Basics of Heat Transfer

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ME313: APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
Lecture1 notes
References
1) Fundamentals of Engineering Heat and Mass transfer by RC. Sachdeva, New Age
International (P) Ltd. Publishers, 2010.
2) Heat transfer: A practical approach by Y. A. Cengal, McGraw-Hill, 1998
3) Heat Transfer by J. P. Holman,, McGraw-Hill, 2002.
4) Applied thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists, 5th Edition, by T.D. Eastop and A.
McConkey
5) Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach by, Yunus A.Cengel and Micheal A. Boles
1. BASICS OF HEAT TRANSFER

While teaching heat transfer, one of the first questions students commonly ask is the difference between
heat and temperature. Another common question concerns the difference between the subjects of heat
transfer and thermodynamics. Let me begin this chapter by trying to address these two questions.
1.1 Difference between heat and temperature
In heat transfer problems, we often interchangeably use the terms heat and temperature. Actually,
there is a distinct difference between the two. Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy
possessed by the molecules of a substance. It manifests itself as a degree of hotness, and can be used to
predict the direction of heat transfer. The usual symbol for temperature is T. The scales for
measuring temperature in SI units are the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales. Heat, on the other
hand, is energy in transit. Spontaneously, heat flows from a hotter body to a colder one. The usual
symbol for heat is Q. In the SI system, common units for measuring heat are the Joule and Calorie.
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1.2 Difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer
Thermodynamics tells us:
• how much heat is transferred (Q)
• how much work is done (W)
• final state of the system
Heat transfer tells us:
• how (with what modes)Q is transferred
• at what rate Q is transferred
• temperature distribution inside the body
1.3 Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the
mechanism of inter – molecular interactions. Conduction needs matter and does not require any
bulk motion of matter.
Conduction rate equation is described by the Fourier Law:

𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴∇𝑇
Where: q = heat flow from surface, a scalar, (W)
h = heat transfer coefficient (which is not a thermodynamic property of
the material, but may depend on geometry of surface, flow
characteristics, thermodynamic properties of the fluid, etc. (W/m2 K)
As = Surface area from which convection is occurring. (m2)
T = TS T Temperature Difference between surface and coolant. (K)
 Convection: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the
combined mechanisms of intermolecular interactions and bulk transport. Convection needs fluid
matter.
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Newton’s law of cooling;
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴𝑠 ∆𝑇
Where: q = heat flow from surface, a scalar, (W)
h = heat transfer coefficient (which is not a thermodynamic property of the
material, but may depend on geometry of surface, flow
characteristics, thermodynamic properties of the fluid, etc. (W/m2 K)
As = Surface area from which convection is occurring. (m2)
T = TS T Temperature Difference between surface and coolant. (K)
Table 1 Typical values of h (W/m2K)
 Radiation: Radiation heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that
arises due to the temperature of the body. Radiation does not need matter.
Emissive power of a surface:
where:  = emissivity, which is a surface property ( = 1 is black body)

σ = Steffan Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10 -8 W/m2 K4.
Ts = Absolute temperature of the surface (K)
The above equation is derived from Stefan Boltzman law, which describes a gross heat emission rather
than heat transfer. The expression for the actual radiation heat transfer rate between surfaces having
arbitrary orientations can be quite complex, and will be dealt with later chapters. However, the rate of
radiation heat exchange between a small surface and a large surrounding (illustrated in Figure
below) is given by the following expression:
4
where: ε = Surface Emissivity
A= Surface Area
Ts = Absolute temperature of surface. (K)
Tsur = Absolute temperature of surroundings.(K)
1.4 Thermal Conductivity, k

As noted previously, thermal conductivity is a thermodynamic property of a material. From the State
Postulate given in thermodynamics, it may be recalled that thermodynamic properties of pure substances
are functions of two independent thermodynamic intensive properties, say temperature and pressure.
Thermal conductivity of real gases is largely independent of pressure and may be considered a
function of temperature alone. For solids and liquids, properties are largely independent of pressure
and depend on temperature alone.
k = f(T)
Table 2 gives the values of thermal conductivity for a variety of materials.
Table 2: Thermal Conductivities of Selected Materials at Room Temperature.
Material Thermal Conductivity, W/m K
Copper 401
Silver 429
Gold 317
Aluminum 237
Steel 60.5
Limestone 2.15
Bakelite 1.4
Water 0.613
Air 0.0263
Let us try to gain an insight into the basic concept of thermal conductivity for various materials. The
fundamental concept comes from the molecular or atomic scale activities. Molecules/atoms of various
materials gain energy through different mechanisms. Gases, in which molecules are free to move
with a mean free path sufficiently large compared to their diameters, possess energy in the form of
kinetic energy of the molecules. Energy is gained or lost through collisions/interactions of gas
molecules.
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Solids, on the other hand, have atoms/molecules which are more closely packed which cannot move
as freely as in gases. Hence, they cannot effectively transfer energy through these same mechanisms.
Instead, solids may exhibit energy through vibration or rotation of the nucleus. Hence, the energy
transfer is typically through lattice vibrations.
Another important mechanism in which materials maintain energy is by shifting electrons into higher
orbital rings. In the case of electrical conductors the electrons are weakly bonded to the molecule
and can drift from one molecule to another, transporting their energy in the process. Hence, flow
of electrons, which is commonly observed in metals, is an effective transport mechanism,
resulting in a correlation that materials which are excellent electrical conductors are usually
excellent thermal conductors.
Take home Problems
1a. What is the difference between heat and temperature?
1b.What is the difference between the subjects of heat transfer and thermodynamics?
2. A cold storage consists of a cubical chamber of dimension 2m x 2m x 2m, maintained at 10°C inside
temperature. The outside wall temperature is 35°C. The top and side walls are covered by a low
conducting insulation with thermal conductivity k = 0.06 W/mK. There is no heat loss from the
bottom. If heat loss through the top and side walls is to be restricted to 500W, what is the minimum
thickness of insulation required? (Ans: 108 mm)
3. A square silicon chip is of width W=5mm on a side and of thickness t=1mm. The chip is mounted in a
substrate such that there is no heat loss from its side and back surfaces. The top surface is exposed to
a coolant. The thermal conductivity of the chip is 200W/m.K. If 5W are being dissipated by the chip,
what is the temperature difference between its back and front surfaces? (Ans: 1oC)
4. Air flows over a rectangular plate having dimensions 0.5 m x 0.25 m. The free stream temperature of
the air is 300°C. At steady state, the plate temperature is 40C. If the convective heat transfer
coefficient is 250 W/m 2 .K, determine the heat transfer rate from the air to one side of the plate.
(Ans: 8125 W)

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1. BASICS OF HEAT TRANSFER

1.3 Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction rate equation is described by the Fourier Law:

Table 1 Typical values of h (W/m2K)

where:  = emissivity, which is a surface property ( = 1 is black body)

1.4 Thermal Conductivity, k

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