will be drown towards you. Then drop the arms to the
ground. This completes the full cycle the arm lift expands the chest by pulling on
the chest muscles arching the back and releasing the weight on the chest.
vi) The cycle should be repeated 12 times per minutes at steady and uniform rate
the compression and expansion phase should occupy about equal time the release
period being of minimum duration.
vii) Relief operator- In changing operator the relief operator kneels beside the
operator as indicated by the feet and knee position and takes over so as not to
interrupt the rhythm of pressure and release.
4) Mouth to Mouth method-
In this method the patient is laid on his back with his head slightly sloping
down. A pillow or rolled coat under his shoulders will help to maintain proper
position. The head is tilled look. So that the lower jaw as shown in position I.
Open the mouth of the patient take a deep breath and place your mouth
making air tight contact. Pinch the patient nose with thumb and four fingers and
blow into patient mouth until his chest rises remove your mouth to enable him to
exhale. The first 8 to 10 breath should be as rapid as victim will respond they’re
 after rate should be slowed down to about 12 to 15 times a minute. Sometime air
is trapped in patients’ stomach which can be released by applying pressure
gently on the stomach when the victim is exhaling.
5) Silvestre – broach method –
a) If there is abstraction to breathing remove it with your finger or with a cloth
wrapped round your fingers, if it is in mouth.
b) Lay casually on his back, put something under his shoulder to raise them and
allow his head to tall backwards. The head should be it possible be a little
lower than the trunk remember that speed is essential.
c) Kneel at the casualty’s head and grasp his arms at the wrist. Then cross them
firmly over the lower chest this movement should force air out of is a lung. Press with the
hands cross on the lower part of chest and maintain pressure for two seconds.
d) Release the pressure and pull his arms with a sweeping movement upwards and
down words about his head and backwards as for as possible. This movement should
cause air to be drawn into his lungs. Retain the arms in this position for three seconds.
This will keep an equal amount of time at every cycle. Repeat this movement
rhythmically about twelve times per minute checking the mouth frequently for
obstruction. Each cycle three for takes five seconds chest pressure and 3 seconds for arm
lift.
e) With the casually on his back there is a danger A aspiration vomit mucus or
blood re-entering the system. This risk can be reduced by keeping the head extended and
little lower than the trunk
f) If on assistant is available he can press the casualty’s lower jaw so that the chin is
jutting out. The assistant should also ensure that the mouth is kept as clean as possible
turning the head to one side if necessary.
g) When natural breathing begins your movement should be adopted to correspond
to it.
*If burns are present cover with dry sterile dressing
* handle the casually gently do not allow people to crowd around and block fresh air.
*Arrange to remove the injured to care of a doctor or hospital as early as possible.
Even after apparent recovery the casually should be seen by a doctor to ensure that all is
well as casualty suffering from electrical injuries are liable to reoccur even when effect
have seemed to be mild.
Use of artificial resuscitator –
Mechanical means of artificial respiration have been developed and
recommended for use. Artificial resuscitator (unbag) consist of a rubber balloon a special
value and a mouth piece and a tabbing. The mouth piece is capped on the mouth of the
patient for artificial respiration. The balloon is deflated to pump air in chest of the patient
during in handling. There after the balloon is released to get in handling. There after the
balloon is released to get inflow. The atmospheric air entering via the value. The patient
exhales through his nose, the balloon is deflated again. The process is repeated till normal
breathing is restored.
*Cardio pulmonary resuscitation-
It both respiration and circulation have stopped then
 1)First give 5 to 6 quick breath by mouth to mouth method and check carotid pulse. If
pulse is left continue mouth to mouth respiration only.
2) If carotid pulse is not felt after 5 to 6 mouth to mouth breaths compress chest 15
times as described in external cardiac massage and then give quick mouth to mouth
breaths till medical help is available. If any assistance is available, one person should give
one quick mouth to mouth breath while other 5 chest compressions immediately after it
maintain these 1 to 5 rhythms till medical assistance is available.

*Take the following actions for cardio pulmonary resuscitation-

Assessment- Check surrounding beware of danger e.g. - electricity, fire, smoke etc. check for
unresponsiveness. Top, gently shake shoulders and shout is you ok.
A) Action – Remove casualty from danger and ensure your personal safety.
B) Conscious- checks injuries.
C) Unresponsive- call out “Help “position the victim open air way by lifting chin and
placing other hand on for head.
2) Check for breathing-
Look listen and fell for sign of breathing look for chest movement listen and feel the
movement of air through mouth and nose
Digestive system
The system is concerned with digestion of food. Parts of digestive system are mouth,
esophagus. (Food pipe) stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, spleen and gall bladder
tongue.
Our digestive systems consist of the digestive track and various glands that secrete digestive
juices in to the track. The track includes now pharynx, esophagus stomach, small intestine,
large intestine rectum and anus.
There accessory glands include culinary glands gallbladder and pancreas.
Teeth are used to tear the food into pieces and chew it, at the same time saliva is produced
from the salivary glands dry food is mixed with the saliva to moisten it. Plena in the saliva
digest carbohydrates in mouth itself, the food. The food reaches the stomach through the
esophagus. There it mixes rennin, pepsin and hydrochloric acid which are the digestive juices
then it passes in to small intestine time where mixes pancreatic juice and bile which digest the
food further
Product if digestions are absorbed in small intestine time and undigested and waste products
passes to the large intestine. Water is absorbed from it and the rescue thrown out through the
rectum and anus.
The muscular system
It consists of different types of muscles of the body. All muscles of the body. All muscles of
the body. All muscles are divided into three types.
1) Structed or skeletal muscles- These are attached some part of skeleton across the joints
between bones. Their contraction and relaxation produce voluntary movements.
2) Smooth muscles- These are small and delicate. They are found in walls of bows,
respiratory ‘track and blood vessels. They are known as involuntary because one does not
have direct control over their activity.
3) Cardiac muscles- These muscles are soft and its fibers show some striations under a
microscope but it is involuntary in nature. These muscles forms heart.
Urinary system
It consists of two kidneys, two ureters a urinary bladder and urethra. It involved in
removal of chemical liquid waste from the blood and helps to balance water and
self-level s of the blood by excreting urine.
When it fills to about 200 to 250 ml. one gets a sensation of full bladder of then
expels the urine by voluntary contraction of the bladder muscles.
 The Joints-
Various part of human body is joined to one another by ligaments. The joints may be
movable or immovable. The movement between the bones may be only in one place as in
hinge joints at knees and elbow in all places as in the ball and socket joint at the shoulder or
there may be a small degree of movements in the wrist joint.
Nervous System
The brain is the master organ, it receives information from organs of special sense such
as eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin. It controls movement interprets sensation regulate body
activities and generate memory and thoughts central nervous system consist brain and spinal
cord along with nerves. It is divided in to central and peripheral. The brain is situated in the
hallow cavity of the cranial bones. It comprises of two hemispheres. Each hemisphere has
gray matter side it and white matter in side.
Circulatory System
It consists of heart arteries, veins and blood. The hart is hallowing muscular organs made of
special type of muscles. It is situated between the two lungs in the thoracic cavity more
towards left side of the chest. It measures 12cm in length and9 cm in health and 6cm in
thickness. It weighs about 280 gm. It has four chambers upper two are known as right and left
auricles and lower two are known as eight and lift ventricles.
The heart contracts and relaxes continuously to work as a pump.
Its primary function is to purify and circulate the blood in the body and to help in
distributing the nutrients and oxygen to the body, and waste materials away from the site of
production to the organs of excretion.
Our blood vessels are of three types.
1) Arteries – They are the strongest of the blood vessels, owing to the presence of elastic
tissue in their walls. They are red in color and carry pure blood away from the heart i.e. to the
body parts. They branch to form arterial and finally capillaries.
2) Capillaries-
They are the result of final branching of the arteries. They are made up of a thin layer of
endothelial cells through which fluid and gases can pass to and from the tissue, cells of the
body.
3) Veins-
These are not strong as arteries due to lack of elastic tissue in their walls. They are formed by
joining capillaries. They are bluish in color. They carry impure blood back to the heart.
Blood coming from the digestive system also contains nuttiness nutrients obtained by
digestion of food. Blood is circulated in a continuously repeated cycles by the contraction of
the heart.
Heart rate in a normal adult of rest is 72 times per minute. Each to time the heart muscles
contracts. Blood is forced out of the right ventricle into the pulmonary arteries for perfusion
of the lungs and from the left ventricle in to the aorta to perfuse the various part of the body.
During relaxation of the heart de oxygenated blood collects in the right auricle from the left
auricle from the pulmonary veins, then it passes to the ventricle of the respective sides.
Blueness (cyanosis) arises when the blood is low in oxygen. Normal human body contains 5
liters of blood.
 Asphyxia Fire incidence cause of injuries of with asphyxia or heart thing distress is the
most serious one and may lead to death almost immediately.

Incidents casually handling by fire man must three for involve detection and treatment of
asphyxia with top priority after rescue or at time even during rescue operation.
It is deficiency of oxygen an increase in carbondioxide in the blood and tissues. It occurs due
to a failure of exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and pulmonary
capillaries.
 Definition of Asphyxia – The pathological manifestation which become apparent in
an intact animal due to continuous in proper duration of blood for some time are
collectivity called asphyxia.
Asphyxia maybe- 1) General such as by solution of tracheas, pneumothoraxetc.
2) Local as by ligature of blood vessels. Supplying a particular locality.
* Essential condition Asphyxia -
i) There must be both CO2 excess as well as O2 lack.
ii) Animal must be in fact.
iii) The improper duration must be continued.
*How Asphyxia causes death-
The phenomenon of asphyxia has been divided into the stages, each stage showing
characteristic features. The white phenomenon from the onset to death taken only 5 minutes.
*Causes of asphyxia-
Airway obstruction due to
1) Foreign body in the air way causing choking
2) Spasm of respiratory mussels as in tetanus.
3) Draining.
4) Suffocation under bed.
5) Suffocation due to a plastic bag over the head.
6) Strangulation hanging or throttling.
7) Bronchospasm e.g. Bronchial- asthma.
8) Electrical shock.
Lack of oxygen in the air inspired due to high altitudes with low atmosphere pressure fire
inhalation of make Gas lack- inhalation of gas e.g.- coal gas, automobile fumes etc.
*Effects of Asphyxia – first stage-
i) Respiratory rate increases.
ii) Breaths become shorter and noisy.
iii) Chest movement of breathing are reversed.
iv) The chest wall gets sucked instead of moving out when the victim breathe in.
v) Neck veins get distended.
vi) The face, lips, nails, fingers, and toes turn blue.
 Second stage-
i)Consciousness is lost
ii)Frothing occurs at the mouth and nose.
i) Convergence may occur.
ii) Urine and feces are passed involuntary.
iii)Death may occur if not treated in time.
 Asphyxia- first Aid
1) Remove the cause if possible.
2) Place the victim on his back.
3) Clear the air way and provide warmth.
4) Loosen his collar.
5) Put a finger in the mouth and throat and remove body If present.
6) Remove denture if present.
7) Hold an angle of the jaw forward and tilt the head back words this open’s the air
ways.
8) Give artificial ventilation and external cardiac message, if required.
9) Send him to hospital after he settles down.

First Aid Kits

A collection of supplies and equipment used to apply first aid is known as a first aid kit and it
is very necessary for an individual or organization to keep these kinds of medical kits
especially to industries where accidents can happen. A wide range of contents can be put
together inside a first aid kit depending on the type and use. It can be assembled in any type
of container like fabric pouches, durable plastic boxes, and wall mounted cabinets to keep it
clean, safe, and sterile.
First Aid Kits complies with ISO standards which includes the a) green background with
white cross (ISO first aid symbol), b) white background with green cross (alternative ISO
first aid symbol), c) white background with Red Cross (symbol of Red Cross), and d) star of
life.
The content of a first aid box is intended to treat minor injuries such as bandages, adhesives,
gauze, disinfectant, and regular strength pain medication. There are also specialized first aid
kits which focus on the risks according to the specialization or field of work.

Types of First Aid Kits

• Home First Aid Kits – the basic content of a medical kit used or stored at home: antiseptic
hand cleanser, alcohol wipes, tweezers, medical adhesive tape, insect bite swabs, bandage
scissors, triangular bandages, elastic bandages, and instant cold packs.
• Sports First Aid Kits – focus on orthopedic injuries where it contains compression wraps
and cold packs and usually comes with small or big pack depending on the size of the group.
• Office First Aid Kits – most first aid at work consists of drugs intended to cure adults and is
easily restocked after each use.
• First Responder Kits – refer to all levels of emergency medical response which typically
consists of belt packs with flashlights and shears, blood pressure cuffs, and stethoscopes.
• Military First Aid Kits – include tactical and military first aid kits that are easily deployed
especially in a very difficult situation. These usually have tourniquets, clothing agents, and
other wound dressing specifically applied on severe wounds.
• Camping First Aid Kits – materials included in the wilderness first aid kits depends on how
deep you are planning to go.
• Medical First Aid Kits – include items specializing in medical field such as first aid
equipment’s that used to tackle heart attacks and automatic external defibrillator applicable
for both kids and adults.
Contain
1. Adhesive Bandages: It is never a good idea to leave cuts and scrapes uncovered. So, go
ahead and buy a few adhesive bandages since they come in all colors, sizes and shapes. You
might want to pick the larger ones for bigger cuts, and smaller ones for shaving cuts and
smaller scrapes. Also, find colorful ones that your kid will want to wear proudly instead of
ripping off. Also, talk to your vet if you have pets and get bandages meant for dogs or cats
(whatever the case may be).
2. Antiseptic Creams and Lotions: Before you put on that bandage, you will need to
thoroughly clean a wound. While soap and water work fine, it is advisable to use a good
antiseptic lotion to thoroughly rinse out any debris or particles in the wound that could infect
it. Also, if the wound is large and could get pus formation, you will need to use an antiseptic
regularly while you dress up the wound. So, buy Dettol or Salon to kill all germs and bacteria
that can thrive in an open wound.
3. Muscle Creams andSprays: Having a sprain or a backache is one of the most common
ailments people complain of, second only to headaches. To ensure that your aching muscles
get instant relief, do stock up on muscle creams and gels. A spray is a more effective option,
especially when you want to couple it with a heating pad. However, you should use them in
moderation as the ingredients do get absorbed directly in to your bloodstream through the
skin.
4. A Pair ofTweezers: A fine-tipped pair of tweezers can come in handy in so many ways.
Remove foreign objects lodged in the skin like splinters. Or easily remove your dog’s ticks
using them. Make sure you sterilize the tweezers by cleaning them with an antiseptic lotion.
5. Sterile Gauze and Tape
For bigger injuries, especially those that are bleeding profusely, you will need sterile gauze
and medical tape to create a larger bandage. Where a band-aid seems to be too small to cover
the wound, use these two. Create padding with sterile gauze, apply a little antiseptic cream,
and cover the wound. Then secure in place with the tape. These also work especially well on
kids and pets since they cannot remove this as easily.
6. Pain Relievers: What’s more common than a headache or backache? Having a few pain
relievers like Crocin and Combi flam in your first-aid box is a must. Even if the pain is
persistent and needs to be checked by a doctor, you can still pop a painkiller to help you bear
with the trip down to the clinic and the long wait before you get the turn to meet with your
doctor. If you have kids, keep some mild pain relievers at hand. And if you have pets, make
sure you talk to your vet about the best painkiller for dogs and cats. Remember, while most
human medicines work on dogs, some of them can be poisonous to their system.
7. Antihistamines: With all the changing weather and increased pollution, which household
doesn’t have people who develop allergic reactions easily? From sneezing to breaking out in
a rash, antihistamine will take care of all allergies. While sinus and dust allergies might not
need medical attention, a food allergy might need a trip to the doctor. In any case, the allergy
medication will provide a little relief while you rush the patient to the emergency.
8. Fungal Medicines: If you live in a hot, humid climate for any part of the year, you’ll be
well aware of the risk of fungal infections. These infections can erupt anytime, anywhere.
From your genitals to your feet, your face and hands, these fungal infections can be itchy and
embarrassing. So, make sure you have an anti-fungal cream at home to provide relief from
the persistent itch. You can get these in the form of gels, creams, powders and even pills.
9. Nail Clippers: Yes, these also find themselves on the list of top 10 things to keep in a
first-aid box. You may think that cutting your nails and shaping them can pose no emergency,
but what about a painful ingrown toenail? And not to mention painful hangnails that can
actually get infected if chewed on or ripped out. So, make sure you have nail clippers in your
first-aid box to clip nails and hangnails and keep the nails clean. You might not realize this
but dirty nails are the biggest cause for fungal infections, bacterial growths and warts.
10. Thermometer and Fever Medication: Any first-aid box is incomplete without a good
thermometer. And make sure you buy the right kind. No longer do doctors recommend a
mercury thermometer. Get yourself a digital thermometer, and if you have kids and pets, we
recommend you get an ear-canal thermometer. Fevers are common, so do keep Crocin or
basic paracetamol to ensure that you can regulate normal body temperature while your doctor
diagnoses the cause. He may further recommend antibiotics or other medication, but popping
an antipyretic will help you while you wait for the diagnosis.
 CHAPTER –6INTRODUCTION TO ERGONOMICS:

The term 'ergonomics' is derived from the Greek word 'ergo' meaning work and strength and
'nomos' meaning rule or law. It simply means "fitting the job to the worker (and not the
worker to the job)". The object of ergonomics is "to achieve the best mutual adjustment of
man and his work to improve his convenience, efficiency and well-being". Ergonomic
approach includes designing of machines, tools, controls, equipment, process, layout,
housekeeping etc. to increase efficiency of both - man and the machine. Application of
ergonomics reduces accidents and improves health and efficiency.
Ergonomics is also defined as 'the study of human characteristics for the appropriate
design of the living and work environment'. It is human centered, transdisciplinary and
application oriented. It can be applied to jobs, equipment, working place, tools, utensils or
any complicated working system (e.g. multi-person socio-technical system).
Successful application is measured by improved efficiency, safety, productivity and
acceptance of the ergonomic design.
Constituents of Ergonomics work man, machine & Environment
Human factors (HF) was the old discipline concerned with how humans react with
their work tasks and environment aiming to make the relationship safer, healthier and more
efficient. The new-name of this discipline is Ergonomics. Previously known 'Human
Engineer' or "Engineering Psychologist" is now known as "Ergonomist or Ergonomists (in
Great Britain). The term Ergonomics is biotechnological and covers the same scope and
complexity of interests that human factors embraces. Therefore, human factors are the main
constituents of ergonomics. For main division of factors affecting work including human
factors see Part-5 of Chapter-3. In a schematic diagram they are shown below:
 Work Performance or Man at Work

Ergonomics studies the ‘human factors’ and designs the system or suggests
application or modification of the existing system to make the work more suitable or
convenient to the man at work. Thus, in this context, or its procedural aspect, all human
factors - physiological and psychological contribute in constituting the science.
But from discipline point of view, main constituents of ergonomics are anatomy,
physiology, psychology and engineering. Schematic diagram of disciplines (work areas)
constituting the ergonomics is also shown below:

Application of Ergonomics for Safety and Health:

 Application of ergonomics can solve the problems of stress and strain due to work
load, high or low temperature, more or low illumination or glare, noise, vibration, radiation,
awkward work positions and orthopedic problems due to them. The field of application is
very wide which includes following as some of the areas: -
1. Hand tools.
2. Design of Controls.
3. Design of work.
4. Design of information displays.
5. Man/machine information exchange.
6. Limitations of the sense organs.
7. Age, fatigue, vigilance and accidents.
8. Problems of body size and posture.
9. Effects of climate.
10. Human energy, optimizing its efficient use.
11. 'Work tolerance.
12. Anatomy of function.
13. Physiologic measurements.
14. Application of skeletal-muscular forces (e.g. manual handling and lifting.)
Ergonomics is also utilized at design stage where it is called. "System Ergonomics"
in contrast to "Classical Ergonomics” which is applied to solve the ergonomic problems as
and when they occur once a design has been put in use. System ergonomics is a higher level
of practice involving a knowledge of (1) Different tasks the machines can perform. (2) The
relative cost. (3) A variety of tasks and satisfactory work for personnel.
In designing work, ergonomics can be applied for the design of systems, work places,
environments, interfaces and work situations. Some examples are as under:'
Sr. No. Type of Design Examples.

1 Systems Man-machine relationship, procedure.

2 Workplace Posture, seat and control design, bench position, displays.

Required lighting, heating, ventilation, noise, vibration

3 Environmental
etc.

Exchange of information between man and machine /

4 Interface environment, scales, pointers, letters, numbers, their size,
shapes, position, forces etc.
 Hours of work, rest pauses, shift work, inter personal and
5. Work situation
organizational aspects of work.

Following are some of the examples of application of ergonomics (human

engineering) to matters of health and safety:
1. Stresses of excessive heat, light, humidity, noise, vibration etc., their safe limits, type
of worker e.g. age, sex, fitness etc., and task to be performed - all should be
considered and suitable environmental conditions should be designed to fit
appropriately to the worker and his task.
2. Surrounding space, seat design, bench design and positioning of displays, controls,
materials, tools, equipment, instruments etc. should fit the human body so that he can
work without excessive effort within the range of healthy posture.
3. Interface display and control design should consider effective information between
the man and the machine or environment in type and size of numbers, letters, pointers,
shapes and discrimination, identification etc.
4. Working hours, rest pauses, shift work, interpersonal and management problems
should be studied and resolved to maintain health and safety of work people.
5. It should be aimed to do work with a minimal use of energy and materials and without
waste resulting from mistakes. Human errors should be minimized for safety and
health.
6. Design and production of automotive vehicles, communication equipment, farm
machinery, military service, aerospace systems, computers and electronic equipment
can be made safe and most suitable to the operators.
7. Highway signs, typewriters, data processing systems, machine tools, kitchen stoves,
street and highway design, rapid-transit facilities, health facilities, housing, pollution
control, education, law enforcement, postal service, airports etc. are newer areas
where ergonomic design can give good results and reduce accidents.
8. Deciding allocation of functions between men and machines. Functions' of
perceiving, responding to emergency situations, some ' typical judgements etc. are
better done by men than by machines. Functions of heavy lifting, computing, auto
regulation, handling large amount of information etc. are better performed by
machines than by men. These are to be considered at an early stage of design.
9. Task analysis to decide selection standards, workloads, training requirement,
manpower requirement, equipment design can be carried out.
10. Factors of control design, e.g. control display ratio, safeguards against accidental
activation, control coding etc. are part of ergonomic design.
11. Workplace dimensions, location of controls and displays, seat and penal design, the
design of doors and access for easy entry and exit and protective devices for
emergency situations need to be well designed.
12. For good maintenance easy and simple maintenance manuals, tools and test
equipment, better location of units for easy access, faultfinding techniques etc. are to
be designed properly.
13. Allowance for local weather conditions, ventilation in cramped premises, providing
stool to put container to avoid frequent bending, elementary checklists are ergonomic
aspects.
14. Manual material handling has a large scope of ergonomic considerations. Process
flow, job design, layout, selection of equipment, machine, tools, space requirement,
control design, visibility, colour and signs, allowing push and pull instead of lift and
lower, avoiding severe bending, lifting and lowering between knuckle (hip) height
and shoulder height, avoiding excessive weight, avoiding sharp edges, corners, pinch
points, training for safe lifting practice and lifting rules (dos and don'ts), personnel
selection etc. must be well considered.
15. Wrong design of hand tools can create bending of wrist, pressure points between the
hand and the handle, sustained exertions, vibrations etc. Therefore,hand tools should
be designed in such a way that they eliminate or minimize these hazards. Oblique
angle of the handle, proper shape, diameter and length of the handle, rounding off all
edges and sharp corners, minimizing noise and vibration etc. are useful criteria.
16. Office, other work places and workstation design call for specific criteria. Ideal,
practical and detail planning, work process, equipment, workplace layout, final
enclosure, mock-up, trial and redesign, clearance for the operator's body, sufficient
head room, visual field, auditory information, standing or sitting position (both have
advantages and disadvantages), work space dimensions, body position to operate
computer, healthy work postures, eye height, elbow height, knee height, seat design to
reduce physiological and biomechanical stresses by providing wide range of
adjustments and postures to suit the individual (seat height adjustable between 15 to
20 inch, deep 15 to 17 inch, wide 18 inch or more and backrest to support back and
neck and opportunity to change body posture frequently) etc. are some important
criteria:
17. Controls - continuous or detent - should be designed by considering consistency of
movement, control actuation force, multidimensional operation, operator-control
orientation, control-effect relationship, time lag, arrangement and grouping, coding
and prevention of accidental activation etc.
18. Light signals provide useful safety and functional indications as mentioned below:
See also Part 7.3 of Chapter-9.
19. Displays provide necessary information to the operator. They may be visual (lights,
scales, counters), auditory (bells, horns), tactile (shaped knobs. Braille writing) or
audio-visual (buzzer with light, TV display). Selection depends on type of
information to be provided and to whom provided.
20. Labeling permits rapid and accurate performance of controls, displays and other items
that should be identified, read, manipulated or located. Label characteristics are:
accuracy, time of response or recognition, distance, illumination, nature of function
and consistency. Their visibility, legibility, location, orientation, abbreviation, brevity
and standardization are necessary. Legal notices must be displayed.
From above varieties of examples, it is evident that ergonomics has wide applicability
to many functions in addition to health and safety.
8.1.2 Ergonomics of Rehabilitation (RTW)
Rehabilitation Psychology
"Rehabilitation psychologists work with people who have suffered physical deprivation or
loss at birth or during later development as a result of damage or deterioration of function
(e.g., resulting from a stroke). They help people overcome both the psychological and
situational barriers to effective functioning in the world. Rehabilitation psychologists work in
hospitals, rehabilitation centers, medical schools, and in government rehabilitation agencies"
(as stated on the APA website).

RTW Strategy:
We will endeavor to keep you advised of your employee’s medical status and work with you
to coordinate a safe and appropriate return to work strategy.
1. Provide medical attention
2. Take care of any necessary follow-up and return to work status.
3. Report Claim to Insurance Co. within 24 hours of the occurrence.
4. Inform medical provider a pre-injury, as well as a modified duty job description.
5. Communicate with the injured worker on a regular basis to:
- Keep the employee connected to the business and motivated to Return to Work
- Secure updated medical information and Return to Work instructions.
- Discuss Return to Work options and availability.
6. Establish a Target Return to Work Date.
A Target Return to Work Date is the anticipated date an injured worker will be able to safely
return to work, in either a modified or full duty capacity, as determined by a physician. The
date(s) should be flexible and take into consideration the individual needs of the employee as
well as the employer’s ability to accommodate any medical restrictions placed upon the
employee. They should be established early in the rehabilitation process and communicated
to the involved parties and followed up upon at least five (5) days prior to the anticipated
RTW date.

The following terms help define these considerations and may help you in formulating a
job description for rehabilitant employee:

Work Environment means the design of the physical surroundings the employee will work in
as well as the equipment, machinery and supplies that the employee will be expected to use to
perform the work.
Work Position refers to the amount of time an employee spends in any one position vs. the
ability to change positions. Consideration is given to the amount of time the employee spends
sitting, bending over, squatting, kneeling, standing, and walking during the work period.
Work Breaks means the amount of time elapsed between specific job tasks or operations that
allows for a change in position or a temporary relaxation of body movement.
Task Variety means the extent to which variation can be introduced into job
tasks/assignments. Related terms include:
Reorganize Tasks: Alternate tasks within a job to minimize repetition
Job Enlargement: Increase the scope of the job /assignment to increase the variety of work
Job Rotation: People move from one task to another according to a schedule
What to Do in Event of an Accident or Injury:
Employee Factors focus upon the employee as an individual in assessing what the employee
is capable of, and willing to do, if (s)he is not able to perform traditional job duties. These
factors include the employee’s physical size and strength, personal health and hygiene, ability
to learn and adapt to change, motivational forces, as well as sense of attachment to the
employer and co-workers.
Load Characteristics is a term applied to materials-handling tasks. The characteristics include
frequency, weight, stability, starting height, distance, and availability of handgrips.
Work Pace means the amount of time required to complete a specific task or job. The
expected work place within a business should take into consideration the reasonable goals,
work quotas and schedules.
Rest Breaks means the frequency and duration of that period of time when the employee is
not performing his or her work. The employee should leave the workstation, stretch/exercise
or otherwise cease work activity.
Adjustment Period means the amount of time an employee needs to be “physically, mentally
and psychologically ready to perform his/her pre-injury job. The adjustment period will vary
depending upon the person and the requirements of the job.
In developing a return to work program, the employee, employer and medical provider need
to agree as to the employee’s pre-injury job description and the nature of the employment that
the employer can reasonably make available to the employee. According to the US
Department of Labor2, the nature of a person’s employment can be classified by the
following categories:
Sedentary Work – Exerting up to 10 pounds of force occasionally and/or a negligible amount
of force frequently or constantly to lift, carry, push, pull or otherwise move objects, including
the human body. Sedentary work involves sitting most of the time, but may involve walking
or standing for brief periods of time. Jobs are sedentary if walking and standing are required
only occasionally and all other sedentary criteria are met.
Light Work – Exerting up to 20 pounds of force occasionally and/or up to 10 pounds of
force frequently, and/or negligible amount of force constantly to move objects. Physical
demand requirements are in excess of those for sedentary work. Light work usually requires
walking or standing to a significant degree. However, if the use of the arm and/or leg controls
require exertion of forces greater than that for sedentary work, and the worker sits most of the
time, the job is rated light work.

Medium Work – Exerting up to 50 pounds of force occasionally, and/or up to 20 pounds of

force frequently, and/or up to 10 pounds of force constantly to move objects.
Heavy Work – Exerting up to 100 pounds of force occasionally, and/or up to 50 pounds of
force frequently, and/or up to 20 pounds of force constantly to move objects.
Very Heavy Work – Exerting in excess of 100 pounds of force occasionally, and/or in
excess of 50 pounds of force frequently, and/or in excess of 20 pounds of force constantly to
move objects.
The Principle objectives of an Ergonomics Program should be to:
  Reduce the number or occupational injuries and illnesses experienced
 Reduce employee absenteeism and turnover
 Improve the productivity of the work force
 Improve the quality of work produced
 Ensure governmental regulatory compliance
 Accommodate disabled workers under the ADA
 Function in cooperation with a WC cost containment strategy

The basic components used in the development of an ergonomic plan are as follows:
Workstation Analysis – A safety and health review that identifies jobs and work stations
that may contain musculoskeletal hazards, the risk factors that pose those hazards, and the
causes of the risk factors.

Hazard Prevention and Control – Eliminating or minimizing the hazards identified in the
workplace analysis by changing the jobs, workstations, tools or environment to fit the worker.

Medical Management – Effective use of available health care resources to prevent or

manage work-related musculoskeletal disorders.

Training & Education – A method to give both workers and managers an understanding of
the potential risk of injuries, their causes, symptoms, prevention and treatment.

Understanding Ergonomics

Guidelines: OSHA will develop industry-or-task-specific guidelines for a number of

industries based on current incidence rates and available information about effective and
feasible solutions. The objective of the guidelines is to reduce and prevent workplace injuries.
These voluntary guidelines are tools to assist employers in recognizing and controlling
hazards. Employers in other industries for which guidelines have not been developed may
find useful information in these guidelines for implementing their own ergonomic programs.
Enforcement: OSHA will address ergonomic hazards in its national emphasis program,
notifications, and inspections of employers in the Site-Specific Targeting program, and will
aid those employers in this group who have a high percentage of MSDs.

Outreach and Assistance: OSHA will develop a complete and comprehensive set of
compliance assistance tools, including Internet-based training and information, to support
understanding of guidelines and how to proactively define and address ergonomic problems.
 The new ergonomics plan includes a specialized focus to help Hispanic and other immigrant
workers, many of whom work in industries with high ergonomic hazard rates.

Research: While there is a large body of research available on ergonomics, there are many
areas where additional research is necessary, including gaps identified by the National
Academy of Science (NAS). OSHA will serve as a catalyst to encourage researchers to
design studies in areas where additional information would be helpful.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has published a
document entitled “Elements of Ergonomics Program – a Primer based on Workplace
Evaluations of Musculoskeletal Disorders.” The primer recommends a seven-step approach
to combating these disorders in the workplace. The steps are as follows:

 One: Look for signs of potential problems in the workplace, such as frequent reports of
aches and pains, jobs that require repetitive movements or forceful exertions.
 Two: Showing management commitment in addressing the possible problems and
encouraging a team approach,
 involving the labor force, in the resolution of the problems.
 Three: Providing education and training to expand the team’s ability to evaluate potential
injuries
 Four: Gathering data to identify jobs or work conditions that are most problematic, using
sources such as OSHA logs, other injury and illness logs, medical records and job
analyses.
 Five: Identify effective administrative controls and standard operating procedures for
tasks that pose a risk of injury. Monitor and evaluate these approaches once they have
been implemented to see if they are reducing or eliminating the risk.
 Six: Establish health care management protocols that emphasize the early detection and
treatment of symptoms to prevent impairment and /or disability.
 Seven: Minimize risk factors for injury when planning new work processes and
operations. The presumption is that it is less expensive to build good design into a
workplace he to redesign or retrofit it later.

HOW TO BUILD A RETURN TO WORK PROGRAM

1. Assign a specific individual (i.e. Human resources professional or Safety Officer) to oversee
and manage the program.
2. Draft a policy statement and step by step procedures to be followed after an injury has been
reported. You may use your own or make use the sample provided:

3. Make certain the elements of the program comply with any other company personnel
guidelines, policies or procedures. It must also be consistent with any applicable collective
bargaining agreements.
4. Develop and/or utilize job descriptions that include a position description and job (task)
analysis that conforms to the US Dept. of Labor standards. It is suggested you prepare these
documents in advance of an injury but may be created as a need arises. The attached Job
Description Forms are intended to assist you in this process.
5. In the event of a loss, review the position description and prepare a detailed analysis of the
elements which could be assigned within the injured worker’s restrictions.
6. Build business relationships with local medical providers who are interested in understanding
the nature of your business, will work with you to provide treatment for employees
immediately after an injury occurs, and who will help you in determining an injured worker's
ability to return to work. Invite them to meet with you at your facility; the more they know
about your operation, the easier it will be for them to assist you in getting your injured
workers back to work quickly.
7. Communicate the appropriate information to your workforce regarding your temporary
alternative/transitional work program. Introduce the program through the medium best for
your workforce (i.e. Team meetings, workplace postings, payroll stuffer, etc.) If applicable,
incorporate the material into your employee handbook.
8. Once the injured worker has returned to work, maintain an open channel of communication
with him/her and the involved medical provider(s) regarding the rehabilitation plan and
progress towards returning to full capacity employment.

Ergonomics of Automation & Assy.

A little over 300 years ago-in 1689 to be precise-King Charles XI of Sweden decreed that a
weapons factory be built in the town of Huskvarna. A few decades later, some of the artisans
working there switched from crafting firearms to making a peaceful precision product-sewing
machine. The resulting company, now Viking Sewing Machines AB, has been hard at it ever
since.
Today, the company is not only one of the world’s oldest manufacturers, but also one of the
most advanced. Gone are the days when sewing machines were assembled meticulously by
hand. Instead, the company uses automation and flexible manufacturing whenever possible to
increase throughput and efficiency, as well as the quality of its products.
A few years ago, the company implemented a complete Dynamic Assembly System (DAS)
from automation equipment manufacturer Flex Link (Allentown, PA), and the system has
been going strong ever since. Comprised of both software and hardware, the DAS system
assembles, tests, transports and packages Viking Sewing Machines’ Designer 1 model, a
computer-controlled machine that can do everything from buttonholes to embroidery. In
addition to regulating production flow, the mixed-mode, pallet-based system also enhances
operator health and safety through the implementation of various ergonomic features. The
manual portion of the assembly line includes seven workstations, with six additional
workstations providing spare assembly capacity. The system is flexible and easy to adjust in
response to product or capacity changes.
Processing times for the different stations range from 6 to 9 minutes. Before packaging, every
sewing machine undergoes a 12-minute automated functional test. When they reach the end
of the line, the pallets automatically return to the starting point, where they are prepped for
another sewing machine.
“The assembly work follows a computerized route handled by a computer, and the actual
route can be followed on the screen,” says Viking Sewing Machines production engineer
Olof Dahlin. “If there is no station available, the pallet will circulate on the line until an
assembly station becomes available. On our old production lines, you had to follow a
sequential flow, taking the stations in order, without any possibility of changing assembly
steps or the defined role at each workstation.”
Dahlin adds that the line is also much easier on employees than in the past. “Ergonomic
adaptation of each workstation is very important for us,” he says, adding that a
physiotherapist has inspected, tested and approved the entire line

Ergonomics of Visual Fatigue

Displays and Light Signals.
 These are useful to provide, necessary information to operator. They may be dial
gauges, pointers, digital, audio, visual, analog etc. Bell, horn and warning notices are also
displaying which give information. Colored signals have some meaning as under
1. Red - Stop position
2. Flashing Red - Emergency condition.
3. Green - 'On' position or 'yes' indication to proceed.
4. Yellow - Wait, delay or be in readiness position. It also indicates caution
or rechecking.
5. White - No right or no wrong, transitory condition.
Displays should have clear meaning. They should be easy to understand and visible,
properly illuminated, also visible when power fails, coded and labeled according to function.
Numerical display indicates time, temperature, pressure, flow, humidity, pH, speed
etc. Moving pointer on a fixed scale 'have many shapes - circular, curved, horizontal straight
or vertical straight. Numbers or figures should not be obstructed by pointer.
Displays should be located in viewing area and perpendicular to the line of sight.
Labels should be provided where extra information is necessary.

Anthropometry and fundamental of bio-mechanics:Basic and applied

aspects:Anthropometric measurements and their usefulness in industry.
Introduction to Anthropometry.
Anthropometry and biomechanics are branches of ergonomics dealing with physical
dimensions and properties of. the human body.
Anthropometry means measuring the human body. Height, breadth, depth and various
distances of the body parts are measured. Curvatures and circumferences are also measured.
Measurements are taken in stand-erect or seated position.
Body dimensions are measured by anthropometers, calipers, taps and a scale. Such
dimensions are useful in designing work spaces, tools, equipment, seating arrangement,
vehicles and workstations so that' they can best fit to the users.

Fundamentals of Biomechanics
Biomechanics means: study of the motion and causes of motion of living things
Introduction to Biomechanics of Human Movement
Biomechanics has been defined as the study of the movement (kinesiology). A core science
in the academic discipline of kinesiology is biomechanics. Biomechanics in kinesiology is the
study of motion and its causes in human movement. Mechanics is a branch of physics that is
concerned with the description of motion and how forces create motion. Forces acting on
living things can create motion, be a healthy stimulus for growth and development, or
overload tissues, causing injury. Biomechanics provides conceptual and mathematical tools
that are necessary for understanding how living things move and how kinesiology
professionals might improve movement.
Since kinesiology majors are pursuing careers focused on improving human movement, today
people refer to professional athletes or painters because people earn a living with these jobs,
People need help in improving human movement and this help requires knowledge of “why”
and “how” the human body moves. Biomechanics is an important science for solving human
movement problems. However, Bio-mechanics is but one of many sport and human
movement science tools in a kinesiology. Integrate biomechanical knowledge into the
qualitative analysis.

WHY STUDY BIOMECHANICS? 1. Improving Performance

2. Preventing and Treating Injury
Application
A) Sport Medicine
B) Athletics (Exercise, game)
C) Scholarly Societies
Kinds of Sources: Where you can find it...?
Computer Searches
Biomechanics Textbooks

NINE FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOMECHANICS

Biomechanisms measure all kinds of linear and angular mechanical variables to document
and find the causes of human motion. This section proposes nine such principles of
biomechanics and demonstrates how they relate to scientific laws. These biomechanical tools
must be combined with other tools from your kinesiology toolbox to solve movement
problems. Because these principles are the application rules for kinesiology professionals,
they have usually been given less-scientific names so that we can communicate effectively
with our clients.
Principles and Laws
The nine principles of biomechanics that follow take the form of general principles related to
human movement. It is important to realize that principles for application are not the same as
scientific laws. Science is a systematic method for testing hypotheses with experimental
evidence for the purpose of improving our understanding of reality. Science uses a process,
known as the scientific method, for testing a theory about a phenomenon with measurements,
then reevaluating the theory based on the data. Ultimately, science is interested in finding the
truth, facts, or laws of nature that provide the best understanding of reality. When
experimentation shows data always consistent with a theory, then the theory becomes a law.
Scientists must always be open to new data and theories that may provide a more accurate
description or improved understanding of a phenomenon. True scientific revolutions that
throw out long-held and major theories are not as common as most people think. Though
news reporters often herald scientific “breakthroughs,” they are usually Exaggerating the
importance of a small step in what is a very slow process of weighing a great deal of
evidence. Technology is the term usually used to refer to the tools and methods of applying
scientific knowledge to solve problems or perform tasks. Remember that in chapter 1 we
noted the belief of some scholars that studying academic disciplines and doing theoretical
research are worthy enterprises without any need to show any practical application of
knowledge. Even in “applied” fields like kinesiology, there is a long history of a theory-to-
practice, or a science-to-profession gap (Harris, 1993). Why does this gap exist? It might
exist because some scholars are hesitant to propose application based on what is often less-
than-conclusive data, or they might be concerned about receiving less recognition for applied
scholarship. Practitioners contribute to this gap as well by refusing to recognize the
theoretical nature of science, by not reading widely to compile the necessary evidence for
practice, and by demanding simple “how-to” rules of human movements when these simple
answers often do not exist. This text is based on the philosophy that the best use of the
science of biomechanics is in its translation to principles for improving human movement.
These principles are general rules for the application of biomechanics that are useful for most
all human movements. Some of the principles are based on major laws of mechanics, many
of which are hundreds of years old. For example, Newton's Laws of Motion are still used at
NASA because they accurately model the motion of spacecraft, even though there are more
recent advancements in theoretical physics that are only an improvement in very extreme
conditions (high-energy or near the speed of light). Unfortunately, the human body is a much
more complicated system than the space shuttle, and biomechanisms have not had hundreds
of years to make progress on theories of human movement. For these reasons, these nine
principles of application should be viewed as general rules that currently fit what we
currently know about the biomechanics of human movement.

Nine Principles for Application of Biomechanics

The nine principles of biomechanics proposed in this text were selected because they
constitute the minimum number or core principles that can be applied to all human
movements and because they provide a simple paradigm or structure to apply biomechanical
knowledge. The names of the principles are put in the common language of application;
however, each can be directly linked to the concepts and laws of biomechanics. Special
attention has been paid to make application of these principles both friendly and consistent
with the specialized terminology of mechanics. As kinesiology professionals you will know
the names of the biomechanical laws and theories behind these principles.
1. The first principle in biomechanics is theForce–Motion principle. Force–motion says
that
Unbalanced forces are acting on our bodies or objects when we either create or modify
movement. In quiet standing the force of gravity is balanced by ground reaction forces under
our feet, so to move from this position a person creates larger horizontal and vertical forces
with their legs. This simple illustration of the body is our first example of what in mechanics
is called a free-body diagram. A free-body diagram is a simplified model of any system or
object drawn with the significant forces acting on the object. The complexity and detail of the
free-body diagram depends on the purpose of the analysis. Inspection of should make it
qualitatively obvious that the addition of the two vertical forces illustrated would cancel each
other out, keeping the person essentially motionless in the vertical direction. The Force–
Motion principle here correctly predicts no change in motion, since there is no unbalanced
force acting on the person. Later on, in the text we will use free-body diagrams to actually
calculate the effect of forces and torques on the motion of the human body, and we will study
the effects of forces acting over time to change the motion of the human body. We will also
come to see later that this principle is based on Newton's three laws of motion. An important
thing to notice in this principle is the sequence of events. Forces must act first, before
changes in motion can occur. Detailed study of kinematics will illustrate when the motion
occurred relative to the acceleration and force causing it. Suppose a person is running on a
sidewalk and a small child darts directly in the runner's path to grab a bouncing ball. In order
to avoid the child, the runner must change the state of motion. The Force–Motion principle
tells the kinesiology professional that the runner's sideward movement (a change in direction
and speed) had to be created by large forces applied by the leg to the ground. The force
applied by the leg comes first and the sideward motion to avoid the collision was the result.
Substantial changes in motion do not instantly occur but are created over time, which leads us
to the next principle of Force–Time.
2. principle of Force–Time.
It is not only the amount of force that can increase the motion of an object; the amount of
time over which force can be applied also affects the resulting motion. A person using a
longer approach in bowling has more time to apply forces to increase ball speed. Increasing
the time to apply force is also an important technique in slowing down objects (catching) and
landing safely. The impulse–momentum relationship, the original language of Newton’s
second law, is the mathematical explanation of this important principle.
3. Another important principle to understand in the modification of motion is Inertia.
Inertia can be defined as the property of all objects to resist changes in their state of motion.
Newton's first law of motion outlines the principle of inertia. The Newtonian view of inertia
as a fundamental property of motion was a major conceptual leap, rejecting the old
Aristotelian view that constant application of force was required for motion. The linear and
angular measures of inertia are mass (m) and moment of inertia (I). We will see that inertia
can be viewed as a resistance to motion in the traditional sense, but this property can also be
used to an advantage when modifying motion or transferring energy from one body segment
to another.
4. The next principle involves the Range of Motion the body uses in movement.
Range of Motion is the overall motion used in a movement and can be specified by linear or
angular motion of the body segments. The purpose of some movements might require that
somebody segments limit range of motion, while others requiring maximum speed or force
might require larger ranges of motion. Increasing the range of motion in a movement can be
an effective way to increase speed or to gradually slowdown from a high speed. A baseball
pitcher taking a longer stride is increasing the range of motion of the weight shift. Since
moving through a range of motion takes time, this principle is related to the force–time
principle.
5. The next biomechanical principle is Balance. Balance is a person's ability to control
their body position relative to some base of support. Stability and mobility of body
postures are inversely related, and several biomechanical factors are involved in
 manipulating a person's stability and mobility. A handstand is a difficult gymnastic
skill not only because of the muscular strength required, but also because of the small
base of support in the anterior and posterior directions. Athletes in the starting blocks
for sprints choose body postures with less stability in favor of increased mobility in
the direction of the race. How the muscle actions and body segment motions are timed
in a human movement is usually referred to as coordination.
6. The Coordination Continuum principle
Says that determining the optimal timing of muscle actions or segmental motions depends on
the goal of the movement. If high forces are the goal of the movement, more simultaneous
muscle actions and joints rotations are usually observed, while low-force and high-speed
movements tend to have more sequential muscle and joint actions. These two strategies can
be viewed as a continuum, with the coordination of most motor skills falling somewhere
between these two strategies.
7. The principle of Segmental Interaction
Says that the forces acting in a system of linked rigid bodies can be transferred through the
links and joints. Muscles normally act in short bursts to produce torques that are precisely
coordinated to complement the effects of torques created by forces at the joints. A wide
variety of terms have been used to describe this phenomenon (transfer, summation,
sequential) because there are many ways to study human movement. This variety of
approaches has also created a confusing array of terminology classifying movements as either
open or closed (kinematic or kinetic) chains. We will see that the exact mechanism of this
principle of biomechanics is not entirely clear, and common classification of movements as
open or closed chains is not clear or useful in analyzing movement (Blackard, Jensen, &
Ebben, 1999; di Fabio, 1999; Dillman, Murray, & Hintermeister, 1994).
8. The biomechanical principle of Optimal Projection says that for most human
movements involving projectiles there is an optimal range of projection angles for a
specific goal. Biomechanical research shows that optimal angles of projection provide
the right compromise between vertical velocity and horizontal velocity within the
typical conditions encountered in many sports. For example, in throwing most sport
projectiles for horizontal distance, the typical air resistance and heights of release
combine to make it beneficial for an athlete to use projection angles below 45
degrees. This research makes it easier for coaches to determine if athletes are
optimizing their performance.
 9. The last principle involves the Spin or rotations imparted to projectiles, and
particularly sport balls.
Spin is desirable on thrown and struck balls because it stabilizes flight and creates a fluid
force called lift. This lift force is used to create a curve or to counter gravity, which affects
the trajectory and bounce of the ball. A volleyball player performing a jump serve should
strike above the center of the ball to impart topspin to the ball. The topspin creates a
downward lift force, making the ball dive steeply and making it difficult for the opponent to
pass. The spin put on a pass in American football stabilizes the orientation of the ball, which
ensures aerodynamically efficient flight. The natural application of these biomechanical
principles is in qualitative analysis of human movement.

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

The examples that illustrate the application of the principles of biomechanics in the solution
of human movement problems in this book will be based on qualitative analyses. Research
has shown that general principles of biomechanics provide a useful structure for qualitative
analysis of human movement Quantitative biomechanical analysis can also be used, but most
kinesiology professionals will primarily be using qualitative analyses of movement rather
than quantitative biomechanical analyses. There are several models of qualitative analysis of
human movement. Traditionally, kinesiology professionals have used a simple error detection
and correction approach to qualitative analysis. Here the analyst relies on a mental image of
the correct technique to identify “errors” in the performance and provide a correction. This
approach has several negative consequences and is too simplistic a model for professional
judgments. The application of the principles of biomechanics is illustrated in the present book
using a more comprehensive vision of qualitative analysis than the simple error
detection/correction of the past. This text uses the Knudson and Morrison. This model
provides a simple four task structure: preparation, observation, evaluation/diagnosis, and
intervention. This model of qualitative analysis is equally relevant to athletic or clinical
applications of biomechanics to improving human movement. In the preparation task of
qualitative analysis, the professional gathers relevant kinesiology knowledge about the
activity, the performer, and then selects an observational strategy. In the observation task the
analyst executes the observational strategy
Interdisciplinary Issue:
The Vertical Jump
Now that the principles are out of the bag, let's use them to look at a common sport
movement, the vertical jump. Imagine an athlete is doing a standing vertical jump test. Which
principles of biomechanics would be
of most interest to scholars from motor development, motor learning, exercise physiology, or
sport psychology studying the vertical jump test? What combinations of the sport sciences are
most relevant to the concept of skill in vertical jumping? What sports science provides the
most relevant information to the physical terminatesof jumping ability? How could someone
determine if the success of elite jumpers is more strongly related to genetics (nature/physical)
than coaching? How could a strength coach integrate jump training studies with
biomechanical studies of jumping techniques? to gather all relevant sensory information
about the performance of the movement. The third task of qualitative analysis has two
difficult components: evaluation and then diagnosis of performance. In evaluation the analyst
identifies strengths and weaknesses of performance. Diagnosis involves the prioritizing of the
potential interventions to separate causes of poor performance from minor or symptomatic
weaknesses. Intervention is the last task of qualitative analysis. In this task the professional
executes some action on behalf of the performer. Often in live qualitative analysis, the analyst
will return immediately to the observation task to monitor the intervention and the mover's
progress.
SUMMARY

Most biomechanical research has been based on rigid-body models of the skeletal system.
Kinematics involves the description of the motion, while kinetics focuses on the forces that
created the motion. There are many biomechanical variables and they can be classified as
either scalars or vectors. Despite the precision of quantitative biomechanics, most kinesiology
professionals apply biomechanics at a qualitative or conceptual level. The nine principles of
biomechanics that can be used to apply biomechanics knowledge in professional practice are
Force–Motion, Force–Time, Inertia, Range of Motion, Balance, Coordination Continuum,
Segmental Interaction, Optimal Projection, and Spin. These nine principles can be applied
using a comprehensive model qualitative analysis.
Application: Quantitative Analysis

An athletic trainer is planning a qualitative analysis of the lower-extremity muscular function

of an athlete finishing up an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rehabilitation program. The
trainer has run the athlete through the rehabilitation program, but wants a more functional
evaluation of the athlete's ability and readiness for play. The athlete will be doing several
drills, including multiple one-legged hops and squats, shuttle runs, landings, jumps, and
lateral cutting movements. For the preparation task of qualitative analysis, give examples of
research or biomechanical principles that you think would be relevant to analyzing the
athlete's ability to prevent damage to the ACL. Is there a task of qualitative analysis that more
heavily relies on biomechanics than other sport sciences?

Ergonomic Design of Work Station: Concept of workstation and its design. Improving
safety and productivity through work station design. Technical and Engineering control
measures. Economics consideration.
Work Station Design:
Introduction to Anthropometry.

Anthropometry and biomechanics are branches of ergonomics dealing with physical

dimensions and properties of. the human body.
Anthropometry means measuring the human body. Height, breadth, depth and various
distances of the body parts are measured. Curvatures and circumferences are also measured.
Measurements are taken in stand-erect or seated position.
Body dimensions are measured by anthropometers, calipers, taps and a scale. Such
dimensions are useful in designing work spaces, tools, equipment, seating arrangement,
vehicles and workstations so that' they can best fit to the users.
Concept of Percentiles.
Percentile indicates which percentage of a known population is fitted by a design range.
Suppose work seat height is to be designed most convenient to majority of men and women,
its range should fit to the women in 5th percentile to the man in is 95th percentile. This
means much deviation will not be required in this range of seat height (say lowest 35.5 cm to
its highest setting at 48.8 cm). Then addition of 2 cm for heal height may be required. 50th
percentile corresponds to a single fixed seat height of 41 cm for a mixed male female
population, but, this will be too high for about 50 % of the people and too low for the rest.
Thus, designing for the average fits nobody.
5th, 50th and 95th percentiles measurements for human height, depth, breadth, head, hand
and foot dimensions are available for ergonomic design purpose.
Health problems related to wrong postures, back pain etc.
Sitting or standing in the same posture for a long time
exert muscle tension and spinal compression. Therefore,
this should be avoided by providing rest periods, physical
activities or exercises.
Computer operators keep the head in a fixed position for
a long time and therefore suffer pain and tension in the
neck area. Intensity, frequency and long hours of muscle
contractions cause severe discomfort, pain and other
musculoskeletal disorders that last for long periods.
Lumber spine suffers more force while sitting on a stool without backrest than in standing at
ease. Leaning back over the backrest and arms hanging down reduces compression force.
Straight upright backrests do not support the body and high disk forces may occur. When it is
declined back and upper body weight is rested on backrest, internal forces are also declined.
Relaxed leaning on a declined backrest is the least stressful sitting posture.
Ergonomic Office Furniture and Utility Tools.
Workstation consists of furniture, equipment, work material and overall environment.
Persons do job there. Work posture includes movement of body parts and work activities
include visual, auditory, vocal and motor types. Their combined effect is performance output
and persons' well-being.
Work space design, good lighting and ventilation, attractive and comfortable work situation
are basic requirement. Office furniture and utility tools like controls, displays, switches, trays,
bins, office equipment’s and instruments also play an important role.
General system components include computers, keyboards, tables, chairs and cupboards. But
operator is the most important component in this system, because work output depends on
him and he utilizes other components of the system. He should be most comfortable. His
body dimensions are useful in designing workstation dimensions as under -
1. Dimensions should be slightly adjustable according to individual's requirement.
2. Visual tasks - monitor, key board, papers, books etc. - should be at eye height.
3. Keyboard, mouse, notepad, pen and hand controls should be convenient to elbow
height and forearm length.
4. Leg room height depends on knee height, and thigh thickness and its depth depend on
foot length.
5. Thigh width and lower leg length (Popliteal height) decide the width and height of the
seat pan.
6. Functional reach decides height of shelves and other furniture.
7. Furniture should provide user freedom to extend legs or hands, to lean forward or
backward, to rotate left or right and to take any posture.
8. Ergonomic chairs with large backrest are most comfortable as they provide support to
back and neck. Seat height must be fully adjustable, (height 35 to 50 cm, depth 35 to 45 cm
and width 45 cm). Seat surface should not generate any pressure to the seated person.
9. Armrests are useful in reducing compression load on the spinal column.
10. Visual targets should riot be spaced apart in direction or distance from the eye. They
should be easily viewable in the front.
11. All components of workstation should fit each other and each should fit the operators.
Flexibility for individual requirement is also necessary.

Machine Controls and Displays:

Location & Sequence of Operation.
Controls are mostly hand or foot operated. They transmit inputs to machine, vehicle
or equipment. They are selected on basis of their functional utility and located in easy reach
so that operator's body parts are not overstressed.
Controls are of 'continuous' type (e.g. crank, knob wheel etc.) or 'detent type (e.g. key
lock or switch, bar knob, thumbwheel & different switches) where step wise operation is
required.
Controls having sequential relations should be arranged in functional groups with
their associated displays and in operational sequence.
If sequential operation follows fixed pattern like car gear handle, they should be
arranged to facilitate operation i.e. top to bottom or left to right. Sufficient spacing s required
for movement.
 Controls should be located as per operator's requirement i.e. easy operation. Time lag
between control input and system response should be minimum and consistent with safe and
efficient operation.
Knobs are provided where little force is required and when fine adjustment is
necessary.
Hand wheels are used for two hand control. Then knurling (corrugation) should be
provided for good grasping.
When levers are used for fine or frequent adjustment (e.g. car gear lever) limb support
are useful. e.g. elbow support for large hand movement, forearm support for small movement
and wrist support for finger movement.
When several levers are located side by side, the lever handles should be coded.
Levers should be labeled for their direction of motion and function. For joystick controls
(three-dimensional steering), elastic resistance is added for smooth displacement.
Natural Expectation of Control Movement.
Control movement should match with natural expectation e.g. foreword motion for
front driving, backward motion for reversed driving, clockwise motion for right direction and
anticlockwise for left direction, forward motion for boom descend and vice versa. In
electrical switches, downward indicates 'on' and upward indicates 'off position. This is natural
expectation.
In key lock switches (e.g. car ignition switch), key's vertical position indicates 'off
position, turning clockwise indicates 'start' position and key should not come out without
turning the switch i.e. without stopping the vehicle or machine. The 'on' and 'off positions
should be labeled.
Preventing Accidental Activation.

Controls should be so designed and located that they will not move or change their
position accidentally. They should not come out accidentally or by slight touch from 'off to
'on' position and start the vehicle or machine [Section 24(3) of the factories Act]. Such
inadvertent operation can cause 'accident to person, machine or system. To prevent such
accidental activation, following measures are useful
1. Cover or guard the control.
2. Provide interlock so that extra movement is required to change the position.
3. Provide resistance by spring action or viscous friction so that extra effort is
required for actuation.
4. Provide rotary action for operation.
 5. Provide recess, slot, shield etc. to contain controls within it and finger is
required to insert inside. e.g. push button or switch in recess or guard on foot pedal of a
power press.
6. Provide 'on' and 'off. button separately and with different colour.
7. Provide' Dead man control' which will keep the system working till the control
is pressed and will stop the system when the control is released, e.g. petrol nozzle trigger
(knob) or drill machine push button.
Foot controls.
Foot controls have specific use and where powerful braking force is required or when
leg is only convenient limb, viz. brake pedal or acceleration control lever in car or brake
pedal for power press, press brake, metal shear and other machines.
Displays and Light Signals.
These are useful to provide, necessary information to operator. They may be dial
gauges, pointers, digital, audio, visual, analog etc. Bell, horn and warning notices are also
displaying which give information. Colored signals have some meaning as under

1. Red - Stop position

2. Flashing Red - Emergency condition.

3. Green - 'On' position or 'yes' indication to proceed.

4. Yellow - Wait, delay or be in readiness position. It also indicates

caution or rechecking.

5. White - No right or no wrong, transitory condition.

Displays should have clear meaning. They should be easy to understand and
visible, properly illuminated, also visible when power fails, coded and labeled according to
function.
Numerical display indicates time, temperature, pressure, flow, humidity, pH, speed
etc. Moving pointer on a fixed scale 'have many shapes - circular, curved, horizontal straight
or vertical straight. Numbers or figures should not be obstructed by pointer.
It discloses the soundness, thickness or physical property of the material or nature of
discontinuities without impairing the material and by exposing its one side only. Ultrasonic
waves i.e. vibrations are created by an electronic generator and passed through a material due
to its elastic properties. Vibrations above the human hearing range (20000 Hz) are called
ultrasonic vibrations. An ultrasonic testing unit uses vibrations of about 5x10666 Hz (5
megahertz).
Electrical energy is applied to a piezoelectric crystal also called transducer which
causes material displacement within the specimen. The transducer converts electrical energy
into mechanical and vice versa. Thus, transducer can transmit or receives the energy.
Transmission of energy can be pulsed or continuous. Steel, water and oil can transmit
ultrasound very well but air is a poor transmitter because of its low particle density. Velocity
of sound in steel, water and air are 5.9, 1.48 and 0.33 km/sec respectively. Therefore water,
oil (grease) or steel is used as a coolant between the transducer and the test specimen. The
pulses (waves) return back (reflect) from discontinuities in their path or from any boundary
(end) that they strike. The received reflections are displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT).
The quality of the material is measured in terms of energy lost by a sound beam as it travels
through the material.
Normally two methods are used. In 'Contact testing' method the transducer is coupled
to the material through a thin layer of coolant. In ‘Immersion testing' method, both the
material and the transducer are immersed in a tank of coolant (usually water). Immersion
technique is commonly used to inspect tubing; pipe and butt welds.
There are two types of test systems - Pulse - echo reflection and Through transmission
as shown in A third system known as 'Resonant frequency' is rarely used because its
functions of 'thickness measurement' and 'bond or lamination inspection' are also performed
by the pulse-echo system.
Physiology of respiration, cardiac cycle, muscle contraction, nerve conduction system.
Permissible limits of load for manual lifting and carrying. Criteria for fixation limits
Physiology is the science of dealing with functioning of living organisms or their parts.
Human physiology is study of the normal functioning of cells, tissues and organs of the
human body
Physiology of Respiration:
Respiration is aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic Respiration is the process by which living
organisms or their components, take oxygen from the atmosphere to oxidize their food to
obtain energy. Anaerobic Respiration is the process by which organisms or their components,
obtain energy from chemically combined oxygen when they do not have access to free
oxygen. Many organisms can respire anaerobically for a short time only, but certain bacteria
depend entirely on anaerobic respiration.
Respiratory Quotient (RQ) is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide expired by an
organism or tissue to the volume of oxygen consumed by it over the same period.
Respiratory pigment is a substance formed in blood cells or blood plasma that is capable of
combining loosely and reversibly with oxygen, e.g. hemoglobin.

Physiology of Cardiac Cycle or Cardiovascular system (CVS):

It comprises a closed canalicular network made up of arteries, capillaries, veins and a central
pumping organ - the heart. Following a cardiac contraction, the blood is distributed to the
arteries and then to the capillary areas, returning through the veins back to the heart. The
arteries and veins are simple transit vessels whereas the capillaries have an important
functional significance since they are involved in the vital exchange of substances between
the blood and the inter-cellular spaces, resulting in important modifications in the blood's
chemical composition and physical properties.
Cardiac work is the quantity of energy that the heart transmits to the volume of blood to
propel it through the vessels. This energy is produced by the oxidation of organic substances
such as glucose, glycogen, lactic acid etc., partially converted to mechanical energy during
myocardial contraction.
The heart has four chambers - left and right atria and left and right ventricles. There are two
separate circulation of blood in these four compartments. The lesser or pulmonary circulation
starts at RV and finishes at LA. The greater or systemic circulation starts from LV and
finishes at RA. The four cardiac chambers are separated by a system of valves. The two
phases in the cardiac cycle are diastole and systole. The cycle occurs around 75 times per
minute but it may vary depending on age and physiological condition.
The myocardial fiber (strained muscle cell of special structure) has four basic
properties to control cardiac function i.e. rhythmicity, conductivity, irritability and
contractility.
The stroke volume has an effect on the arterial wall, the tension of which varies depending on
blood pressure. Blood pressure is directly proportional to the volume of blood injected per
minute (minute volume Vim) and peripheral resistance.
During effort coronary flow increases considerably whereas myocardial oxygen extraction
remains largely the same as at rest. Aortic pressure plays a major role in regulating coronary
circulation' - when it increases, it raises the flow and vice versa.
In a normal subject, an average of 90% of the contractile work is used in the propagation of
systolic wave, 25-45% of this work is stored in the elastic components, only 10% on average,
is not returned and is probably released during the period of isometric relaxation.
Cardiac insufficiency can be defined as the inability of myocardial function to ensure an
output that meets the body's requirements. The patient in a state of cardiac insufficiency is
not capable to increase his cardiac work to the same degree. The result is a reduction in
contractility. The defective heart does not fully utilize the energy obtained from glucose
degradation. The result is a reduction in cardiac output. The predominant symptom is
dyspnea, which results from the increase in respiratory work. Due to reduced cardiac output,
fatigue, gastrointestinal disorders and renal dysfunction take place. This affects the normal
functioning of the various organs.
Physiology of Muscle Contraction

There are about 200 skeletal muscles in the body. Many consist of bundles of muscles, each
of which is wrapped - as is the total muscle - in connective tissue in which nerves and blood
vessels are embedded. The tissues combine to form tendons that connect the ends of the
muscle to bones. The only active action a muscle can do is to contract. It is done by
filaments. Elongation is brought about by external forces.
This is a complex phenomenon involving many internal human reactions. Muscle fibers
(cells) are controlled by a single motor nerve fiber. This is known as the motor unit. An
impulse started in a motor nerve cell (motoneuron) propagates along the nerve fiber and
transmitted to the motor endplate where acetyl chlorine is released. This reverses the resting
membrane potential. The neuromuscular transmission transduces electrical signals, (nerve
impulses) to chemical signals and then back to electrical signals (muscle action potentials).
This initiates the mechanical-chemical mechanisms and causes the muscle to react. In the
activated muscle, the contractile components (myofibrils), shorten and stretch the elastic
components (connective tissue, tendon). When no movement, the contraction is called
isometric (static) and when muscle is activated to vary its length, the contraction is called
isotonic (dynamic). In the latter case external work can be given by the following equation
Work or energy = force x distance

(Nm or Joule, J) = (Newton) x (meter)

Power = Work per unit time

1 watt (W)
or 1 J/sec = 6.12 kilopond meter per minute

9.81 W = 1 kpm per second

1 HP=736 W=75 kpm/sec - 4500 kpm/min

Physiology of nerve conduction system:
A nerve cord which starts from the brain ends in nerve fibers at different locations of body
like hand fingers Legs & Toes. This Nerve Cord go through the vertebral column & branches
in to the nerve fiber. This nerve fibers give sensation of touch & environment after
stimulation from brain. In case of
1. Damage of vertebrae or
2. Slip Disc due to continuous wrong posture over-weight or bending,
The orientation of nerve cord can be disturbed resulting in to the pack pain & numbness in
body part.

Permissible limits of load for manual lifting and carrying. Criteria for fixation limits:
Factories Act 1948 under MF Rules talks about permissible load for manual lifting
manual transport of loads means any transport in which the weight of the load is wholly
borne by one worker including lifting and putting of the load;
Regular manual transport of load means any activity which is continuously or intermittently
devoted to the manual transport of load.
No person, unaided by another person, or mechanical aid, allowed to lift, put down, carry or
move any load of material, article, tool or appliance exceeding the maximum limit in weight,
as set out in the following.

SCHEDULE

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------
Persons Maximum
weight of
Material, article, tool
or appliances kgs.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------
 (a) Adult male...
55.00
(b) Adult female. 30.00
(c) Young person (male 15-18 years) 30.00
(d) Young person (female 15-18 years) 20.00
(e) Young person (male 14-15 years) 16.00
(f) Young person (female 14-15 years) 14.00

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------

2) No woman or young person shall be engaged in conjunction with others, in

lifting, carrying or moving any material, article, tool or appliance, if the
weight thereof exceeds the maximum weight fixed by the schedule to sub-rule
(2), multiplied by the number of the persons engaged.
3) Considering all conditions in which the work is to be performed, no worker
shall be required or permitted to engage in the manual transport of load
which, by reason of its weight, is likely to jeopardize his health or safety.
4) Wherever reasonably practicable, suitable mechanical devices shall be used
for the manual transport of loads.

7.1.2: Physiology and Ergonomics at Work: Working posture: Its effect on cardio-vascular
and muscular-skeletal system and implications on health & Control measures

Nutrition and its importance in manual work. Nutritional requirements and nutritional of
diet.

Physiological effects of working posture on cardio-vascular system in Hot Environment

are:
(1) Cardiovascular stress
(2) Heart rate
(3) Cardiac cost
(4) Blood pressure
(5). O2 uptake and (6) Sweat loss

Physiological effects of repeated work cycles in Hot Environment are:

(1) Heart rate
(2) Recovery time
(3) Cardiac cost and
(4) Sweat loss.
Psychic factors affecting muscular (service) functions are attitude and motivation.
Environmental factors that affect are heat, cold, noise, vibration, gas pressure, altitude, air
pollution.
Physiological effects of working posture on muscular-Skeletal System:
Muscle system consists of about 200 skeletal. muscles in the body. They are in the
form of bundles of muscles and wrapped on each other. They are connected with tissue
carrying nerves and blood vessels inside. The tissues combine to form tendons which connect
the ends of the muscle to bones. The sheaths of the connective tissues provide mechanical
properties to the muscle.
A muscle has only action to contract. Elongation is by
external force. Filaments of muscle sliding along each other
provide automatic contraction after elongation. Signal to
contract comes from brain by the neuromuscular system.
Signals coming to motor units of the muscle can be
observed by electromyogram (EMG).
Lever system is consisted of links (bones) joined in their
articulations and powered by muscles bridging the joints. As elbow angle changes, lever arm
(LA) also changes with the muscle force (MF).
Safe use of these muscle and lever system of human body is mostdesirable to prevent
injury, damage or pain to the body. Excessive load causes excessive stress in muscle which
may result in strain, stretch or pain. Therefore, excessive weight limits are legally prescribed.
Some safety measures are as under:
1. While handling material, force exerted by hands should be transmitted through the
whole-body parts including feet to the floor. In this chain of forces, weak link is
spinal column, particularly at the low back. This limits the capability of a person to
work. Therefore, task should not be too heavy.
2. Tasks, equipment and system should be designed to provide ease and efficiency of
manual handling.
3. Layout of material transfer and facilities should be convenient and comfortable to the
people.
4. Job design should be safe, efficient and agreeable for the worker.

5. Selection of tools, machines, equipment should be proper. Sufficient space for

movement, visibility, lighting, colour coding and control design are important.

6. Select persons capable of performing the job. The job should be designed to fit the
worker.

7. Give training for safe lifting practices.

Nutrition: Nutritional requirements and the Diets for Exercise, Work and Physical Fitness.

Nutrition, Diets, Physical Fitness and their Relationship:

Among factors modifying physiological functions, nutrition or diet is an important

factor, because it has direct relationship with calorific value which is essential to compensate
energy expenditure (Kcal/min) on heavy or continuous physical (muscular) work.

As workload increases, calorie requirement increases. Insufficient calorie intake

reduces work output or maximum aerobic power which can quickly be restored by
improvement in diet. A well-fed worker can store more energy in his fat and is able to work
easily at required productivity level.

Functions of Nutrients:Diet is made of foods and foods are made of specific

substances called nutrients. Each nutrient has a specific role e.g. in growth, building and
repair of body, in giving heat and energy, in liberating and using energy contained in foods,
in regulating other body functions and maintaining a good health.

Life functions (heartbeat, breathing, digestion) and all bodily activities (muscular or
mental) require, energy and heat and these are provided by the nutrients present in the foods.
Balanced diet tries to contain all the nutrients in required proportion.

The energy value of food is measured in the form of beat/given off when the food is
burned. The heat required to raise temperature of 1-liter water from 15 °C to 16 "C is called
Kilocalorie (Kcal) or a Calorie (Cal). 1 Cal = 4.184 Joule.
 Mainly there are six categories of nutrients Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats and Oils,
Minerals, Vitamins and Water. Proteins are made of amino acids (some 23 types) and useful
in body building and repair. Growing children and nursing mothers need extra protein.
Cereals, nuts, peas, beans are plant sources and meat, fish, milk, cheese and eggs are animal
sources of protein. Plants provide carbohydrates and also proteins, vitamins and minerals. 1
gm of carbohydrate produces @ 4 Cal energy. Fats and oils are obtained from plant or animal
and provide @9 Cal/gm, and aid some vitamins. Minerals are needed in small quantity.
Calcium in milk and milk products (except butter) is essential for teeth and bones, clotting of
blood after a wound and for normal contraction of muscles. Iron is necessary for red blood
cells. Iodine is a part of thyroid hormone which helps to regulate growth, mental development
and rate of body functions. Vitamins (20 identified) are equally useful for growth,
development and body function. Their quantity required is small. Vitamin A prevents night
blindness, B protects nerves, C prevents scurvy and D ensures strong and straight bones. 60
to 70% of the human body is made up of water and it is most essential for life. Water controls
the body temperature, digestion, absorption and distribution of foods to body tissues, removal
of waste and functioning of the kidneys. During heavy work and in hot environment, extra
water is required to compensate sweating and to keep the body temperature within limits.

Energy is always expended in work and food (nutrients) is the basic need to supply
this energy. Even a simple meal provided at workplace can remarkably improve production
rate and earnings.

A diet which provides enough food of different types and tastes to meet nutritional
values is called a balanced diet. It varies from person to person, states to states and countries
to countries because of the varieties of factors.

Food should be fresh, warm and non-contaminated. It should be eaten after washing
hands, mouth and teeth.

Nutrition and Physical Fitness Relationship:

Above discussion makes it clear that nutrition has direct

relationship with physical fitness. The fitness increases with nutrition to
its maximum level beyond which nutrition cannot help

Depending on quantum of physical (muscular) work, type of weather,

digesting power, hunger, thirst etc., one should maintain his nutrition standard to maintain
good health. More nutrition is necessary by growing children, pregnant women, nursing
mothers, hard workers, athletes and people living in cold countries. To regain health after
illness or injury, good and gradual nutrition is most essential. We all have to remember this
relationship till our life.

7.1.3: Assessment of Work Capacity Fatigue and Rest Allowances, Physiological Test for
Assessment of Occupational Health Nutrition: Nutritional requirements and the Diets for
Exercise, Work and Physical Fitness.

Assessment of Work Capacity:

Fatigue and Rest Allowances:

Physiological fatigue is characterized by the gradual decrement of work performance effected

by various factors viz. physical, physiological, psychological and wrong working posture. It
is manifested by gradual increase in physiological strain as the work of the day progresses.

During work in a hot environment, the body gains heat due to work and external
environment. These two factors put a lot of thermal stress on human beings. A continuous
work in such environment may lead to exhaustion, if sufficient cooling of the body is not
possible. This also leads to lower efficiency and reduced productivity. Under the
circumstances a rest interval or pause is essential for the workers to recover from exhaustion
as well as to increase efficiency and productivity. Frequent rest pauses reduce fatigue better
than a few long breaks.

Rest Allowance in Energetic Work:

Following formula gives percentage rest time Tr as

Tr = Mmax – M x 100

Mr – M
 where Mmax is the upper limit of the metabolic cost for sustained work, M the
metabolic cost of the job (task) and Mr the resting (sitting) metabolism.

Tr = 400-500 x 100 = -100 x 100 = 25%

100-500 -400

This means, rest intervals should have 20% time i.e. 20% x 8 hr. = 0.20 x 8 x 60 = 96 min.
This can be divided in 3 pauses of 32 min or 4 pauses of 24 min in an 8-hr. shift, or 20% per
hour i.e., 12 min per each working hour.

Combination of heavy and light work provide indirect rest. Walking to give or take material,
counting for some time, writing record or sharpening tools etc. are examples of light work
changes.

According to a German Physiologist (Lehmann), 200 Kcal/hr. represents the upper

permissible limit, and about 250 'work' Kcal per hour or 4 work Kcal per min. +1 Kcal for
resting metabolism represent upper limits for more sustained work. Based on these figures,
Spitzer (one of Lehmann's co-workers) has arrived at the following formula to calculate rest
allowance for workers engaged in energetic heavy work.

Rest Allowance percent = (Kcal/min – 1) x 100

The above formula may, however, not be applicable to Indians having lower body weights
and low physical fitness standard. In their case 3 'work' Kcal per min will represent the upper
limit for sustained work. The above formula may accordingly be modified to work out the
rest allowances for Indian workers engaged in manual work. -

Above formula represents a method to calculate rest allowance percentage time in total
working time. Another method to determine rest pause is from heart beats and is given in the
following table –

Rest Allowances at Different Heart Rates

Heart Rate Energy Rest Fraction in 8 hrs. working minutes

(avg. beats/ Expenditure Allowance Work Rest Total
min Kcal/min (% of
working
time)

110 4.3 - 480 - 480

115 4.9 15 420 60 480
120 5.4 30 370 110 480
130 6.3 65 290 190 480
140 7.3 100 240 240 480
150 8.3 136 205 275 480
160 9.2 170 180 300 480
170 10.2 200 160 320 480
180 11.2 235 145 335 480

After working out the time of rest pauses it should be decided that how it should be
given to minimize the fatigue.
Reducing Stress and Fatigue:
The decrease in the stress upon the workers and consequently the higher efficiency
and morale in the plant may be achieved by:
1. Reducing energetic workload through mechanization.
2. Reducing the heat load by better ventilation or screening.
3. Machines and tools can be designed formaximum efficiency with minimum
physiological cost.
4. The workers can be chosen on the basis of their physiological fitness for specific
tasks, to work on furnaces.
5. Provision of air-conditioned rest rooms.
6. Adequate rest periods by adjustment of work and rest periods.
7. Organizing workers' team. More workers should be added if the workload in a team is
considered very heavy.
8. Compensating for sweat loss by adequate intake of water and salt. There should be
easy access of cold drinking water close to the workplace.
Tests for Physical Fitness:
The test exercises are carried out by ergometers, stepping tests, treadmills, bicycle or
running. As a precautionary measure, the person should be medically examined prior to
testing and also after maximal testing.
(1) Physiological Test (Step Test):
 The step test was developed in the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, USA to evaluate the
physical fitness of an individual. It is modified for Indian workers and described below:

While carrying out the test, the person has to step up and down on a stool 45 cm. high
at the rate of 30 complete steps per minute for a maximum period of 5 minutes or earlier in
case of difficulty. The rate of stepping is regulated by a metronome. Immediately after the
exercise is over, the subject is seated and his pulse is counted during the period 1 min to ½
min after exercise.

The fitness score is computed as follows:

Score = Duration of stepping seconds x 100

5.5 x (half min recovery pulse count recorded)

Grading of scores is:

Below 50 - Poor
50-65 - Low average
65-80 - High average
80-90 - Good
Above 90 - Excellent

The test score which is computed from the pulse count taken during recovery after
exercise is a measure of the individual's cardiovascular efficiency and can be made use of in
grading men for their capacity for physical work in general and in hot environments in
particular.
(2) Pulmonary function test:
This test is the simplest test in which an ergometer is used to measure exhaled air
volume and by comparing it with standard average values, the physical fitness or any disorder
is judged.
Other exercise tests are also used to determine physiological load and functional
capacities of the cardio respiratory system. In abnormalities e.g. an electrical activity of the
heart, cardiovascular disease or improvement after illness or injury.
In young adults 170 beats/min has been widely used as a level at which the intensity
of work indicates physical working capacity.
Nutrition, Diets, Physical Fitness and their Relationship:
Among factors modifying physiological functions, nutrition or diet is an important
factor, because it has direct relationship with calorific value which is essential to compensate
energy expenditure (Kcal/min) on heavy or continuous physical (muscular) work.
As workload increases, calorie requirement increases. Insufficient calorie intake
reduces work output or maximum aerobic power which can quickly be restored by
improvement in diet. A well-fed worker can store more energy in his fat and is able to work
easily at required productivity level.
Functions of Nutrients: Diet is made of foods and foods are made of specific
substances called nutrients. Each nutrient has a specific role e.g. in growth, building and
repair of body, in giving heat and energy, in liberating and using energy contained in foods,
in regulating other body functions and maintaining a good health.
Life functions (heartbeat, breathing, digestion) and all bodily activities (muscular or
mental) require, energy and heat and these are provided by the nutrients present in the foods.
Balanced diet tries to contain all the nutrients in required proportion.
The energy value of food is measured in the form of beat/given off when the food is
burned. The heat required to raise temperature of 1-liter water from 15 °C to 16 "C is called
Kilocalorie (Kcal) or a Calorie (Cal). 1 Cal = 4.184 Joule.
Mainly there are six categories of nutrients Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats and Oils,
Minerals, Vitamins and Water. Proteins are made of amino acids (some 23 types) and useful
in body building and repair. Growing children and nursing mothers need extra protein.
Cereals, nuts, peas, beans are plant sources and meat, fish, milk, cheese and eggs are animal
sources of protein. Plants provide carbohydrates and also proteins, vitamins and minerals. 1
gm of carbohydrate produces @ 4 Cal energy. Fats and oils are obtained from plant or animal
and provide @9 Cal/gm, and aid some vitamins. Minerals are needed in small quantity.
Calcium in milk and milk products (except butter) is essential for teeth and bones, clotting of
blood after a wound and for normal contraction of muscles. Iron is necessary for red blood
cells. Iodine is a part of thyroid hormone which helps to regulate growth, mental development
and rate of body functions. Vitamins (20 identified) are equally useful for growth,
development and body function. Their quantity required is small. Vitamin A prevents night
blindness, B protects nerves, C prevents scurvy and D ensures strong and straight bones. 60
to 70% of the human body is made up of water and it is most essential for life. Water controls
the body temperature, digestion, absorption and distribution of foods to body tissues, removal
of waste and functioning of the kidneys. During heavy work and in hot environment, extra
water is required to compensate sweating and to keep the body temperature within limits.
Energy is always expended in work and food (nutrients) is the basic need to supply
this energy. Even a simple meal provided at workplace can remarkably improve production
rate and earnings.
A diet which provides enough food of different types and tastes to meet nutritional
values is called a balanced diet. It varies from person to person, states to states and countries
to countries because of the varieties of factors.
Food should be fresh, warm and non-contaminated. It should be eaten after washing
hands, mouth and teeth.

Nutrition and Physical Fitness Relationship:

Above discussion makes it clear that nutrition has direct

relationship with physical fitness. The fitness increases with nutrition to
its maximum level beyond which nutrition cannot help

Depending on quantum of physical (muscular) work, type of weather,

digesting power, hunger, thirst etc., one should maintain his nutrition standard to maintain
good health. More nutrition is necessary by growing children, pregnant women, nursing
mothers, hard workers, athletes and people living in cold countries. To regain health after
illness or injury, good and gradual nutrition is most essential. We all have to remember this
relationship till our life.

7.1.4 Aerobic work capacity (physical work capacity), methods of its determination (use
of bicycle, ergometer, treadmill, step-stool ergometer). Factors affecting aerobic
capacity and work performance.

Aerobic (Physical) Work Capacity

The evaluation of a worker is made from his physical work capacity i.e. his maximum 0,
intake or aerobic capacity, other physiological functions under classified workloads and his
tolerance limit to work in hot environment.
The physical work capacity of an individual is measured by the physiological work capacity.
This is a measure of his physical fitness and estimated in terms of his maximum oxygen
uptake capacity. The upper level of physiological work capacity of an individual depends on
his capacity to utilize the inhaled oxygen to its maximum possible limit. Beyond this, any
additional work has to be carried out only on oxygen debt. Thus, there is an upper limit of
oxygen uptake, being a measure of his maximal aerobic power and the best index to judge
one's total physical fitness. This is important for many practical purposes such as selection of
right jobs, disability evaluation, and rehabilitation of disabled and diseased workers. It is
practiced in all developed countries.
Factors affecting Aerobic Capacity & Work Performance:
Oxygen intake and oxygen debt are the limiting factors in physical exertion. Factors
determining the rate of 0, intake i.e. the efficient supply of 0, to the active tissues are -
1. Ventilation of the lungs.
2. O2 carrying capacity of the blood.
3. Unloading of O2 at the tissues, and
4. Minute volume of the heart.
Physical fitness is not a static condition. It varies with age, body dimensions, general health
and nutritional state (diet) of the worker. Due to illness or other reason, he may lose his
fitness for some time and may regain after some time. A worker doing light work may adjust
himself to a low level of physical fitness and vice versa, but a change from light to heavy job
necessitates a period of training and adjustment and calls for extra strain on the worker.
Normally female workers can be expected to show 70% aerobic power of males of the same
age. Ageing effect decreases heart rate from an average of @ 200 to @ 165 beats/min
between the age from 25 to 55 years in both males and females along with decrease in
functional capacity of other organs.
Maximum aerobic power is determined by measuring the maximum oxygen uptake during
dynamic muscular exercise. This can be done in two ways. In the direct method, muscular
exercises are performed with increasing intensity until a work rate is established above which
there is no further increases in oxygen uptake. In the indirect method, a linear relationship is
established between the heart rate and oxygen uptake when the metabolic rate, circulation and
respiration have reached a steady state at sub-maximal work rate and the curve is then
extrapolated to the maximum heart rate.
Methods of determination of Aerobic work capacity (physical work capacity), with the
use of bicycle
During muscular work, physiological functions change from the resting level and heart rate,
blood, pressure, cardiac output, respiration, pulmonary ventilation, oxygen uptake, carbon
dioxide production, chemical composition of blood and urine, body temperature, rate of
perspiration, etc. increase. They come back to resting level when the work stops. The period
during which the work continues is known as "Work Cycle" and the period during which the
physiological functions return to the resting level is known as "Recovery Period." Both
together is known as Bicycle
By measuring one or more physiological variables during activity, it is possible to
determine in what degree the working level differs from the resting level. This gives an
estimate of the physiological stress experienced in performing a given task. When the activity
ceases, it is possible to follow the return of the same variables to the resting level and to
determine the duration of the recovery period, at the end of which the individual has returned
to his pre-activity physiological equilibrium. In order to evaluate total physiological
expenditure, one must consider physiological reactions, both during the work and during the
recovery period. A complete work cycle includes physiological cost of work plus the
physiological cost of recovery.
When muscles work they increase heat production from about 4 kJ/min (resting level) to 200
kJ/min (max.) i.e. about 50 times more. The rate of heat removal, CO, water, waste products
etc. must also be increased proportionally. To maintain physical and chemical equilibrium of
the cells, a tremendous increase in the exchange of molecules between intra and extra cellular
fluid is required. Normal pulse rate 60-72 beats/min can rise up to 220 beats/min, normal
oxygen consumption rate 0.2 to 3 lit/min can go up to 4 lit/min and corresponding energy
level rises from I Kcal/min to @ 20 Kcal/min. The energy expenditure, core temperature,
sweat rate, skin galvanic resistance, heart stroke volume and pulmonary ventilation also
increase.
To restore the energy content of the body, working at maximum capacity up to 4 times, more
food must be digested, than when the individual is at rest. Moreover, during physical work,
many of the hormone producing glands are involved in the regulation of metabolic and
circulatory functions of the body.
The energy expended by muscles during work comes from food intake. There are two sources
of this energy supply, one is aerobic i.e. direct oxygen intake from air to oxidized food to get
energy and the other anaerobic i.e. consuming chemically combined oxygen in the body.
During sever muscular exercise, oxygen demand goes up and up and a stage comes when the
body cannot maintain demand and supply. Metabolites like lactic and pyruvic acid get
accumulated and the person gets exhausted or feels fatigue. Such physical fatigue, static or
dynamic should be removed daily by regular light exercises (Yongsan) and deep breathing in
a fresh cool air (in early morning").
In Maximum permissible load limits, three criteria are considered (1) Male or Female as their
lifting capability differs at the same age (2) Age as physical muscle strength varies from child
to an adult person and (3) Safe load limit which should not cause any injury or back pain.
Methods of determination of Aerobic work capacity (physical work capacity), with the
use of ergometer
Pulmonary function test: dynamic
This test is the simplest test in which an ergometer is used to measure exhaled air volume and
by comparing it with standard average values, the physical fitness or any disorder is judged.
Other exercise tests are also used to determine physiological load and functional capacities of
the cardio respiratory system. In abnormalities e.g. an electrical activity of the heart,
cardiovascular disease or improvement after illness or injury.
In young adults 170 beats/min has been widely used as a level at which the intensity of work
indicates physical working capacity.
Methods of determination of Aerobic work capacity (physical work capacity), with the
use of treadmill

It was intended to select the work rates corresponding to 20, 30, 40, 50 & 70% RL (relative
Load) in order to determine the AWL (Acceptable work load). These work rates were
determined by using the monogram constructed by Margarian et al. (1963) for different speed
of walking and gradient of the treadmill.however, the intended rates of work could not be
obtained; the observed mean RLs were 20,28,36,50,62, and70%.
Work –schedule of treadmill running
After an initial rest of 30 min, the subjects were asked to run on the treadmill at the pre-
determine rates for 8 hr. from 0930 to 1730 hr. with a lunch breaks of 15 min each. the details
of the work-schedule are given in table.
Work-schedule for 8 hr. work on treadmill walking.
Initial tea Lunch tea
work work work work
rest break break break

0900- 0930 1130 1145 1300 1400 1530 1545

0930
1130 hr. 1145 hr. 1300 hr. 1400hr 1530 hr. 1545 hr. 1730 hr.
hr.

Experimental design:
A randomized block design was used for experiments of treadmill running on different rates
of work to eliminate the effect of training due to previous work rates on the physiological
functions.
Physiological misorients:
Energy expenditure and heart rate responses of the subjects with each work rate were
recorded as per the time schedule given of 3min after each break and at the end of the
day’swork. energy expenditure was determined according to standard procedures using a 120
1 Collin’s Gasometer and Haldane gas analyzer. The expired air was collected for the last 2
min during the steady state condition. Heart rate was monitored simultaneouslyby means of
an electronic pulse counter (heart rate monitor model 504, parks electronic lab, U.S.A)
Time of different physiological observations
Observation time(hr.)

1 0948

2 1028

3 1128

4 1158

5 1258

6 1418

7 1528

8 1558

9 1658

10 1728

Working environment.
The thermal environment of the laboratory during the period of the experiments was
comfortable with respect to dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, air movement and
effective temperature.
Methods of determination of Aerobic work capacity (physical work capacity), with the
use of step-stool ergo meter
Physiological Test (Step Test):
The step test was developed in the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, USA to evaluate the physical
fitness of an individual. It is modified for Indian workers and described below:
While carrying out the test, the person has to step up and down on a stool 45 cm. high at the
rate of 30 complete steps per minute for a maximum period of 5 minutes or earlier in case of
difficulty. The rate of stepping is regulated by a metronome. Immediately after the exercise is
over, the subject is seated and his pulse is counted during the period 1 min to ½ min after
exercise.
The fitness score is computed as follows:

Score = Duration of stepping seconds x 100

5.5 x (half min recovery pulse count recorded)

Grading of scores is:

Below 50 - Poor

50-65 - Low average

65-80 - High average

80-90 - Good

Above 90 - Excellent

The test score which is computed from the pulse count taken during recovery after exercise is
a measure of the individual's cardiovascular efficiency and can be made use of in grading
men for their capacity for physical work in general and in hot environments in particular.

Environmental Physiology:
Environmental factors that affect are heat, cold, noise, vibration, gas pressure, altitude, air
pollution etc.
Physiological effects of continuous work in Hot Environment are: (1) Cardiovascular stress
(2) Heart rate (3) Cardiac cost (4) Blood pressure (5). O2 uptake and (6) Sweat loss
Physiological effects of repeated work cycles in Hot Environment are: (1) Heart rate (2)
Recovery time (3) Cardiac cost and (4) Sweat loss.
Psychic factors affecting muscular (service) functions are attitude and motivation.
All above factors - food and nutritional, physiological, environmental, psychic and nature of
work - actuate service functions that deliver fuel and oxygen to the working muscle fiber.
This service function capacity transforms food energy (chemically bound) into mechanical
energy for muscular work. This ability of the muscle cell to transform energy actuates ability
to perform a physical work.
Therefore, by paying attention on above factors i.e. giving work according to age and
sex, providing rest intervals, reasonable working hours (no overtime), good ventilation,
temperature and working conditions, ample drinking water and nutrition, proper clothing,
PPE and training etc., good muscular or physical work can be obtained from the workers.
(1) Heat & Cold
Heat causes burns, exhaustion, stroke, cramps, fatigue, decreased efficiency, pain,
discomfort, heal collapse, systemic disorders, skin disorders, psychoneurotic disorders and
tendency to cause accident. Acclimatization to high temperature requires reduction in heart
rate and internal body temperature at the expense of increased sweating. Radiant heat (e.g.
ovens, furnaces), stagnant heat (e.g. textile mills), and high temperature (e.g. mines, glass
furnaces). create stress and impair health.
One UK Standard suggests the following criteria
Environmental Factor Standard
Air temperature 21 oC
Mean radiant temperature > 21oC
Relative humidity 30-70%
Air movement 30-60 mt / min
Temperature gradient (foot to head) < 2.5 oC

The cold causes chilblains, shivering, frostbite, trench foot, vasoconstriction, and
erythromyeloid.
The control measures include (1) sufficient intake of water and salt (2) cotton and
protective clothing (3) break in exposure time and more rest intervals (4) engineering controls
(5) medical control and (6) acclimatization of the workers.
(2) Air Pressure:
 Abnormal air pressure can cause decompression sickness known as 'Bends' (dull
throbbing pain in joints or deep in muscles and bones) and 'chokes' (subdermal distress and
difficulty in deep inspiration with coughing).
(3) Light &Colour:
Improper and insufficient illumination causes eye strain, eye fatigue, headache,
lachrymation, congestion around cornea and miner's nystagmus (chronic effect). Glare or
excessive brightness causes visual discomfort and fatigue, tiredness and irritability. There
should be sufficient and suitable lighting natural or artificial in all work areas.
(4) Noise &Vibration:
Noise - too low or too high cause ear strain or pain. Auditory effects are temporary or
permanent hearing loss. Non-auditory effects cause nervousness, fatigue, difficulty in
conversation, decreased efficiency, annoyance and psychological and systemic effects. The
degree of injury depends on intensity and frequency of noise, exposure time (duration) and
individual susceptibility.
Vibration of 10 to 500 Hz frequency range as normally found with pneumatic drills,
hammers and grinders affects the hands and arms. After exposure of months or years, fingers
become sensitive to spasm known as white fingers. Vibrations also produce injuries to joints,
elbows and shoulders.
Sick or Tight Building Syndrome is a health effect on workers, mostly IT personnel
due to heat or cold stress, poor ventilation, poor lighting, or monotonous work in fixed type
of environment for a longer period. Sickness is resulted in health effects like indigestion,
psychosis (mental fatigue), visual problem, mental feeling of impotency, headache, backache,
uneasiness, obesity, acidity etc. Remedial measures include-change in working environment,
new and attractive atmosphere, good lighting and ventilation, good housekeeping, rotation of
persons, recreation facility and staggered working hours instead of continuous eight or more
working hours.

(5) Ionizing& Non-ionizingRadiation:

Electromagnetic radiation consists of varying electric and magnetic fields, operating
at right angles to each other. It has both particulate and wavelike aspects. Following table
shows the wavelength and frequency for various electromagnetic radiation. Longwave have
low energy, short-waves have high. The higher energy wavelengths (short-waves) are more
penetrating i.e. more damaging. X-rays, Gamma rays and cosmic rays have short
wavelengths, 10" cm and less, and high frequency, 10'6 c/s and above and cause ionizing
radiation.
Others i.e. electric waves, radio waves, micro waves, visible light, IR, UV and lasers
have longer wavelength and less frequency and cause non-ionizing radiation. Lasers are
involved in visible light, IR and UV regions of the spectrum given below:

Types and Limits of Radiation:

(A) Ionizing Radiation:

Ionizing radiation means electromagnetic or corpuscular radiation capable of

producing ions directly or indirectly in its passage through matter. It is not visible by normal
eyes. X-rays, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, fast neutrons, thermal neutrons and radionuclides are
ionizing radiation. Radioactive substance (chemical) must be firmly sealed within metal
container to prevent dispersion to active material into surrounding. Radiation hazard means
the danger to health arising from exposure to ionizing radiation which may be external or
internal.

Animal and human studies have shown that exposure to ionizing radiation can cause
carcinogenic, teratogenic or mutagenic effects, as well as other sequelae. The NCRP has
formulated exposure limits. Some such limits are given below:

International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) has prescribed a dose-

equivalent limit of 0.5 SV (50 rem) to prevent non-stochastic effects.

Radiation dosimetry in health physics tries to know whether individual radiation

exposures are within permissible dose. Various fixed and portable monitors (detectors and
survey instruments) are used for radiation exposure measurement. Some fixed monitors are
as under:

Fixed monitors are either area monitoring instruments or contamination monitoring

instruments. Area monitors are used for measurement of air, gamma radiation, neutron
radiation and radioactive effluents. The contamination monitoring instruments include hand
and shoe monitors, portal monitors, clothing monitors and monitors for contaminated
wounds. The dosimeters are to be calibrated for proper use.

Protection Techniques include:

1. Control of exposure time and distance.
2. Shielding.
3. Wearing a film badge to check dose limit.
4. Pre and post-employment medical test.
5. Prevention of radiation disease such as skin cancer, ulceration, dermatitis, cataract,
damage to bones and blood etc.
6. Use of remote controlled containers.
7. Continuous monitoring and maintaining safe limits by engineering controls and PPE.
8. The sealed container should be leakproof.

Health Physics is a branch of science dealing with improvement of protection against

exposure to ionizing radiation (IR). The main principles of health physics were defined in
1977 by the ICRP. Three general principles of radiation protection are - (1) justification (2)
optimization and (3) limitation of worker's exposure to radiation.
Limitation means to limit the exposure entering a human body by protecting
individual or society by devices and observing prescribed safe dose limits.
A record for more than 30 years must be maintained even after completion of job on
ionizing radiation, of (1) doses absorbed by individual and (2) exposure measurement.
In our present-day industry, radiation generating machines and radioactive materials
for testing of materials, process control and research have found wide-spread use. X-ray
machines are widely used in industry, medicine, commerce and research. Industrial X-ray
devices include radiographic and fluoroscopic units used for the determination of defects in
materials in packaged food etc. All such uses are potential sources of exposure. The most
widely used naturally occurring radio-nuclide is Ra. 226 which is used in medicine and
industry. In its use in the medical field, many individuals, besides the patient are potentially
exposed to radiation. In industry, the principle uses of radium are for radiography in
luminous compound and in making static eliminators. Textile and paper trades, printing,
photographic processing and telephone and telegraph companies are the typical industries
where the static eliminator may be found. The use of artificially produced radio-nuclides
(radio-isotopes) in medical, biological, agricultural fields, and scientific research has been
increased. Possible exposure from such radio nuclides is involved with their preparation,
handling, application and transportation. Exposures, internal or external, might also arise
through contamination of the environment by wastes originating from 'the use of these
materials.
 Applications of ionizing radiation in industry are many. It is used mostly in biological
and chemical research, chemical pilot plants and production. It is used for curing, grafting,
testing & evaluation, free radicals, cross. linking, polymerization, disinfection, sterilization,
pasteurization etc. Productwise it is used in semi-conductors, rubber, adhesives, spices, paints
and coatings, membranes, fuels, lubricants, plastic piping, enzymes, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, medical supplies, foods, flooring, furniture, textile, medical uses,
agricultural uses etc.
Biological Effects and Controls: Occasional small dose (e.g. X-ray photograph) does
not affect much but small doses for a longer time or more frequent dose or higher dose may
cause biological damage to a human body. Radiation energy passes through a body. The
energy absorbed in a body is called dose. The time between the exposure and the first
symptom of radiation damage is called latent period. The larger the dose or the residence
time, the shorter the latent period.
Human body always generates new cells replacing dead or damaged cells. But when
ionizing radiation causes more damage than the body's repair capacity, biological damage
takes place. Injury to individual .is called somatic effect and that being passed into future
generations is called genetic effect. The. biological effect is the destruction of reproduction
capacity of a cell or carcinogenic effect (cancer) which is difficult to cure.
Biological effect of radiation can be reduced by -
1. Shielding the body portion (especially blood forming tissues and intestine).
2. Shielding by a portion between the source and the human body by a high-density
material such as lead or concrete wall. Thickness should be increased depending on intensity
of radiation.
3. Less dense (less hazardous) radiation (electromagnetic instead of charged
particles).
4. Low dose rate or fractionation of the dose and decreasing the dose level.
5. Diminishing O2 concentration in the tissues.
6. Reducing the exposure time.
7. Increasing the distance from source.
8. Using sealed source of radiation.
9. Monitoring the environmental exposures by various instruments such as film badge,
thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLD), pocket dosimeter, Geiger-MuUer tubes (having
automatic audible. alarm), ionizing chambers, neutron and proton monitors and keeping them
below the permissible threshold limits. Calibration techniques for instruments is most
important.
10. Decontamination facilities.

11. Safe disposal of radioactive wastes.

Medical Surveillance: Exposure to radiation workers may not give any clinical signs.
Therefore, according to ICRP, the medical surveillance of radiation workers should aim at-
1. To assess the health of the workers.
2. To preserve good general health standards by monitoring the work conditions,
exposure levels and the health of the workers and
3. To provide baseline information in case of accidental exposure or occupational
disease.
Functions of such medical service include--
1. Pre-employment and during and after (post) employment examinations are
necessary.
2. Evaluating the fitness of individual workers for specific tasks.
3. Medical examinations and first-aid after radiation accidents, irradiation or
contamination accidents.
4. Keeping of adequate medical records for quite a long time (30 years).
5. Contributing to safety and health training and
6. Helping to solve safety problems in the plant.
Large nuclear installations should have full time and fully equipped medical and
health physics services and facilities - including decontamination facilities and ablutions very
near the workplace. Small units should obtain part-time facilities.
Personal decontamination facilities include a separate ambulance port, monitoring
devices, sink, showers, a disrobing room, clean clothing and pharmaceutical supplies.
Plant medical service should remain in touch with local and other hospitals where
irradiated or contaminated persons can be treated.
A card containing information of possible contaminants, the time of sampling and any
treatment given before the sampling, must be sent along with the samples to the
radiotoxicological laboratory as quickly as possible.

Decontamination: The ionizing radiation cannot be neutralized or interrupted.

Therefore, rapid decontamination is one of the best safety measures to protect man against
possible or actual hazards of direct or indirect radiation. The purpose of decontamination is to
reduce its level below the safe level. Following methods of decontamination are used:
1. Mechanical decontamination i.e.removal of radioactive layer by scrubbing,
shot blasting, washing by water etc.
2. Physical decontamination i.e. evaporation, dilution, filtration, ultrasonic
techniques, or allowing the half-life time if it is in hours or up to 3 days.
3. Chemical decontamination i.e.treating with acid, alkali, chelating compounds,
ion-exchange resins etc.
4. Biological decontamination of sewage.
5. Decontamination of water, surface and clothing by selecting appropriate
material, e.g. 10% solution of citric acid followed by 0.5% solution of nitric acid to clean
stainless-steel surface, mineral acids to clean glass and porcelain vessels, replacement of
concrete blocks etc. 6. Decontamination of persons by scrubbing the skin with warm water
and soap and followed by use of surfactants and absorbents. I to 3% solution of hydrochloric
and citric acid are also useful. Use of organic solvent is inadvisable. Cleaning for more than
10 min. is also not advisable, as further cleaning cannot remove contaminant and may
damage the epithelium.
Removal of radionuclides from the human body is much more difficult and needs
experienced medical treatment. The choice of a method and reagent depends on the type and
character of the contaminant, path of penetration and time elapsed after contamination.
Surgery is the best method to decontaminate wound. Complexing reagents (viz. DTPA) are
generally effective to decontaminate blood, internal organs and tissues. To decontaminate
upper respiratory system, expectorants and vasoconstrictive preparations are prescribed.
(B) Non-IonizingRadiation:
The main difference between ionizing and nonionizing radiation is that the former is
more hazardous because of its higher frequency range and shorter wavelength comparing
with the later which has lower frequency range and longer wavelength. More safety measures
- Decontamination, medical and others- are required to prevent and control the ionizing
radiation and its damage.
Non-ionizing Radiation refers to those regions of the electromagnetic spectrum where
the energies of the emitted photons are insufficient, under ordinary circumstances, to produce
ionization in the atoms of absorbing molecules. Its lower wave length limit is 100 nm
(arbitrary). It includes ultraviolet, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radio waves,
lasers, power frequencies and radar waves.
 Physical & Biological Units: The entire electromagnetic spectrum is roughly divided
and studied in two parts:
1. The upper region of shorter wavelength is of more concern to physicists and
physical scientists who describe radiation in terms of wavelength.
2. The lower region of longer wavelength is of more concern to communication
scientists and engineers who describe radiation in terms of frequency.
Biological effects of the UV, visible, IR, radio frequency and the extremely low
frequency of power transmission, have been studied. Visible light and heat waves can be
easily perceived and dark goggles can reduce their intensity to a comfortable level. The UV,
IR, microwave and lower frequency radiations cannot be perceived by eyes, but have
biological penetration as shown in the following table -
Thermal effects are produced in the skin due to exposure in IR and FM-TV-radio
region. Photochemical effects can be produced in the UV and visible regions.
Now, main divisions of non-ionizing radiation are explained below in brief.
(1) Infrared (IR) Radiation:
The IR region extends from 750 nm to 0.3 cm wavelength of microwaves.
Exposure to infrared radiation is very common in glass industry and near cupolas and
furnaces. Since long-wave infrared radiation is readily absorbed by the surface tissues of the
body, it cannot inflict deep injuries in the 'human body. Over exposure produces some
discomfort which generally gives adequate warning. However, the eyes may suffer injuries
or general discomfort to other parts of the body, there is some evidence that this may result in
cataract.
The protective measures against this radiation include the placement of reflective
screens of polished aluminium shield near the source. Those screens will direct the. rays
away from the personnel into unoccupied space or return them to the heat source. They have
been found very effective in many industrial situations. Eyes of the exposed personnel
should always be protected, by suitable glasses, from direct radiation arising from areas that
given off intense heat, even though the temperature is not necessarily high. Infrared radiation
be measured by the black-bulb thermometer and radiometers.
Main industrial IR exposures are from hot furnaces, molten metal or glass and from
arc processes. Use of enclosures, shielding, eye protection and safe distance are main safety
measures.

(2) Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation:

 The UV region is subdivided as Near - 400 to 300 nm. Far - 300 to 200 nm and
vacuum -200 to 4 nm.
The effects of ultraviolet radiation are similar to sunburn. Since there is a
considerable time gap between exposure and development of injury, deep burns, may be
endured without immediate discomfort. This radiation is readily absorbed in human tissue. As
a result, superficial injuries are produced chiefly to the skin and eyes. Higher exposure can
cause skin or eye damage. The skin effect is called dermatological and the eye effect is called
ocular.

Some industrial processes, such as welding, produce considerable amount of

ultraviolet radiation. In areas where ultraviolet radiation is quite intense, potentially
hazardous chemical contaminants, such as ozone and oxides of nitrogen, are also produced
due to action of this radiation on air. In the zone where arc-welding is carried out, very high
concentrations of ozone and oxides of nitrogen have been found.
All personnel engaged in welding should invariably wear goggles and face shields.
Besides these, the use of gloves, leggings, overalls and boots is an essential necessity for the
personnel engaged in welding. Furthermore, opaque shielding should be used around welding
areas to protect other persons. Local exhaust ventilation may also be used as an effective
means for the removal of chemical contaminants produced during the arc welding.
Ultraviolet meters can be used for the measurement of. this radiation. It has been
suggested that 0.5 microwatt per square centimeter be the permissible limit of ultraviolet
radiation for a 7 hours continuous exposure.
The most common exposure to UV radiation is from direct sunlight. Solar irradiation
exhibits intense UV radiation but due to the atmosphere (ozone) shielding of the earth (God's
gift), we are not exposed to the lethal doses. Long time exposure to hottest sunlight
(afternoon) may cause skin cancer. This must be avoided.
Some commercial application of UV radiation are fluorescent lamps, mercury Vapour
lamps, germicidal lamps, electric arc welding, chemical processing, etched circuit board
production and UV lasers. Wavelengths cause skin reddening and skin-burn, carcinogenic
effects. Solar or UV radiation from artificial sources may cause skin pigmentation (tanning).
Main safety measures are shielding of UVR source, use of eye goggles, protective
clothing and absorbing or reflecting skin creams.
 (3) Visible Light (Energy):

This portion lies in the range of 400 to 750 nm. The danger of retinal injury lies
between 425 to 450 nm due to peak brightness. Eye response to excessive brightness i.e.
partial or full lid closure and shading of the eyes, is a protective human mechanism.
Main sources of visible light are sun, laser beams, arc welding, highly incandescent or
hot bodies and artificial light sources such as pulsating light, high-intensity lamps, spotlights,
projector bulbs, neon tubes, fluorescent tubes, flash tubes and plasma torch sources.
The visible light is of three types: incident, reflected and transmitted light. Incident
light is that light which strikes the work surface. Reflected light is that light which bounces
off surfaces and reflected onto work surfaces by walls and ceiling. It is measured to
determine glare and shadows. Transmitted light penetrates a transparent or translucent
material.
Vision is a photochemical and physiological phenomenon. Exposure to glare can
cause fatigue of eyes, iritis and Blepharisma. But these effects cannot cause pathological
changes.
Poor illumination can cause industrial accidents. Direct glare, reflected glare from the
work and dark shadows lead to visual fatigue. Better lighting provides safe working
environment, better vision and reduces losses in visual performance.
Factors of good lighting are its quantity and quality. The Quantity is the amount of
illumination that produces brightness on the task and surroundings. The Quality refers to
distribution of brightness in environment and includes the colour of light, its diffusion,
direction, degree of glare etc.
(4) Radio and Microwaves:
Within the broad spectrum of radio frequencies, the microwave. region is between 10
to 3 x 105 MHz (megahertz). This form of radiation is propagated from antennas associated
with TV transmitters, FM transmitters and radar transmitters.

Uses of microwave radiation are heating sources like microwave ovens, dryers for
food products and plywood, pasteurization, ceramics, telecommunications like radio and TV
and medical applications (diathermy devices). Microwave ovens for heating or cooking food
are clean, flexible and instantly controllable. The heating rate is very high and use of any fuel
or pollution due to it should be avoided.
 Radio or high frequency electrical heaters are used in metalworking plants for
hardening cutting tools, gear-teeth and bearing surfaces and for annealing, soldering and
brazing. Use in food industry is for sterilizing vessels and killing bacteria in foods.
In woodworking plants, high frequency heating is used for bonding plywood,
laminating and general gluing. Other uses include moldings plastics, curing and vulcanizing
rubber, thermosealing and setting twist in textile materials.
Induction heaters are used for annealing, forging, brazing or soldering conductive
materials. Induction furnaces are used in foundries to melt metal. Dielectric heaters are used
for non-conducting, dielectric materials like rubber, plastics, leather and wood.
The primary effect of microwave energy is thermal. The higher frequency cause lower
hazard and vice versa. Frequencies less than 3000 MHz can cause serious damage. At 70
MHz, maximum SAR (specific absorption ratio) in human takes place. Exposure of high
intensity and more time can cause localized damage by skin burning, tissue burns, cataracts,
adverse effect on reproduction and even death.
The basic safety measures include restricting energy (power density in microwatts/
m2 and frequency) below the safe level, reducing time of exposure, shielding and enclosing
microwave source, reorienting antenna or emitting device, use of PPE and controlling at
source.
(5) Power Frequencies:
The main hazards from high voltage lines and equipment (low frequency) are shocks
and current. Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation produces electric field and magnetic
field. An external electric field induces electric current in the body.
Protection from ELF is possible by shielding of electric field by any conducting
surface. Persons working in high field strength regions (e.g. high voltage lines) should wear
electrically conductive clothing. Avoiding entry in such region is also advisable.
ELF magnetic field cannot be shielded. Therefore, the only remedy is to keep the
magnetic field below safe levels or to restrict entry of personnel into the magnetic fields.
(6) Radar:
Radar means "radio detection and ranging". It is a radio detecting instrument that
operates in the radio frequency range from 100 to 105 MHz, echoing in a wavelength range
from some meters to milli meters. It consists of a transmitter and receiver, usually operating
through a common antenna. Power output varies from a few watts to megawatts.
 Hazards &Controls: Main hazards associated with radar are as under:
1. Electrical hazards from high voltage equipment.
2. Fire hazards from flammable gases, vapours, explosives and other materials.
3. Toxic hazards of gas fill in certain waveguides.
4. Thermal effects of electromagnetic radiation.
5. Radioactivity from certain switching tubes.
6. X-rays from high voltage tubes.
7. Material handling hazards in moving portable and fixed equipment.
Control measures include -
1. Standing near or in front of the antenna should be avoided.
2. Radar workers should not look directly into a radar beam from a high energy
unit. High energy is more than 0.01 W/cm2
3. Interior ofmicrowave tubes should be seen through a remote device such as a
periscope or telescope.
4. Microwave absorber should be provided to contain beam discharge.
5. Persons should take care to have minimum exposure by keeping a safe
distance from the beam.
6. Photoflash bulbs should be properly packed to avoid ignition hazard.
7. Pre, current and after employment medical examinations of the radar workers
including blood-count and complete eye examination including slit-lamp examination are
necessary.
(7) Lasers
Laser means "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". Normal light
radiates in all directions. Light waves of varying lengths reinforce or cancel each other. When
light waves are made to vibrate in a single plane, made to travel in only one direction and of
the wavelength and focused towards a point, a laser beam is obtained. It is called coherent
light. Lasers involve IR, visible and UV regions, concentrate great energy in a point area and
can be projected over long distances.
Typical areas of laser applications are military, microsurgery, medicine, dentistry,
material processing, stack emission analysis to detect air pollution, blood analysis, laser
drilling & welding, communications, construction, embryology, geodesy, holography,
business offices etc.
Hazards and Controls: It is necessary to understand type of laser, its power density,
the method of usage and its operational aspects to consider laser hazards and controls. It is
not the power but the point source of great brightness which poses hazard. There are two
types of hazards - One from the laser itself and the other from equipment.
The solid-state lasers produce high power outputs and can cause skin burns and eye
damage if safety rules are not followed. Other hazards are thermal effect, electric shock,
ozone effect, high gas pressures in the flash lamp when it is fired (explosion hazard),
cryogenic cool burns due to liquid nitrogen and helium, oxygen deficiency if N or He leaks
into atmosphere and hazards from viewing, operation and reflections.
The control measures include -
1. Minimization of ocular exposure to the direct laser beam and specular, mirror
type, reflections.
2. Education and training of personnel.
3. Shields to prevent accidental exposures.
4. Specially designed eyewear (a major control).
5. Periodical eye examination.
6. A warning sign to be attached to laser equipment.
7. Laser unit in a separate room.
8. Diffuse or retroreflective card targets should be used for short ranges.
9. Laser beam should not be aimed at flat glass, mirror surfaces or flammable
material.
10. Appointment of Laser Safety Officer.
All these need a specialized occupational health services at workplace. Depending on
classified hazards like fire, explosion, toxic and corrosive effects, fully equipped firefighting
team, medical team and trained personnel with special protective equipment are also
essential.
Even if an occupational disease has not occurred, the hazardous exposure at workplace can
reduce the life span slowly and unknowingly.