Module 2 - Water Treatment

Public Health Engneering-21CV43
Module 2 WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

OBJECTIVES
The aim of water treatment is to produce and maintain water i.e hygienically safe,
aesthetically attractive and palatable in and economical manner. Though the treatment of water
would achieve the desired quality, the evaluation of its quality should not be confined to the end of
treatment but should be extended to the point of consumers use.
It may be desirable to treat water for a number of reasons including removal of pathogenic
organisms, unpleasant tastes and odors, excessive colour or turbidity or potentially harmful toxic
chemical impurities.
METHODS OF TREATMENT OF WATER AND FLOW SHEETS
The method of treatment to be employed depends on the nature of available water and the
desired standards of water quality. The unit operations in water treatment constitute.
i. Screening
ii. Plain sedimentation
iii. Sedimentation aided with coagulation
iv. Filtration
v. Disinfection
vi. Aeration
vii. Softening
viii. Miscellaneous treatment such as fluoridation, recarbonation, Liming, desalination,
defluoridation, etc…..
VARIOUS SEQUENCES OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT
1. Storage
2. Pre – Chlorination
3. Aeration
4. Flocculation(Rapid)
5. Flocculation(Slow)
6. Sedimentation
7. Slow sand filter
8. Rapid sand filter
9. Softening
10. Post chlorination
The complete purification of water is achieved by the following:

1. SCREENING: It is used to remove floating matter. This is accomplished just at the intake.
2. AERATION : This process is employed where element causing tastes and odour have to be
removed.
3. PLAIN SEDIMENTATION: In this process suspended impurities like silt, clay and sand
etc are removed.
Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 1
4. SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION: Fine suspended ad colloidal impurities

and some bacteria are removed.
5. FILTRATION: This process is employed to remove very fine particles and colloidal
matter which might have escaped from sedimentation process micro-organisms are largely
removed hence.
6. DISINEFCTION: To render safe against disease producing bacteria disinfection is
necessary.
7. OTHER PROCESS: In order to make the water fit for a particular use, any special
treatment (tertiary) may be used.
LAYOUT OF TREATMENT PLANT

A Complete water treatment plant consists of:
i. Intake works including pumping plant.
ii. Aeration
iii. Sedimentation – Plai9n or Sedimentation with coagulation.
iv. Filtration
v. Disinfection
vi. Treated water storage reservoir
vii. Pumping plant to pump treated water to elevated storage reservoir.
viii. Distribution system.
1. Aeration removes odour and tastes due to volatile gases like hydrogen sulphide
and due to algae and related organisms.
2. Aeration also oxidise iron and manganese, increases dissolved oxygen content in
water, removes CO2 and reduces corrosion and removes methane and other
flammable gases.
3. Principle of treatment underlines on the fact that volatile gases in water escape
into atmosphere from the air-water interface and atmospheric oxygen takes their
place in water, provided the water body can expose itself over a vast surface to
the atmosphere. This process continues until an equilibrium is reached
depending on the partial pressure of each specific gas in the atmosphere.
Types of Aerators
1. Gravity aerators
2. Fountain aerators
3. Diffused aerators
4. Mechanical aerators.
Gravity Aerators (Cascades): In gravity aerators, water is allowed to fall by gravity such that a
large area of water is exposed to atmosphere, sometimes aided by turbulence.
Fountain Aerators: These are also known as spray aerators with special nozzles to produce a fine
spray. Each nozzle is 2.5 to 4 cm diameter discharging about 18 to 36 l/h. Nozzle spacing should be
such that each m3 of water has aerator area of 0.03 to 0.09 m2 for one hour.
Injection or Diffused Aerators: It consists of a tank with perforated pipes, tubes or diffuser plates,
fixed at the bottom to release fine air bubbles from compressor unit. The tank depth is kept as 3 to
4 m and tank width is within 1.5 times its depth. If depth is more, the diffusers must be placed at 3
to 4 m depth below water surface. Time of aeration is 10 to 30 min and 0.2 to 0.4 litres of air is
required for 1 litre of water.
Mechanical Aerators: Mixing paddles as in flocculation are used. Paddles may be either
submerged or at the surface.
Settling
Solid liquid separation process in which a suspension is separated into two phases –
1. Clarified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank (overflow).

2. Concentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank (underflow).
Purpose of Settling
To remove coarse dispersed phase.
1. To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.

2. To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.
3. To settle the sludge (biomass) after activated sludge process / tricking filters.
Principle of Settling

1. Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than that of water tend to
settle down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is retarded by offering storage.
2. Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.
3. Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the settling tank is called the
detention period.
AERATION
PURPOSE OF AERATION: The basic purpose of aeration is the improvement of the physical
and chemical characteristics of water for domestic, commercial and other industrial uses.
Aeration is necessary to promote the exchange of gases between the water and the atmosphere
Aeration is practiced for 3purposes.
a. Expulsion of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and other volatile substances causing taste
and odour.
b. To precipitate impurities like iron and manganese.
c. To add oxygen to water for imparting freshness, e.g water from underground sources
devoid of or deficit of oxygen.
TYPES OF AERATORS
There are two methods of aeration in present practice. One method exposes water films to
the air and the other introduces air in the form of small bubbles in the water. The first is called as
„WATER FALL AERATDRS” and second as the “DIFFUSED AIR AERATORS”.
WATER FALL AERATORS

There are three methods under this category.
a. Spray aerators
b. Cascade aerators/step
c. Multiple tray aerators.
PLAIN SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation is processes of separation of settle able and suspended impurities to some
extent by gravity to reach the bottom of the tank from the water in quiescent condition.
SEDIMENTATION
PLAIN SEDIMENTATIONSEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION
When impurities are separated from the water by when chemicals called as coagulants are
used
The action of natural forces alone i.e. by gravitation.To remove all the particles by precipitation.
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE SEDIMENTATION ARE:-
A. Size, shape and weight of the particle.

B. Viscosity and temperature of water

C. Surface overflow rate.
D. Velocity of flow
E. Inlet and outlet arrangement
F. Detention period
G. Effective depth of basins
THEORY OF SEDIMENTATION
The settlement of a particle in water when brought to rest is opposed by the following factors.
i. The velocity of flow which carries the particles horizontally.
ii. The viscosity of water in which the particle is travelling. The viscosity varies inversely
with temperature.
iii. The size, shape ad septic gravity of the particle. The greater is the specific gravity, more
readily the particle will settle.
Any particle which does not alter its size shape and weight while rising or settling in any fluid is
called “DISCRETE PARTICLE” all the particles having the specific gravity more than the liquid
will readily move down due to gravitational force when any discrete particle is falling through a
quiescent fluid, it will accelerate until the frictional resistance or drag force becomes equal to
gravitational forces acting upon the particle. At such stage the particles will settle at uniform
velocity. This uniform velocity is called settling velocity and is a very important factor.
STOKE’S LAW for settling velocity of discrete particle is given by

gd 2
Vs   s   w 
18r
Where
Vs = Settling velocity, cm/sec.

G = acceleration due to gravity, 981cm/sec2
 s = Specific gravity of particles
D = dia of particles in cm.
R = kinematic viscosity of water cm2 / sec.
LIMITATIONS OF STOKE’S LAW
1. Stokes considered the particles are sphere. But practically it is not possible; all particles will
not be perfect spheres.
2. Stokes law does not hold good for particles of sizes less than 0.1mm which settle with a
velocity varying as the first power of their dia and not varying as the square of their dia.
Hence modified formula given by stakes
 3T  70 
Vs  418  s   w  d 2   For d  0.1mm
 100 

Where
Vs = Settling velocity in mm/sec
D = dia of particle in mm
T = temperature of water in C0
For particles of sizes less than 0.1mm, the stokes law holds good. For particles of sizes greater then
0.1mm, HAZEN has given the following relationship.
 3T  70 
Vs  418  s   w  d   For d  0.1mm.
 100 
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design aspects of sedimentation tanks
The design aspects of sedimentary tanks are
1. Velocity of flow
2. Capacity of tank
3. Inlet and outlet arrangements
4. Shapes of tanks
5. Miscellaneous considerations.
(1)Velocity of flow: The velocity of flow of water in sedimentation tanks should be sufficient
enough to cause the hydraulic subsidence of suspended impurities. It should remain uniform
throughout the tank and it is generally not allowed to exceed 150mm to 300mm per minute.
(2)Capacity of tank: capacity of tank is calculated by i) detension period ii) Overflow rate
(i) Detension period: The theoretical time taken by a particle of water to pass between entry and
exit of a settling tank is known as the known as the detention period. The capacity of tank is
calculated by
C = Q x T where C → Capacity of tank
Q → Discharge or rate of flow
T → Detension period in hours

The detention period depends on the quality of suspended impurities present in water. For plain
sedimention tanks, the detension period is found to vary from 4 to 8 hours.
(ii) Overflow Rate: in this method it is assumed that the settlement of a particle at the bottom of
the settlement of a particle at the bottom of the tank doesnot depend on the depth of tank and
depends upon the surface area of the tank.
Distance of descend D
Detension period, T = ------------------------ = ----- -------------(1)
Velocity of descend V
C
But, T = ----------- ---------- (2)
Q
From (1) & (2)

CD
------ = ------
QV
D.Q DxQ Q
Surface overflow rate, V = ------ = ----------- = ---------
C LxBxD LxB
WhereL → Length of tank
B → Breadth of tank D → Depth of tank = Side water depth = S.W.D
C → Capacity of tank T → Detention period
U → Discharge or rate of flow V → Velocity of descend of a particle to the bottom

of tank = Surface overflow rate = S.O.R
Inlet and outlet arrangements
The inlet is a device, which is provided to distribute the water inside a tank, and the outlet is
a device, which is meant to collect outgoing water. These arrangementsshould be properly designed

and located in a such a way that they do not form any obstruction or cause any disturbance to the
flowing water.
(4) shapes of tanks
Following are the three shapes of settling tank.
(i) Rectangular tanks with horizontal flow
(ii) Circular tanks with radial or spiral flow
(iii) Hopper bottom tanks with vertical flow
The following are the parameters for satisfactory performance.
1. Detention period ….. 3 to 4 hours for plain settling

2 to 21/2 hours for coagulant settling
1 to 11/2 hours for up flow type
3 2
2. Overflow rate ……… 30 – 40 m /m /day for horizontal flow
3 2
40-50m /m /day for up flow
3. Velocity of flow…….. 0.5 to 1.0 cm/sec
3
4. Weir loading………... 300m /m/day
5. L:B ………………….. 1:3 to 1:4
Breadth of tank…….. (10 to 12m) to 30 to 50m
6. Depth of tank………. 21/2 – 4m
7. Dia of circular tank…. upto 60m
following are the mostly used Coagulants with normal dose and PH values required
for best floc formation as shown in Table
Sl.No. Coagulant PH Range Dosage mg/l

1. Aluminiumsulphate 5.5 – 8.0 5 – 85
Al2(SO4)3, 18 H2O
2. Sodium Aluminate, Na2Al2O4 5.5 – 8.0 3.4 – 34
3. Ferric Chloride (Fecl3) 5.5 – 11.0 8.5 – 51
4. Ferric Sulphate Fe2 (SO4)3 5.5 – 11.0 8.5 – 51
5. Ferric Sulphate FeSO47H2O 5.5 – 11.0 8.5 - 51

For the purpose of designing the continuous flow type basin can be divided into four zones.
a. An inlet Zone.
b. A Settling zone.
c. A sludge zone
d. An outlet zone.
An inlet zone must be designed in such a way that the incoming water is uniformly distributed on
the full width of the tank and it enters the settling zone without causing any disturbance to the
settling zone.
SETTLING ZONE – THEORY OF IDEAL SETTLING BASIN

DIAGRAM OF IDEAL SETTLING BASIN
The design of sedimentation basin generally based upon the concept of the ideal settling basin as
shown in figure.
A particle entering the basin will have a horizontal velocity, equal to the velocity of the fluid.
Q Q
V  
A BH
And a vertical velocity, Us equal to its terminal settling velocity defined by stokes law. If a particle
is to be removed its settling velocity and horizontal velocity must be such that their resultant will
carry it to be bottom of tank before the outlet zone is reached. If a particle entering at the top of the
basin (pt. A) is some moved , all particles with the same settling velocity will also be removed
considering the slope from „A‟ to „C‟ and the dimensions of the basin, it can be written as.
Vs H VH
 or Vs 
V L L
Q Q H
But , V   Vs 
BH BH L
Q
Vs 
BL
OR
Discharge
Settling velocity =
Plan area of the basin

Q
The Qty, i.e, discharge a continuous flow sedimentation basin and is known as overflow rate or
BL
surface loading shall velour
Q
The equation Vs  , gives the settling velocity of the particles. It is seen that all the particles
BL
settling at a faster rate than Vs will be readily removed from the tank so it is proved from the
above equation that the efficiency of sedimentation tank is dependent on surface overflow and is
independent of the depth of the tank.
Normal values of overflow rate ranges between 500 – 750 litres/m2/hr for sedimentation tanks
and 10 – 1750 lit/ m2/hr for sedimentation aided with coagulation.
SLUDGE ZONE
The sludge zone of the sedimentation tank is designed in such a way that all the settle able
particles may be collected in it and can be conveniently removed whenever desired, without
causing any disturbance to the water of settling zone. Generally the bottoms of floors of the tanks
are made sloping towards one side or towards centre of the tank.
OUTLET ZONE
Outlet zone is also designed in the similar way as that of inlet zone i.e, without disturbing the
settling and sludge zone. Outletconsists offrequently free falling weirs discharging into effluent
launders as shown in figure.
Wier loading is limited to prevent high approach velocity near the outlet. Outlets are placed as far
from the inlet as possible loading rates are generally specified in m2 /m length /day
OTHER DESIGN CRITERIA

DETENTION TIME
This is an important term used in the design of sedimentation basin. It is the average
theoretical time for which the water is detained in the tank.
Hence it is the ratio of the volume of the basin i.e T = C/Q
For Rectangular tank
BLH
t
Q
Detention time For circular tank
t =
 0.011d  0.785H  d 2
Q
The detention time usually ranges between 4 to 8 hours for plain sedimentation and 2 to 4hrs for
sedimentation with coagulation.
DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY
For efficient removal of the sediment it is necessary that the flow is uniformly distributed
throughout the cross section however, in actual practice, certain amount of short circuiting always
exist, which permit a substantial amount of water to pass through directly through the tank without
being detained for the internodes time therefore the actual average time of flow or the average time
required by a particle to pass through the basin at a given rate of flow is called “FLOWING
THROUGH PERIOD” This is always less than the detention time which is corresponding

theoretical time infect the efficiency of the basin is determined by the ratio of the observed flowing
through period and the theoretical detention time, called as displacement efficiency.
Flowing through period

displacement efficiency =
Detention time.
It generally varies between 0.25 to 0.5 in normal sedimentation basins.
TANK DIMENSIONS
The width of the rectangular tank may be 10 to 12m and its length is normally 4 times its
width. The c/s area is such that the horizontal flow velocity is 0.15 to 0.3 m/min
TYPES OF SEDIMENTATION
This can be classified according to
i. NATURE OF OPERATION
a. Fill and draw type
b. Continuous flow type.
ii. SHAPE AND TYPE OF FEED

a. Rectangular with horizontal flow
b. Circular with radial or spiral flow.
PROBLEMS
1) Find the settling velocity in water at 20oC of spherical particle of 5 * 10-3 cm dia, having
specific gravity of 0.8, given the kinematics viscosity of water at 20oC is 1.01 * 10-2 cm2/
sec Does the particle settle or rise? What would happen if the specific gravity of the particle
is 1.20?
Solution:-
(a) D = Dia of particles = 5 * 10-3cm
 s = Sp gravity of particles = 0.8
 = Kinematre viscosity = 1.01102 cm 2
Using stokes law,

gd 2  s   w 
Vs 
18
  0.8 1
2
981 5 103

18 1.01102
Vs   0.027 cm / sec
The –Ve sign indicates that the particle will not settle as its sp. Gravity is less than one. The
particle will rise.
(b) In the second case, the specifies gravity of the particle is 1.20
The settling velocity

  1.2 1
2
981 5 103
Vs 
18 1.0110 2
Vs   0.027 cm / sec
Hence the particle will settle at a rate of 0.027cm/sec.
2) Design of settling tanks to treat water for a city of five lakhs people, given the detention time as
2hrs and the velocity of flow as 17.5cm/min. Also calculate the overflow rate for the tank, having
the depth 3m sketch the inlet and outlet arrangements also.
Solution:-
Population = 500000
Rate of water supply = 135lped(Assumed)
Detention time = 2hrs
Depth of the tank =3m

Velocity of flow = 17.5cm/mmin
Total Qty of water required per day  500000 135
 67.5 106 litres / day
 67.5 103 m3 / day
 2812.5 m3 / hr.
Providing two settling tanks (Rectangular in plan)
flow in each thak = 1406 - 25m3/hr
Given the detention period = 2hrs.
Capacity of the tank required = flow * detention period
= 1406.25* 2
= 2812.5 m3
Given the velocity of flow as 17.5cm/min, the length of the tank required.
17.5
  2  60
100
 21m
C/s. area required = capacity / length
= 1406.25/21
2
= 66.96m
66.96
Given the depth of the tank as 3m breadth of the tank required 
3
 22.32m
 23m.
CALCULATION OF OVERFLOW RATE

flow Q
Overflow rate = =
Plan area BL
1406.25
=
23×21
overflow rate = 2.911m 3 /m 2 /hr.
Range of over flow rate = 0.5 - 1.7m 3 /m 2 /hr.
3) Design a set of circular settling tanks to treat 5 million litres of water per day detention period
may be taken as 2hes. Calculate overflow rate and weir loading
Solution:-
Qty of water = 5 106 lit / day
5 106

1000  24
 208.33m3 / hr
Detention period  2hrs
the capacity of tanks required = 208.33 2
 416.67 m3
Pr oviding two circular tanks the capacity of each tank
416.67
=  208.3 m3
2
Assuming the depth of liquid as „3m‟ t6he surface area of the tank required.
208.33
a  69.44m 2
3
49 4  69.44
Dia of tank = 
 
d  9.4m
overflow rate
Q
=
Plan area
208.33

2  69.4
1.5 m3 / m 2 / hr
WEIR LOADING

discharge

weir length
208.33

2    9.4
 3.53 m3 / m length/hr
5.2m3 / m length/hr or less 
4) The maximum daily demand at a water purification plant has been estimated as 12MLD. Design
the dimensions of a suitable sedimentation thak (Fitted with mechanical sludge removal
arrangements) for the taw supplies, assuming a detention period of 6hours and the velocity
of flow as 20cm/min.
Solution:
Qty of water to be treated in 24hours.
=12  106 litres.
Qty of water to be treated during the detention period of 6hours.
12  106
=
24
 500 103 lit / hr
 500m3 / hr
 500  6
 3000m3
The capacity of the tank required  3000m3

Velocity of flow to be maintained through the tank = 20cm/min = 0.2m/minute.
Length of the tank required = Velocity of flow * Detention period

= 0.2  (6  60)
= 72m
capacity of the tank
C/S area of the tank reqd. 
Length of the tank
3000

72
 41.67m 2
Assuming the water depth in the tank as 4m
41.67
The width of tank required   10.42m
4
 10.5m
Using a free board of 0.5m,
Overall depth = 4+0.5 = 4.5m

Hence a rectangular sedimentation tank with an overall size of 72m  10.5m  4.5m can be used.
5) Two million litres of water per day is passing through a sedimentation tank which is 6m widly
15m long and having a water depth of 3m
a. Find the detention time for the tank
b. What is the average flow velocity through the tank?
c. If 60ppm is the concentration of suspended solids present in turbid raw water how much dry
solids will be deposited per day in the tank assuming 70% removal in the base and average
specific gravity of the deposit as 2.
d. Compute the overflow rate.
Solution:
a) The capacity of the tank = L.B.D
= 15  6  3
= 270 m3
Discharge passing through the tank

Q = 2MLD
 2 106 lit / day
 2 103 m3 / day
Q  83.33m3 / hr
capacity of the tank
Detention time=
Disch arg e
 270
83.33
 3.24hrs.
Disch arg e Q
B) Avg. velocity of flow through the tank= 
C / s .area BH
83.33

63
 4.629m / hr
 7.72cm / sec.
C) Qty of water passing per day =  2  106 lit

Concentration of suspended solids = 60ppm
60
Qty of suspended solids entering the tank per day  2 106 
106
 120liltres
Avg. sp. Gravity of the given material = 2
Density of deposited material = 2000kg/ m3

Mass of suspended solids deposited (with 70% removal) per day

  0.12  0.7   2000
168kg
D) Over flow rate = discharge per unit plan area

Q

BL
83.33  103
=
6 15
 925.88litres/hr/m 2
 926 litres/hr/m 2
6. A rectangular settling tank without mechanical equipment is to treat 1.8mLD of raw water the
sedimentation period is to be 4hours the velocity of flow 8cm/minute and the depth on the water
and sediment 4.2m. If an allowance of 1.2m for sediment is made what should be
a. The length of basin
b. The width of basin
Solution:
Water to be treated per day = 1.8 * 106litres
1.8 106
Water to be treated during the detention period i.e the capacity of the tank  4
24
 75000  4litres
 300m3
Flow velocity = 8cm/minute.
Length of the tank = Flow velocity  Detention time

= 8  (4  60)
= 1920cm
= 19.2m
300
C/s area of the tank =  15.625m2
19.2
Depth of (sediment + water) = 4.2m

Depth of sediment = 1.2m
Depth of water = 3m
15.625
 15.208m
Width of tank = 3
 5.21m

7) A circular sedimentation tank fitted with standard mechanical sludge removal equipment is to
handle 3.5millon litres per day of raw water. If the detention period of the tank is 5 hours
and the depth of the tank is 3m what should be the diameter of the tank?
Solution:-
Qty of the raw Water to be treated per day = 3.5 * 106litres
= 3.5 * 103 m3
3.5 103
Qty of raw Water to be treated during the detention period of 5 hours  5
24
 729 m3
The capacity of a circular tank of depth „H‟ and dia „d‟ is given by.
Volume  d 2  0.011d  0.785 H 

728  d 2  0.011d  0.785  3
728  d 2  0.011d  2.355 
728  0.011d 3  2.355d 2
0.011d 3  2.355d 2  729
d  16.95m By hit and trial
8) In a continuous flow settling tank 3m deep and 60m long, what flow velocity of water would
you recommend for effective removal of 0.025mm particles at 25oC. The sp.gravity of particles is
2.65 and kinematic viscosity ® for water may be taken as 0.01cm2/sec\
Solution:-
The settling velocity (Vs) for particles of 0.025mm (i.e, < 0.1mm) dia is given by

9d 2
V3   s   w 
18
where
g = 98/cm/sec 2
d  0.025mm  0.0025cm
 s  2.65
w  1
r  0.01cm 2 / sec
981  0.0025 
2
Vs   2.65  1
18  0.01
Vs  0.0562cm / sec
WKT ,
V L

Vs H
L
V  Vs
H
Where L  60m
H  2.5m(Assuming 0.5m as freaboard)
 60 
 0.0562   
 2.5 
V 1.35cm / sec
Hence in order to ensure effective removal of particles upto 0.025mm, the flow velocity in the
settling tank should not be more than 1.35cm/sec.
CHECK AGAINST THE SCOUR OF DEPOSITED PARTICLES

8
Vd  gd  s   w 
1

Where
 = 0.04 for unigranular sand and 0.06 or more for non uniform (interlocking) sticky material
 1 = Dray zwieback friction factor
 8  0.04 
Vd    981 0.00258  2.65  1
 0.03 
Vd  6.65 cm / sec
Since the flow velocity (V) is only 1.35cm/sec, it is much less than the scour velocity ( Vd ) of
6.65cm/sec. The design flow velocity is OK.

9) Two primary settling basins are 26m in diameter with 2.1m side water depth single effluent
weirs are located on the peripheries of the tank. For a water flow of 26000 m3/day
Calculate
a. Surface area and volume
b. Overflow rate in m3/m2.d
c. Detention time in hours; and
d. Weir loading in m3/m.d.
Solution:-
d 2  0.011d  0.785H 
(a) Detention period = 
Q
Where, d = dia of tank = 26m.
H = 2.1m
 26000  3
Q  m / day  2 BASINS 
 2 
 13000m3 / day
Q  541.67 m3 / hr.
t
 26   0.011(26)  0.785(2.1) 
2
541.67
t  2.41hr.
Qty of water to be treated during the detention period of 2.41 hr.
= 541.67  2.41
=1305m3
a. Capacity (volume) of tank = 1305m3

130.5
surface area of tank required =  621m2
2.1
b. Overflow rate
Q 13000
= =  20.93m3 / m2 day
B.L 621
c. Weir loading
Length of the weir along periphery of the tank
= d=30471 26=81.68m
Discharge per day
Weir loacing per day =
Length of weir
13000

81.68
 159.16 m3 / m.day

10. A rectangular sedimentation basin is to handle 10million litres/day of raw water. A detention
basin of width to length ratio of 1/3 is proposed to trap all particles larger than 0.04mm in size.
Assuming a relative density of 2.65 for the particles and 20 oC as the average temperature, compute
the basin dimension. If the depth of the tank is 3.5m, calculate the detention time.
Solution:
 3T  70 
Settling velocity Vs  418d 2  s   w   
 100 
For d  0.1mm
 3  20  70 
 418  0.04   2.65  1 
2
 100 
 1.435mm / sec
Vs  0.1435cm / sec
WKT
V L

VC H
L
V  Vs  
H
L
V  0.1435   cm / Sec
H
W.K.T
L = Flow velocity  Detention time (t)
 L 
L  0.1435  (t  60  60)  cm
 H 
where 't' is in hrs
 L 3600t 
L= 0.1435  m
 H 100 
Lt
L  5.166
H
LH
t
5.1664
H
t
5.166
Also the capacity or the tank of„t‟ hr detention period

10 106 t
Volume = 
103 24
BLH  416.67T
B 1
Given 
L 3
L  3B
B.3BH  416.67t
 H 
3B 2 H  416.67  
 5.166 
3B 2  80.67
3B 2  80.66
80.66
B
3
B  5.19m
Say B  5.2m
L  3B  3  5.2  15.6m
H  3.5m( given)
3.5
t
5.166
t  0.68hr or
41min utes
SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION
DOUBLE LAYER THEORY

ZETA POTENTIAL
Zeta potential is the potential difference between the bulk liquid and the shearing plane moving
with the particle. The stability of colloids is found to be dependent on the magnitude of the zeta
potential.
Zeta potential is thus a measure of both the charge on a colloidal particle and the distance into
the solution to which the effect of charge extends. The particles will be in a stabilized condition so
long as the zeta potential; is in excess of critical value. As soon as this value of zeta potential falls
below the critical value, Coagulation starts.

Coagulation is a chemical technique directed towards destabilization of the colloidal particles.

The coagulation will be more when Zeta potential is minimum.
COAGULATION
When certain chemicals called coagulants are added to water an in doluble, gelatinous,
flocculent precipitate called FLOC is formed. This precipitate during its formation descent through
the water, adsorb and entangle very fine suspended and colloidal impurities. Therefore the
gelatinous precipitate has the tendency of removing fine and colloidal particles quickly and
completely.
Coagulation is a process of add in chemicals to the raw water in order to make the finely divided
colloidal and suspended particles which remain in suspension to dense enough to settle down.
CHEMICALS USED FOR COAGULATION (COAGULANTS)
a. ALUMINIUM SULPHATE 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 . 18𝐻2 𝑂 or ALUM
A𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 . 18𝐻2 𝑂 + 3𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶03 )2 → 3𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐴𝐿 𝑂𝐻 3 ↓ +6𝐶𝑂2 ↑ +18𝐻2 𝑂
ALUM reacts with natural alkalinity in water to form aluminuium hydroxide floc..
If water doesnot contain sufficient alkalinity to react with the alum, lime Ca(OH)2 or soda ash
𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 is fed to provide the necessary alkalinity.
i ) AL2  SO4 3 .18H 2O  3Ca  OH 2  2 AL  OH 3  3CaSo4  18H 2O

ii ) AL2  SO4 3 .18H 2O  3Na2Co3  3H 2O  2 AL  OH 3   3Na2 So4  3Co2  18H 2O
The effective PH range for alum coagulant is 5.5 – 8.0 An advantage of using soda ash is that
unlike lime it does not increase water hardness, only corrosiveness.
b. FERROUS SULPHATE (COPPERAS)

Ferrous sulphate reacts with natural alkalinity but the response is much slower than that
between alum and natural alkalinity. Lime is generally added to raise the pH to the point
where ferrous lons are precipitated as ferric hydroxide by the caustic alkalinity
FeSo4 .7 H 2O  Ca( HCu3 ) 2  Fe  HCo3 2  CaSo4  7 H 2O

Fe  HCo3 2  2Ca(OH ) 2  Fe  OH 2  2CaCo3  2 H 2O
4 Fe  OH 2  O2  2 H 2O  4 Fe  OH 3
This treatment adds some hardness but no corrosiveness but dosing operation with two
chemicals is more difficult.
c. CHLORINATED COPPERAS

Chlorinated copperas treatment is a second method of using ferrous sulphate. In this

process chlorine is used to oxidize the ferrous sulphate to ferric sulphate.
3Feso4 .7 H 2O  1.5cl2  Fe2  So4 3  Fecl3  H 2O

Ferric sulphate and ferric chloride react with natural alkalinity or lime, as illustrated by
the following reactions with ferric chloride
2 FeCl3  3Ca  HCO3 2  2 Fe  OH 3    3Cacl2  6CO2
2 FeCl3  3Ca  OH 2  2 Fe  OH 3   3Cacl2 .
Colour in water is generally not affected by copperas and lime treatment where as
chlorinated copperas is effective in the removal of colour.
d. OTHER COAGULANTS (SODIUM ALUMINATE).
6nALo2  AL2  So4 3 .18H 2O  8 AL  OH 3  3Na2 So4  6H 2O
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the quantity of alum required to treat 10MLD of water at treatment plant the
dosage of alum is 12ppm. Also determine the amount of carbon dioxide released per litre of
water.
1000mg = 1gm
Solution:-
Qty of water to be treated = 10MLD =  10 106 Lit / day
Alum dosage = 12ppm = 12mgll (Given)

Amount of Alum required / day  10 106 12 mg 
120 106

106
 120kgs
The Chemical reactions involved in treating water with alum are given by:
AL2  So4 3 .18H 2O  3Ca  HCo3 2  2 AL  OH 3  3CaSo4  6Co2  18H 2O

Now, molecular weight of alum,
= 2  26.97+332.066  4 16  18  2 1.008  16 
 666.426
 666
The molecular weight of Co 2  112.01  2 16
 44
Now, it means that 666mg of Alum will release  6  44  mg of Co2 .

6  44
12mg of alum releases= 12
666
 4.756 mg of Co2
Since, 12 mg of alum is required for treating on litre of water, the Qty of Co2 released per litre of
water = 4.756mg.
2. 10mg of copperas is consumed with lime at a coagulation basin per litre of water.
Determine the qty of copperas and the quick lime required to treat 10MLD of water, for one
year. Molecular weight of copperas = 278, mol.wgt of quicklime = 56
Solution:-
Qty of water treated per day = 10 106 Litres
Dosage of copper as given = 10mg/lit.
Qty of copperas required / day  10 106 10
 100 106 mg
 10kg
Total Qty of copperas required per year
 100  365
 36500kg
 36.5tonnes.
The chemical reactions involved are
FeSo 4 .7 H 2O  Ca (OH ) 2  Fe  OH 2  CaSo4  7 H 2O Ca  OH 2  Cao  H 2O
Given molecular wgt of copperas = 278 and

Given molecular wgt quick lime = 56
From the above equations, one molecular of copperas require one molecule of lime 278 mg of
copperas require = 56mg of lime
56
10kg of copperas  100   20.143kg of lime.
278
20.143kg / day  365
Qty of Lime required per year =  7352.19 kg
 7.352tonnes
Hence 36.5 tonnes of copperas and 7.352 tonnes of lime are required for one year to treat 10MLD
of water.
3. A water treatment plant treating 50MLD of water requires 20mg/l of filter alum. If the
water has 6mg/l of alkalinity as CaCo3 determine the Qty of filter alum and quick litres
required per year. The alum is 80% pure and the quick lime contains 85% Cao.
(Given mol.wt of Al=27, S = 32, 0=16, h=1, Ca = 40 and C=12)
Solution:

Total qty of water treated/day = 50 106 Litres given dosage of alum = 20mg/lit
Qty of filter alum required
 20  50 106 mg / day
 1000kg / day
But alum is 805 Pure
1000
 
met Qty of alum required =
80
100
 1250kg / day
For oneyear, alum requirement
=1250  365
=456250kg
=456.25tonnes.
When filter alum is added, the following reactions are followed.
i ) AL2  So4 3 .18H 2O  3Ca  HCo3 2  2 Al  OH 3  3CaSo4  6Co2  18H 2O

ii ) Ca( HCo3 ) 2  CaCo3  H 2O  Co2
iii) CaCo3  Cao  Co2
The molecular weights of
AL2  So4 3 .18H 2O  2  27  3(32  4 16)  18(2 1  16)  666
Ca( HCo3 ) 2  40  2(1  12  3 16)  162
CaCo3  40  12  3 16  100
Cao  40  16  56
Now from the above equations it is clear that alum requires (3  162) parts of natural alkalinity as
Ca ( HCo3 ) 2 for every 666 parts of alum. (3  162) parts of alkalinity as Ca ( HCo3 ) 2 is equivalent to
(3  100) parts of alkalinity required as CaCo3.
Hence the alkalinity required as CaCo3 for the water containing alum as 20mg/lit
3  100
  20
666
 9.009mg / lit
But the natural alkalinity present in water is 6mg/lit.
Additional alkalinity required = 9.09-6

= 3.009mg/lit as CaCo3
From the equation, it is clear that 10parts of CaCo3 is produced by 56parts of Cao

56
  3.009
Qty of Cao required = 100
 1.685mg / lit.
Since the quick lime contains 85% of Cao, the Qty of quick lime required
1.685
 100
85
 1.9824mg / lit.
Qty of quick lime required per day.
50  106
  1.9824
106
 99.12kg
Yearly consumption of quick lime

 99.12  365
 36178.8kgs
 36.179tonnes.
4) The water works of a city treats 50MLd in a coagulation ssedimentation tank. The qty of alum
consumed is 15mg/l. If the alkalinity of raw water is equivalent to 1mg/l as CaCo3, Calculate the
quantity of alum and quick lime (Containing 80% Cao) required per month by water works.
(Atomic weights: Al = 27, S = 32, O = 16, H = 1, Ca = 4, C = 12).
Solution:
Qty of water to be treated = 50  106 lit / day
Qty of filter alum required perday at 15mg/lit
 15  50 106 mg
 750kg
Qty of filter alum require per month
 750  30
 22500kg
 22.5 tonnes.
The chemical reactions that take place are
AL2  So4 3 .18H 2O  3Ca( HCo3 ) 2  2 AL(OH )3   3Caso4  18H 2O  6Co2 
CaCo3  H 2O  Co2  Ca  HCO3 2
CaCo3  Cao  Co2
The molecular weights

AL2  So4 3 .18H 2O  2  27  3(32  4 16)  18(2 1  16)  666

Ca  Hco3 2  40  2(1  12  3 16)  162
CaCo3  40  12  3 16  100
Cao  40  16  56
Now from the above equations. It is clear that alum requires  3 162  Parts of natural alkalinity as
Ca(Hco3)2 for every 666 parts of alum.  3 162  parts of alkalinity as Ca(Hco3)2 is equivalent to
 3 100  parts of alkalinity required as CaCo3.
Hence the alkalinity required as CaCo3 for containing alum of 15mg/l
3  100
  15
666
 6.757 mg / l
Natural alkalinity available as CaCo3 = 1mg/L
Additional alkalinity required to be added in the form of lime = 6.757 -1 = 5.757mg/l as CaCo3
Now, 10 parts of CaCo3 is produced by 56parts of Cao.
Hence, the quantity of „Cao‟ required
5.757  56

100
 3.22mg / l
Since quick lime contains 80% of Cao, the quick lime required.
3.22  100

80
 4.025mg / l
The quantity of lime required for treating 50 * 106Litres of water/day

 4.025  50 106 mg / day
 4.025  50kg / day
 201.25kg / day
Hence the monthly consumption of quick lime

 201.25  30
 6037.5kg
 6.037Tonnes

THE CONSTITUENTS OF COAGULATION – SEDIMENTATION PLANT

The Coagulation – sedimentation plant, sometimes called simply a COAGULATION PLANT
or CLARIFLOCCULATOR contains the following four units.
i. Feeding device
ii. Mixing device or mixing basin
iii. Flocculation tank or flocculate
iv. Setting or sedimentation tank
The chemical coagulant is first of all fed into the raw water through the feeding device. This
mixture is than thoroughly mixed and agitated in the mixing basin. The flock which is formed as a
result of the chemical reaction taking place in the mixing basin is then allowed to consolidate in the
flocculation tank. The flocculated water is finally passed into the sedimentation tank, where these
flocculated particles settle down and be removed.
FEEDING DECICES
A) DRY FEEDING DEVICES
B) WET FEEDING DEVICES
MIXING DEVICES
There are two types of mixing basins
a. Mixing basins with baffle walls
b. Mixing basins equipped with mechanical devices.
MIXING BASINS WITH BAFFLE WALLS

SECTIONAL ELEVATION OF “OVER AND UNDER THE BAFFLE TYPE” MIXING
BASIN
MIXING BASINS EQUIPPED WITH MECHANICAL DEVICES
Design catriteria
Detention time = 30 to 60 seconds
Power required = 2 to 5 kn/m2/min
Velocity of flow = 0.9m/sec
Rotation of blades = 100rpm
Depth = 1 to 3m.
FLOCCULATION
Due to violent agitation of the coagulants in the flash mixer, thorough mix is obtained. This
severe agitated solution is slowly and gently stirred to cause the AGGLOMERATION of the
dispersed particles. Thus flocculation is a slow mixing process in which destabilized colloidal
particles are brought into intimate contact in order to promote their agglomeration the rate of
agglomeration or flocculation is dependent upon the number of particles present, the relative
volume they occupy etc…
Therefore flocculation is a process of mixing the coagulated water in order to achieve through
mixing or uniform distribution of coagulants throughout the water on slow mixing of the mixture
“FLOCS” are formed which is in the form of gelatinous precipitate which may be removed by
settling

The tank or basin in which flocculation process is carried out is called flocculation chambers
(Floc chamber)
Design criteria
a. Degree of agitation - velocity of flow
of paddle speed – 0.2 to 0.6m/sec
b. Detention period – 10-30minutes
Power consumption – 0.06 to 0.08 kn/m2/min
Paddle speed – 2 to 3 rpm.
CLARIFIERS
After proper flocculation the tanks in which water is allowed to settle the flocs formed is known
as sedimentation tank or clarifiers. The tank is designed on the same assumptions as a plain
sedimentation tank, except that a lower value of detention period (say about 2 to 4 hours) is
generally sufficient.
COMBINED COAGULATION CUM SEDIMENTATION TANK
Some times floc chamber combine alone with the sedimentation tank, such a tank is known
as co-adulation – sedimentation tank. In such a tank, a plain floc chamber without any mechanical
devices is provided before the water enters the sedimentation chamber. The depth in the floc
chamber may be kept about half that of in the settling chamber.
PROBLEM:-
i. Design a coagulation – sedimentation tank with continuous flow for o population of
60000 persons with a daily per capita water allowance of 120 litres make suitable
assumptions where needed.
Solution:
Design of sedimentation tank
Average daily consumption = 60000 * 120
= 7.2*106litres
Assuming maximum daily demand as 1.8time the average daily demand we get .the maximum
daily consumption
= 1.8*7.2*106
= 12.96 * 106litres
Assuming a detention period of 4 hours
Qty of water to be treted,
12.96 106
 4
24
 2.16 106 litres
 2.16 103 m3
Hence the capacity of tank require = 2160 m3
Providing a depth of 4m
2160
Plan area =  540m2
4
Providing a rectangular sedimentation tank,

Plan Area = BL = 540 m2

Using the width of the tank as 12m we get,

540
The length of tank =  45m.
12
Hence use a tank of 45m*12m*4m Provide extra depth for sludge storage say 0.3m depth at the
45
starting end and 4.3   5.2m at the other end (using 1 in 50 slope)
50
Use a free board of 0.5m above the water level.
Design of floc chamber

In addition to sedimentation tank, the floc chamber at the entry has to be provided. Assuming the
effective depth in the floc chamber as half of the depth of in the tank near the floc chamber i.e
4.5
 2.25m.
2
Assume the period of flocculation or detention period as 20minutes.
Capacity of the chamber = flow in 20minutes.

12.96  103 20
 
24 60
 180m 3
180
Plan area 
2.15
 83.72
Using the same width as 12m, we get the length of flocculation chamber
80
  6.67 m  6.97
12
 6.7 m  7
LABORATORY TESTING FOR DETERMINIE OPTIMUM DOSAGE OF COAGULANT

The optimum dosage of coagulant is first determined in the lab and then adjusted by actual
observations at the treatment plant. The common test which is performed to determine the
approximate optimum dosage of coagulant is known as JAR TEST.
The apparatus for the test is as shown in the figure. The sample of raw water to be tested is
placed in a number of jars each having the capacity of about 1litre normally, 6jars are used.
Different amounts of coagulants are then added to each jar. The driving unit is started. The paddles
connected with the driving shaft through sliming rods placed inside the jars, are thus made to rotate
The formation of floc in each jar is note the amount of coagulant in the jar which produces a
good floc with the least amount of coagulant indicates the optimum dosage. The speed of paddles
and time of mixing may also be varied for different tests during the determining of least optimum
dosage
Speed – 10 -10 rpm.
Flash mix the samples by agitating at maximum speed (100rpm) for 1min. Flocculate the samples
at a stirring rate of 20-70 rpm for 10-30min. Record the time of floc appearance for each beaker.

Module 2 FILTRATION
INTRODUCTION
Screening and sedimentation removes a large percentage of the suspended solids and
organic matter present in the raw water. The percentage of removal of these matters increases when
coagulants are also used in the sedimentation process.
However, the coagulated settled water will hot b e 10% pure and may certain some very
fine suspended particles and bacteria present in it. To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities
still further and to produce potable palatable and wholesome water the water is filtered through the
beds of various sized fine granular material (such as gravel, sand etc..)
The process of passing the settled water through beds of such granular materials (called
filtered media) is known as filtration. Filtration may help in removing colour, odour, turbidity and
pathogenic organisms from water.
TWOtypes of filters are commonly used for treating municipal water supplies. They are
1. The slow sand gravity filters or slow sand filters
2. Rapid sand gravity filters or Rapid sand filters.
A third type of Rapid sand filter works under pressure and is known as a PRESSURE
FILTER.
The slow sand filters can remove larger percentage of impunities and bacteria‟s from the water as
compared to Rapid sand filters however slow sand filters yield a very slow rate of filtration(about
1/30 times than that given by Rapid sand filters) and require larger area and are costly.
With the advancement of disinfecting Techniques the necessity of too much purification and that of
100% removal of micro-organisms (as is obtained by slow sand filters) has – decreased and
therefore slow sand filters are becoming absolute these days. In modern treatment plants the rapid
sand filters are almost universally adopted. (Eg.Thorekadanamahalli water treatment plant). The
water from coagulation sedimentation plant is directly fed into the rapid gravity filters and the
resultant filtered water is disinfected for complete killing of micro-organisms and colour removal.
THEORY OF FILTRATION
In the filtration process the water gets purified under four different process. These process
are
i. Mechanical straining
ii. Flocculation and sedimentation
iii. Biological metabolism
iv. Electrolytic changes.
i) MECHANICAL STRAINING
The suspended particles present in settled water and which are of bigger size than the
size of the voids in the filter media cannot pass through these voids and get arrested in
them. So the resultant water will be free from the suspended particles. Most of the
particles are removed in the upper sand – grit layers. These arrested particles forms a
mat on top of the filter bed, which further helps in straining out the impurities
ii) FLOCCULATION AND SEDIMENTATION

The filters are also able to remove the particles of size smaller than the size of the
voids present in it. These void spaces act like tiny coagulation sedimentation tanks and
the colloidal matter arrested in these voids is a gelatinous mass and therefore attract the
other finer particles. Therefore these fine particles thus settled down in the voids and
removed.
iii) BIOLOGICAL METABOLISM

Certain useful micro-organisms are generally present in the voids of filter media.
These organisms require organic impurities as their food for the survival and utilize
such organic impurities and convert them into harmless compounds by the process of
biological metabolism the harmless compounds so formed, generally form a layer on the
top which B called SCHMUTZDECKE or DIRTY SKIN. This layer further helps in
adsorbing and straining out the impurities.
iv) ELECTOLYTIC CHANGES

The process of filtration can also be explained by the theory of ionization.
According to this theory, a fitter helps in purifying the water by changing the chemical
characteristics of the water. This may be explained by the fact that the sand grains of the
filter media and the impurities in the water carry cleotrical charges of opposite in nature
when these charged particles some in contact with each other they get attracted and
making the water purer. After a certain interval the electrical charges of the fitter media
gets exhausted and have to be restored by washing the filter.
FILTER MATERIALS (or) FILTER MEDIA

Sand (coarse or fine grained), grit and gravel of different sizes are used as FILTER
MEDIA. The layer of sand and grit is supported on gravel. Which permits the filtered water to
move freely to the under-drains and allows the wash water to move uniformly upward
SAND AND GRIT

The filter sand and grit generally obtained from rocks like quartzite, and should contain the
following properties.
i. Should be freeform dirt and other impurities
ii. Should be uniform in nature and size
iii. Should be hard and resistant
iv. Should be such as not to lose more than 5% of its weight after being placed in
hydrations acid (HCl) for 24hours.
The size of the sand is measured and expressed by the term called EFFECTIVE SIZE. The
effective size i.e, „D10‟ may be defined as “The size of the sieve in mm through which ten percent
of the sample of sand by mass will pass”
The UNIFORMITY in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is measured and expressed
by the term called UNIFORMITY CO EFFICIENT. The UNIFORMITY CO-EFFICIENT i.e  D60 
 D10 
may be defined as “The ratio of the sieve size in mm through which 60% of the sample of sand will
pass, to the effective size of the sand”.
GRAVEL
The gravel which may be used below the sand should be hard, durable, free from impurities,
properly rounded and should have a density of about 1600kg/m3
TYPES OF FILTERS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

These are mainly 3 types of filters i.e
i. Slow sand filters
ii. Rapid sand filters
iii. Pressure filters
SOLW SAND FILTER

They were first deviced when the process of filtration was invented in England by
JNMES SIMPSON in 1829. They were widely used since then till the last decade of the 19 th
century when the rapid gravity filters were invented. Their use has since decreased and they are
becoming obsolete these days. However, they may still be prepared on smaller plants of warm
places where covers on filters are not required to protect the filters from freezing.
TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION OF A SLOW SAND FILTER

i) ENCLOSURE TANK
It consists of an open water tight rectangular tank made of masonry or concrete.
The bed slope is kept at about 1 : 10 towards the central drain. The depth of the tank
may vary from 2.5 to 5.5m. The plan area of the tank may vary from 100 to 2000 sq.m.
or more depending upon the qty of water to be treated.
ii) FILTER MEDIA

The filtering media consists of sand layers, about 1.2 to 1.4mts in depth
placed over a gravel support. The eff. Size (D10) of the sand varies from 0.15mm to
0.35mm and the uniformity co-efficient varies from 1.5-3. The media should be
composed of hard, durable, preferably rounded sand grain and should be free from clay,

loam and organic matter. The sand should not contain more than 2% of calcium and
magnesium calculated as carbonate.
iii) BASE MATERIAL

The base material is gravel and it supports the sand. The gravel bed will
have the following gradation.
Size of gravel Thickness of layer
Top most Layer 1mm to 2mm 8cm
Second Layer 3mm to 6mm 10cm
Third Layer 9mm to 18mm 12cm
Bottom Layer 27mm to 54mm 15cm
Normally, the total depth of gravel bed is 30cm. The gravel has high permeability and
hence the resistance to downward flow is high.
iv) UNDER DRAINAGE SYSTEM

It serves twofold purposes, one of supporting the filter Medford and the
other of providing an unobstructed passage way for the treated water to leave the
underside of the filter. The under drainage system consists of a central drain and lateral
drains. The laterals are open jointed pipes pieced 3 to 5m apart on the bottom floor and
sloping towards a main covered central drain. The laterals collect the filtered water and
discharge it into the main drain which leads the water to filtered water well.
PLAN OF UNDER DRAINAGE SYSTEM FOR SLOW SAND FILTER

EFFICIENCY AND PERFORMANCE
S.S.F are highly efficient in removing micro-organisms and other suspended solids
from raw waters the extent of bacteria removal is up to 98-99% or more these filter5s will also
remove the odors and tastes, particularly those caused by the presence of organic impurities such as
algae and plankton.
LIMITATION
The quality of raw water affects the performance of the S.S.F which are capable of
coping with turbidities of 10-200mg for a few days. 50mg/l is the maximum that should be
permitted fro longer period best purification occurs when the average turbidity is 10mg/l or less.
Hence the river water can be treated with S.S.F only when the raw water turbidity is brought down
in the range of 50mg/l to 10mg/l by means of flocculation sedimentation process.
CONCLUSIONS

S.S.F are best suited for smaller plants and for purifying waters with low colours,
turbidities and bacterial contents however, because of smaller rate of filtration. They require large
surface areas and large volumes of filtering materials. This makes them costly and uneconomical
especially for treating large scale supplies. They are therefore being replaced by rapid gravity
filters.
DESIGN OF S.S.F
The design of S.S.F is governed by many factors, the important among them being
i. The quality of raw water
ii. The nature and efficiency of pre-treatment, if provided.
iii. The characteristics of filter media
iv. The hydraulic loading of filter
v. The method and internal of cleaning
vi. The required quality of filtered effluent.
The design of a S.S.F UNIT include the following

i. The size and number of filter units
ii. The super – elevated water reservoir
iii. The filter bed
iv. The filter bottom and under- drainage system
v. Filter box containing (ii), (iii) and (iv)
vi. The filters control system.
DESIGN CRITERIA
101 -400 ltrs / m2/hr
Rate of filtration - 0.1 to 0.4m3 / m2 of surface /hr
Number of filter units is given by the formula,
Where „Q‟ in m3/hr N = no. of filter un which is never less than 2.
N  1 Q
4
RAPID SAND FILTERS

In order to reduce the requirement of space and to increase the rate of filtration a lot of
research was conducted which finally led to the development of rapid sand filters or sometimes
called MECHANICAL SAND FILTERS.
The RAPID FILTERS are of two types. i.e,

1. One which utilize comparatively larger sized sand particles which allow greater rate of
filtration as compared to that of slow sand filters. They are called rapid gravity filters
2. One which utilize the development of pressure over the filtering water and there by
increasing the rate of filtration. They are called PRESSURE FILTERS
Rapid sand gravity filters are used for large municipal supplies, whereas pressure filters,
being more handy, may be used for small installations, such as for industrial plants and
swimming pools.
Rapid gravity filters were developed in the last decade of the 19th century through the
efforts of G.W. fuller of U.S.A there filters employ coarser sand with effective size as
0.5mm or so on an average these filters may yield as high as 30times the yield given by
S.S.F waters from the coagulation sedimentation tanks are used in these filters and filtered
water is treated with disinfectors, so as to0 obtain potable supplies.
FILTER CONSTRUCTION AND ITS VARIOUS PARTS
i) ENCLOSURE TANK
It consists of and gone water tight rectangular tank, made of masonry or concrete. The
depth of the tank may van from 2.5to 3.5m. In order to achieve uniform distribution of water. The
area of the filter units should not be kept larger and B generally limited to about 10 to 80m2 for
each unit
The number of units at a filter plant may be roughly calculated by the empirical formula.
Q
N 
4.69
Where
N= No. of beds
Q = Discharge in m3/hr.
ii) FILTER MEDIA

The filtering media consists of sand layers, the minimum depth should not be less than 0.6m and
maxim. Depth is generally not more than 0.9m and placed over a gravel support. The eff. Size (D10)
of sand is in the range of 0.4mm to 0.5mm, average being 0.45 and the uniformity co-efficient is
either less or equal to 1.5
iii) BASE MATERIAL

The gravel surrounds the under drain system and supports the sand bed above it. Gravel
preferably should be rounded material and not crushed store. The depth and grading of gravel
should be selected in accordance with the type of filter bottom and strainer system used,. Usually
the dept of gravel bed is between 38 to 60cm.
Suggested ranges of sizes and corresponding depths of gravel layers for rapid sand filters.
RANGE IN RANGE IN DEPTH

SIZE(mm) (mm)

65 - 38 13 - 20
38 - 20 8 - 13
20 - 12 8 - 13
12 - 5 5 - 8
5 - 2 5 - 8
Total depth -39 - 62cm
iv) UNDER DRAIN SYSTEM

The under drain system for a rapid sand filter has the following functions to serve
i. It collects the filtrate and carries it to the clear water storage.
ii. It distributes the wash water uniformly to the filter bed during backwash operations
The most commonly used under drainage system comprises of Perforated pipe laterals and the
centrally located manifold and hence B known as lateral and manifold system.
PLAN OF A MANIFOLD AND LATERAL UNDER DRAINAGE SYSTEM FOR A RAPID

GRAVITY FILTER
WASH WATER TROUGHS

The duty wash water which comes out of the fitter after cleaning it is collected
in wash water troughs or gutters and carried to the main gutter. These gutters may be square, U –
shaped or semi – circular. They should be set at such an elevation that the overflow tip will be at or
somewhere above the top of the sand rise; otherwise, sand may be washed out of the filter. Their
tops are therefore, generally dept at least above the sand – bed by a distance of about half the depth
of sand and their bottoms adjusted usually 5cm above the top of sand surface.
BACK WASHING
When sand becomes dirty, by the excessive loss of head, the fitter must be cleaned and
washed for cleaning, the raw supplies as well as the frittered supplies have to be cut off, bed
drained down, and washes water sent back upward through the filter beds. This forced upward
movement of wash water and compressed air (if used) will agitate the sand petrels, and these
removing the suspended impurities from it.
This value (1) and (4) are closed and values (5) and (6) are opened. The wash water and
compressed air are thus forced upward from the under drainage through the gravel and sand beds.
Value (5) is closed after supplying the required amount of air. The dirty water resulting from
washings, overflows into the wash water trough and is removed by opening value (2) through the
let chamber into the wash water gutter. The process of washing the filters and removing the dirty
water B generally continued for a period of 3 to 5 minutes.
After the washing of the filter has been completed values (2) and (6) will be closed and values (1)
and (3) are opened. The restores the inlet supplies through the value(1) but the filtered water, in the
beginning, is not collected and washed for a few minutes through value (3) to the gutter. This is
necessary because the remains of the wash water must be removed from the voids of the filter and a

surface mat must be allowed to be formed on sand. Ultimately value (3) is dosed and value (4) is
opened to gee the filtered supplies again.
The entire process of back washing the filters and remaintaining filtered supplies, takes about
15minutess and the filter unit remains out of operation for this much of time. The amount of water
required for washing a rapid gravity filter varies from 2 to 5% of the total amount of water filtered.
The rapid gravity filters get clogged very frequently and have to be washed every 24 to 48 hours.
The rate of washing may vary between 15 – 90 cmrise/minute. A figure of 45cm/minute B quite
acceptable.
LOSS OF HEAD AND NECESSITY OF CLEANING

The water percolating through the filter moves downward under the force of gravity.
This motion is opposed by the resistance offered by the sand grains and impurities arrested in them.
The percolating water, therefore busy some of its head. The loss of head can be easily computed by
knowing the water level in the filter and the pressure of water in the outlet pipe. The difference
between the two heads will give the loss of head called filter held head loss through a clean
granular media filter is generally less than 0.9m with accumulation of impurities, head loss
gradually increases until the filter is back wasted usually at 2.4 – 3.0m.
NEGATIVE HEAD AND AIRBINDING

Filtration can be stopped because of a low rate of filtration, passage of excess turbidity
through the bed or air binding. As head loss increases across the bed the lower portion of the filter
is under a partial vacuum this negative head permits the release of dissolved gases which tend to
fill the pores of the filter, causing air binding and reducing the rate of filtration.
RATE OF FILTRAITON OR RATE OR LOADING FOR RAPID GRAVITY FILTERS

The rate of filtration that can be obtained from rapid gravity filters is very high, and is
generally of the order of 300 to 6000 litres/hv/m2 of filter area (i.e50 to 100 litres/min/m2). This
high rate of filtration leads to considerable saving of space as well as filter materials.
EFFICIENCY AND PERFORMANCE

Rapid gravity filters compared to slow sand filters are less efficient in removing bacteria
and turbidities. They can remove about 80 to 90% of bacterial load present in water. The remaining
bacteria are removing in dB in faction units. They can remove turbidies to about 35 – 40 mg/L. But
since the waters entering these filters are given pretreatments in coagulation sedimentation tanks,
they are comparatively less turbid. Such turbidities can be easily removed by these filters and
brought to permissible limits.
As for as colour removal B concerned they are highly efficient and can bring down the
colour to as low value as 10 to 20 on LOBACT SCALE.
USES OF RAPID GRAVITY FILTERS

They are the best and most economical and therefore invariably used for treating public supplies especially for
large towns and cities. The treated waters are however not so much safe as those obtained from slow sand filters and
need further treatment before they can be supplied to the generally public.
COMPARISON BETWEEN RAPID GRAVITY FILTER AND SLOW SAND

FILTER
Sl ITEM SOLW SAND FILTER RAPID GRAVITY FILTER
No
1. Pre treatment Effluents either from plain Coagulation, Flocculation and
requirements sedimentation tanks or raw waters sedimentation is a must.
without any treatment are generally
fed into them and coagulation is not
at all required.
2. Base material The gravel base supports the sand. It The gravel base supports the sand and
varies from 3 to 65mm in size and 30 also distributes the wash water
to 75cm in depth. uniformly on eth swface of sand. It
varies from 3 to 40mm in size and its
depth is slightly more i.e about 60 –
90cm.
3. Filter sand The effective size of filter sand The effective size of the filter sand
ranges b/n 0.2 to 0.4mm and ranges b/n 0.35 to 0.55 and uniformity
uniformity coefficient b/n 1.8 to 2.5 coefficient b/n 1.2 to 1.8. The sand is
or 3.0. the grain size distribution is laid in layers with smallest grain size
generally uniform throughout the at top and ageist grain size at the
depth of filter media except that top bottom.
10 to 15cm may be laid of finer
variety
4. Under drainage Laid in order to receive filtered water Laid in order to receive filtered water
system and also to pass water for back
washing ata very high rate.
5. Size of each unit Large such as (30m * 60m). The area Small such as (5m * 8m). the area
varying from 100 to 2000 m2 or more varying from 10 t 80m2 .
6. Rate of filtration Small such as 100 to 200 litres per Large such as 3000 to 6000 litres per
hour per m2 of fitter area hour per m2 of filter area.
7. Economy High initial cost of both land and Low initial cost, but higher cost of
materials but low cost of operation operation and maintenance overall it B
and maintenance cheaper and economical
8. Depreciation Relatively low Relatively high
cost
9. Efficiency Very efficient in removing bacteria Less efficient in removing bacteria (80
(98 to 99%) but less efficient in to 905) but very efficient in removing
removing colour. colour.
10. Flexibility Not flexible for meeting variations in Quite flexible for meeting reasonable
demand variations in demand.
11. Ease in Simple Complicated as under drainage B to be
construction properly designed.
12. Spilled super Not required Essential
&Blon if reqd.
13. Loss of lead Appoximately 10cm isthe initial loss Approximately 0.3m is the infial loss
and 0.8 to 1.2m B the final limit and 2.5 to 3.5m is the final limit when
when cleaning B required cleaning is required.
14. Period of Cleaned at intervals of 1m to 3month Cleaned frequently at intervals of 1-3
cleaning days.
PRESSURE SAND FILTER

Rapid pressure sand bed filters are typically operated with a feed pressure of 2 to 5 bar(a) (28 to 70
psi(a)). The pressure drop across a clean sand bed is usually very low. It builds as particulate solids
are captured on the bed. Particulate solids are not captured uniformly with depth, more are captured
higher up with bed with the concentration gradient decaying exponentially.[2]:302-303
This filter type will capture particles down to very small sizes, and does not have a true cut off size
below which particles will always pass. The shape of the filter particle size-efficiency curve is a U-
shape with high rates of particle capture for the smallest and largest particles with a dip in between
for mid-sized particles.[3]
The build-up of particulate solids causes an increase in the pressure lost across the bed for a given
flow rate. For a gravity fed bed when the pressure available is constant, the flow rate will fall.
When the pressure loss or flow is unacceptable the bed is back washed to remove the accumulated
particles. For a pressurised rapid sand bed filter this occurs when the pressure drop is around 0.5
bar. The back wash fluid is pumped backwards through the bed until it is fluidised and has
expanded by up to about 30% (the sand grains start to mix and as they rub together they drive off
the particulate solids). The smaller particulate solids are washed away with the back wash fluid and
captured usually in a settling tank. The fluid flow required to fluidise the bed is typically 3 to 10
m3/m2/hr but not run for long (a few minutes). Small amounts of sand can be lost in the back
washing process and the bed may need to be topped up periodically.
PROBLEMS ON SLOW SAND FILTER

1. Design six slow sand filter beds from the following date
Population to be served = 50000 persons
Per capita demand = 150 litres/head /day
Rate of filtration = 180 litrs/hr/ m2
Length of each bed = Twice the breath

Assume maximum demand as 1.8 times average daily demand Assume that one un out of six will be kept
asteroid by
Solution:
Avd. daily demand = population  per capita der
= 50000 150
 7.5 106 litres / day
Maxm.dailydemand  1.8  7.5  106
 13.5 106 litres / day
Rate of filtration per day = (180  24)litres / m 2 / day
 4.32 103 litres / m 2 / day
MDD
Total surface are a of filters reqd . 
Rate of filtration per day
13.5  106
=
4.32  103
 3125m 2
Now six units are to be used out of the one is to be kept as STAND – BY and hence on 5 units should provide
the necessary area of filter required.
The area of each filter unit.

1
  Total area required
5
3128

5
 625 m 2
Now if „L‟ is the length and „B‟ is the breadth of each unit then L = 2B
2
L.B = 525 m
2
2B.B = 625 m
B 2 = 312.5 m2
B = 17.67m
Say B = 18m
L = 2B = 2 * 18 = 36m
Hence use 6 filter units with one unit as stand – by, each unit of size 36m * 18m, arranged in series with
3units on either side.
2) PROBLEM ON RAPID SAND FILTER
Design the approximate dimensions of a set of rapid gravity filters for treating water required for a population of
50000 the rate of supply being 180 liters per day per person the filters are rated to work 5000 litres per hour per sq.m.
Assume whatever data are necessary and not given.
Solution
Assume that the given rate of supply is an average demand and also assuming that the maximum daily demand is
1.8times the average daily demand we have by ignoring wash water requirements.

The maxim waer demand per day = population  maxm daily rate of supply
= 50000  (1.8  180)
 16.2 106 litres / day
 16.2 MLD
water demand per hour (ignoring time lost in cleaning)
16.2 106

24
 675 103 litres / day
Rate of filtration = 5000litres / hr / m 2
water demand
area of filterbeds requied. 
Rate of filtration
675  103
=
5000
 135m 2
2
Since two units are required to be designed the area of each unit = 135/2 = 67.5 m
Assuming L = 1.5B we have
1.6 B 2  67.5
B  6.708m
say B  7m
L 1.5B  15  7  10.5m
Hence two units of size 1.05*7m are required one additional unit as stand by may also be provide for breakdown,
repairs or cleaning purposely.
3) Design rapid sand filter unit for 4 million liters per day of supply with all its principal component
Solution:
Water required per day = 4M.L.D
Assuming that 4% of filtered water is required for washing of the filter every day we have to total filtered water
required per day
= 1.04  4
= 4.16 MLD.
Now assuming that 0.5 hour is lost every day in washing the filter we have.
4.16
Filter water required per hour =  0.177 ML / hr.
23.5
2
Assuming the rate of filtration to be 5000 litres m , we have.
0.177 106
The area of filter required =
 35.4m2
5000
Now assuming the length of the filter bed (L) as 1.5 times the width of the filter bed(B), and two be the total area
provided.

2( L.B)  35.4
2.1.5.B  35.4
B 2  35.4 / 3
B  3.43m
L  1.5B  5.2m
Hence adopt 2 filter units, each of dimensions
5.2m  3.4m
DESIGN OF UNDER DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Let “MANIFOLD AD LATERAL SYSTEM” be provided below the filter bed for receiving the filtered water ad
to allow back washing for cleaning the filter. This consists of a control manifold pipe with laterals having perforations
at their bottom.
To design this system, let us assume that the area of the perforations is 0.2% of the total filter area.
Total area of perforation  0.2%  Filterare
0.2
   5.2  3.4  m 2
100
 0.035 m 2
Now assuming the area of each lateral
= 2 times the area of perforations in it (For 13mm dia per formations), we have
Total area of laterals = 2  Total area of perforations
= 2  0.035
2
= 0.070 m
Assuming the area of the manifold to be about twice the area of laterals we have.
= 2  0.070
2
= 0.14 m
Dia of manifold (d) is given by

d 2  0.14
4
0.14  4
d 

d  0.42m
Hence use a 45cm dia manifold pipe laid length wise along the centre of the filter bottom. Laterals running
perpendicular to the manifold (i.e width wise) emanating from the manifold may be laid at a spacing of say 15cm
(max30cm) The number of laterals B then given as.
5.2 100
  34.6
15
Say 35 Nos on either side of manifold
Hence use 70 laterals in all in each unit now length of each lateral
width of filter Dia of manifold
 
2 2
3.4 0.45
 
2 2
 1.47m

Now adopting 13mm dia perforations in the laterals we have

2
Total area of perforations =0.035 m

=350 m
2
 x. (1.3)2
4
Where
X = Total No. of Perforations in all to laterals
4
x  350 
 (1.3) 2
 263.68
Say x  264 Nos
No. of perforations in each lateral
264
=  3.77  4 Nos
70
Area of perforations per lateral
 
= 4  (1.3) 2 
4 
 5.30cm 2
Now area of each lateral

= 2  Area of perforations per lateral
= 2  5.30
= 10.60cm 2
4 10.60
Dia of each lateral = d =

 3.67cm
Say  3.7cm
Hence use 70 laterals each of 3.7cm dia 2 15cm c/c, each having 4 perforations of 13mm size, with 45cm dia manifold.
CHECK:
length of each lateral 1.475m 147.5
   39.0
Dia of lateral 3.7cm 3.7
(Which is less than 60, and hence O.K)
Now let us assume that the rate of washing of the filter be 45cm rise/minute or 0.45m/minute
0.45   5.2  3.4 
The wash water discharge = 60
0.133m3 / sec
Velocity of flow in the lateral for wash water

0.133

   3.7  2 
70      
 4  100  
0.133

0.07526
1.77 m / sec
Similarly, velocity of flow in the manifold
Discharge

Area
0.133


(0.452 )
4
0.133

0.159
 0.84m / sec  Which is less than 1.8 to 2.4m/sec maxm permissible  .Hence ok
4) Design a rapid sand gravity filter to treat 30MLD of water. Assuming 1 hour B required for back washing 25
allowances is given for wash water.
Solution:
Discharge = 30MLD
= 30 106 litr / day
 30 103 m3 / day
 1250 m3 / hr.
2
Assuming the rate of filtration between 3000-6000 lit/hr/ m
3 2
Assume 48 m / hr / m
Given that 2% allowance for wash water.
The amount of water required for back washing

= 2% of 1250
3
= 25 m /hr
Since we filter is working for 23houra (because 1 hr B required for back washing). Therefore the amount of water to be
treated in 1hr.

24
 (1250  25)1275  1330.43 m3 / hr
23
Amount of water to be treated
Total area of filter required =
Rate of filtration
1330.43

4.8
 277.17 m 2
Q
No.of filter beds required = N =
4.69
1330.43

4.69
 7.77
Say N  8 Nos
Provide one more unit as stand by
Total No. of units = 9 units
277.17
Area of each unit = 8
34.65m 2
The length t6o width ratio of a filter bed lies between 1.1 to 1.7
Assuming a convenient ratio of 1.4
L * B = 34.65
1.4B = 34.65
34.65
B2 
1.4
B  4.97 m
Say B  5m
L  1.4  5  7 m
Provide 8 units of filter size 7m * 5m
FILTRATION
The process of passing the water through beds of sand or other granular materials
is known as filtration. For removing bacteria, colour, taste, odours and producing clear

and sparkling water, filters are used by sand filtration 95 to 98% suspended impurities are
removed.
5.5.1 THEORY OF FILTRATION
The following are the mechanisms of filtration

1. Mechanical straining – Mechanical straining of suspended particles in the sand
pores.
2. Sedimentation – Absorption of colloidal and dissolved inorganic matter in the
surface of sand grains in a thin film

3. Electrolytic action – The electrolytic charges on the surface of the sand particles,
which opposite to that of charges of the impurities are responsible for binding
them to sand particles.
4. Biological Action – Biological action due to the development of a film of
microorganisms layer on the top of filter media, which absorb organic impurities.
Filtration is carries out in three types of filters
1. Slow sand filter
2. Rapid sand filter Gravity filters
3. Pressure filter
5.5.1 SLOW SAND FILTER
Slow sand filters are best suited for the filtration of water for small towns. The
sand used for the filtration is specified by the effective size and uniformity coefficient .
The effective size, D10, which is the sieve in millimeters that permits 10% sand by weight
to pass. The uniformity coefficient is calculated by the ratio of D60 and D10.
CONSTRUCTION
Slow sand filter is made up of a top layer of fine sand of effective size 0.2. to
0.3mm and uniformity coefficient 2 to 3 . The thickness of the layer may be 75 to 90 cm.
Below the fine sand layer, a layer of coarse sand of such size whose voids do not permit
the fine sand to pass through it. The thickness of this layer may be 30cm. The lowermost
layer is a graded gravel of size 2 to 45mm and thickness is about 20 to 30cm. The gravel
is laid in layers such that the smallest sizes are at the top. The gravel layer is the retains
for the coarse sand layer and is laid over the network of open jointed clay pipe or
concrete pipes called under drainage. Water collected by the under drainage is passed into
the out chamber

Fig 5.3 Slow Sand Filter

OPERATION
The water from sedimentation tanks enters the slow sand filter through a
submersible inlet as shown in fig 5.3 This water is uniformily spread over a sand bed
without causing any disturbances. The water passes through the filter media at an average
rate of 2.4 to 3.6 m3/m2/day. This rate of filtration is continued until the difference
between the water level on the filter and in the inlet chamber is slightly less than the
depth of water above the sand. The difference of water above the sand bed and in the
outlet chamber is called the loss of head.
During filtration as the filter media gets clogged due to the impurities, which stay
in the pores, the resistance to the passage of water and loss of head also increases. When
the loss of head reaches 60cm, filtration is stopped and about 2 to 3 cms from the top of
bed is scrapped and replaced with clean sand before putting back into service to the filter.
The scrapped sand is washed with the water, dried and stored for return to the filter at the
time of the next washing . The filter can run for 6 to 8 weeks before it becomes necessary
to replace the sand layer.
USES
The slow sand filters are effective in removal of 98 to 99% of bacteria of raw
water and completely all suspended impurities and turbidity is reduced to 1 N.T.U. Slow
sand filters also removes odours, tastes and colours from the water but not pathogenic
bacteria which requires disinfection to safeguard against water-borne diseases. The slow
sand filters requires large area for their construction and high initial cost for
establishment. The rate of filtration is also very slow.
MAINTENANCE
The algae growth on the overflow weir should be stopped. Rate of filtration
should be maintained constant and free from fluctuation. Filter head indicator should be
in good working condition. Trees around the plant should be controlled to avoid bird
droppings on the filter bed, No coagulant should be used before slow sand filtration since
the floc will clog the bed quickly.
5.5.2 RAPID SAND FILTER
Rapid sand filter are replacing the slow sand filters because of high rate of
filtration ranging from 100 to 150m3/m2/day and small area of filter required. The main
features of rapid sand filter are as follows.
The main features of rapid sand filter are as follows

Effective size of sand - 0.45 to 0.70mm

Uniformity coefficient of sand - 1.3 to 1.7

Depth of sand - 60 to 75cm

Filter gravel - 2 to 50mm size
(Increase size towards bottom)
Depth of gravel - 45cm
Depth of water over sand
during filtration - 1 to 2m
Overall depth of filter
including 0.5m free board - 2.6m
Area of single filter unit - 100m2 in two parts of each 50m2
Loss of head - Max 1.8 to 2.0m
Turbidity of filtered water - 1 NTU
OPERATION
The water from coagulation sedimentation tank enters the filter unit through inlet
pipe and uniformily distributed on the whole sand bed. Water after passing through the
sand bed is collected through the under drainage system in the filtered water well. The
outlet chamber in this filter is also equipped with filter rate controller. In the beginning
the loss of head is very small. But as the bed gets clogged, the loss of head increases and
the rate of filtration becomes very low. Therefore the filter bed requires its washing.
WASHING OF FILTER
Washing of filter done by the back flow of water through the sand bed as shown
in Fig 5.5.
First the value „A‟ is closed and the water is drained out from the filter leaving a
few centimeter depth of water on the top of sand bed. Keeping all values closed the
compressed air is passed through the separate pipe system for 2-3 minutes, which agitates
the sand bed and stirrer it well causing the loosening of dirt, clay etc. inside the sand bed.
Now value „C‟ and „B‟ are opened gradually, the wash water tank, rises through the
laterals, the strainers gravel and sand bed. Due to back flow of water the sand expands
and all the impurities are carried away with the wash water to the drains through the
channels, which are kept for this purpose.

Fig 5.5 Rapid Sand Filter
CONSTRUCTION
Rapid sand filter consists of the following five parts
1. Enclosure tank – A water tight tank is constructed either masony or concrete
2. Under drainage system – may be perforated pipe system or pipe and stracher system
3. Base material – gravel should free from clay, dust, silt and vegetable matter. Should
be durable, hard, round and strong and depth 40cm.
4. Filter media of sand – The depth of sand 60 to 75cm
5. Appartenances – Air compressors useful for washing of filter and wash water troughs
for collection of dirty water after washing of filter.
Washing process is continued till the sand bed appears clearly. The eashing of
filter is done generally after 24 hours and it takes 10 minutes and during back washing
the sand bed expands by about 50%.
Rapid sand filter bring down the turbidity of water to 1 N.T.U. This filter needs
constant and skilled supervision to maintain the filter gauge, expansion gauge and rate of
flow controller and periodical backwash.

Table 5.3 Comparision of slow sand filter and rapid sand filter
Sl.No. ITEM S.S.F R.S.F

1. Area Need very large area Needs small area
2. Raw Water Not more than 30 NTU Not more than 10NTU
Turbidity hence needs coagulation
3. Sand Media Effective size 0.2 to 0.3 Effective size 0.45 to 0.7
mm uniformity coefficient mm uniformity coefficient
2 to 3 single layer of 1.3 to 1.7 multiple graded
uniform size layers of sand.
4. Rate of 2.4 to 3.6m3/m2/day 100-150 m3/m2/day
Filtration
5. Loss of Head 0.6m to 0.7 m 1.8m to 2.0m
6. Supervision No skilled supervision is Skilled supervision is

required required
7. Cleaning of Scraping of 21/2cm thick Back wash with clean water
Filter layer washing and under pressure to detach the
replacing. Cleaning dirt on the sand.
interval that is replacement Backwashing daily or on
of sand at 1 to 2 months. alternate days.
8. Efficiency Bacterial removal, taste, There is no removal of
odour, colour and turbidity bacteria. Removal colour
removal. taste, odour and turbidity is
good.
5.5.4 PRESSURE FILTER
Pressure filter is type of rapid sand filter in a closed water tight cylinder through
which the water passes through the sand bed under pressure. All the operations of the
filter is similar to rapid gravity filter, expect that the coagulated water is directly applied
to the filter without mixing and flocculation. These filters are used for industrial plants
but these are not economical on large scale.
Pressure filters may be vertical pressure filter and horizontal pressure filter. The
Fig 5.5 shows vertical pressure filter. Backwash is carried by reversing the flow with
values. The rate of flow is 120 to 300m3/m2/day.

Figure 5.6 Vertical Pressure Filter
ADVANTAGES
1. It is a compact and automatic operation

2. These are ideal for small estates and small water works
3. These filters requires small area for installation
4. Small number of fittings are required in these filters
5. Fitered water comes out under pressure no further pumping is required.
6. No sedimentation and coagulant tanks are required with these units.
DISADVATAGES
1. Due to heavy cost on treatment , they cannot be used for treatment large quantity
of water at water works
2. Proper quality control and inspection is not possible because of closed tank
3. The efficiency of removal of bacteria & turbidity is poor.
4. Change of filter media, gravel and repair of drainage system is difficult.
Sneha M K, Civil Department, AIT, Benagaluru

Sneha M K, Civil Department, AIT, Benagaluru

Module 2 - Water Treatment

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Public Health Engneering-21CV43

Module 2 WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

METHODS OF TREATMENT OF WATER AND FLOW SHEETS

VARIOUS SEQUENCES OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT

The complete purification of water is achieved by the following:

4. SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION: Fine suspended ad colloidal impurities

LAYOUT OF TREATMENT PLANT

1. Clarified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank (overflow).

To remove coarse dispersed phase.

1. To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.

Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 3

WATER FALL AERATORS

PLAIN SEDIMENTATIONSEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION

Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 4

B. Viscosity and temperature of water

STOKE’S LAW for settling velocity of discrete particle is given by

Vs = Settling velocity, cm/sec.

LIMITATIONS OF STOKE’S LAW

Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 5

The design aspects of sedimentary tanks are

3. Inlet and outlet arrangements

C = Q x T where C → Capacity of tank

Q → Discharge or rate of flow

T → Detension period in hours

Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 6

From (1) & (2)

WhereL → Length of tank

B → Breadth of tank D → Depth of tank = Side water depth = S.W.D

C → Capacity of tank T → Detention period

U → Discharge or rate of flow V → Velocity of descend of a particle to the bottom

Inlet and outlet arrangements

Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 7

(4) shapes of tanks

Following are the three shapes of settling tank.

(i) Rectangular tanks with horizontal flow

(ii) Circular tanks with radial or spiral flow

(iii) Hopper bottom tanks with vertical flow

The following are the parameters for satisfactory performance.

1. Detention period ….. 3 to 4 hours for plain settling

Sl.No. Coagulant PH Range Dosage mg/l

Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 8

SETTLING ZONE – THEORY OF IDEAL SETTLING BASIN

Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 9

OTHER DESIGN CRITERIA

Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 10

Flowing through period

ii. SHAPE AND TYPE OF FEED

Using stokes law,

Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 11

Depth of the tank =3m

CALCULATION OF OVERFLOW RATE

Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 12

Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 13

The capacity of the tank required  3000m3

Length of the tank required = Velocity of flow * Detention period

Sneha M K, AIT, Bengaluru Page 14

Discharge passing through the tank

C) Qty of water passing per day =  2  106 lit