LIMESTONE 1.2.3.

3 Additional publications may be

available from the MIA Bookstore. Go online
at www.marble-institute.com.
1.0 GENERAL
1.2.4 Indiana Limestone Institute of
1.1 Related Documents America (ILI)
1.1.1 Drawings and general provisions, 1.2.4.1 Indiana Limestone Handbook
including General and Supplementary
Conditions of the Contract and Division I 1.3 Scope of Included Work
Specification sections, apply to this section.
1.3.1 The work to be completed under this
1.2 Applicable Publications contract includes all labor and materials
required for the furnishing and installation of
1.2.1 The following publications listed here all limestone work shown or called for on the
and referred to thereafter by alphanumeric contract drawings, specifications, and
code designation only, form a part of this addenda.
specification to the extent indicated by the
references thereto: 1.4 Definition of Terms
1.2.2 ASTM International (ASTM): 1.4.1 The definitions of trade terms used in
this specification shall be those published by the
1.2.2.1 C568, Standard Specification for MIA, ILI, or ASTM International.
Limestone Dimension Stone

1.2.2.2 C97, Standard Test Methods for

1.5 Source of Supply
Absorption and Bulk Specific Gravity of
Dimension Stone 1.5.1 All limestone shall be obtained from
quarries having adequate capacity and facilities
1.2.2.3 C99, Standard Test Method for to meet the specified requirements, and from a
Modulus of Rupture of Dimension Stone firm equipped to process the material promptly
on order and in strict accord with
1.2.2.4 C170, Standard Test Method for specifications. The Specifying Authority
Compressive Strength of Dimension Stone (architect, designer, engineer, contracting
officer, end user etc.) reserves the right to
1.2.2.5 C241, Standard Test Method for approve the Material Supplier prior to the
Abrasion Resistance of Stone Subjected to award of this contract. Stone and workmanship
Foot Traffic quality shall be in accordance with Industry
Standards and Practices as set forth by the MIA.
1.2.2.6 C880, Standard Test Method for
Flexural Strength of Dimension Stone 1.6 Samples

1.2.3 Marble Institute of America 1.6.1 The Limestone Contractor shall submit
(MIA): through the General Contractor, for approval
by the Specifying Authority, at least two sets of
1.2.3.1 Membership, Products, and Services samples of the various kinds of limestone
Directory specified. The sample size shall be 1'-0" x 1'-0"
and shall represent approximately the finish,
1.2.3.2 Dimension Stone Design Manual texture, and anticipated range of color to be
supplied. One set of approved samples shall be

 2016 Marble Institute of America Limestone • Page 6-1

retained by the Specifying Authority, and one changes be made. Each stone indicated on the
set shall be returned to the Limestone Supplier setting drawings shall bear the corresponding
for his/her record and guidance. It is noted number marked on an unexposed surface.
herein that limestone is a natural material and Provision for the anchoring, doweling, and
will have intrinsic variations in color, cramping of work, in keeping with standard
markings, and other characteristics. practices, and for the support of stone by shelf
Depending on limestone selected and quantity angles and loose steel, etc., when required,
required, a range mockup may be used to shall be clearly indicated on the shop drawings.
further define the characteristics of the NO FABRICATION OF LIMESTONE SHALL
material. Cost of mockup, if required, shall not BE STARTED UNTIL SUCH DRAWINGS
be included in this section. HAVE BEEN FULLY APPROVED AND
MARKED AS SUCH. The Limestone
1.6.2 Prior to fabrication, an inspection and Contractor shall not be responsible for
approval by the Specifying Authority (and/or determining, making, or verifying (1) design,
General Contractor and/or End User) of a structural, wind, seismic, or other design
representative number of the finished slabs loads; (2) engineering estimates; (3) plans or
may be desirable to understand the finish and specifications; or (4) the types, sizes, or
full range of the material. locations of anchors, unless specifically added
to the scope of work.
1.7 Shop Drawings
1.8 Defective Work
1.7.1 The Limestone Contractor shall submit
through the General Contractor, for approval 1.8.1 Any piece of limestone showing flaws or
by the Specifying Authority, sufficient sets of imperfections upon receipt at the storage yard
shop drawings, showing general layout, or building site shall be referred to the
jointing, anchoring, stone thickness, and other Specifying Authority for determination as to
pertinent information. These drawings shall responsibility and decision as to whether it shall
show all bedding, bonding, jointing, and be rejected, patched, or redressed for use.
anchoring details along with the net piece
dimensions of each limestone unit. One copy 1.9 Repairing Damaged Stone
of the approved shop drawings shall be retained
by the Specifying Authority, one copy shall be 1.9.1 Repair of stone is an accepted practice
retained by the General Contractor, and one and will be permitted. Some chipping is
copy returned to the Limestone Contractor for expected; repair of small chips is not required
fabrication. All jointing as shown by the if it does not detract from the overall
Specifying Authority on the contract drawings appearance of the work, or impair the
shall be followed, unless modifications are effectiveness of the mortar or sealant. The
agreed upon in writing, or indicated upon the criteria for acceptance of chips and repairs will
approved shop drawings. If the contract be per standards and practices of the industry
drawings do not show the intent of the jointing, unless other criteria are mutually agreed upon
it will be the fabricator's responsibility to in writing by the Limestone Contractor and the
establish the jointing in accordance with Specifying Authority.
industry standards and practices.

1.7.2 The cutting and setting drawings shall be

based upon and follow the drawings and full
size details prepared by the Specifying
Authority except where it is agreed in writing
or shown on the approved shop drawings that
Page 6-2 • Limestone  2016 Marble Institute of America
2.0 MATERIALS underlayment, the use of nonstaining cement
may not prevent all discoloration.
2.1 Limestone Discoloration will disappear as the stone dries.

2.1.1 General: All limestone shall be of 2.2.2 The addition of hydrated lime or like
standard architectural grade, free of cracks, amounts of ground limestone may increase
seams, or other traits which may impair its initial shrinkage, but the improved working
structural integrity or function. Inherent color qualities and the water retention will enable
variations characteristic of the quarry from the mixture to adjust to the initial shrinkage
which it is obtained will be acceptable. Texture and will give good bonding strength in both
and finish shall be approved by the Specifying horizontal and vertical joints. Hydrated lime
Authority as shown in the samples. should conform to ASTM C207 Type S.

2.1.2 ASTM C568 [C97] [C99] [C170] 2.2.3 Sand should comply with ASTM C144.
[C241] [C880] See the chart of applicable
ASTM standards and tests in the Appendix. 2.2.4 Mixing water must be potable quality.

2.1.3 Schedule: Limestone shall be 2.2.5 Mortar mixes vary in proportions from
provided as follows: a hard mixture (1:1:4) to a flexible mixture
(1:1:9). Hard mixes can be expected to set up
stress conditions between the stone and mortar
2.1.3.1 For (state location on building) (state
in joints since the thermal coefficient of mortar
name, grade (if applicable), and (color)
expansion is greater than that of stone. In
limestone with a (type) finish, supplied by (name
paving installations, stress is often sufficient to
company or list several approved suppliers).
break the bond between the stone and the
substrate. Flexible mortars are not suitable for
2.1.3.2 Provide information as in (1) for
exterior work.
each different limestone/finish combination in
the project.
2.2.6 The Indiana Limestone Institute
recommends a 1:1:6 or Type N mortar be used
2.1.4 Finishes: Finishes listed in the with Indiana limestone.
schedule shall conform with definitions by the
MIA, ILI, or ASTM International.
2.3 Pointing Mortar
2.2 Setting Mortar 2.3.1 Pointing mortar shall be composed of
one part (white or other) portland cement, one
2.2.1 Cement used with limestone shall be part hydrated lime, and six parts white sand
white portland cement, ASTM C150, or white passing a #16 sieve.
masonry cement, ASTM C91. Non-staining
cement (at the present time there are few
masonry cement mortars produced labeled
2.4 Sealants and Backup
nonstaining) shall contain not more than Material (If Applicable)
0.03% of water-soluble alkali when
determined in accordance with procedure 2.4.1 Where specified, (state type or name of
#15, calculation #16 of ASTM C91 or Federal sealant) shall be used for the pointing of joints.
Specification SS-C181C. However, if a large The backup material used with the sealant shall
amount of normal cement has been used in the be (identify material).
backup (underlayment) material, and if an
effective water barrier has not been provided
between the stone and the backup or

 2016 Marble Institute of America Limestone • Page 6-3

2.5 Anchors, Cramps, and joints shall have a uniform thickness of 3/8"
Dowels unless otherwise shown or noted on drawings.

2.5.1 The Limestone Contractor shall furnish 3.1.2 Reglets for flashing, etc., shall be cut in
and set all anchors shown on approved shop the stone where so indicated on the drawings.
drawings unless otherwise specified. All All flashing, whether installed by the Stone
anchors shall be fabricated from Type 304 or Contractor or others, must be installed with
316 stainless steel or other suitable nonferrous nonstaining, oil-free caulk.
metal. Multipart anchors may contain metal
other than stainless steel provided such metal is 3.2 Backs of Pieces
not embedded in sinkages in the limestone.
3.2.1 Backs of pieces shall be sawn or roughly
2.6 Stain Prevention dressed to approximately true planes. Back
surfaces shall be free of any matter that may
2.6.1 Where necessary, such as when create staining.
limestone is used at/below grade or at
horizontal water stops, specify one or both of 3.3 Moldings, Washes, and Drips
the following systems:
3.3.1 Moldings, washes, and drips shall be
2.6.1.1 Dampproof unexposed stone constant in profile throughout their entire
surfaces. Joint surfaces should be dampproofed length, in strict conformity with details shown
only to within 1" of finished surface when using on approved shop drawings. The finish quality
bituminous solutions. on these surfaces shall match the finish quality
of the flat surfaces on the building.
2.6.1.2 Dampproof all concrete surfaces on
which limestone will rest. Dampproof adjacent 3.4 Back-checking and Fitting to
concrete structure, haunches, etc. Structure or Frame
2.7 Adjacent To Water 3.4.1 Stone coming in contact with structural
work shall be back-checked as indicated on the
2.7.1 Limestone used in areas adjacent to approved shop drawings. Stones resting on
water that is chemically purified should be structural work shall have beds shaped to fit the
tested to ensure that there is no reaction supports as required.
between the stone and the purification
chemicals. 3.4.2 Maintain a minimum of 1" between
stone backs and adjacent structure. (Note:
(See Horizontal Surfaces chapter for more many bolted connections will require more
information.) space than this; 2" space may be more
desirable. Large-scale details should illustrate
3.0 FABRICATION and control these conditions.)

3.1 Beds and Joints 3.5 Cutting for Anchoring,

Supporting, and Lifting Devices
3.1.1 All stone shall be cut accurately to shape
and dimensions and full to the square, with 3.5.1 Holes and sinkages shall be cut in stones
jointing as shown on approved drawings. All for all anchors, cramps, dowels, and other
exposed faces shall be dressed true. Beds and tieback and support devices per industry
joints shall be at right angles to the face, and standard practice or approved shop drawings.
However, additional anchor holes may be
Page 6-4 • Limestone  2016 Marble Institute of America
drilled at job site by Limestone Contractor to contract shall be loaded and shipped in the
facilitate alignment. sequence and quantities mutually agreed upon
by the General Contractor, Limestone
3.5.2 No holes or sinkages will be provided Contractor, and the Limestone Fabricator.
for Limestone Contractor’s handling devices
unless arrangement for this service is made by 4.2 Unloading and Storage at Job
the Limestone Contractor with the Limestone Site
Fabricator.
4.2.1 Receipt, storage, and protection of
(NOTE: It is not recommended that lewis pins limestone work prior to and during installation
be used for stones less than 3½" thick.) shall be the responsibility of the Limestone
Contractor.
3.6 Cutting and Drilling for
Other Trades 4.2.2 All limestone shall be received and
unloaded at the site with necessary care in
3.6.1 Any miscellaneous cutting and drilling handling to avoid damaging or soiling.
of stone necessary to accommodate other
trades will be done by the Limestone 4.2.3 Stones shall be stored above the ground
Fabricator only when necessary information is on nonstaining skids (cypress, white pine,
furnished in time to be shown on the shop poplar, or yellow pine without an excessive
drawings and details, and when work can be amount of resin). Chemically treated wood
executed before fabrication. Cutting and should not be used. DO NOT USE
fitting, due to job site conditions, will be the CHESTNUT, WALNUT, OAK, FIR, AND
responsibility of the Limestone Contractor. OTHER WOODS CONTAINING TANNIN.
Completely dry limestone shall be covered
3.6.2 Incidental cutting such as for window with nonstaining waterproof paper, clean
frame clips, etc., which is normally not canvas, or polyethylene.
considered to be the responsibility of the Stone
Supplier, will be provided only by arrangement 5.0 INSTALLATION
by the General Contractor and Limestone
Contractor with the Limestone Fabricator. 5.1 General Installation
3.7 Carving and Models 5.1.1 Installation shall be accomplished with
competent, experienced Stone Setters, in
3.7.1 All carving shall be done by skilled Stone accordance with the approved shop drawings.
Carvers in a correct and artistic manner, in
strict accordance with the spirit and intent of 5.1.2 All limestone pieces shall be identified
the approved shop drawing, or from models with a unique piece number corresponding
furnished or approved by the Specifying with the number on the shop drawings.
Authority. Interchanging of numbered pieces is not
permitted.
4.0 SHIPPING AND HANDLING
5.1.3 Limestone shall be free of any ice or
4.1 Packing and Loading frost at time of installation. Salt shall not be
used for the purpose of melting ice, frost, or
4.1.1 The cut limestone shall be carefully snow on the limestone pieces.
packed for transportation with exercise of all
customary and reasonable precautions against
damage in transit. All limestone under this

 2016 Marble Institute of America Limestone • Page 6-5

5.1.4 Adequate protection measures shall be 5.2.6 While joints can be tooled when initial
taken to ensure that exposed surfaces of the set has occurred, pointing cut stone after
stone shall be kept free of mortar at all times. setting, rather than full bed setting and
finishing in one operation reduces a condition
5.2 Mortar Setting which tends to produce spalling and leakage. It
is generally best to set the stone and rake out
5.2.1 All limestone shall be set accurately in the mortar to a depth of ½" to 1½" for
strict accordance with the contract, approved pointing with mortar or sealant at a later date.
shop drawings, and specifications. White If pointed with sealant, the raked depth and
portland cement with a low-alkali content is sealant applications shall conform to
recommended. manufacturer’s instructions.

5.2.2 Cut limestone is customarily shipped as 5.2.7 Projecting stones shall be securely
it comes from its final operation in the propped or anchored until the wall above is set.
supplier’s plant. Its surfaces and joints may be
covered with dust or saw slush, especially those 5.2.8 Only the ends of lugged sills and steps
pieces which have not been exposed to rain in shall be embedded in mortar. Balance of joint
stacking areas. Cleaning prior to installation or shall be left open until finally pointed.
erection of cut limestone is typically not
required where the existence of dust or saw 5.2.9 All cornice, copings, projecting belt
slush does not impede the erection process or courses, other projecting courses, steps, and
the application of joint sealants or pointing. platforms (in general, all stone areas either
The exception to this rule is interior partially or totally horizontal) should be set
stonework. Thoroughly clean interior stones with unfilled vertical joints. After setting,
prior to installation and protect the work once insert properly sized backup material or backer
in place from construction traffic. Among the rod to proper depth, and gun in sealant.
methods used is washing with a fiber brush and
soap powder, followed by a thorough rinsing In cold weather, the International Masonry
with clear water. Further information on Industry All Weather Council re-
cleaning can be found in section 6.1 of this commendations for setting from 40ºF to 20ºF
document. (4ºC to -6ºC) shall be followed, except that no
additives shall be used in the setting mortar,
5.2.3 All stone joint surfaces not thoroughly and below 20ºF (-6ºC), all work shall be done
wet shall be drenched with clear water just in heated enclosures.
prior to setting.
5.2.10 Individually set thin tile (nominal
5.2.4 Except as otherwise specially noted, 3/8" thick) on vertical surfaces exceeding 8' is
every stone shall be set in full beds of mortar not recommended.
with all vertical joints slushed full. Completely
fill all anchor, dowel, and similar holes. All bed 5.3 Anchorage
and vertical joints shall be 3/8" unless
otherwise noted. 5.3.1 All limestone shall be anchored in
accordance with the approved shop drawings.
5.2.5 Plastic setting pads shall be placed under
heavy stones, column drums, etc., in the same 5.3.2 To the furthest extent possible, all
thickness as the joint, and in sufficient quantity anchor preparations in limestone units shall be
to avoid squeezing mortar out. Heavy stones or shop-applied.
projecting courses shall not be set until mortar
in courses below has hardened sufficiently to 5.3.3 All anchorage devices and anchor
avoid squeezing. hole/slot fillers shall be in accordance with
Page 6-6 • Limestone  2016 Marble Institute of America
ASTM C1242. Care must be taken to ensure in strict accordance with the printed
that any holes capable of retaining water are instructions of the Sealant Manufacturer.
filled after use to prevent water collection and
freezing. 5.6.2 All sealants shall be tooled to ensure
maximum adhesion to the contact surfaces.
5.4 Sealant Joints
5.7 Weep Tubes
5.4.1 Where so specified, joints requiring
sealant shall be first filled with a closed-cell 5.7.1 Plastic or other weep tubes shall be
ethafoam rope backer rod. The backer rod placed in joints where moisture may
shall be installed to a depth that provides accumulate within the wall, such as at base of
optimum sealant profile after tooling. cavity, continuous angles, flashing, etc., or as
shown on architectural drawings.
5.4.2 If recommended by the Sealant
Manufacturer, primers shall be applied to the 6.0 CLEANING AND
substrate surfaces according to the
PROTECTION
manufacturer’s directions prior to application
of the joint sealant.
6.1 Cleaning
5.5 Expansion Joints
6.1.1 Among the methods most frequently
used to clean cut limestone are washing with a
5.5.1 Joints shall be adequate to allow for
fiber brush and soap powder, followed by a
thermal and structural differential movement.
thorough rinsing with clear water. Pressure
washing is another option, and often the
5.5.2 Filler material for these joints shall be
required pressure can be delivered from
nonstaining.
ordinary hose taps. Greater water pressure can
be used in some situations if delivered by a
5.5.3 It is not the intent of this specification to
wide-angle nozzle from a distance no closer
make control or expansion-joint
than one foot to the stone surfaces. Most often
recommendations for a specific project. The
a lower pressure and greater distance will be
Specifying Authority must specify expansion
equally effective. Suppliers or trade
and control joints and show location and details
associations representing the specified
on the drawings.
limestone should be contacted for pressure
recommendations for their particular product.
5.5.4 MIA recommends a maximum area of
400 square feet between expansion/control
6.1.2 Special consideration and protection
joints for horizontal surfaces. In areas where
shall be provided when brickwork is cleaned
there are large sections of natural light, this
above the limestone. Strong acid compounds
area should be reduced dependent on the
used for cleaning brick will burn and discolor
quantity of natural light entering the area. In
the limestone.
glass ceiling atriums, it has been shown that
120 square feet is the maximum area that an
6.1.3 In general, sand-blasting, wire brushes
expansion/control joint should encamp.
or acids should never be used on limestone.
When circumstances arise that cause one or
5.6 Caulking more of these methods to be considered,
suppliers or trade associations representing the
5.6.1 Where so specified, joints shall be specified limestone should be contacted for
pointed with the sealant(s) specified in Section recommendations.
2.4, after first installing the specified backup
material and applying a primer if required, all
 2016 Marble Institute of America Limestone • Page 6-7
6.2 Protection of Finished Work an extremely rare example). Most limestone
is marine in origin, composed of micro-sized
6.2.1 During construction, tops of walls shall fossils of marine invertebrate organisms rather
be carefully covered at night and especially like the shells found on most beaches.
during any precipitation or other inclement Limestone composed of inorganic, precipitated
weather. calcium carbonate is rare, and even more rare
is limestone of igneous origin called
6.2.2 At all times, walls shall be adequately carbonatites,2 found in diamond-bearing rock. In
protected from droppings. former times it was thought that pure, fine-
grained limestone was a precipitate from
6.2.3 Whenever necessary, substantial marine waters superenriched with calcium
wooden covering shall be placed to protect the carbonate, but that is not the case; almost all
stonework. Nonstaining building paper or fine-grained limestone is of biological origin.
membrane shall be used under the wood.
Maintain all covering until removed to permit 1.2 Limestone is a carbonate stone, that is,
the final cleaning of the stonework. it has the -CO3 radical combined with the
calcium atom. Other carbonate minerals seen
6.2.4 The Limestone Contractor will outline in dimension stone are the carbonates siderite
the needs for protection in writing to the (FeCO3), magnesite (MgCO3), and dolomite
General Contractor. The General Contractor Ca,Mg(CO3) 2. Dolomite is both a mineral and
shall be responsible for protection of the a stone, and is used extensively as a commercial
finished work until all trades are finished. This limestone. The origin of dolomite is
responsibility includes the stone cleaning costs postdepositional; it is chemically transformed
prior to the final inspection. from a pure calcium limestone after deposition
and burial, and sometimes, after total
cementation. Thus the dolomitization process
of a limestone is termed a “diagenetic” chemical
PRODUCT process in which magnesium ions are inserted
DESCRIPTION – into the calcium carbonate molecules to make
Limestone dolomite, both the mineral and rock.

1.3 All the carbonate minerals mentioned

1.0 GEOLOGICAL share certain chemical and physical properties:
CLASSIFICATION they are all approximately the same hardness
(H=3) on the Mohs Scale3; all have three good
1.1 Limestone is a sedimentary stone with cleavages (i.e., they easily break into
at least 50% by weight calcite or calcium parallelograms, indicating they have the same
carbonate (CaCO3) content1. However, atomic geometry); and they all react in some
commercial limestone usually has a much manner to cold, dilute hydrochloric acid and
higher percentage of calcium carbonate than other dilute acids.
50%. Limestone is a “clastic” sedimentary
stone. Almost all limestone is composed of 1.4 Since limestone by definition must be at
grains or fragments of biologic origin, ranging least 50% calcium carbonate, the other 50%
from fossils or organically derived grains that can be one of various clasts or minerals of other
weigh a mere fraction of an ounce, to dinosaur kinds of stone. These include clay, silt, quartz
bones that may weigh tons (though the latter is or other sands, pebbles, and especially fossils–

1 The Glossary of Geology, 2nd ed., 1980, Bates and 2 Carbonatites often occur in kimberlite pipes, a rare and
Jackson eds., Amer. Geol. Inst. special kind of geologic formation in which diamonds
are found.
3 See Appendix for the Mohs Scale of mineral hardness.

Page 6-8 • Limestone  2016 Marble Institute of America

usually calcite or aragonite (a mineral with the 1.8 Clay is the source of coloring in many
same chemistry as calcite (CaCO3), but with an limestones, because it contains the iron oxides
unstable atomic geometry unlike calcite, which that yield yellow through red stain; thus, a very
has a stable atomic geometry. small component of clay may be acceptable in
commercial limestone. A simple chemical
1.5 It is proper to add a descriptive prefix in analysis of a limestone will indicate precisely
identifying types of stone; for example, muddy the percent of calcite composition, while a
or shaly limestone, or silty, sandy, or pebbly petrographic examination would establish the
conglomeratic limestone. characteristics of the calcite/clay mixture.
Large inclusions or bands of clay seriously
1.6 Dolomite, the stone, is a calcium- weaken the stone.
magnesium carbonate classed in the dimension
stone industry as “limestone,” and is important 1.9 Recrystallization of any limestone is
commercially not only due to the large amount usually initiated with burial, and the deeper the
quarried and sold, but because of two special burial, the more pervasive is the
physical properties of dolomite: recrystallization. Grain size has much to do
with the process of recrystallization in some
1.6.1 Dolomite is somewhat less soluble than types of limestone; it appears to proceed
calcite, enough so that dolomite generally rapidly in some very fine-grained limestones,
exhibits somewhat greater weathering perhaps accelerated by trace amounts of
resistance in exterior applications. The biological material and the larger amount of
standard procedure to test for calcite is to put surface area of multiple small grains. Marbles
a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl), ≈10% by geological definition are metamorphic
or less, on the mineral. A vigorous “fizzing” limestones. It is often nearly impossible to
reaction occurs immediately, a positive differentiate a strongly recrystallized limestone
indication of calcite. By contrast, a drop of from a marble because the two behave exactly
dilute HCl on dolomite mineral or stone the same; thus in commercial practice, the
produces no reaction unless the dolomite is differentiation is often incorrectly stated, but
pulverized first; then a fizzing reaction is the error may be of little or no importance. If
observed, but it will be less vigorous than with the exact name and origin is needed, a
calcite. metamorphic marble can be identified by
indications of strain in calcite crystals observed
1.6.2 Dolomite hardness H=3.5 is slightly in a petrographic thin-section.
harder than calcite. Calcite hardness is H=3 by
comparison, a human fingernail is H=2.5, and 1.10 Many fossiliferous limestones are of
the mineral fluorite (CaF2) is H=4. Thus exceptional biological interest as they form in a
dolomite hardness at 3.5 will scratch the softer variety of mostly marine environments much
calcite. Although this doesn’t seem like much studied for baseline standards against which
of a difference, it is enough of an increase to modern environments are compared. These
provide longer service life in high abrasion would include constructional biological reefs,
applications, for instance, for entrance steps. barrier reefs like Australia’s Great Barrier
Reef, lagoons and carbonate tidal flats similar
1.7 In general, limestone diluted with too to the back side of Andros Island in the
much clay, sand, or other noncarbonate grains Bahamas, or Florida Bay. Fossiliferous
is not acceptable as dimension stone—it may limestone has fascinated mankind since ancient
not be well enough cemented to hold together, times, and continues to be a stone in high
the clays may wash out, or if sandy, the sands demand. Fossils over three billion years old are
may wash or weather out too easily, or the studied from carbonate rocks. Fossiliferous
stone will not take an acceptable finish. limestone preserves the only record of life
available for the period of Earth history prior

 2016 Marble Institute of America Limestone • Page 6-9

to the advent of mankind, and retains the 4.1.4 Abrasive: A flat, nonreflective surface.
charisma associated with unknown creatures
from times long past. 4.1.5 Sawn: A comparatively rough surface;
can be chat, shot, sand, or diamond sawn.
2.0 COLOR AND VEINING
4.1.6 Polished: Mirror gloss, with sharp
2.1 The color, veinings, clouds, mottlings, reflections.
and shadings in limestone are caused by
substances included in minor amounts during 4.1.7 Bush-hammered: Textured surface
formation. These include iron-bearing that varies from subtle to rough.
minerals, clay, and organic material thought to
be residual from the soft parts of tiny marine 4.1.8 Thermal (Flamed): Finish produced
animals. Most of these dark materials are found by application of high-temperature flame to the
between calcite crystals or the shell materials, surface. Large surfaces may have shadow lines
and some shells and calcite crystals are darker caused by overlapping of the torch. This finish
than others. Colors of biologic inclusions are will vary in texture and depth between
strongly affected by the environment of different types of limestone, as the finish is
deposition, e.g., whether bottom conditions largely dependent upon the limestone
are aerobic or anaerobic. Iron oxides make the structure of the stone. The thermal method is
pinks, yellows, browns, and reds. Most grays, not commonly used on limestone.
blue-grays, and blacks are of bituminous
origin. 4.1.9 Antiqued: A finish that replicates
rusticated or distressed textures.
3.0 TEXTURE
4.1.10 Tumbled: A weathered, aging
3.1 The term “texture,” as applied to finish created when the stone is tumbled with
limestone, means size, degree of uniformity, sand, pebbles, or steel bearings.
and arrangement of constituent minerals.
4.1.10.1 Other finishes such as machine
3.2 Limestone contains a number of tooled are available and it should be noted that
distinguishable natural characteristics, not all finishes may be applicable to all
including calcite streaks or spots, fossils or shell limestones.
formations, pit holes, reedy formations, open
texture streaks, honeycomb formations, iron 4.1.11 Some stone finishes can affect
spots, travertine-like formations, and grain- strength and durability. Examples are bush-
formation changes. One or a combination of hammered and thermal finishes, which reduce
these characteristics will affect the texture. a stone’s thickness, making it more vulnerable
to weakening from exposure to freeze and
thaw cycles.
4.0 FINISHES
4.1.12 The type of finish desired may affect
4.1 Limestone surfaces may be finished in a
the final cost. For further information on cost
number of ways. Typical finishes are:
differences between various finishes contact
MIA member companies.
4.1.1 Honed: A satin smooth surface with
little or no gloss.
5.0 THICKNESS
4.1.2 Smooth: Smooth finish, with minimum
of surface interruption. 5.1 Standard nominal thicknesses for
limestone are generally 3/8", ¾", 1¼", 1½",
4.1.3 Plucked: A rough texture. 2", 2¼", 2½", 3", 3½", and 4". The
Page 6-10 • Limestone  2016 Marble Institute of America
recommended thicknesses vary depending on 8.1.1 Minimum ¾" thickness.
the type of limestone used.
8.1.2 A honed finish.
5.2 Cutting can be made to exact metric
measurements through conversion of U.S. 8.1.3 A minimum hardness value of 10 as
Conventional System values to SI International measured by ASTM C241.
System units. See conversion table in the
Appendix. 8.2 Avoid the use of gypsum or molding
plaster setting spots for the installation of
Note that as limestone is cut thinner, its tensile limestone.
strength is diminished.
9.0 VENEER CUTTING
6.0 SIZES
9.1 Quarry blocks are reduced to slabs by a
6.1 Limestone is a product of nature with gang saw, belt saw, or wire saw. The gang saw
many varieties available, each possessing consists of a series of steel blades set parallel in
unique characteristics. Little can be done to a frame that moves forward and backward.
alter the condition in which nature presents They are fed a cutting abrasive in a stream of
these varieties to us. Therefore, size may water. See illustration at end of chapter 7.
become a limiting factor to consider in the
selection of a particular limestone. 10.0 DAMPPROOFING
6.2 MIA Members should be consulted for 10.1 Some limestones have moisture
specific size information for a particular stone absorption rates which will cause bleeding of
and its desired use. A jointing scheme which setting or joint materials. If unsure, test the
permits the use of smaller sizes of limestone limestone for tolerance of the setting material.
may greatly facilitate selection and delivery. Wetting the joint surfaces prior to applying the
The MIA Member/Supplier should assist in the mortar and avoiding the use of too much water
final scheme approval. in the mix may reduce the probability of such
bleeding If necessary, edges and back faces
7.0 PRODUCT SAMPLING must be dampproofed with materials that will
bond with the setting/jointing material, but
7.1 Limestone is formed by nature; thus not cause bleeding.
there are variations in the tonal qualities of the
stones. However, it is these natural variations
that make limestone unique, valuable, and TECHNICAL DATA –
highly desirable. Because of these variations,
selection of a limestone should never be made Limestone
on the basis of one sample only. It is
recommended that selection be based on 1.0 PROPERTIES OF
viewing sufficient samples to show the general LIMESTONE DIMENSION STONE
range of colors of the desired stone. MIA
Members can provide these range samples. 1.1 In centuries past, relatively little
importance was attached to the ultimate
8.0 PROPER USAGE TIPS physical capabilities of most building materials.
Rule of thumb was a common structural design
8.1 Recommendation for commercial criterion. As a result, the widely used materials
floors: of the day, for the most part natural rather than
manmade materials, were seldom stressed to
their ultimate limits.
 2016 Marble Institute of America Limestone • Page 6-11
1.2 In present-day construction, this is far Property Range of Values
from being true. Performance requirements
Flexural Strength (C880)
are daily become more demanding. In striving
lbs/in² ................................. 400-2,700
for taller structures, greater spans, firmer
foundations, thinner walls and floors, stronger Modulus of Elasticity5 (in millions)
frames, and generally more efficient buildings lbs/in² ..................................... 0.6-1.4
with more usable space, today’s Architects and
Engineers must get the most out of the Density, lb/ft3 (C97) ................. 110-185
materials with which they work. Recommended (min):
110 (low density),
1.3 Limestone is a product of nature and not 135 (medium density),
always subject to the rules of consistent 160 (high density)
behavior that may apply to manufactured
building materials. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion,
in/in/ºF ......................... 4.4 x 10-6 average
1.4. Physical property values of limestone
may, however, be measured using the standard Modulus of Rupture (C99) lbs/in²...400-1000
test methods approved by the Dimension Stone Recommended (min):
Committee C18 of ASTM International. The 400 (low density),
MIA and Member companies are represented 500 (medium density),
on the ASTM committee and are active in its 1,000 (high density)
technical work of establishing proper test
methods and specifications consistent with the Absorption % (by weight) (C97) ... 0.6-29.0
latest technology. Recommended (max):
12.0 (low density),
1.5 Final design should always be based on 7.5 (medium density),
specific values for the stone variety ultimately 3.0 (high density)
to be installed. These values may be obtained
from the Stone Supplier. All materials are not Abrasion Resistance (Ha) (C241) ...3.0-33.0
suitable for all uses. In order to avoid mistaken Recommended (min): 10
selections, tests for material values should be
made prior to final material selection. 2.0 STRENGTH (ASTM C99,
C170, C880)
1.6 Physical Properties of Limestone.
(This historical data and information are 2.1 Values for modulus of rupture,
provided only as a guideline. Recommended compressive strength, and flexural strength are
minimums or maximums are established and ascertained by testing specimens of limestone
provided by ASTM International.)4 under laboratory conditions until they fail.

Property Range of Values 2.2 Size and finish of test samples required
Compressive Strength (C170) by the standard ASTM test methods may not
lbs/in² ............................. 1,600-32,000 reflect the actual performance of stone when
Recommended (min): used in lesser thicknesses or with other finishes
1,800 (low density), that affect strength. For this reason, the
4,000 (medium density), Modulus of Rupture (C99) test is
8,000 (high density) recommended when the stone to be used will

4 Test methods described in current ASTM 5 Also known as Young’s Modulus.

standards.
Page 6-12 • Limestone  2016 Marble Institute of America
be two or more inches thick. The Flexural ASTM C241 tests, are recommended for use as
Strength (C880) test is recommended when flooring exposed to normal foot traffic. A
the stone thickness will be less than two inches. minimum abrasive hardness of 12 is
recommended for commercial floors, stair
2.3 The strength of a limestone is a measure treads, and platforms subject to heavy foot
of its ability to resist stresses. There are several traffic. If floors are constructed with two or
varieties in the limestone group, including more stone varieties, the Ha values of the
calcarenite, coquina, dolomite, micro- stones must not differ by more than 5, or the
crystalline, oolitic, travertine, and re- floor surface will not wear evenly and
crystallized. Their strength depends on several uniformly.
factors, such as the rift and cleavage of the
calcite crystals, the degree of cementation, the 5.0 FACTORS AFFECTING
interlocking of the calcite crystals, and the
PROPERTIES
nature of any cementing materials present.
5.1 The ultimate test of a building material
3.0 FIRE RESISTANCE is its ability to have and maintain the necessary
structural strength, as well as beauty of
3.1 Stone is not combustible according to appearance and low cost of maintenance over
underwriters’ ratings, and therefore is the useful life of the structure. Experience has
considered a fire-resistant material. Because of proven that limestone meets this test as few
its thermal conductivity, heat transfer is fairly other building materials can. Studies have
rapid. Most stone is not considered a highly shown that the durability of most limestones is
rated thermal insulator. little affected by cycles of weather. This is
because most have a low rate of moisture
3.2 Underwriters’ fire-resistance ratings absorption.
evaluate whether or not a material will burn,
as well as how long it will keep surrounding 5.2 Limestone exterior paving is not
combustible materials from reaching recommended for environments where de-
temperatures which will cause them to ignite. icing chemicals may be used to melt ice and
Methods of estimating fire resistance periods of snow because these chemicals will damage
masonry walls and partitions utilizing most limestone.
component laminae are given in “Fire
Resistance Classifications of Building 5.3 Exteriors of gray or black limestones
Construction,” BMS92, National Bureau of with a bituminous or carbon composition
Standards. should be avoided as the action of atmosphere
agents will rapidly cause the surface to
4.0 ABRASION RESISTANCE deteriorate.
(ASTM C241)
6.0 SAFETY FACTORS
4.1 Abrasion resistance is a property of
stone that should be tested per ASTM C241 to 6.1 Good engineering practice requires that
provide an indication of the stone’s wearing allowable design stress must provide a margin
qualities when exposed to foot traffic. of safety in any structural element. As a
necessary precaution against such conditions as
4.2 The hardness and uniform wearing wind, ice, snow, impact, temperature changes,
qualities of most limestones make them and imperfect workmanship, these allowable
extremely desirable and economically practical stresses must be smaller than those which
for floors and stairs. Varieties with an abrasive produce failure.
hardness (Ha) of 10 or more, as measured by

 2016 Marble Institute of America Limestone • Page 6-13

6.2 For a particular construction, the closer 8.0 EFFLORESCENCE AND
the allowable load is to the ultimate failure STAINING
load, the more efficient is the use of the
material and the less the cost of the 8.1 Efflorescence is a salt deposit, usually
construction. white in color that occasionally appears on
exterior surfaces of masonry walls. The
6.3 Contemporary building design does not efflorescence-producing salts found in masonry
usually employ stone as part of the structural are usually sulfates of sodium, potassium,
frame, but rather as an independent unit, a magnesium, calcium, and iron. Salts which are
curtain wall, or veneer. Therefore, the chlorides of sodium, calcium, and potassium
primary concern in such cases is with wind or will sometimes appear, but they are so highly
seismic loads, and a safety factor of 8.0 is soluble in water that they will be washed off by
recommended. Where the stone is to be rain.
subjected to concentrated loading, such as stair
treads or lintels supported only at the ends, a 8.2 The water-soluble salts causing
factor of 10.0 should be used. These safety efflorescence come from other materials in the
factors may be adjusted using sound wall. The salts exist in small amounts and are
engineering principles and judgment. leached to the surface by water percolating
through the walls. The most feasible means of
6.4 As buildings become taller and prevention is to stop the entrance of large
individual stone-slab veneer becomes larger in amounts of water. Absorption from the face
area, the lateral forces due to wind loads must will not cause efflorescence unless there are
be considered. Wind tunnel tests are often open joints.
used on major structures to determine wind
dynamics and force magnitude. Reinforcement 8.3 Limestone is seldom injured by
is sometimes necessary for large dimension slab efflorescence. However, some of the salt
veneer in critical areas. crystals may form in the pores near the surface.
Crystal growth (recrystallization) in the pores
7.0 SEISMIC CONSIDERATIONS can cause stress on the walls of the pores and
cause the stone to flake off. If the conditions
7.1 Seismic considerations generally require bringing about this action persist, scaling may
that low buildings be stiff, and that tall continue and flake off one layer after another.
buildings be relatively flexible. Design of For this to happen, large amounts of water
connections must account for seismically must enter the wall and must contain large
induced horizontal loading. Local building amounts of salts.
codes vary and must always be checked to
determine specific requirements for each area. 8.4 Staining or discoloration occurring on
The National Bureau of Standards has published new buildings can be a brown stain found on
two documents on the topic: “Earthquake buff limestone, or a dark gray stain on gray
Resistant Masonry Construction,” NBS Science limestone. Research indicates that the stains
Series 106; and “Abnormal Loading on are caused by the action of water percolating
Buildings and Progressive Collapse: An through cement from which soluble alkali salts
Annotated Bibliography,” NBS Science Series are leached. The salts are then carried through
67. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has also the stone, where partially oxidized organic
published TM 5-809-10, “Seismic Design for matter is picked up. This is then transported to
Buildings.” the surface of the stone, where it is deposited
as a stain as evaporation of the water takes
place.

Page 6-14 • Limestone  2016 Marble Institute of America

8.5 This staining phenomenon is similar to
efflorescence except that it involves organic
material. It does not harm the stone other than
leaving an objectionable appearance during or
soon after erection. However, if left alone, the
stain is removed naturally by the action of the
elements, usually in the course of a few
months.

8.6 A considerable amount of water passing

through the stone is necessary to bring out
conspicuous discolorations. Proper pre-
cautions taken during construction of the walls
will usually prevent such troubles. A simple
and helpful expedient is to provide frequent
weep holes in the base course and above shelf
angles. These should be placed in the vertical
joints so they can be sloped upward from the
front to back.

8.7 Stains sometimes appear on the base

course when limestone is in contact with soil,
due to the carrying of soluble salts and some
colored soil constituents up through and to the
surface of the stone by capillary action. Almost
all soils contain soluble salts. Therefore, this
staining phenomenon should disappear when
the source of moisture is eliminated.

8.8 Avoid contact between soil and stone.

Dampproofing treatments of either a
bituminous or cementitious nature may be
used as a barrier to the ground water or
construction moisture causing these stains.

9.0 THERMAL EXPANSION

9.1 The thermal expansion of limestone is

an important consideration where limestone is
used with dissimilar materials to form large
units that are rigidly fixed.

9.2 The coefficient of thermal expansion

varies from one variety to another; actual
thermal characteristics of a specific limestone
should be obtained from the Quarrier or
Fabricator before making a final selection.

 2016 Marble Institute of America Limestone • Page 6-15

NOTES:

Page 6-16 • Limestone  2016 Marble Institute of America