BIO 125 Plant Morphology and Physiology

Evolutionary history of plants

September 13, 2021 - Orientation

The structure and function of plants is an advanced

subject in plant biology. In particular, the framework of
the subject arises from the basic biological concept of
“form follows function”. Plants photosynthesize,
transport material, and maintain their bodies with their
vegetative organs. Plants reproduce with the production
of spores, seeds and other reproductive organs. The
structure of vascular plants is a product of evolution and
most adapted to the present conditions of life especially
in the terrestrial realm. The vegetative organs (roots, True dicots have tricolpate pollen.
stems and leaves) have particular forms and structure
that enable the individual plant to grow and develop.
Likewise, the reproductive organs have particular forms
and structures to make sure that the future generations
are viable and enable the continuity of the life of the
species.

A subject integrating the structure and function of plants

can provide the students with the understanding of plant
growth, development, and reproduction.

Banana: Leaf; they have leaf sheet without leaf sheet.

Overlapping leaf sheet that forms a very strong stem-like
structure. Its family Abaca, only found in the Philippines,
also has this same structure.

Filipinos call it Water Lily but it is actually called Water

Hyacinth, an invasive plant or not native in the
Philippines that clogs up waterways. It has a very
different morphology from Water Lily.
Importance of Plant morpho-anatomy
1. Familiarization with structure is central to any
experiment
2. Taxonomic data Lecture 1: Introduction to Plant Anatomy and
3. Correct identification of plants (ex. Research, Physiology
Economic)
4. Assessment of Purity of Herbal medicine and Video 1:
detecting food adulterants (Anatomy enables us https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MODfGBexoqI&t=1s
to determine the purity of some herbal
medicines; Ex. If it is 100% eucalyptus or if it is BIO 125 (Plant Morphology and Physiology) is an
made with a whole new plant) introductory course about the relationship between the
5. Forensic Science structure and function of a plant. Plant Morphology
6. Conservation pertains to the structure of a plant. Being familiar with
Plant Morphology and Physiology is critical in conducting
an experiment.

There are various examples of the importance in

studying Plant Morphology and Physiology. Plant
Morphology can give us information about the As the number of plant cells increases, the number of
taxonomic data of a plant. It can help us identify the plant cell wall faces also increases. Some of the plant
plant species using their structure and morphology in the cell walls may lose contact with their adjacent cell that
field. Plant Morphology can be used in assessing the leads to the formation of intercellular spaces. Large air
purity of the herbal medicines and in detecting food spaces are called ducts or lacuna.
adulterants. Knowledge about Plant Morphology can be
also used in the field of forensic science. For example, it The intercellular spaces can be developed through: (a)
can provide evidence in an investigation of a crime schizogenous development; (b) lysigenous
scene. Plant Morphology and Physiology helps the development; and (c) rhexigenous development.
improvement of plants for food security (e.g., agriculture) Schizogenous development- air spaces are formed
and aesthetics (e.g., horticulture). when cell splits (e.g., resin ducts in pine tree).
Lysigenous development- air spaces are formed through
What is Bio 125? cell breakdown (e.g., oil glands found in citrus plants).
Rhexigenous development- air spaces are formed
Bio 125 is a combination of plant anatomy (what are through tearing as a result of tissues being pulled apart
plants made up of) and physiology (performance and (e.g., protoxylem lacuna of corn vascular bundle).
function) - Relationship between structure and function.
The distinguishing features of plant cells as compared to
Ex. animal cells are the following: (1) cell wall; (2) vacuoles;
Why are leaves flat and not as round as most roots and (3) plastids; and (4) glyoxysomes. Plant cells have cell
stems? walls. Compared to the vacuoles found in animal cells,
Why are roots not photosynthetic? the vacuoles or plant cells occupy large spaces. Unlike
Why are plants capable of harnessing energy directly animal cells, plant cells have organelles that contain
from the sun to produce sugar? pigments called plastids. Plant cells have
glyoxysomes, an example of peroxisomes. Peroxisomes
Importance of Plant anatomy and Physiology are also found in animal cells but glyoxysomes are
1. Familiarization with structure is central to any unique to plant cells.
experiment
2. Taxonomic data Plant cells
3. Correct identification of Plants (ex. Research - Primarily consists of protoplasts (everything
and economic) inside the cell wall) and its cell wall (animals
4. Assessment of purity of herbal medicine and don’t have)
detecting food adulterants - Young cells: Form a single unit
5. Forensic science - Protoplast: Cytoplasm and vacuole; cell
6. Improvements of plants for food security and membrane
aesthetics (color patterns in leaves)
Plant cells are not isolated units, there are regions in the
Lesson 2: Plant Cell cell wall that have openings like plasmodesmata which
enables communication with each other.
Video 1:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dO6SjxR0NpU&t=1s

In studying Plant Morphology and Physiology, it is

important to have knowledge about the basic unit of
plant, the plant cell. The plant cell primarily consists of
protoplast and cell wall. The outer layer of the plant cell
is called the cell wall. Protoplast is everything inside
the cell wall. This includes plasma membrane that Star shaped (sclereid), Tubular, Vague shape,
surrounds the cytoplasm and different organelles that Rectangular shape)
are embedded in it. The plant cells have different
shapes, sizes, and vary in terms of presence and Plant cells can be long or small. Not all are alive but
absence of protoplast. It has a 14-faced polyhedron and are still functional (Ex. Cells in xylem (vessel elements
can be tetra-, penta-, or hexagonal. and tracheids) - empty cells meaning they don’t have
protoplast only cell walls. It is where the water passes
through. Supporting cells like sclereids are also dead Plant Cell Vs. Animal Cell
cells.
Plant Cell has:
They're protoplast collapses and cell walls stay. Using 1. Cell wall
dead cells, which don't have organelles filling them up, 2. Vacuoles (Big and occupies the large portion of
allows more capacity for transporting water. plant cells)
3. Plastids (organelles that have pigments)
Intercellular space 4. Glyoxysomes (specific example of peroxisomes)
- 14-faced polyhedron
- Cell wall faces: tetra, penta, hexagonal
- Non-contact between some sides of the cell wall Video 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h69o5-ffFvI
faces due to increase in number as cell volume
increases. The functions of the cell wall are the following:
- As the plant cells divide, the number of cell wall ● Cell wall is a rigid structure that limits the size of
faces also increases. Some of the faces lose the protoplast.
contact with their adjacent face/cell wall leading ● Cell wall prevents rupture of the plasma
to the formation of a small space → membrane when the cell is turgid. This is
INTERCELLULAR SPACE different from animal cells that can burst when
they become turgid.
Air spaces, ducts, lacuna ● Cell wall act as physical barrier against
- Large intercellular spaces pathogenic organism (e.g., virus)
- Can develop through ● Cell wall determines the size and shape of the
- Schizogenous - cells split cell, texture of the tissue, and the final form of
- Lysigenous - cell breakdown the plant organ.
- Rhexigenous - tearing, elongation, ● Cell wall contains a variety of enzymes and
tissues pulled apart plays an important role in absorption, transport,
and secretion of substances in plants. (e.g.,
cell-to-cell signaling influencing cellular
differentiation, detection of pathogens to elicit
defense).

Cell wall is made up of cellulose, a repeating unit of

polysaccharide and consists of glucose units that are
attached to each other in a linear form. Cellulose can be
in the form of crystalline called micelle, or non-crystalline
form. Cellulose that forms a bundle and wrapped
around each other is called microfibril. A group or
bundle of microfibril that wind up together is called
macrofibril. The arrangement of microfibril forming
macrofibril provides tensile strength to the cell wall that
is close to the strength of steel. In plant cells, cellulose
comprise 20 to 60% of its dry weight.

Cellulose → microfibril → macro fibril

S - A (resin duct in gymnosperms), L -B ( white spots are The other components of the cell wall are non-cellulosic
oil glands especially in citrus plants , R - C (lacuna, matrix-hemicellulose, pectin, and glycoproteins.
Vascular bundle of corn, stem is elongating and some I. Hemicellulose is a general term for
tissues cannot resist the action which results in tearing non-crystalline glycans (polysaccharides) that
and creating space (protoxylem lacuna)) are tightly bound in the cell wall. Hemicellulose
differs across the plant group. Thus, it plays an
important role in the taxonomic information of
plants. One example of hemicellulose is
xyloglucans. This can be found in eudicots and
 half of the monocots. Xyloglucans are tightly and bending stiffness to the woody stem. It also provides
bound with cellulose microfibrils. It limits the resistance to microbial attack.
extensibility of the cell wall by tethering adjacent
microfibrils. It also regulates cell enlargement. In relation to lignin providing strength, lignin strengthens
the xylem to endure the negative pressure generated
II. Pectins are non-cellulosic. It is found in the from transpiration without collapsing the tissue. As the
primary wall of eudicots and absent in the water evaporates from the leaves, it pulls up other water
secondary wall. Pectins are hydrophilic (soluble molecules. This process cascades down to the other
in water) and form gel. Its gel property parts of the plants. When water moves up, it creates
modulates the ability of cells to stretch - tension to the conducting tissue like xylem. The rigidity
plasticity provided by the lignin prevents the collapsing of the cell
wall during the process of transpiration.
Meristem produces new cells in the plant’s body.
Meristems are low in calcium ions when they are Cutin and suberin are both hydrophobic and insoluble
dividing. As they experience cell elongation and lipids. Cutin is a component of cuticle. When cutin mixes
differentiation, the calcium ion increases abruptly. The with wax it forms a layer of cuticle. It is the waxy layer
calcium ions bind to the free ends of pectin forming a that forms on the surface of the leaves. Since cutin is
cross link. It prevents the pectin from moving freely and insoluble to water and mostly deposited in the epidermis,
decreases the level of plasticity of the cell wall. When it lessens the water loss in the plant.
the calcium ion of the plant cell increases, the plasticity
property of the cell wall also decreases. This is due to When materials pass through the cells, it can take two
the formation of cross links between the calcium ion and pathways: the apoplastic pathway or the symplastic
pectin. Pectins are held together by the calcium ions pathway. Apoplastic pathway is when the material
preventing them from being stretched. This results in passes through the cell wall, while the symplastic
elongation to stop. pathway is when the material passes through the
cytoplast. Remember that the cell wall is more
There are many proteins present in the cell wall and one permeable than the plasma membrane.
of them is the glycoprotein. Glycoproteins are structural
proteins that are involved in strengthening of the cell Endodermis surrounds the vascular tissue and is located
wall. Another example of protein that is found in the cell deep inside the root. The root is an organ of the plant
wall are enzymes such as peroxidase, chitinase, that absorbs water. When the water is absorbed through
cellulase, and pectinase. Enzymes are named after its root hair, it passes through different layers of the plant
substrate. For example, cellulase acts on cellulose while and eventually in the vascular tissue so that it can be
pectinase acts in pectin. Cellulase and pectin are transported to the other part of the plant above ground.
involved in cell wall degradation. It can happen during Before the water gets into an area that contains all the
leaf abscission or the process where the leaves conducting tissue, it needs to pass through the
detached from the stem of the plant. endodermis that has suberin in its cell wall. Since
suberin is hydrophobic, the apoplastic pathway is
Callose is a polysaccharide, and it is deposited between blocked. The water cannot pass through the cell wall
plasma membrane and cell wall. Callose is deposited since there is a hydrophobic material. When the water
rapidly in response to mechanical wounding and passes through the cell wall, it gets diverted from
stress. It plugs the wound and prevents the invasion apoplastic pathway to a symplastic pathway. All water
of the pathogen or any foreign object. that gets into vascular tissue will pass the endodermis
tissue through the symplastic pathway due to the
Lignins are phenolic polymers. It is deposited in the presence of suberin. And because of this process, every
cell wall of supporting and conducting tissues. Lignins water that will come to the vascular tissue needs to pass
are found in the cell that has a secondary wall. An through the semi-permeable plasma membrane where
example of conducting tissue is wood, which is a all unwanted materials will be sieved out.
secondary xylem. Lignin is hydrophobic. It is important
for conducting tissue, such in xylem, to have lignified cell Cell Wall:
walls. The water proofing property of lignin prevents 1. Limits the size of the protoplast
lateral diffusion in xylem and facilitates longitudinal 2. Prevents the rupture of plasma membrane when
transport of water. Lignin provides compressive strength cell is turgid
 3. Physical barrier against most potentially
pathogenic organisms (ex. virus)
4. Determines the size and shape of the cell,
texture of the tissue final form of plant organ
5. Contains a variety of enzymes and play
important roles in absorption, transport and
secretion of substances in plants (ex. Cell to cell
signalling influencing cellular differentiation (from
a simple cell to a differentiated cell that performs
a specific function), detection of pathogen to
elicit defense)

Components of Cell wall:

Hemicellulose: general term for non-crystalline glycans

Plants have a primary wall at birth, as they grow, they
that are tightly bound in the cell wall, vary in different cell
need a secondary wall which is developed under lateral
types and among taxa (has taxonomic value)
development. Cells undergo autolysis which leaves
empty lumen.
1. Xyloglucans - eudicots and half of the
monocots
Cellulose (C6H10O5)n: repeating unit of a
a. Tightly bound with cellulose microfibrils
polysaccharide, glucose units attached to each other in
b. Limits the extensibility of the cell wall by
linear form. Lines of glucose attract each other forming
tethering adjacent microfibrils
an H bond creating a crystalline structure called
c. Regulates cell enlargement
MICELLE.

1. Arrangement provides tensile strength close to

that of steel
2. Cellulose comprises 20-60% of dry weight.

Pectins: non-cellulosic; characteristics of primary wall of

eudicots; lacking from secondary walls. Hydrophilic and
forms gels. Imparts plastic properties to the wall and
modulates ability to stretch.

Cellulose forms microfibrils then wind up to form

macrofibril.

Other components of the Cell Wall:

- Non-cellulosic matrix-hemicellulose, pectins,
glycoproteins
 b. Cellulase and pectinase - cell wall
degradation (leaf abscission and
formation of perforation plate in
developing vessel element)

Callose
1. Polysaccharide
2. Deposited between the plasma membrane and
existing cell wall
3. Deposited rapidly in response to mechanical
wounding and stress (pathogen, environment)

Effect of Ca2+ on pectin (its elastic property is essential

when cell is dividing)
- Meristems (groups of cells that are highly
dividing) - low in Ca2+ Ex. In the end of the sieve tube are perforations
- During elongation and differentiation - high in
Ca2+ Lignin
- Ca2+ form cross-links with pectins → prevents it 1. Phenolic polymers
from moving freely, decreasing the level of 2. Deposited in cell walls of supporting and
elasticity of the cell wall. When calcium ions conducting tissues (Sclerenchyma cells)
increase, the elasticity of the cell wall decreases 3. Common in secondary walls of cells found in
due to the formed cross links. → Elongation wood; if a cell has a secondary wall, there must
stops be lignin in it → stains red
4. Hydrophobic (waterproof -prevent lateral
diffusion in xylem and facilitate longitudinal
transport of water)
5. Provides compressive strength and bending
stiffness to the woody stem
6. Resistant to microbial attack
7. Strengthens the xylem to endure the negative
pressure generated from transpiration without
collapse of the tissue.

Proteins
1. Glycoproteins - structural proteins (believed to
strengthen cell walls)
a. Ex. Proline-rich proteins, glycine-rich
proteins, extensions
2. Enzymes (named after its substrate; ex.
Cellulase → acts on cellulose)
a. Peroxidase - defense
Water molecules are attracted to each other.
Transpiration is when water leaves out of the plants
through stomata. Creates tension in the conducting Apoplastic - passes through the cell wall; more
tissues like xylem which is why lignin is important to permeable than the cell membrane (not screened
prevent xylem from collapsing. enough)
Symplast - passed through the protoplast
Cutin
1. Insoluble lipid Endodermis is located deep inside a root tissue,
2. Forms a matrix with wax to form cuticle surrounding the vascular bundles. Root absorbs water
3. Prevents water loss from aerial parts from the root hair and gets to the vascular tissue.
4. Mostly deposited on the epidermis However, it has an endodermis which has suberin in its
cell wall. Apoplastic pathways are blocked due to the
hydrophobic material. It gets diverted towards the inside
of the cell or symplast pathway. So unwanted materials
in the water are sieved out.

Video 3:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hGC3ND2YLlY

Cell wall has several layers. It could have middle

lamella, primary wall, and secondary wall.

The middle lamella is the outermost layer of the cell

wall. It is sandwiched between primary walls of adjacent
cells. The middle lamella causes the plant cells to stick
together. The cementing substance is made up of
calcium and magnesium pectate.
Suberin
1. Insoluble lipid
The primary wall is the first wall of the cell after it was
2. Forms matrix in which wax (lipid compounds)
formed. Primary wall is relatively thin compared to the
are embedded
secondary wall. It is found in young and actively dividing
3. Found in the secondary protective tissue (ex.
cells (e.g., meristem). Primary walls are also found in
Cork cells), endodermal and ectodermal cells of
simple and mature cells (e.g., parenchyma).
roots, bundle sheath surrounding the leaf veins
of Poaceae etc.
Secondary wall is laid on the inner layer of the primary
4. Restricts apoplastic movement of water and
wall closest to the plasma membrane. When a
solutes
secondary wall forms, cell growth ends and sometimes
5. Forms a barrier to microbial penetration
the protoplast dies leaving an empty space called the
lumen (e.g., xylem). Aside from strengthening,
secondary walls function for water conduction.
Another component of the secondary wall is the ● Relatively thin (>1 micrometer)
formation of lignin. It helps in the rigidity of the ● Found in young, growing cells
secondary wall and provides waterproofing property. ● Simple and mature cells (meristems and simple
This property of lignin is important especially in the tissues like parenchyma)
xylem cells because it prevents lateral movement of ● Made up of cellulose, pectic compounds,
water when it goes through the conducting cells. Lignin hemicellulose, non cellulose polysaccharides
ensures the water to move vertically and not to diffuse it ● FOUND USUALLY WHERE THERE IS A
on the conducting tissue. GROWING REGION (EX. APICAL
MERISTEMS)
Secondary walls have openings or cavities that are
called pits. Pit membrane refers to the part of the Secondary Wall (for strengthening purposes, laid inside
primary wall and the middle lamella. Similar to the the primary wall) closest to the plasma membrane
secondary wall, there are areas in the primary wall that ● Deposited when cell growth has ended; when it
have thin areas called primary pits. If the primary pits is formed, cell growth ends and protoplast dies
formed a cluster, it is called the primary pit cluster. (vessel elements and tracheids)
Primary pit fields are often penetrated by ● Some protoplasts die leaving a lumen (cavity
plasmodesmata, enabling relatively easy transfer of where water goes through, secondary wall is
materials between cells. Plasmodesmata are strands of found in cells that function for water transport or
cytoplasm that traverse the cell wall of adjacent plants conduction)
allowing transport of materials and cell-to-cell ● Found in cells that have strengthening and water
communications. conduction functions
● Contains lignin (makes it rigid and functions for
At late anaphase, cytokinesis or the splitting of the water proofing; prevents lateral movement of
cytoplasm is initiated by the formation of phragmoplast. water)
The phragmoplast serves as scaffolding for the ● Contains more cellulose than primary wall and
assembly of the cell plants which is the partition of two pectic substances are lacking (therefore rigid)
daughter cells. Transporters of the ingredients for the
cell wall synthesis meet and fused at the equatorial plate
forming the cell plate. The microtubules disappear and
reform at the outer side of the cell plate to command
expansion outwardly. Cell wall expansion continues
outwardly until it reaches the cell wall of the mother cell,
completing the separation between the two daughter
cells. As the cell wall formation is completed, some parts
of the endoplasmic reticulum are entrapped within the
Pits
developing wall that leads to the formation of
- Cavities in the secondary cell walls/
plasmodesmata.
discontinuities in the secondary wall
- Secondary wall deposition, pits are
Cell wall layers
formed over the primary pit fields
1. Middle lamella intercellular substance
- Usually occurs as pit-pairs
2. Primary wall
- Pit membrane = middle lamella + two
3. Secondary wall
primary walls between 2 pit cavities

Middle Lamella - the outermost layer of the cell wall

- Cementing substance between plant cells
- Sandwiched between two adjacent cells
- Between 2 primary wall
- Causes plants cells to stick together since it
contains calcium and magnesium pectate

Maceration is the process by which organized tissue is

transformed into a suspension of intact cells.
Longitudinal section
Primary Wall - first true wall after it was formed
Pit Cavity - space between
Pit membrane - part where primary wall and middle
lamella is located

Primary Pits
1. Thin areas in the primary walls
2. Primary pit fields- clusters of primary pits
3. Plasmodesmata aggregated in the primary pit
fields commonly; remains even when a
secondary wall develops ; enables easy transfer
of materials between cells, strands of cytoplasm
that traverse the cell wall of adjacent cells
allowing cell to cell communication and
As the cell wall formation is completed, some parts of
transport.
the endoplasmic reticulum are entrapped within the
developing wall, which results in the formation of the
plasmodesmata.

Video 4: Vacuole

The vacuole is a single-membrane organelle. Inside

the vacuole is the cell sap which contains inorganic ions,
sugars, organic acids, and amino acids. The vacuoles in
a cell are relatively large and it takes up the 90% of the
volume of a mature cell. Thus, increase in cell size
Origin of cell wall involves vacuole enlargement. As a result, cytoplasm
At late anaphase, cytokinesis is initiated. consists of a thin peripheral layer pressed against the
1. Cytokinesis initiated by phragmoplast (system of cell wall. This strategy saves a lot of energy because the
microtubules - red bars) appear between 2 sets cell would have less cytoplasm which is expensive to
of daughter chromosomes (pink oval) - maintain.
phragmoplast serve as a scaffolding for the
assembly of the cell plate (orange bar) which is The vacuole regulates the osmotic phenomenon. Plant
the initial partition between 2 daughter cells. cells become turgid when placed in a hypotonic solution,
Transporters for the ingredient of the cell where the water concentration is higher outside the cell
wall synthesis meet and used at the equatorial than inside. In a hypotonic solution, the net movement of
plane forming the cell plate the water is towards the inside of the cell causing the cell
to swell or become turgid.
2. Cell plate is formed
Microtubules then disappear and Vacuole functions as a storage.
re-form at the outer side of the cell plate to ● It is primarily storage of proteins in the seed.
commence cell plate expansion. ● The vacuole serves as a temporary storage of
3. Cell plate expands centrifugally sugar during the day.
4. Cell plate growth reaches the walls of the ● It also serves as carbon storage of malic acid in
dividing cells CAM plants. CAM plants are adapted to live in
arid or dry conditions. They close their stomata
during the day to conserve water. This process
prevents the CAM plants from getting carbon
dioxides during the day. At night, CAM plants
open their stomata allowing the carbon dioxide
to enter the leaves and store the vacuole as the
form of malic acid. In the next day, when the light
reaction of photosynthesis is active, the stored
 carbon dioxide as malic acid is released during movement is towards the inside of the cell,
the day to be used in the photosynthesis. causing it to swell or become turgid.
● Vacuole is also involved in the regulation of the
calcium levels of the cell. When there is a high
concentration of calcium in a cell, calcium binds
to oxalate forming calcium oxalate crystals
inside the vacuoles. These crystals protect the
plant against herbivory because it can irritate the
gut of herbivore when ingested, such as in some
plant species under the family of Araceae.
● Vacuole is also involved in the lytic
compartment. It has a role in breaking down Function of Vacuole
macromolecules, engulfing senescent A. Storage
organelles, and in program cell death through a. Primary storage of proteins in seeds
autolysis. b. Temporary storage of sugars during day
● Vacuole sequesters any toxic elements in the c. Malic acid (stored carbon) in CAM
cell. It detoxifies cytoplasm and serves as plants: plants that are adapted in living
storage of defensive chemicals. Non-toxic dry arid environments that close
chemicals (e.g mustard oil, cyanide) can stomata during the day to conserve
produce toxic derivatives through the process of water. However, this process prevents
hydrolysis when the vacuoles or the tissue are them from getting carbon dioxide during
damaged or erupted. the day, but at night they open their
● Vacuoles also serve as the pigment deposition. stomata to get carbon dioxide which
An example of pigment deposited in vacuole is cannot be utilized without light. Light
Anthocyanin is responsible for the colors blue, reactions will still occur since the CO2 is
violet, dark red, and scarlet colors in the various stored in the form of malic acid.
parts of the plant (e.g., leaves, fruits, petals) It is
water soluble pigment and functions in attracting
pollinators and seed dispersers. Anthocyanin
also offers photo-oxidative damage protection to
the leaves as they undergo senescence during
fall. During this process, the anthocyanin offers
protection to plants from too much light. It also
protects the plant against photoinhibition or the
decline in photosynthesis efficiency resulting
from excess excitation by light which is common
in understory plants (e.g., begonia).

Vacuoles: single-membraned organelle in the plant

- Tonoplast or vacuolar membrane
- Inside the vacuole is the Cell sap which contains
inorganic ions (Ca2+, Cl-, K+, NO3-), sugars,
organic acids and amino acids B. Regulation of calcium levels and removal of
- Increase in cell size involves vacuole oxalate
enlargement. As a result, the cytoplasm contains - Calcium binds to oxalate forming crystals inside
a thin peripheral layer against the cell wall. This the vacuole.
saves a lot of energy, because the cell would - Crystals are mostly calcium oxalate; uncommon
have less cytoplasm which is expensive to are calcium carbonate; these are protection
maintain. against herbivores. When ingested, crystals
- Takes up 90% of the volume of plants irritate the gut of herbivores. Found in gabi
- It regulates osmotic phenomena leading to family
tissue turgidity. It becomes turgid when placed in C. Lytic compartments - breakdown of
a hypotonic solution (water concentration is macromolecules, engulfing senescence
higher outside than inside the cell) the net
 programmed cell death through autolysis light intensity that can be damaging, chloroplasts are
(tracheids) positioned perpendicular to the leaf surface.
D. Detoxification of the cytoplasm and storage of Chlorophyll and carotenoids are embedded in
defensive (toxic and non-toxic) chemicals (ex. thylakoid membranes. During photosynthesis,
Nicotine, phenols, cyanide, mustard oils) carotenoids act as antioxidants, preventing oxidative
damage to chlorophyll.
Cyanide and mustard oils are non-toxic which
produce toxic derivatives through the process of Another type of plastids is the chromoplast.
hydrolysis when the tissues are damaged. It has only carotenoid pigments that are
responsible for yellow, orange, and red colors of the
E. Pigment deposition fruits. The presumed function of this pigment is to serve
as attractant to insects and other animals, pollinators,
Anthocyanin - blue, violet, dark red, scarlet seed dispersers. Chromoplasts may develop existing
colors green chloroplasts (e.g., ripening of fruit) and back. In
● Water solubles the chromoplasts, chlorophyll and thylakoid are absent
● Attracts pollinators and seed dispersers and replaced by masses of carotenoid.
● Offer photo-oxidative damage protection
to the leaves as they senescence during Leucoplast is non-pigmented plastids.
fall (nutrient retrieval); losing chlorophyll It is also the least differentiated plastid that lacks
will initiate anthocyanin to protect the an elaborate system of inner membranes. Leucoplasts
leaves from too much light. are called in different names depending on the materials
● Protects against photoinhibition stored in them. It is called amyloplast if there is storage
(common in understory plants; adapted starch, proteinoplast when proteins are stored, and
to shade conditions) elaioplast if fats.
○ Refers to a decline in
photosynthesis efficiency Proplastids are precursors of all plastids within the adult
resulting from excess excitation plant.
by light It is small, colorless, and found in differentiated
● Found in flower petals and fruits regions of the plant body. Proplastids can be developed
into different types of plastids. When proplastids are
Video 5 supposed to develop in chloroplast but when the light is
absent, it will develop as etioplast. Etioplast contains
Plastids are double membrane organelle and contain an prolamellar bodies that are precursors of thylakoids.
organized system of membranes called the thylakoids. When the etioplast is exposed to light, the prolamellar
Thylakoids are the disc-shape arranged in a stack called bodies become thylakoids leading to the formation of
granum. Plastids are formerly photosynthetic bacterium chloroplast. Some plastids can change from one type to
that was engulfed by a eukaryotic cell. The another. For example, chromoplasts can be converted to
photosynthetic bacteria ended up living in symbiosis with chloroplast, vice versa, depending on the presence of
eukaryotic cells. This relationship is known as chlorophyll.
symbiosis. Like the cyanobacteria, plastids have
circular DNA and multiplies through binary fission. Peroxisomes are single membrane bound organelle. It
Plastids are also semi-autonomous. lacks DNA, ribosomes, and any internal membrane. It
contains catalase and oxidase. Catalase splits hydrogen
Some examples of plastid are the chloroplast. peroxide into water and oxygen. Oxidase on the other
Chloroplasts are the site of the photosynthesis hand, catalyzed reduction of oxygen to water or
because of the presence of the chlorophyll. It also hydrogen peroxide.
contains carotenoid pigment (i.e., yellow, or orange).
Chloroplasts can serve as a temporary storage The two types of peroxisomes in the plant are leaf-type
of starch. It is disc-shaped. There are also 3-300 peroxisomes and glyoxysomes. These are
chloroplasts in mesophyll cells. Chloroplasts orient interconvertible depending on the presence of fats and
themselves depending on the light intensity. When there appearance of chloroplasts.
is low to medium light intensity, chloroplasts arrange Leaf-type peroxisome is involved in glycolic
themselves parallel with the leaf surface. If there is high acid metabolism of leaves which is associated with
photorespiration.
 Glyoxysomes is a peroxisome unique to plants. ● Chlorophyll and carotenoids are embedded in
It is involved in the glyoxylate cycle which converts fat to the thylakoid membranes; arranged in
carbohydrate in endosperm or cotyledons of germinating PHOTOSYSTEMS
seed. ● Carotenoids act as an antioxidants

Plastids and Peroxisomes

Plastids: double-membrane, contains an organized

system of membranes called thylakoids (single disc
shaped structure arranged in a stack called granum).
Formerly photosynthetic bacterium trapped or engulfed
by a eukaryotic cell.
● Stroma, thylakoids, granum, stroma, thylakoid Carotenoids act as antioxidants and prevent
● Semi-autonomous (endosymbiosis) - can photooxidative damage to the chlorophyll.
synthesize some of its own proteins.
● Like cyanobacteria, it is circular and reproduces Chromoplast
by binary fission. ● Contain ONLY carotenoid pigments (yellow,
orange, red)
● May develop from previously existing green
chloroplasts ( ex. Ripening of fruits) and back
● Chlorophyll and thylakoids disappear and
masses of carotenoids accumulate
● Presumed to function as attractants to insects
and other animals, pollinators and seed
dispersers.

Leucoplast
● Non-pigmented plastids
● Least differentiated plastid (lack elaborate
system of inner membranes)
● Storage starch (amyloplast), proteins
(proteinoplast), fats (elaioplasts)

Proplastids
● Precursor of all plastids within an adult plant
● Small, colorless plastids in undifferentiated
Chloroplasts: (type of plastid)
regions of the plant body (shoot and root apical
● Sites of photosynthesis because of the presence
meristem)
of chlorophyll
● Etioplasts - contain prolamellar bodies (when it
● Temporary storage of starch (assimilation
is supposed to develop in a chloroplast but light
starch)
is absent); precursor of thylakoids. When they
● Contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments
are exposed to light → thylakoids →
(yellow and orange)
chloroplasts
● Disk-shaped; 3-300 chloroplasts in mesophyll
● Various kinds of plastids can change from one
cell
type to another
● Broad surfaces parallel to the cell wall surface
bordering air spaces
○ Low-medium light intensity-parallel with
leaf surface
○ Damaging high light
intensity-perpendicular to the leaf
surface
● Cyclosis - chloroplasts transported to the cell, a
way of orienting themselves based on light
intensity.
 ● Some plasmids can develop into chloroplasts to All options are correct
chromoplasts or vice versa.
Answer: Chloroplast

Peroxisomes 4. Which pigments can be found in the chloroplast?

● Single-membrane bound organelle
● Lacks DNA and ribosomes Chlorophyll, carotenoids, and anthocyanin
● No internal membranes Chlorophyll
● Contains catalase (splits H2O2 to water and Carotenoids
oxygen) and oxidase (catalyse reduction of Chlorophyll and carotenoids
oxygen to water or hydrogen peroxide)
● These are not unique to plants Answer: Chlorophyll
● “Photorespiration”
5. A pit membrane consists of which of the
Peroxisome types following?
● Interconvertible (they change into 1 form) -
depending on the presence of fats and A pair of primary and secondary walls and a
appearance of chloroplasts middle lamella
○ Leaf-type peroxisomes - involves in Two primary walls and the middle lamella
glycolic acid metabolism in leaves Middle lamella
(associated with photorespiration) Two secondary walls and the middle lamella
○ Glyoxysomes (unique to plants) -
involved in glyoxylate cycle (converts Answer: Two primary walls and the middle lamella
fats to carbohydrates) in endosperm or
cotyledons of germinating seeds. 6. Which of the following does not have a storage
function?
Quiz:
1. Which of the following would have the least Chloroplast
amount in the secondary wall of a vessel Elaioplast
element? Proplastid
Amyloplast
Cellulose
Hemicellulose Answer: Proplastid
Pectin
Lignin 7. Which of the following functions to attract
seed-dispersers?
Answer: Pectin
Chloroplast
2. The pigments of the chloroplast are found in Chromoplast
which of the following? Amyloplast
Etioplast
Thylakoid membrane
Thylakoid lumen Answer: Chromoplast
Chloroplast outer membrane
Stroma 8. Which of the following is the function of suberin
in endodermal cells?
Answer: Thylakoid Membrane
Prevents symplastic movement of water
3. Which of the following is a double-membrane Serves as a complete barrier against water
organelle? movement
Diverts movement of water to symplastic
Chloroplast pathway
Peroxisome Allows water to move through the cell wall
Vacuole
Answer: Diverts movement of water to symplastic
pathway; Prevent Apoplastic pathway in endodermis Answer:Intercellular space and cell wall

14. The water soluble pigment that is responsible for

9. The conversion of fats into carbohydrates which the blue, violet, dark red, and scarlet colors in
can be utilized by seeds is performed by which various parts of the plant is called what?
cell structure?
Chlorophyll
Etioplast Carotenoids
Amyloplast Carotenoids and anthocyanin:
Glyoxysomes Anthocyanin
Chloroplast
Answer: Anthocyanin
Answer: Glyoxysomes
15. The cell wall is made up of this repeating unit of
polysaccharide which consists of glucose units
10. The development of intercellular spaces that that are attached to each other in a linear form.
involve the breakdown of cells
Cellulose
Rhexigenous development Lignin
Schizo-lysigenous development Starch
Schizogenous development Hemicellulose
Lysigenous development
Answer:Cellulose
Answer: Lysigenous development
16. This is a type of peroxisome involved in glycolic
11. Strands of cytoplasm that traverse the cell wall acid metabolism of leaves and is associated with
of adjacent plant cells allowing material transport photorespiration.
and cell-to-cell communications
Glyoxysome
Middle lamella Proteinoplast
Microtubules Etioplast
Phragmoplast Leaf-type peroxisome
Plasmodesmata
Answer:Leaf-type peroxisome
Answer: Plasmodesmata
17. This binds to the free ends of pectin forming a
cross link and inhibits the pectin to move freely
12. The study of the internal structure of plants is decreasing the level of plasticity of the cell wall.
called
Glycoproteins
Plant Morphology Xyloglucans
Plant Taxonomy Calcium ions
Plant Ecology Hemicellulose
Plant Anatomy
Answer:Calcium ions
Answer: Plant Anatomy
18. Which of the following is true about CAM plants?
13. Apoplastic pathway involves materials passing
through which of the following? Their stomata are open during the day.
Cell wall They can store sugar in the form of malic acid
Intercellular space, cell wall, and cytoplasm They are capable of storing carbon in the vacuole.
Intercellular space and cell wall Their adaptations allow them to thrive in humid and wet
Intercellular space environments.
 Lecture 3: Overview of plant structures: PLANT
Answer:They are capable of storing carbon in the MORPHOLOGY AND TISSUE SYSTEMS
vacuole.
Video 1:
19. The cell wall of a living plant cell is composed of https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SXsqvzmX9KI&t=26s
which of the following layers?
Primary wall ADAPTATIONS OF LAND PLANTS
Middle lamella
Middle lamella, primary wall, and secondary wall Plants evolved from multicellular algae. This concept
Middle lamella and primary wall gives us an idea that the ancestors of plants might have
lived in aquatic environments before. Living submerged
Answer: Middle lamella and primary wall in this environment have some following
advantages: (1) desiccation is not a problem, (2) lack of
20. An example of a non-pigmented plastid is which waterproof covering, and (3) easy access to water.
of the following?
In addition to these advantages, aquatic plant
Leucoplast organisms can absorb nutrients on their surface
Chloroplast and chromoplast area. Hence, they don’t need to develop complex
Chloroplast internal conducting tissues. They also lack roots,
Chromoplast wood, and fibers.

Answer:Leucoplast As plants move to land, they need to develop adaptive

features to survive in this environment.
1. For example, living in dry land exposes the
plant to excessive water loss. Thus, they
developed protective tissue with water
proofing materials (e.g., epidermis and cuticle)
and stomata that regulates the amount of
water loss in plants.

2. To survive on land, plants developed

meristems that will allow them to grow
vertically to find a source of light (above
ground) and water (below ground).

3. As plants grow against gravity, they need to be

mechanically supported such as the function
offered by the parenchyma. Additionally,
collenchyma and sclerenchyma provide
further strength for plants. In some plants,
they also undergo secondary growth to
support their growing body.

4. Plants living on the dry land need to distribute

the water (and dissolve minerals) and food
material in their body. The plant developed
conducting tissues such as the xylem and
phloem.

5. Plants living on the land are exposed to UV

lights that can damage their cell. Plants
developed or synthesized compounds like
flavonoid and anthocyanin to protect them
from photooxidative damage.
 6. Plants need to protect themselves as they absorbed by the leaves that is found upright,
become exposed from predators. Hence, they above the land)
developed secondary metabolites such as a. Development of meristems - to address
tannins and alkaloids for protection. (e.g., the problem of resource separation,
nicotine is an alkaloid that prevents or deters meristems allow them to grow vertically
herbivores from eating plants). upward (to look for source of light) and
downward (to look for source of water).
Life in Water 3. Mechanical support - when plants grow
vertically, they are growing against gravity. So
they need support and so the following
structures are developed:
a. Parenchyma
b. Strengthening: collenchyma,
sclerenchyma
c. Secondary growth (extensive growth in
diameter in some plants) - girth grow

Charophyte - green algae most closely related to

modern plants. Plants were believed to have evolved
from multicellular algae.

Advantages in living in water:

● Submerged in water with dissolved nutrients
○ Desiccation is not a problem
○ Lack of waterproofing covering (there’s
no problem in drying out)
○ Easy access to water
● Can absorb nutrients on their surface area
Sclerenchyma (up) - stains red and has very
○ Lack complex internal conduction
THICK cell walls; Collenchyma - thickenings of
tissues (ex. xylem and phloem)
cell wall are not uniform
● Presence of holdfast (anchors on a substrate)
○ Lack roots (not needed; functions to
4. Ability to move water (and dissolved minerals)
absorb water)
and food material → developed conducting
● Body is mechanically supported by water
tissues
○ Lack of wood and fibres
a. Xylem (water and minerals upward from
the soil) and phloem (photosynthetic
Adaptive features of Land plants
products
b. Not all plant parts are photosynthetic
(roots are not photosynthetic and so
they need to be fed by the
photosynthetic products transported by
the phloem from the producers.
1. Protection from excessive water loss (due to dry 5. Exposure to UV light (damaging to the cells)
and hot conditions) a. Development of flavonoid compounds
a. Protective tissue with waterproofing like (anthocyanin) - protects them from
material (ex. epidermis and cuticle) photo oxidative damage
b. Stomata - regulates the amount of water 6. Herbivory
loss in plants especially during a. Development of secondary metabolites
transpiration (tannins. Alkaloids; nicotine) which
2. Separate resources of water and light (water is prevents/ deters herbivores from eating
usually found deep in the soil where it is the plants
absorbed by the roots, while the light is
Land Colonization Plants and fungi appear to have colonized land at the
Link: same time. Their coevolution onto land is the result of
https://www.jove.com/science-education/11016/the-colon the mutually beneficial relationship between many plants
ization-of-land and fungi, seen in both modern organisms and some of
the earliest plant fossils; Fungi aid in the absorption of
● Single-celled prokaryotes first populated wet nutrients and water while benefiting from the nutrients
terrestrial areas over 2 billion years ago where it provided by the plant.
was provided abundant amounts of sunlight and
carbon dioxide (2 of the main requirements of Arthropods were the first animal species to colonize
photosynthesis) land, around 450 million years ago. The first tetrapods
● Multicellular fungi and algae gradually evolved later evolved to live on land as well, finding an
around ordovician era (485 million years ago) abundance of food in the plant species that had
● Specialization of cells which separated shoot colonized the land. Amphibians dominated terrestrial
(acquires light) and root like (acquires water and animal life for 100 million years. Later, dinosaurs and
nutrients) structures then mammals would become the most abundant
● Waxy cuticle limited evaporation of water terrestrial animals.
● Cell wall and vascular tissue provides
mechanical support and facilitated transport Adaptations that Reduce Water Loss
within plants Link:
● 450 million years ago - arthropods were the first https://www.jove.com/science-education/11100/adaptatio
to have the ability to live on land (today’s ns-that-reduce-water-loss
crustaceans)
● 400 million years ago - tetrapods with lungs and 1. Waxy cuticle covers the leaf surface affects
internal skeleton water permeability
● It paved way for amphibians, reptiles, birds and 2. Plants adjust the density and location of stomata
mammals (facilitates gas exchange and transpiration), in
most deciduous trees, stomata are most found
Changes in the environment of the early Earth drove the on the underside of the leaf. Density is higher
evolution of organisms. As prokaryotic organisms in the near the center than the periphery of the tree
oceans began to photosynthesize, they produced 3. For desert plants, they trap water in leaves with
oxygen. Eventually, oxygen saturated the oceans and tiny leaf hairs called trichomes which also deflect
entered the air, resulting in an increase in atmospheric the sun and diminish the drying effect of wind.
oxygen concentration, known as the oxygen revolution Some store water in their stems. Cacti have
approximately 2.3 billion years ago. Therefore, spines which reduce evaporation and dissipate
organisms that could use oxygen for cellular respiration heat.
had an advantage. More than 1.5 years ago, eukaryotic 4. Plants also only take in carbon dioxide at night.
cells and multicellular organisms also began to appear. During the day, the stomata are closed to
Initially, all of these species were restricted to the oceans prevent transpiration. It is stored in the form of
of Earth. malic acid which will then be synthesized to
sugar during the day - Crassulacean acid
The first organisms to live on land were photosynthetic metabolism (CAM) is a photosynthetic
prokaryotes that inhabit moist environments near ocean adaptation to periodic water supply, occurring in
shores. Despite the lack of water, terrestrial plants in arid regions (e.g., cacti) or in tropical
environments offered an abundance of sunlight and epiphytes (e.g., orchids and bromeliads)
carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Around 500 million 5. Specific leaf architectures also reduce water
years ago, the ancestors of nowadays plants were able loss; small and fine leaves reduce evaporation.
to colonize drier environments, (1) but they required Grasses have rolled or folded leaf structures that
adaptations to prevent dehydration. (2) They developed reduce surface area, therefore, evaporation.
methods for reproduction that did not depend on water
and protected their embryos from drying out. (3) These Though evaporation from plant leaves drives
early plants furthermore evolved a vascular system that transpiration, it also results in loss of water. Because
included roots to acquire water and nutrients and a shoot water is critical for photosynthetic reactions and other
to obtain sunlight and carbon dioxide. cellular processes, evolutionary pressures on plants in
different environments have driven the acquisition of Formed from MERISTEMATIC (embryonic regions
adaptations that reduce water loss. capable of cell renewal and indefinite cell division) or
PERMANENT tissues.
1. In land plants, the uppermost cell layer of a plant
leaf, called the epidermis, is coated with a waxy Meristems are divided based on their location in the
substance called the cuticle. This hydrophobic plants
layer is composed of the polymer cutin and 1. APICAL (tips) - shoot and root (elongation)
other plant-derived waxes that are synthesized 2. LATERAL - typical in woody plants; girth grow
by epidermal cells. These substances prevent terminally differentiated and can no longer be
unwanted water loss and the entry of unneeded divided
solutes. The specific composition and thickness a. Dermal - permanent tissue promotes
of the cuticle vary according to plant species and gas exchange and forms a protective
environment. plant surface. First line of defense. In
2. Other leaf adaptations can also minimize woody plants, dermal tissue is tightly
evaporation, primarily by reducing surface packed epidermis. The aerial parts of it
area. For example, some grasses have a folded are covered by cuticles.
structure that reduces water loss. Alternatively, b. Vascular - xylem and phloem
other grass species undergo a rolling of the c. Ground - responsible for metabolic
blade to protect against evaporation. functions. Site of photosynthesis, offers
3. Some desert-dwelling plants have leaves coated support to vascular tissue and structural
in microscopic hairs that trap water vapor, support to the stem.
therefore reducing evaporation.
4. Water primarily evaporates through tiny holes in Plant tissues are collections of similar cells performing
plant leaves called stomata. The stomata of related functions. Different plant tissues will have their
some plants are located exclusively on the own specialized roles and can be combined with other
lower leaf surface, protecting them from tissues to form organs such as flowers, fruit, stem, and
excessive heat-associated evaporation. Other leaves. Two major types of plant tissue include
plants trap water vapor near stomata that are meristematic and permanent tissue.
located in pits on their leaves, reducing
evaporative water loss, as the guard cells that Meristematic tissue, the primary growth tissue in plants,
flank the stomatal opening can sense relative is capable of self-renewal and indefinite cell division.
humidity. Every cell in the plant originates from a meristem.
5. Some desert plants open their stomata only at Meristematic tissue is classified into one of three types
night when evaporation is less likely to occur. depending on its location inside the plant - apical,
This strategy is called Crassulacean Acid lateral, and intercalary.
Metabolism (CAM), and plants that use it Apical meristems are meristematic tissue
capture and fix carbon dioxide at night, and run located at the tip of root and stem, which enable
light-dependent photosynthetic reactions during elongation of plant length.
the day. Some scientists have proposed Lateral meristems are present in the radial
bioengineering plants to decouple carbon portion of the stem and root and increase the
fixation from photosynthesis by utilizing CAM as thickness or girth of the maturing plant.
a mitigation effort for evaporation associated Intercalary meristems occur only in monocots
with warming global temperatures. at the base of the internode and leaf blade. The
intercalary meristems increase the length of the
Plant Cells and Tissues leaf blade.
Link:
https://www.jove.com/science-education/11091/plant-cell Permanent plant tissues are either simple (composed of
s-and-tissues similar types of cells) or complex (consisting of different
Plant tissues functions for: kinds of cells).
1. Growth For example, dermal tissue is a simple
2. Structural support permanent tissue that forms the outer protective
3. Nutrition covering. It protects the plant from physical damage and
enables gas exchange. In non-woody plants, the dermal
tissue is a layer of tightly packed cells called the
epidermis. The cuticle, a waxy epidermal coating, is collenchyma cells, depending on location and pattern of
present on leaves and stems that prevent water loss. cell wall thickenings - angular, annular, lamellar, and
The epidermis has unique functions in different plant lacunar.
organs. For example, roots, water, and minerals
absorbed from the soil enter through the epidermis. Sclerenchyma cells form protective or supportive
tissue in higher plants. At maturity, these cells have
Vascular tissue, in contrast, is an example of complex limited physiological activity and are usually dead.
tissue that enables the transport of water and minerals Sclerenchyma cells have a cell wall with a thickened
through the plant. The vascular system is composed of secondary layer made up of cellulose,
two specialized conducting vessels: xylem and phloem. hemicellulose, and lignin. The orientation of the
Xylem conducts water and minerals from the cellulose provides a diverse combination of strength,
roots to different parts of the plant, and itself consists of flexibility, and stiffness in plant organs subjected to
three types of cells: xylem vessel, tracheids (both of different compressive and tensile forces. Sclerenchyma
which hold water), and xylem parenchyma. occurs in three different forms - fibers, sclereids, and
Phloem conducts organic compounds from the water-conducting sclerenchyma.
site of photosynthesis to different parts of the plant. It
includes four different types of cells: sieve cells (which
conduct photosynthesis), phloem parenchyma,
companion cells, and phloem fibers.
In the stem, the xylem and phloem together
form a structure called a vascular bundle. In roots, this
is called the vascular cylinder or vascular stele.

Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma

Plant anatomy divides the organism into four primary

organs - root, stem, leaf, and flower. These can
subsequently be divided into three tissue types. For
example, leaves consist of three different tissues
-dermal, vascular, and ground tissues. Further, these
tissues are each composed of up to three cell
types-parenchyma, sclerenchyma, or collenchyma.

Parenchyma cells are living, metabolically active, and

usually bounded by a thin and flexible primary cell
wall. In general, parenchyma cells account for 90
percent of the cells found in herbaceous seed plants.
These often occur in the cortex or pith of stems or
roots, and the fleshy tissue of many fruits. Most
parenchyma cells retain the ability to divide, making
them essential in wound healing and tissue
regeneration. Moreover, parenchyma cells perform
specialized functions in plants such as photosynthesis,
storage, or transport, and aid the vascular tissue by
forming a route to exchange nutrients within or
between xylem and phloem.

Collenchyma cells are also living, and are elongated in

structure, consisting of an irregular thick cell wall that
provides support and structure to the plant. These
are the least common cell type and have cell walls
composed of cellulose and pectin. The epidermal tissue
of young stem and leaf veins consists of collenchyma
cells. There are three general classifications of
Lecture 4: Meristems as protection of the soft apical meristem from soil
particles. The root cap is also the source of regulating
Video 1: substances involved in positive geotropic response or
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6tDEoXO_5wk follows the direction of gravity. There are three distinct
regions of the root apex. These are the (1) region of the
Plant tissues can be classified based on their function cell division, (2) region of elongation where the cell starts
and development. If tissues are classified based on their to grow, and (3) the region of maturation where cells
function, it can be meristems, protective tissues, ground become specialized.
tissues, and vascular tissues. Based on development, Leaves and buds are produced exogenously (outside)
plant tissues can be meristem and permanent tissue and from the tunica. The lateral root arises
(protective, ground, and vascular tissue). endogenously (inside)/ pericycle.
1. Meristems are actively dividing cells. They lack
large vacuoles and have a dense cytoplasm that
indicates that they are metabolically active. *In addition to what was discussed in Part 1, the apical
a. The two types of meristems are apical meristem can be classified into two: 1]promeristem and
meristem and lateral meristem. The the 2] primary meristem. The location of the
apical meristem is found in the apexes promeristem and the primary meristems in the shoot and
of plants where growing regions can be root apices is shown in the figure below.
found. There are two types of apical
meristems, the shoot apex and root 1] Promeristem includes the initiating cells and their
apex. These meristems are involved in most recent derivatives.
the production of the primary plant body.
b. The lateral meristem is involved in 2] Primary meristems include partly differentiated tissues
secondary growth. Lateral meristems such as the protoderm, procambium, and ground
are found along the circumference of the meristem. They remain meristematic and give rise to a
stem. Some examples of lateral particular primary tissue such as epidermis, vascular
meristem are vascular cambium and tissues, and ground tissues.
cork cambium.

The shoot apex has been studied using the

tunica-corpus theory. This theory says that cells in the
shoot apex can be classified based on the dominant
planes of the cell division. The two types of planes of
the cell division are anticlinal and the periclinal. The
anticlinal means that the division is perpendicular to the
surface. While the periclinal is the division parallel to the
surface. When the cell divides anticlinal, it will result in
the increase of the circumference. Whereas the cell that
divides periclinal will result in addition of the cell either
on the inner side or outer side of the plant body. Based
on the tunica-corpus theory, there is the area in the outer
layer of the shoot apex that is called tunica and follows
anticlinal plane cell division. While the corpus is located
in the inner layer that divides both anticlinal and
periclinal. The cell that resulted from anticlinal has
square shaped cell, while the product cell of both
anticlinal and periclinal has round shape. The tunica
gives rise to leaves and buds, epidermis and most of
the cortex. On the other hand, the corpus gives rise
to the vascular system, and the central ground
tissue.
The root apex has a root cap produced by
calyptrogen (a layer of rapidly dividing cells at the tip of
a plant root, from which the root cap is formed). It serves
 - Meristems have dense cytoplasm (indicating
they are metabolically active) and lack large
vacuoles
- Nucleus are still in the middle

Types of meristem
1. Apical meristem - shoot and root tips; produce
the primary plant body (PRIMARY GROWTH).
Grow vertically. GROW TALL

2. Lateral meristems - growth in thickness

(SECONDARY GROWTH)
a. Vascular cambium (eudicots,
gymnosperms)
b. Cork cambium
c. Grasses and corn doesn't have
secondary growth

Apical Meristem

1. Shoot apex - Tunica-corpus theory (Schimdt

Location of the promeristem and the primary meristems 1927) : we can classify the cells found in the
in the shoot (A) and root (B) apices. shoot apex based on the dominant planes of cell
division
Plant Tissues a. Anticlinal: Tunica-outer layer (division
Classified into 2: is perpendicular to the surface)
Functional If a cell divides along this plane,
1. Meristems - production of new cells in the plant it results in the increase of
body circumference.
2. Protective tissues - protects plant from outside b. Perciclinal: Division is parallel to the
element surface
3. Ground tissues- makes up most of the plant Division along ethics plane
body increases cells towards the
4. Vascular tissues - involved in the transport of inner side or the outer side of
food and water the plant body
Development c. Corpus-inner layer: divides both
1. Meristems - actively dividing; alive all throughout anticlinal and periclinal plane
2. Permanent tissues - Protective, Ground, and
Vascular Tissues (product of meristems; not
dividing anymore

Meristems:
- Actively dividing cells
Tunica - gives rise to leaves and buds; epidermis and
most of the cortex
Corpus - vascular system; central ground tissues
Procambial strand - gives rise to first xylem and phloem Root and Shoot Apex
(primary) - Leaves and buds are produced exogenously -
● Products of anticlinal will look square coming from the outside ; originated from the
● Products of periclinal will look round tunica
- Lateral roots arise endogenously (pericycle) -
coming from the inside

Video 2:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ynkppVAzxFQ

First 2 layers - tunica (anticlinal) Primary meristem is derived from apical meristem, they
Others are part of the corpus - products of both anticlinal and periclinal division
produce tissues of the primary plant body. The
examples of primary meristem are protoderm,
d. Root Apex - Tunica-corpus does not procambium, and ground meristem. The protoderm
apply gives rise to the dermal tissue or the epidermis. The
i. Root cap - produced by procambium produces the primary vascular tissue
calyptrogen (primary xylem and phloem). Lastly, the ground
Root cap serves as a protection of the soft meristem produces ground tissues (parenchyma,
apical meristem from soil particles collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.

Source of regulating substances involved in Primary Meristem

positive geotropic response - follows where the ● Derived from apical meristem
gravity is or its direction; it will go downwards ● Produces tissues of the primary plant body
(involved in the primary growth - elongation or
Has 3 distinct regions growth in length)
1. Region of cell division - actively dividing ● Consists of:
2. Region of cell elongation - cells start to ○ Protoderm → primary dermal
enlarge; especially the vacuoles tissues/epidermis
3. Region of cell maturation - cells are ○ Procambium → Primary Vascular tissue
becoming more specialized; the only (primary xylem and phloem
region where you can find root hairs ○ Ground meristem → ground tissue
(absorptive structure of the roots)
 Video 3:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w0ZWK5avLoI&t=1s

1. The lateral meristem is only found in eudicots

and gymnosperms. The examples of lateral
meristem are vascular cambium and cork
cambium. The lateral meristem is involved in
secondary growth.
2. The vascular cambium is the cylinder of
thin-walled cells that forms secondary vascular
tissue. It produces secondary xylem and the
secondary phloem. This is in contrast to the
procambium which produces primary xylem and
primary phloem. When the vascular cambium
produces the secondary vascular tissue, it
causes the stem to increase in diameter. The
secondary xylem is produced in the inner part of
the plant body while the secondary phloem is
- A leaf growing out from the shoot apex. Its origin produced in the exterior part. The secondary
is coming from the outside. xylem is wood, and it is a product of vascular
- It has a ground meristem flanking the cambium. Bark refers to the tissues external
procambium to vascular cambium.
3. When the meristem divides, it produces two
types of cells called initial and derivative. An
initial remains meristematic, while the derivative
becomes the mature cell. For meristem to
continuously operate its role, it needs to have
one cell that should remain meristematic (i.e.,
initial). There are two types of initials, the ray
initials and the fusiform initials. The ray initials
are responsible in producing the xylem rays and
phloem rays, these are the cells that are in
charge with lateral transport of materials. Xylem
ray aids in the transportation of water while
phloem ray is for food materials. Fusiform initials
look spindle shaped in the longitudinal section. It
produces the secondary xylem and secondary
phloem that are involved in vertical transport of
materials.
4. When lateral meristem divides, it can undergo
- It has the entire procambium at the center. two types of division called multiplicative division
and additive division. A multiplicative division
results in the increase in the circumference
of the meristem. Since it is perpendicular to the
surface, the multiplicative division is an
anticlinal. The periclinal division parallel to
the surface results in addition of cells. When
the lateral meristem undergoes periclinal
division, it adds more xylem and phloem to the
plant’s body.
5. One example of the lateral meristem is the cork
cambium or also known as phellogen. It divides
to form phellem or cork cell (outer side) and
 phelloderm (inner side). The cork cells are Vascular Cambium - cylinder of thin-walled cells that
suberized and used for protection since it forms forms secondary vascular tissue (secondary xylem and
the periderm. Periderm is a composite tissue, phloem).
consists of cork cambium and phelloderm, and
replaces epidermis for protection.
6. Secondary meristem is another name for some
of the lateral meristems. Secondary meristems
are derived from mature cells. Some mature
cells can undergo the differentiation, they can
reverse back from being permanent to being
meristematic. An example of the secondary
meristem is the cork cambium, which is a true
secondary meristem. The cork cambium
originates near the epidermis or deeper into the
cortex. These are collenchyma and parenchyma
*cyan circle
cells which are mature cells that already
Secondary xylem is produced inside while the secondary
undergo the differentiation to produce
phloem is produced outside the plant body.
meristematic tissue, the cork cambium. The
Secondary Xylem is a product of vascular cambium
vascular cambium is a partial secondary
which is also known as “wood”
meristem because it has different origins. Parts
of it can originate from the procambium or
interfascicular parenchyma. Interfascicular
parenchyma is a mature tissue which
differentiate into a meristem and become part of
the vascular cambium.

Lateral Meristems (involved in secondary growth - grow

in girth)
● Present in eudicots and gymnosperms
● Vascular cambium
● Cork Cambium

Bark - and tissues that is external to the vascular

cambium

When a cell divides, it produces an initial and a

derivative. An initial remains meristematic (keeps on
dividing) while a derivative is the one that becomes
matured or specialized.

Vascular cambium cells

1. Ray Initials - xylem rays and phloem rays
(produces rays that are involved in LATERAL
transport of materials)
a. Parenchymatous
2. Fusiform initials - in longitudinal section, they
look spindle shaped or fusiform
 a. Tapered [1] Vascular bundle contains the phloem and xylem and
b. Produce new vascular tissue (2X and in between it is the procambium. In between the
2P) - axial and not involved in lateral procambium are interfascicular parenchyma.
transport but VERTICAL transport [2] The interfascicular cambium and the procambium has
already differentiated into the different parts of the
continuous vascular cambium (interfascicular cambium
and fascicular cambium) (fascicle)

Cork Cambium “Phellogen”

● Divides to form phellem or cork cells (outer side)
and phelloderm (inner side)
● Cork Cells: suberized (waterproofing property of
suberin) → protection
● PERIDERM - cork + cork cambium = replaces
epidermis

Types of Division:
Multiplicative Division - results in the increase of
circumference - ANTICLINAL PLANE OF DIVISION
Additive Division - results in an increase of the number
of cells - PERICLINAL PLANT OF DIVISION

Secondary Meristems
● Another name for “some” of the lateral
meristems. But not all lateral meristems are
secondary. Because some mature cells can
undergo differentiation wherein permanent can
reverse back to being meristematic, Meristems and Plant Growth
● Note: Primary meristems are derived from Link:
meristems https://www.jove.com/science-education/11092/meristem
● Derived from mature cells s-and-plant-growth

True secondary meristems WOOD GROWN IN THE SPRING HAVE LARGER

1. Cork cambium - originates near the epidermis or DIAMETERS AND THINNER WALLS LATER IN THE
deeper into the cortex (collenchyma/ GROWING SEASON. 1 tree ring = 1 year
parenchyma cells which are mature cells that Thicker rings indicate warm wet years, while thinner
underwent differentiation) rings indicate cold or dry years.

Not a true secondary meristem (partial) Plants grow throughout their lives; this is called
1. Vascular Cambium - has different origins indeterminate growth, and it distinguishes plants from
a. Procambium (meristem) most animals. Although certain parts of plants stop
b. Interfascicular parenchyma (mature growing (e.g., leaves and flowers), others grow
tissue) continuously—like roots and stems.

Indeterminate growth in plants is enabled by

meristems, tissues containing undifferentiated
cells—called meristematic cells. When meristematic
cells divide, some daughter cells remain in the meristem,
ensuring a steady supply of undifferentiated cells. Other
daughter cells elongate and eventually differentiate into 2. Zone of Cell elongation - cells elongate and
mature tissue. lengthen the root tips
3. Zone of Cell Differentiation - Cells differentiate
There are two main types of plant growth: primary into distinct types (protoderm, ground meristem
growth and secondary growth. Primary growth increases and procambium)
the length of roots and shoots, and produces leaves. Root and shoots generate the same primary meristems
Secondary growth increases the thickness of roots and but produce different tissues.
shoots—but rarely leaves—in regions where primary For roots, their ground meristem only produces cortex,
growth has ended. without pith

Most plant growth occurs in two types of meristems. Branching:

Primary growth occurs in apical meristems, located at Branches grow out from axillary bud meristems (axils).
the tips of roots and shoots. Secondary growth occurs in Hormonal signals inhibit axillary buds near shoot apical
lateral meristems, which run along the lengths of roots meristems - Apical dominance. Damage or removal of
and shoots. apical meristems disrupts apical dominance, then results
in pruning.
All vascular plants undergo primary growth, which allows
roots to explore soil and shoots to access more light. Lateral roots emerge from the pericycle and disrupts
Primary growth begins with the division of outer tissue as they emerge
undifferentiated cells in the apical meristem. Daughter
cells that leave the meristem partially differentiate into Secondary growth in root and shoot are the same.
primary meristematic cells. Primary meristematic cells - Cork cambium originates from the pericycle in
divide and elongate, fully differentiating into mature roots and in the cortex for shoots.
tissues and lengthening roots and shoots in the process.

The roots and shoots of woody plants undergo Vascular plants, which account for over 90% of the
secondary growth in addition to primary growth. Earth’s vegetation, all undergo primary growth—which
Secondary growth is enabled by two lateral lengthens roots and shoots. Many land plants, notably
meristems—the vascular cambium and the cork woody plants, also undergo secondary growth—which
cambium. thickens roots and shoots.

The vascular cambium develops into vascular Primary and secondary growth can occur simultaneously
tissue—including secondary xylem (wood) and in a plant. While primary growth occurs in newer plant
secondary phloem. The cork cambium replaces the regions, secondary growth transpires in regions that
epidermis with the sturdier periderm. The addition of have completed primary growth. There are overlaps and
these cells increases the width of roots and shoots. distinctions between root growth and shoot growth.

Primary and Secondary Growth in Roots and Shoots Apical meristems enable the primary growth of both
Link: roots and shoots - with primary shoot growth beginning
https://www.jove.com/science-education/11093/primary- in the shoot apical meristem and root primary growth
and-secondary-growth-in-roots-and-shoots starting in the root apical meristem.

Undifferentiated cells in the shoot apical meristem Dividing cells in the root and shoot apical meristems
divide. Some of it differentiate into: differentiate into the same primary meristems—the
Primary meristems that can generate permanent plant protoderm, ground meristem, and procambium. In both
tissues: roots and shoots, these primary meristems develop into
1. Protoderm → Dermal (Epidermis) the same tissue types; the protoderm, ground meristem,
2. Procambium → Vascular (Primary Phloem and and procambium respectively develop into dermal,
Primary Xylem ground, and vascular tissues.
3. Ground Meristem → Ground Tissues (pith and
cortex) However, there are differences between the specific
In roots, primary growth occurs in 3 overlapping zones: tissues produced in roots and shoots. In roots, the
1. Zone of Cell division which contains the root epidermis contains roots hairs, which account for most of
apical meristem the root’s surface area. Additionally, unlike the shoot
ground tissue of eudicots—the most common flowering Lecture 5: Fundamental Tissues
plants—root ground tissue is not divided into pith and
cortex. Furthermore, the shoot apical meristem contains Video 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfz1NB0ZplI
leaf primordia, which form leaves.
Another way to classify plant tissue is based on the type
Compared to primary growth, secondary growth is more of cells that it contains. It can be simple tissue that has
similar between roots and shoots. Secondary growth is one type of cell (e.g., parenchyma) or complex tissues
enabled by two types of lateral meristems, which run that are made up of more than one type of cell (e.g.,
along the lengths of roots and shoots. xylem).

The vascular cambium, between the primary xylem and The three types of ground tissues are parenchyma,
primary phloem, creates a layer of secondary xylem collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.
(wood) and secondary phloem each year in roots and
shoots. I. Parenchyma is the most common type of tissue
in the plant body. It is alive at maturity and
The cork cambium, a component of bark, is located retains an intact protoplast. The parenchyma
outside the vascular tissues. In both roots and shoots, it is the least specialized cell, thin-walled, and
produces cork and phelloderm to form the isodiametric. It functions as space fillers,
periderm—which replaces the epidermis. performs basic metabolic processes, and
storage. Parenchyma is located in the
epidermis, cortex, and pith.
II. Collenchyma is also alive at maturity. It is
usually elongated and has an uneven thickening
of primary walls. Collenchyma has large
amounts of pectins and hemicelluloses. It
provides flexible (plastic) support in growing
organs and mature herbaceous organs.
Collenchyma is usually found in the cortex, just
beneath the epidermis.
III. Sclerenchyma is derived from the Greek word
skleros which means hard. It has secondary
walls with lignin, and it is dead at maturity.
Sclerenchyma functions as elastic support for
regions that have stopped growing in length. It is
also involved in water conduction of tissues. The
two types of sclerenchyma are fibers and
sclereids. Fibers are long cells and tapered at
both ends. It has fewer pittings, arises from
meristematic cells, and usually occurs in groups.
Fibers are one of the most economically
important parts of the plant (e.g., ropes, bank
notes). The sclereids are usually cubical or
spherical. It has more conspicuous pittings and
is usually isolated and scattered. The examples
of sclereids are the stone cells found in pear
fruits and the seed coat of bean.

Plant Tissues
1. Simple - one type of cell
a. Parenchyma
2. Complex - more than one type of cell
a. Xylem (consists of xylem parenchyma,
sclerenchyma [fibers, tracheids, vessels]
Ground Tissues: Fundamental (make up most of the ● Uneven thickening of primary walls
parts of the plants) cell types ● Large amount of pectins and hemicelluloses
a. Parenchyma
b. Collenchyma Functions:
c. Sclerenchyma 1. Provide flexible (plastic - remains stretched)
support in growing organs and mature
Origin herbaceous organs
1. Protoderm → Epidermis Location:
2. Ground meristem → Ground tissues 1. Cortex, beneath the epidermis
3. Procambium → Primary vascular tissues a. Ribs in the celery

Ex. Sclerenchyma found in the vascular tissue? The

origin of that is procambium.

Parenchyma
● Most common type
● Alive at maturity (retains an impact protoplast)
● Least specialized
● Thin-walled
● Isodiametric

Sclerenchyma
1. Greek word “skleros” = hard
2. Have secondary walls (+lignin = insoluble lipid
making cell wall rigid) lignin stays RED
3. Dead at maturity = loses its protoplast thru
programmed cell death → cell wall is left and
empty space where the protoplast was before
Functions
1. Elastic support for regions that have stopped
growing in length
2. Water conducting tissues (vessel elements and
Functions:
tracheids involved in water conduction)
1. Space flyers
2. Basic metabolism
3. Storage
Location:
1. Epidermis
2. Cortex - region in between pith and epidermis
3. Pith

Types:
1. Fibers
a. Long cells and tapered at both ends
b. Less pittings
c. Arise from meristematic cells
d. Usually occur in groups
e. One of the more commercially important
part of a plant
i. Leaf fibers used for making
Collenchyma
ropes, manila hemp (derived in
● Usually elongated
● Alive at maturity
 muxa textilis or abaca; only
found in the Philippines)
2. Sclereids
a. Usually cubical or spherical
b. More conspicuous pittings
c. Sclerosis of parenchyma cells
d. Isolated or scattered
i. Found in sead coat of bean
3. Fiber sclereid

WATER-PROOFING ACTIVITY. Pectin is water soluble

unlike the 3. It is hydrophilic.
Cutin - epidermis prevents transpiration
Lignin - Xylem cells (tracheids and vessel elements).
Prevents lateral movement of water.
Suberin- found in phellem/cork (no epidermis, so no
cuticle).

Pectin helps keep the walls of adjacent cells joined

together. Putting pectinase will dissolve pectin,
sementing property of middle lamella will lose (cells
separate; principle behind maturation, individual cells are
separated) → middle lamella, contains pectin, which
sticks cells together are disintegrated

Tripartite cell wall - 2 cells that are adjoined middle

lamella in between and 2 primary walls (3 layers)
[homogenous under microscope]

Primary pits are pits or depression and openings in the

primary cell wall. Some parts of the cytoplasm are
trapped called plasmodesmata (cytoplasmic strand
trapped during cell wall formation)

Pits are only found in the secondary wall.

Vacuole store
- Inorganic ions (calcium ions)
- Vacuolar pigment (anthocyanin)
- Sugar
- Malic acid for CAM plants

Plants don't have lysosome, they have vacuoles to

hstore hydrolytic compounds
Chromoplast contains only carotenoids
Chloroplasts can contain carotenoids and chlorophyll. It
appears green.

During fall, chlorophyll is lost and carotenoid pigments

are absorbed.
Stem is a branch that arose from axil

Since the word is “tips” whether it is lateral, it should

contain apical meristem
LECTURE 6: PROTECTIVE TISSUES the opening of the stoma. Because the
ventral walls are thicker than the dorsal wall,
Video 1: the dorsal wall is more flexible than the
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZJB27xv_iLI&t=1s ventral wall.
● When the guard cell is turgid, the direction
Summary of movement is toward the dorsal wall which
Protective tissues serve as the boundary between the is more flexible than the ventral wall. This
outside element and the internal environment of the results in the opening of the stoma.
plant. ● Stomata can be found on both sides of the
leaf, but distribution varies depending on the
There are only two protective tissues in plants: the adaptation of the plant.
epidermis and the periderm. ○ Amphistomatic (amphi- means both)
stomata are distributed on both leaf
The epidermis is the outermost layer of the primary surfaces.
plant body. Primary plant body – the plant body during ○ Epistomatic (epi- means on) stomata
the primary growth. Primary growth is when plants are are distributed only on the upper portion
increasing in height. of the leaf.
○ Hypostomatic (hypo- means below)
The epidermis has only one layer most of the time but stomata are only found on the lower
there are cases of plants having more than one layer. portion of the leaf. This is the common
type of distribution amongst plants.
The epidermis has a cuticle on its surface that serves
3. The trichomes are epidermal appendages, an
as a waterproofing material.
extension of the epidermal cell; these are small
The functions of the epidermis are: (1) It reduces water hairs or other outgrowths from the epidermis of a
loss; (2) serves as mechanical protection; and (3) plant, typically unicellular and glandular.
involved in the gaseous exchange.
The functions of trichomes:
Plants need to breathe, so there are portions of the
● They can reduce the transpiration rate.
epidermis that have an opening and that is where the
● Serve as a defense that prevents insects
stomata are found.
from eating the plants because.
These are the common cell types in the epidermis: ● Root hairs can also be classified as a
trichome because it’s hair anyway.
1. Epidermal cells are ordinary epidermal cells. ● Roots hairs are also involved in increasing
2. Stoma (plural: stomas or stomata) are openings the surface area for absorption
bounded by the guard cells. Stomata are most ● The trichomes in the above-ground structure
abundant in leaves and rare in roots. or shoot possess cuticles, whereas the root
● Guard cells are a pair of curved cells that hairs in the below-ground structure lack
surround a stoma. cuticle.
● There are two parts of the wall of the guard
cell: the ventral wall – the wall bordering the Did you know that cotton fibers are not fibers?
pore; and the dorsal wall – which is quite far Cotton fibers are trichomes of the flowers of
from the pore. In guard cells, the ventral wall cotton.
is thicker than the dorsal wall.
There are different types of trichomes:
● Guard cells can be either neighboring cells
(morphologically similar to the guard cells) ● They can be glandular like an insectivorous
or subsidiary cells (neighboring cells that are plant where the trichomes secrete a sweet
different from guard cells). sticky substance that attracts insects and at
● Cellulose microfibrils are radially and spirally the same time it also causes the insect to
arranged around the guard cell. stick and get trapped in this modified
● Uneven thickness of the cell walls and structure of the plant.
radially arranged microfibrils are involved in ● Trichomes can also be stinging like in the
the opening of the guard cells. stinging nettle. If your skin will be in contact
● When the guard cells are swollen or turgid,
they bulge away from the pore resulting in
 with stinging trichomes, you could get Vascular cambium can be found between the phloem
contact dermatitis. and the xylem.
● Another type of trichome is the stellate or
the starlight trichome. ● The component of the bark varies between
primary and secondary states. If you're looking
at the stem in the primary state, the bark there
consists only of primary tissues. But if you're
Review: The epidermis is the protective tissue of the looking at a stem that has undergone secondary
primary plant body. Now other plants undergo growth or in the secondary state, the
secondary growth. Apart from growing in height, other components of the bark will be different.
plants also grow in diameter. ● The bark consists of the functional phloem; old
phloem, which could also include the primary
The epidermis is usually replaced by another
phloem that is non-functional anymore; and the
protective tissue because the epidermis does not
periderm, because the plant is in a secondary
compensate anymore for the increase in the
state, the epidermis has been replaced already
diameter of the plant. In replacement of the epidermis,
by the periderm.
the periderm is formed.
● Bark has two layers in the secondary state, in
The periderm is the protective tissue of plants with secondary stems in the secondary state: the
secondary growth or the secondary plant body. outer part and the inner part.
● The technical term for wood is secondary
The periderm is a composite tissue. It consists of the Xylem.
phellem, the cork cells; the meristematic cell the ● The outer bark is usually nonfunctional
phellogen; and phelloderm which is mostly for anymore, also known as the rhytidome,
parenchymatous. whereas the inner bark persists as living
tissue.
1. The phellogen is the one that gives rise to
phellem and the phelloderm. Cork cambium is When a plant needs to breathe, they need to take in and
the other name of the phellogen. The phellogen take out a gas. In the epidermis, the stomata are the
produces the phellem on the outer side, and entry and exit points of water and gases. In the
inside it produces phelloderm. periderm, those functions are performed by the
● Phellogen arises in the parenchymatous cells in lenticels.
the parenchyma in the cortex or it could arise
from the epidermis as well. ● Lenticel can be distinguished from the rest of the
● Sometimes the phellogen arises from the periderm by looking at the components.
parenchyma in the vascular tissues, specifically ● Lenticel is a periderm that has a loose
the phloem, in the case of the stem. arrangement of cells.
● In the roots, the phellogen arises in the pericycle ● The phellem in the periderm is more
(a meristematic tissue) which gives rise to the organized. Whereas the phellem in the
lateral roots. lenticels are disarranged because of the
abundance of intercellular spaces.
● Lenticels have their own phellogen which is
more active than the phellogen of the
2. Cork is also known as phellem consisting of periderm.
suberized cells. ● The part of the lenticel that has a lot of
● Suberin is found in the phellem in the outermost interstellar space is called the filling tissue
layer of the periderm. It serves as a where the cells are formed first beneath the
waterproofing material. stomata.
● While the periderm is forming, it usually appears
beneath the stomata which signal that a lenticel
3. Phelloderm is found below the phellogen, and it would form beneath the stomata.
is parenchymatous. ● One way for the plant to know where the lenticel
would form is where the stomata are found.
The bark is a general term to refer to all tissues outside
the vascular cambium.
Protective Tissues - serve as a boundary between the Dorsal wall - wall outside; more flexible
outside element and the internal environment. It protects since it is thinner
the plants from outside elements.
1. Epidermis
2. Periderm

Epidermis
- Outermost layer of cells of the primary plant
body
- Usually one layer (multiple layers: roots of
orchids - velamen)
- With cuticle (cutin and waxes)
Functions:
● Reduce water loss
● Mechanical protection
● Gaseous exchange (stomata)
When guard cells are turgid or swollen, it bulges away
from the pore resulting in the opening of the stoma.
When guard cells are shrunken, it closes the pore.

Distribution
- Amphistomatic leaf - present in both sides (e.g.
corn) adaxial and abaxial

* for the structure, it usually has no space since it serves - Epistomatic leaf - upper (adaxial)
for protection - Hypostomatic leaf - lower; common (abaxial)

Cell types in the epidermis What is the distribution of the stomata for aquatic floating
1. Epidermal cells (ordinary epidermal cells) → plants? Most floating aquatic plants have stomata on
originated from protoderm their upper leaf surfaces, and usually their stomata are
2. Stoma/ta permanently open.
3. Trichomes
Trichomes
Stoma/ta ● Epidermal appendages - extension of epidermal
● Openings bounded by guard cells cells
● Guard cells - regulate the exchange of water ● Reduces transpiration rate
vapor and carbon dioxide; opens and closes the ● Defense against insects
pore ● Root hairs: extension of absorbing surface
○ With neighboring cells or subsidiary
cells Difference of root hairs and trichomes in the shoot: Root
● Most abundant on leaves hairs lack cuticle since it absorbs water. On the other
● Rare in roots hand, trichomes have.

Cotton fibers - are NOT fibers, instead they are

trichomes of the flowers of cotton

Guard cells - unevenly thickened walls with

radially arranged cellulose microfibrils
Ventral wall - wall bordering the inside;
thicker
Different types of Trichomes BARK
- All tissues outside the vascular cambium
- Component varies between primary and
secondary state

1. Glandular (e.g found in insectivorous plants) -

secrete sweet sticky substance that attracts the
insects and gets it trapped.
2. Stinging - once in contact, contact dermatitis can
be acquired
In the secondary state, it can include the primary phloem
3. Stellate (e.g eggplants)
which is no longer functional. In the primary state, it can
include the epidermis.
Video 2:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jat53qhYwtg&t=1s

Periderm - protection for secondary plant body

Since, the epidermis cannot compensate anymore for
the secondary growth of plants, periderm is formed as a
substitute.
1. Composite tissue, consisting of
a. Phellem/cork cells
b. Phellogen/cork cambium - produces
cork cells outside, and phelloderm
inside
c. Phelloderm
2. Replaces the epidermis in roots and stems

Wood - Secondary xylem

Outer bark - usually non functional (rhytidome)
Inner bark - living

1. Phellogen/ Cork cambium

- Mostly arises in the subepidermal
(parenchymatous cells in the cortex) or
epidermal layer (stem); sometimes in vascular
tissues (parenchyma cells in the phloem)
There are old periderms which means that phellogen
- Arises in the pericycle (roots), a meristematic
can stop its activity and also give rise to another
tissues that gives rise to lateral roots
phellogen below and bring about a new periderm. Old
periderm is pushed away and become dead
2. Cork (Phellem) - outermost layer of periderm
(components of outer bark)
- Suberized (waterproofing); Suberin
- Bottle cork (Quercus suber- native of the
Mediterranean). Bark is removed to be
LENTICELS
extracted.
Function: permitting entry of air in the periderm;
elongated structures that are conspicuous.
3. Phelloderm (secondary cortex)
- Parenchymatous
- Below the phellogen
 LECTURE 7: VASCULAR TISSUE

Summary

The vascular tissues in plants are involved in the

transport of water, minerals, and solutes throughout
the plant body.

There are two types of vascular tissues: the xylem and

the phloem. The xylem brings water and minerals from
roots. Phloem moves sugar and other organic nutrients
from the leaves to the rest of the plant.

The primary vascular tissues (i.e., primary xylem and

primary phloem) have only axially (vertically) arranged
- A part of the periderm tissue systems. Secondary vascular tissue (i.e.,
- Phellogen here is more active than in the secondary xylem and secondary phloems have both the
periderm (lenticel phellogen) axial system and the radial system which consists of
- Numerous intercellular spaces (complementary vascular rays (xylem ray and phloem ray).
or filling tissue)
- First appearance: beneath the stomata (when The vascular tissues are examples of complex tissues
epidermis is being replaced) which are tissues that are made up of more than one
type of cell.

The xylem can be arranged into two kinds of systems,

the axial system and the radial system.

1. The axial system refers to the cells that are

oriented longitudinally (vertically) or they are
oriented to the long axis.
2. Radial system consists of cells that are oriented
perpendicular to the long axis.

Those system divisions only apply to the secondary

xylem. Because primary xylem does not have rays, and
rays are part of the radial system.

1. Axial system consists of the following:

a. tracheary elements which are the
conducting cells of the xylem.
- Lenticel is a periderm that has loose
b. the xylary fibers, made up of
arrangement of cells.
sclerenchyma cells, which are for
support.
c. the xylem parenchyma which is for
storage; consists of living cells but with
lignified cell walls.
2. The radial System (ray) also has xylem
parenchyma.

The tracheary elements are involved in the conduction

of water. These are the water conducting cells
themselves in the xylem, and there are two of them:
tracheids and the vessel elements.

Tracheids and vessel elements are

sclerenchyma cells, they have lignified
secondary walls and they are non-living at
 maturity as they undergo programmed cell death Large conduits of water like the vessel elements
which result in the loss of their entire are more vulnerable to cavitation and there are two
protoplast. When these cells undergo phenomena that are responsible for cavitation events:
programmed cell death, what is left is an empty freezing and drought.
space called the lumen that is where the water
passes through these cells for them to perform Like tracheids, xylary fibers are long cells that are
their function of water conduction. tapered at both ends. They also have lignified secondary
walls. Xylary fibers are also dead but the difference of
Tracheids vs. vessel elements the xylary fibers with tracheid is that's xylary fibers have
thicker walls.
Tracheids are long cells that have tapering ends,
also known as the spindle shape; vessel Other than the tracheary elements, xylary fibers provide
elements are drum or barrel shape, so vessel support and include fiber-tracheids and libriform fibers.
elements are broader than tracheids.
● Fiber tracheids are the ones that have border
Perforation: the end walls of the tracheids don’t pits with slit-like inner apertures so they would
have any perforation, and vessel elements have look like this under the microscope small border
perforation at the end wall. with slit.
● Libriform fibers which have thicker walls than
Arrangement: tracheids are overlapping while the fiber tracheids and they have simple pits that
vessel elements are arranged end on end. The have slit-like apertures.
vessel elements are connected to each other
forming a long continuous tube called the Xylem parenchyma is a very exceptional parenchyma
vessel. Vessel refers to the long continuous because that parenchyma tissue has thin walls and they
tubes consisting of vessel elements so each unit only have primary walls but xylem parenchyma is
of vessel is called a vessel element. different it's lignified but it's still living so this is the
living cell of the xylem although they have lignified
Vessel elements are more efficient in the secondary walls they retain their protoplast
conduction of water because the water moves
without any resistance through the vessel The function of the xylem parenchyma is for
elements because the end walls of the vessel storage and they can be found in the axial and the ray
element are perforated, whereas, in the parenchyma.
tracheids, the water leaves and enters through
the bordered pits of the adjacent tracheids.

Similarities Primary xylem is the xylem that is derived from the

procambium. This gives you an idea that this xylem is
Both have pits, they can be simple or bordered this xylem in the primary plant body so the origin of that
pits, and these are usually found in the is a procambium
metaxylem and secondary xylem.
There are two types of primary xylem: protoxylem and
Secondary wall patterning, this only applies to the metaxylem.
the primary xylem: annular, helical, scalariform,
reticulate (simple and bordered pit). This refers a. Protoxylem is the early formed primary xylem
to the succession of the deposition of the (proto- means first).
secondary wall.
Protoxylem is formed when the organs like the
Cavitation occurs in the tracheary elements. It occurs stem are still undergoing intensive elongation.
when the water column inside breaks when a water These cells, because they're already mature
vapor or a gas is trapped within the water column. When when the stem is still elongating, are stretched
a water column breaks, it creates an embolism that and destroyed because of the intensive
prevents water from passing through the vessel element. elongation. What is left is a space called the
Instead of the water passing through, there's an air lacuna.
space that blocks water. Because there are bordered
b. The metaxylem is formed after the organs have
pit-pairs on the side walls, water can make a detour to
stopped elongating. Hence, they are the late
the sides of the vessel element.
formed primary xylem.
 In the cross section, the diameter of the like the entire protoplasts. In the tracheid and the vessel
metaxylem is larger than the protoxylem. The elements, the entire protoplast breaks down through
metaxylem differentiate where the plant body or program cell death. But in the sieve elements, only the
the organ is still elongating but they don't mature nucleus and the tonoplasts are broken down,
yet until the organ like the stem finishes whereas the rest of the organelles and the protoplasts
elongation. Therefore, the metaxylem is less there are still intact.
affected by the intensive elongation during
growth. Those areas with pores are called sieve areas. They
can be found on the side wall and end wall of the
Most of the functional Xylem in the primary sieve elements. There are two types of sieve elements:
xylem are metaxylem because most of the the sieve cells and sieve tube elements.
protoxylem have been destroyed already.
Sieve cells have sieve areas all around the cell wall, it's
Secondary xylem is produced by the vascular cambium the same with sieve tube elements but sieve tube
during secondary growth. elements have a specialized end wall that contains a
specialized sieve area. That specialized sieve area is
When there is a secondary growth, the called the sieve plate.
metaxylem remains functional for plants that
have primary growth only. But when the plant The sieve tube elements, just like the vessel elements,
has secondary growth or when a plant can be connected end on end forming one long tube of
undergoes secondary growth, the metaxylem what we call the sieve tube. A sieve tube is a long tube
becomes nonfunctional. Subsequently, the consisting of sieve elements.
function is replaced by the xylem coming from
the vascular cambium which is essentially the The sieve tube elements have sieve plates, a
secondary xylem. specialized end wall containing sieve pore that can be
found at the end walls.

Sieve tube elements contain P protein or phloem

Like the xylem, phloem can be arranged into axial and protein or traditionally known as slime, which lack
radial systems, but this only applies to the secondary ribosomes.
phloem because the primary phloem does not have rays.
Without the nucleus, the sieve tube elements cannot
A. The axial system of the phloem consists of synthesize proteins, and without the ribosomes as well.
conducting cells, made up of sclerenchyma and That's why sieve tube elements are associated with a
parenchyma. companion cell.

Phloem is a complex tissue that can be made up of more Companion cells and sieve tube elements are related in
than one type of cells. ontogeny. They are derived from the same mother cell.
Unlike the sieve tube elements, companion cells have
Phloem is the vascular tissue involved in the transport of a prominent nucleus which is intimately connected
solutes and includes sieve elements, fibers, and with the sieve tube element.
parenchyma.
The conducting elements of the angiosperm phloem
I. The cells that are involved in the conduction of include sieve tube elements and companion cells.
food are the sieve elements. In gymnosperms
they are called sieve cells and in angiosperms Because the organelles, the protoplasts and the
they are called sieve tube elements, which are companion cells relatively have a complete set of all the
morphologically different. organelles inside the cell, they provide the information
II. For the support system in the phloem, it can molecules, the proteins and even the energy ATP to the
have fibers and sclereids. sieve tube element.

The radial system consists only of phloem The companion cell moves solutes from the
parenchyma, and this is involved in the lateral or the photosynthetic cell. It gathers all the assimilates or the
radial transport of food. solutes and transports it through the plasmodesmata.

The sieve elements also undergo some breakdown of The companion cell transports the solutes to the sieve
the organelles, but the breakdown of organelles is not tube elements through plasmodesmata, the continuity
between the cytoplasm of the sieve tube and the
companion cell.

Like the Xylem, the phloem also has primary and

secondary phloem.

The procambium is the immediate origin of the

primary phloem. Whereas the secondary phloem
originates from the vascular cambium.

Similar to the primary xylem, the primary phloem has

protophloem and the metaphloem. The protophloem is
This 2 division only applies in the secondary xylem,
the one that matures first while the plant is still
because primary xylem do not have rays.
undergoing extension growth. Because of that, when the
organs are stretched, the primary phloem are obliterated
Tracheary elements - water conducting cells
through the process.
● Tracheids and vessel elements
Metaphloem matures after the organs have finished ● With lignified secondary wall - prevents lateral
elongation. The metaphloem is the functional phloem in water transport (spilling water in the sides)
plants without secondary growth. ● Non-living at maturity (programmed cell death:
lost of entire protoplast) → empty space called
When plants undergo secondary growth, the secondary the lumen is where the water can pass through
phloem replaces the metaphloem, and the metaphloem
becomes nonfunctional.

_____________________________________________

Video 1:
Perforation is the absence of a wall. More obvious for
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bM7bRzvEDp8
vessel elements. There is no primary or secondary wall
for vessels. Vessel elements are broader. End walls of
Vascular Tissue System - complex tissues which
tracheids are not obvious. Vessel refers to a long
means they are made up of more than 1 type of cell
continuous tube consisting of vessel members/elements.
Consist of
a. Xylem - brings water and mineral from the roots
b. Phloem - moves sugar and other organic
nutrients from leaves to the rest of the plant.

XYLEM
Can be arranged into 2 types of systems
1. Axial system - cells are oriented longitudinally or
parallel to the long axis.
a. Tracheary elements - conducting cells
i. Tracheid Vessel elements are more efficient in conducting
ii. Vessel element because water moves without resistance because it is
b. Xylary fibers - sclerenchyma cells and perforated. Unlike tracheids, water leaves and enters
so they are for support and storage through the bordered pit pairs of the adjacent tracheids.
c. Xylary parenchyma - functions for
storage In a vessel, there could be 2 to 1000 vessel elements.
2. Radial System (ray) - rays are perpendicular to
the long axis Similarity:
a. Xylem parenchyma
 Xylem sap or the water inside the xylem contains
dissolved gases that freezes out as bubbles during
winter causing cavitation.

Both of them have pits which can be found in the meta Xylary fibers - supporting cells
xylem and secondary xylem. Secondary wall patterning - Long cells that are tapered at both ends
can be found in primary xylem. - With linifies secondary walls
- Wall thicker than tracheids
- Dead

Succession of the deposition of the secondary wall. It

represents both the secondary wall which has lignin and
the primary wall. Tracheids have bordered pits. Fiber-tracheids have
slit-like and bordered pits
Only parts that do not have the secondary wall are
where the pits are located. Types of Xylary fibers:
a. Fiber-tracheids - bordered pits that slit-like inner
Cavitation - happens when the water column inside them aperture
breaks usually when vapor or gas is trapped in the water b. Libriform fibers - thicker walls and longer; slit like
column. aperture (simple pit)
- Creation of embolism
- Blocks the movement of water Xylem parenchyma - exceptional parenchyma because it
- Usually occurs through freezing and drought does not have thin walls
- With lignified secondary walls but considered
living in the secondary xylem
- Storage of starch and fat
- Found in axial and ray parenchyma

XYLEM
1. Primary xylem (origin - procambium)
a. Protoxylem (primary xylem) - early
formed; during the time when the plant
is still undergoing intensive elongation.
They are stretched and destroyed (when
the cells are elongated because they
have already matured) which brings
about a space called lacuna.
However, since they have bordered pit pairs, water can b. Metaxylem (meta xylem) - late formed;
make a detour to the sides of the vessel elements. Large after the organs have stopped
conduits of water (vessel elements) are more vulnerable elongating. Diameter is larger than the
to cavitation which is why the majority of plants living in protoxylem. Differentiate while the plant
cold climates have lesser vessel elements and more body is still elongating and does not
tracheids. E.g. conifer, gymnosperms mature until plants have finished
elongating. Accounts for the majority of
the functional xylem. Remains functional
for plants that have primary growth only
 and becomes non functional when there
is secondary growth. Its function is
replaced by the xylem coming from the
vascular cambium
2. Secondary xylem (origin - vascular cambium) -
during secondary growth

Just like sieve elements, they can be connected end on

end forming a continuous tube of what we call a sieve
tube.

Video 2: Sieve-tube elements/ members

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HHk6kz4UT3w ● Sieve plate (at end walls)
● Contain phloem protein (p-protein/slime)
PHLOEM (this division only applies to secondary phloem ● Lack ribosomes
since primary phloem do not have rays) - a complex ● With companion cells (without nucleus, they
tissue have these as substitute)
1. Axial
a. Conducting Cells: Sieve Elements
i. Sieve cells - (gymnosperms)
ii. Sieve Tube elements -
(angiosperms)
b. Sclerenchyma (support system)
i. Fibers
ii. Sclereids
c. Parenchyma (storage)
2. Radial (rays) (lateral transport of food)
a. Phloem Parenchyma

Sieve elements
● Breakdown of nucleus and tonoplast (not entire
protoplast)
● Sieve areas (with pores) - has plasmodesmata;
can be found in the side walls and end walls Companion cells
● Two types: ● Related to sieve-tube element in function and
○ Sieve cells (gymnosperms) development (ontogeny - they are derived from
○ Sieve tube elements (series of same mother ecll)
elements: sieve) has and end wall which ● With prominent nucleus
contains a specialized sieve area called ● Intimately connected with associated sieve-tube
sieve plate - angiosperms element
● Provides information molecules, proteins, and
ATP to sieve-tube element
 Tracheids are elongated cells with lignified walls that
contain small gaps called pits, which conduct xylem sap
from one cell to the next in places where their walls
overlap. Seedless vascular plants and most
gymnosperms, or cone-bearing plants, have only
tracheids, which are thought to have evolved before
vessel elements.

Vessel elements are wider lignified cells that stack

vertically to form vessels. They are connected by
perforation plates, specialized cell end structures that
have spaces through which xylem sap can flow. The
Companion cells gather the assimilates, solutes and larger diameter and the more efficient structure of
products of photosynthesis and transport it to the sieve perforation plates means that vessels made up of vessel
tube elements through a plasmodesmata. elements can move a much larger volume of sap. Most
angiosperms, or flowering plants, have both tracheids
and vessel elements.
PRIMARY PHLOEM (origin: procambium)
● Protophloem - matures while plant parts are Active transport of minerals creates a water pressure
undergoing extension growth; when organs are gradient from roots to leaves
stretched, they become non-functional;
obliterated While water enters a plant passively through permeable
● Metaphloem - functional phloem in plants root cells, active transport is required to move minerals
without secondary growth into the xylem. The resulting high concentration of
solutes in the roots creates a gradient in the pressure
SECONDARY PHLOEM (origin: vascular cambium) potential of water within the xylem, with higher pressure
● Plants with secondary growth → metaphloem in the roots and lower pressure elsewhere in the plant,
become non-functional then. where solutes are less concentrated. Water will then
move toward the lower pressure areas; however, this
gradient is only a minor contributor to the overall
Supplemental video: transport of sap through the xylem.

Video 1: Physical forces on water molecules hold fluid within the

https://www.jove.com/science-education/11098/xylem-an xylem
d-transpiration-driven-transport-of-resources
Transport of xylem sap through a plant is made possible
Xylem and Transpiration-driven Transport of in part by some of the physical properties of water itself.
Resources The cohesion-tension hypothesis for transport of sap
through the xylem was first proposed in the 1890s.
The xylem of vascular plants distributes water and Cohesion between water molecules is relatively strong
dissolved minerals that are taken up by the roots to the because all three atoms of a water molecule can
rest of the plant. The cells that transport xylem sap are participate in hydrogen bonding with other water
dead upon maturity, and the movement of xylem sap is a molecules. This means that transpirational pull in the
passive process. leaves can affect water molecules throughout the xylem,
like links in a chain, all the way to the roots.
Tracheids and vessel elements transport xylem sap
Another force, adhesion, allows water molecules to stick
Tracheary elements are the transport cells of the xylem. to surfaces within the plant, such as the cell walls of
They lack cytoplasm and organelles when they are mesophyll cells in the leaf, where water surface tension
mature and are considered part of the apoplast of the is essential for drawing sap out of leaf vessels when
plant because they connect directly with the extracellular water vapor is transpiring from the leaves. Adhesion of
space. There are two types of tracheary elements: water molecules to the walls of xylem vessels prevents
tracheids and vessel elements. sap from seeping downward and out of the plant through
the roots when the stomata close and the tension Lecture 8: Structure of the a Stem
produced by transpiration ceases.
Basic Plant Anatomy: Roots, Stems, and Leaves
Video 2:
https://www.jove.com/science-education/11101/phloem-a The primary organs of vascular plants are roots, stems,
nd-sugar-transport and leaves, but these structures can be highly variable,
adapted for the specific needs and environment of
Phloem and Sugar Transport different plant species.

Like many living organisms, plants have tissues that Roots

specialize in specific plant functions. For example,
shoots are well adapted to rapid growth, while roots are Taproot and Fibrous System
structured to acquire resources efficiently. However, They anchor the plant and take up nutrients from the
sugar production is primarily restricted to the environment. Taproot system - primary root grows out of
photosynthetic cells that reside in the leaves of the seed in termination. It grows out to anchor the plant
angiosperm plants. Sugar and other resources are and much smaller lateral roots branch off.
transported from photosynthetic tissues to other
specialized tissues by a process called translocation. Fibrous roots have a primary root to support the
seedling. Many thin roots grow out. Adventitious roots
Within a plant, tissues that produce more sugar than grow to continue support.
they consume are sugar sources - leaves are the
primary example of this. Roots, shoots, flowers, and While roots are most often found underground, this is not
fruits are usually considered to be sugar sinks, as they universally the case. Aerial roots are any roots that
require more sugar than they can make. Translocation emerge aboveground. Epiphytic plants, such as orchids,
distributes sugar, hormones, amino acids, and some can live their entire lives without touching soil. Other
signaling molecules from sugar sources to sugar sinks types of aerial roots, such as those of the strangler fig or
through a tube-like structure of vascular plants called banyan, germinate aboveground but grow downward,
phloem. Flow can be bidirectional in the phloem, which eventually penetrating the soil below and appearing to
is composed of cells joined end-to-end by “strangle” their host plant.
plasmodesmata to form the sieve-tube elements. These
cells have thickened cell walls, giving them mechanical Some plants have roots that are adapted to provide
support, and are accompanied by neighboring additional support. Buttress roots are one such
companion cells that facilitate phloem health and loading modification. Often found on trees growing in tropical
of solutions into the phloem from surrounding tissues. areas where the soil is nutrient-poor, and there is plenty
of water available near the surface from rainfall, buttress
Phloem loading can occur via the apoplastic or roots provide structural support to large trees with
symplastic routes and may be either passive or active. shallow roots. Brace roots or prop roots are another type
These pathways to phloem may operate at the same of modified root that supports tall, shallow-rooted plants
time or sequentially, and there is some evidence that such as corn. They grow as adventitious roots—those
plants can switch between loading modes depending on that do not develop from the primary root—from nodes
plant water and energy demands. In many instances, the near the bottom of the stem, reaching the ground at an
sucrose/H+ symporter couples the loading of sucrose angle to provide structural support.
into the phloem with transport of a hydrogen ion.
Shoot System
According to the pressure-flow hypothesis, the sugar - Can be classified into reproductive (flowers,
concentration gradient promotes the flow of water into fruits and cones) or vegetative (stems and
the phloem, resulting in the generation of pressure. As a leaves)
result, the phloem sap moves towards areas of lower
pressure, at the nearest sugar sink. At the sugar sink, Stems
sucrose is transported to the area of lower sugar
concentration, driving movement out of the phloem. Plant stems have several functions. These include
Water follows the sucrose, relieving pressure in the providing structure, supporting the leaves, buds, and
phloem. flowers. Additionally, the stem will aid in orienting the
_____________________________________________ leaves to maximize photosynthesis. Stems are
composed of nodes, points at which leaves and Lecture 8: Structure of the a Stem
branches attach, and internodes, the regions of stem
between the nodes. Part 1:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rn3Ja61F9wk
The petiole is a stalk that anchors each leaf at the node.
THE SHOOT SYSTEM - above ground structure which
Leaves consists of leaves, stem, buds, flowers and fruits

The leaves conduct the majority of photosynthesis. Leaves - site of food production and stems function in
While leaves can come in a wide variety of shapes and conduction and support
sizes, the blades are often thin and flattened in shape to Stems - serve as important storage organs, e.g the irish
maximize the surface area exposed to sunlight. The potato (underground stem)
terminal part of the leaf is called the blade, or lamina.
Simple leaves have one blade per petiole, while Shoot Development
compound leaves have multiple blades attached to each - Shoot growth is initiated in the embryo from the
petiole. Some plants, such as grasses, lack a petiole. epicotyl (segment of a seedling which is above
Instead, the blade directly envelops part of the stem. the point where the seedling is attached) , which
may or may not have one or more leaf
primordia.
- Hypocotyl - segment of the seedling that is
below where the cotyledon is attached.

Roots, Leaves, and Stems as Storage Vessels

Roots can be modified for food storage. Taproots such

as carrots and beets are enlarged to store starches.
Stems and leaves can also be modified to store starches
STEMS
- tubers such as potatoes are actually modified stems,
External parts of the stem
even though they grow underground. Additionally, onions
1. Nodes = areas where leaves arise
are a modified starch-storing leaf.
2. Internodes = the intervals between the nodes
3. Axil = upper angle between a leaf stalk (or any
lateral structure). Anything that arises to it is
called an axillary structure.
4. Buds = an external meristem; can be protected
by a bud scale; young stem
a. Lateral buds = buds along the side of
the twig; may be for new leaves, flowers
or branches
b. Terminal buds = buds at the end of the
twig; only for extending length of stem
 Part 2:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fq-O1dcuqV0

Regions of the shoot apex

Follows tunica-corpus organization
1. Corpus - adds bulk to the apical meristem by
increase in volume; divides anticlinal and
periclinally
2. Tunica - surface growth to maintain their
continuity over corpus; anticlinal division -
division perpendicular to the surface

Shoot apex
● Produces primordia that develop into all the
above ground organs of a plant
● Gives rise to lateral appendages: leaf primordia
and axillary buds

Functions of stems:
1. Support leaves and reproductive structures
2. Produces carbohydrates
3. Store materials
4. Transport water and solutes between roots and
leaves

Types of stems
1. Herbaceous = soft, green and short -lived
2. Woody = hard, brown and long-lived
Overview of primary stem
● Product of the apical meristem
● Tissues include dermal, ground (cortical) and
vascular
 Ground Tissue
Cortex
- Between the epidermis and stele
- Mainly parenchyma (with some collenchyma and
sclerenchyma)
Internal structure of the primary stem - May see aerenchyma (have large intercellular
3 main tissues: spaces in between) in aquatic plants
1. Epidermis from protoderm via tunica (outermost Pith
tissues) - Internal from vascular tissue
2. Ground tissues: cortex and pith - Typically parenchyma
3. Vascular bundles

Stele
● Central cylinder containing the primary vascular
tissues + associated ground tissues (e.g pith)
(cotex is the region between epidermis and
stele)

Type of stele:

Protostele: without pith

Epidermis
- Usually one layer thick with cuticle
Siphonostele: has pith; continuous ring
- With trichomes
● Eustele: vascular tissues are in bundles; with
- Presence of stomatal apparatus
pith
- Function
● Atactostele - stem contains a ring of vascular
- Prevents water desiccation
bundles, and then a spiral towards the center.
- Provides protection
This represents the highest development of the
vascular system in the stem. Stippling and
hatches left out for clarity.
Vascular Tissues
● Form from procambium
● Xylem and phloem occur in vascular bundles

Primary xylem differentiation

- Formed from procambium
- Endarch pattern
- Protoxylem (first-formed primary xylem)
is closer to the center of the axis; some
mature during the time when the stem is
still elongating; thicker walls than
metaxylem
- Protoxylem is located inner from the
metaxylem
- Direction of maturation: centrifugal →
going towards the outside
- Exarch pattern
- Protoxylemis located other than the
metaxylem
- Usually seen in ROOTS
Part 3: i. Vascular cambium must be formed
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VqRoMPezWMo before secondary growth can occur
b. Two regions of primary stem contribute to the
vascular cambium (rectangular, relatively small
Secondary growth cells)
- All plants have primary growth i. Fascicular cambium - meristem cells
- But, only eudicots (generally in gymnosperms) within vascular bundle
have secondary growth ii. Interfascicular cambium - meristem cells
between vascular bundles

1. Fascicular cambium is the procambium that is

found in the vascular bundle
- Increase in circumference of the stem
- Responsible for the increase in girth (diameter)
- Allows for much greater size and volume
- Great commercial value (secondary xylem or
wood and wood products)
- Where does it start?

2. Fascicular cambium divides to form xylem inside

and phloem outside

A part of the vascular cambium originated from the

procambium while some came from matred tissues of
parenchyma (interfascicular parenchyma - that also
undergoes de-differentiation to become meristematic
tissue)

3. Once the fascicular cambium becomes active,

Development of the vascular cambium the interfascicular cambium which contains the
a. Function is to produce secondary growth parenchyma begins to develop into a cambium.
They undergo de-differentiations.
 The functional vascular cambium
1. Becomes vascular cambium when the fascicular
and interfascicular cambium join to form a
complete cylinder around the stem
2. As soon as the cylinder is formed, vascular
cambium becomes active
a. Divides on both the inner and outer
surface of the vascular cambium
surfaces
3. Activity of the vascular cambium
a. New xylem cells are formed inwardly
b. New phloem cells are formed outwardly.

4. Eventually, they will become interfascicular

cambium.

Parallel division

Helianthus, a sunflower which has a herbaceous stem. It

has interfascicular cambium evident between vascular
bundles. Its fascicular cambium is not activate and does
not produce secondary xylem and phloem

5. The fascicular and interfascicular cambodia

formed and connected to form vascular
cambium, a continuous ring Cork cambium came from the cells of the cortex, mostly
parenchyma or parenchyma from primary cells of the
phloem or xylem.

Cork cambium together with the cork and phelloderm

form the periderm which replaces the epidermis.

Periderm = secondary tissue

- Replaces epidermis in roots and stems
- Consists of phellem (cork cells), phellogen, and
phelloderm
Phellogen
- Cork cambium
- Produces cork to the outside
 - Produces phelloderm to the inside Anatomy of cork formation
Phellem
- Corky tissues In the young stem (1 year old or less)
- Non-living suberized cells (prevents water a. Cortical cells just under the epidermis become
desiccation, waterproofing material) meristematic
- Produced by the cork cambium (phellogen) to b. Produces a layer 1-2 cells thick of cork cambium
outside of stem called the phellogen
Phelloderm
- Parenchyma-like cells
- Produced toward inside of stem by the cork
cambium (phellogen)

Structure and longevity of cork cells

1. Cork cells are flattened and cell walls contain
suberin, a waxy substance
2. In old stems (more than 1 year old, generally 3-4
years)
a. New cambium forms because the former
phellogen dies as it is crushed by
expanding xylem
b. Forms in the outer region of the
Forming the periderm
still-living phloem
1. Increase in diameter of the stem occurs due to
c. Reforms every - 1 to 4 years
activity of vascular cambium
d. It will contain a layer called the
2. Causes the protective epidermis to crack and
rhytidome (non-functional phloems and
split open
the old periderms)
3. Layer of cork cambium forms outside of the
phloem
4. Cylinders of cork cambium increase in diameter
as the stem increases in diameter.

Bark Formation
Phase 1: As the layers of cells outside the vascular
cambium die, they are sloughed off as bark
Phase 2: In the young stem the bark contains:
epidermis, cork, cork cambium, phelloderm, cortex, and
phloem Lenticels in Bark
Phase 3: In the old stem the bark contains: cork, cork 1. Cork - generally impervious to fluids and gases
cambium, phelloderm, and phloem 2. Special structures for gas exchange are required
to provide oxygen to the living cells of the
secondary growth region called lenticels
replacing stomata of the epidermis
Aging of Bark - Determine age of stem because texture of
1. Due to constant expansion of growing stem, spring and summer cells is different
bark must increase in girth
2. Old bark is continuously being pushed outward
a. Can be shed off from tree by sloughing
off
b. Sloughing results in unique bark
patterns

Part 4:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZPP31lez5m8

Characteristics of Wood (Secondary Xylem): Growth

Rings
Characteristics of Wood
1. Result of seasonal dormancy
Aging in wood
2. Growth - active in spring and tapers in summer,
a. Heartwood
ceasing in fall
i. Dump site for tree’s waste product
3. Spring/ Early wood - larger vessels, more
ii. Can rot away, leaving a hollow core
porous fewer, smaller rays
filled with a variety of substances (oils,
4. Summer/Late wood - denser, smaller cells,
gums, resins, tannins)
thicker walls
iii. Darker, denser more durable
iv. Supports a tree
Annual Rings
1. Spring or early wood - thick-walled cells
2. Summer or late wood - smaller cells with
thicker walls

b. Sapwood
i. Functioning secondary xylem towards
the exterior
ii. Usually light pale and weak
c. Conifer wood
Cells all look alike. No vessels, just tracheids. i. Some wood used commercials is from
conifers
Growth / Annual Rings ii. Conifers are often called softwood
1. Only tracheids , no vessels
2. Minimal parenchyma (appears
more uniform)
iii. Resin ducts (or canals)
1. Lined by a ring of parenchyma
cells
2. Defense mechanism
 3. Conifer tracheids have - Aloe, Agave (Tequila), Yucca, Dracaena,
prominent bordered pits along Cordyline
their walls
Secondary thickening meristem
- Novel cambium
- Derived from parenchyma of the cortex
- Inner: produces ground tissue and entire
vascular bundles
- Outer: Cortical Parenchyma
d. Dicot wood
i. Comprised of vessels, fiber and
parenchyma ray s
ii. Frequently referred to as hardwood (but
has no real meaning in terms of
strength)
iii. Large diameter vessels and more
numerous fibers

Consists of many vascular bundles and extensive

ground tissues.

Secondary Growth in Monocots

- Most monocots are small and herbaceous
- Generally, they lack secondary growth

- They say that the secondary thickening

meristem originates from the primary thickening
meristem. It is found close to the shoot apex.
(Ex. Coconut palm)
- Palms produce a wide procambium region →
large diameter base with may strong vascular
bundles and musch vascular parenchyma
- Secondary thickening meristem

Woody monocots
- Exceptions with secondary-like growth
 LECTURE 9: STRUCTURE OF THE ROOT
Summary:
PART 1:
1. The shoot system refers to the above ground https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mD1-eyBoYf4
structure which consists of the leaves and the
stem. Roots
2. The stems hold the leaves for support to be able ● Make up the underground portion
to for the leaves to maximize light interception. ● Functions:
3. The stems also function in conduction of the 1. Anchorage
food and water. 2. Absorb water and nutrients
4. The stems also serve as important storage. a. Not all parts have absorptive
5. The shoot is initiated in the embryo from the function. They absorb at young
epicotyl. portions of the root, where there
6. Epicotyl is the segment of a seedling which is is primary growth. Parts of the
above the point where the cotyledon is attached root where secondary growth
(epi-means above and -cotyl refers to the occurs, does not allow water
cotyledon). absorption due to the layer of
7. The opposite of epicotyl is hypocotyl which is the periderm.
segment of the seedling located below the point b. There is a solid core of vascular
where the cotyledon is attached. The shoot tissue which enables conduction
comes from the epicotyl, and it could have one of food
or more leaf primordia. 3. Conduct water, nutrients and food
8. The points where the leaves are attached are 4. Produce some some hormones
called the nodes. 5. Some roots are also important storage
9. The distance or the area between two nodes is organs. (e.g. cassava) → Moss, an early
called an internode, the intervals between two plant, does not have conducting tissues
nodes. unlike the angiosperms or
10. The axil is defined as the upper angle between a gymnosperms. They are not
leaf stock or any lateral structure in the stem. VASCULAR PLANT. They are simple
11. Anything that arises from the axil is called and small which means that they do not
axillary structure. require complex tissues. Instead of
12. There are different kinds of buds based on their having roots, mosses have rhizoid that
location. If the buds are located on the side of holds them down in a substrate.
the twig, usually in the axils they are called
lateral buds. If the buds are at the tip, it's called Types of Roots:
the terminal bud.The terminal buds are for 1. Primary roots - main root, originates from the
extending the length of the stem and the lateral radicle during development. Branches coming
buds are involved, it could be the production of from it are called secondary roots
branches or it could be the production of flowers.
_____________________________________________

2. Secondary or lateral roots - roots branching out

from the primary root
3. Adventitious roots - roots develop from stems,
leaves or other non root vegetative organs
 Patterns of root growth
1. Taproot system - Most eudicots, gymnosperms
2. Fibrous Root system - Seedless vascular plants
(ferns, selaginella, lycophytes), monocots
a. Adventitious roots
b. More shallow and horizontal
c. Common in dry regions - it has the
ability that when it rains, it is
immediately absorbed by the roots.

Roots originating from the stem (e.g corn)

PART 2:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GIgLrv6fCrE

Regions of the Root Apex

A - Bamboo; B, C - Grasses; D - Vine; E, F - Balete

The root has the matured top at the top and tip at the
trees: G- Pandan; J - Orchids
bottom which is the young portion of the root

Types of Root Systems:

Root Apex
1. Fibroid Roots - does not have a major root, and
● Bidirectional: produces cells towards and away
almost all have similar sizes and the main root is
from the axis (unlike the shoot apex which is
short-lived. It also has adventitious branching
unidirectional → away from the axis)
out of the stem.
○ Calyptrogen - root cap meristem: forms
2. Tap Root - it has a main root and secondary
the root cap which protects the young
roots branching off. There is an obvious long
delicate tip from abrasion
lived primary root.
● Presence of root cap
● Apical meristem is subterminal → terminal part
Both have a RADICLE which gives rise to a
is the root cap
primary root → primordial root originating from
the radicle. However, the radicle in fibrous root is
short lived and so when it dies, the root will not
originate from the stem. Basically, they are
adventitious roots arising from the stem.
 perception of gravity by roots. Grows towards
the direction of gravity or GRAVITROPISM

The root produces a “mucilage” which is a

slimy compound which covers the root and provides
lubrication so that the root can easily penetrate through
the soil.

Root Apex
● No lateral appendages comparable to leaves
and no branches (no counterpart for leaf
primordia; axillary structures)
● Branches are usually initiated beyond the region
of most active (from the region of maturation in
contrast with the shoot apex) Quiescent center
● Growth and arise endogenously (comes from ● 500-1000 seemingly inactive cells (relatively
the inside; unlike the shoot apex which comes slowly dividing)
out from the periphery) ● Arrested at G1 (part of the cell cycle, specifically
interphase, resting stage where cells are not
dividing. Cellular contents are duplicated.
● Divide once in 15-20 days
● Reservoir to replace damage meristems
● Organizes the patterns of primary growth in
roots

Root branch originating from the pericycle which

is found deep within the root tissue
● No nodes and internodes (uniform growth) →
since there are no lateral appendages, there will
be no nodes for point of attachment of leaves

Root Cap
● Protection and aids in penetration into the soil
● Peripheral cells (and epidermal cells) - secretes
MUCIGEL which is a polysaccharide with
vitamins, enzymes, and amino acids
● Mucigel functions for:
○ Protection
○ Lubrication
○ Water absorption (since mucigel is
slimy)
○ Nutrient absorption
● Columella cells (middle of the root cap) - contain
amyloplasts (stores starch grains).
Sedimentation of these involved in the
(Sub) Apical Region (region of cell division
● Can be divided into 3 regions
○ Zone of division
○ Zone of elongation
○ Zone of maturation
1. Meristem region (region of cell division)
○ 0.5-1.5mm behind root tip
○ Area where new cells are created by
mitosis
○ Divide every 12-36 hours
2. Region of Elongation
○ 4-10mm behind root tip
○ Area where cell grow in length (150x)
○ Long, vacuolated cells - makes the cell
elongate → vacuoles are big
3. Region of differentiation (maturation)
○ 1-5cm behind root tip
○ Has root hairs (an appendage;
extension of epidermal cells)
■ Increase surface area for
absorption

Protoderm - Epidermis
Ground Meristem - Ground Tissues (pith and cortex)
Procambium - Vascular Tissues (Phloem and Xylem)

PART 3:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kY8R-In4DmM

MATURE REGION

Mature Region: Epidermis

a. Originated from the Protoderm
○ Area where cells become specialized for b. Usually 1 cell thick
different jobs (i.e storage, protection, c. Cuticles are absent; since the root
transport, etc) needs to absorb lots of water.
d. Stomata is absent; since it is buried
down the soil
e. Outer layer of cells
f. Serves for protection and absorption
 1. Symplastic - movement of water and solutes
thru tissues by passing through interconnected
protoplasts and their plasmodesmata. MOVING
THROUGH THE LIVING PORTION OF THE
TISSUE
2. Apoplastic - movement in the free space (cell
walls and intercellular spaces) DOES NOT
PASS THROUGH THE PROTOPLAST; HAS
MORE FREE MOVEMENT (DOES NOT PASS
TO THE SEMI-PERMEABLE MEMBRANE: NO
SCREENING OF MATERIALS)

Mature Region: Cortex

g. Given rise by a ground meristem
h. The largest portion
i. Layers:
i. Exodermis/Hypodernis - Suberin
are laid in Casparian Strips Casparian Strips (found in the exodermis and
ii. PArenchyma cells - Storage endodermis) found in the transverse and radial wall
(spots are starch grains) 1. Impregnated with suberin and sometimes lignin
iii. Endodermis - Casparian Strip 2. Precludes the passage of water and solutes via
(lignin and suberin) : Surround the tangential wall.
the stele

Comparing the cortex (area between the epidermis and

the stele) in root and stem

The wall facing the page is the tangential wall. With that,
The cortex of the root is much wider compared to the
water can pass through the plasma membrane.
stem.

Endodermis
Pathways of water in the root (given that it is lined with
casparian strips)
 1. Casparian strip - diverts water and dissolved ii. Triarch - 3 lobes
minerals into the cytoplasm and endodermal iii. Tetrarch - 4 lobes
cells iv. Pentarch - 5 lobes
2. Symplastic movement before it passes to the
stele
3. Prevents leaks/backflow
4. Controls flow of water into the vascular cylinder

Mature Region: Stele (middle part)

1. Pericycle - layer surrounding the vascular
tissues; immediate layer after the endodermis
2. Vascular Tissues
3. Pith - is not always found

2. Roots of Monocots - siphonostele

a. A ring of vascular tissue surrounds a
pith
b. Polyarch - many lobes

3. Exarch arrangement of protoxylem

a. Protoxylem differentiates from the
outside
Pericycle b. Centripetal direction of maturation
● Meristematic tissues
● Produces branch roots (secondary or lateral
roots)
● Lateral appendages form endogenously

PART 4:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fqrdi6l7JyA - All are products of the primary xylem ; however
there are parts which matured earlier (early
Vascular Tissues formed: protoxylem). They have bigger diameter
1. Roots of dicots - protostelic - no pith in the and have lignified walls in comparison with the
middle. Solid core of vascular tissues in the later formed xylem (middle: metaxylem)
middle.
a. Procambium forms lobes, solid core of
primary xylem in the center
i. Diarch - 2 lobes
 4. Xylem and phloem in roots alternate with each
other (unlike in the stem where xylem and
phloem can be right next to each other)

Secondary growth in roots

● Usually in eudicots and gymnosperms
● Absent in monocots

The primary xylem stays in the middle while the vascular

cambium continues to add up vascular tissues which
increases the diameter of the root.

Periderm of the Root originated from the cork cambium.

Cork cambium was given rise by the pericycle, a
Cells that participate in the production of the vascular meristematic tissue.
cambium which will give rise to the secondary growth in
plants.
1. Cambium first appears on the inner side of the Roots do not have fibers → since they are underground
phloem (orange line) structures supported by the soil.
a. Cambial cells produced secondary
elements Over time, the cortex of the root and the stem are
2. Pericycle cells opposite the xylem lobes (yellow sloughed off as more and more tissues are produced by
lines) divide to form inner cambial cells the cork cambium and vascular cambium. Endodermis is
3. Cambial cells unite to form an undulating also sloughed off after the root has undergone
cambium in cross section secondary growth.
4. Development of secondary xylem on the inner
side of phloem precedes that of secondary The roots, like stems, produce vascular rays (axial and
xylem opposite the xylem lobes radial)
a. The inner cambial cells produce the
xylem elements first which pushes them The pith in the root is arises from the ground meristem
outwards. and procambium
5. Vascular become circular in cross section
Summary
1. Roots make up the underground portion of the
plant. This is in contrast with the above structures
of the plant which include the stem and the leaf.
2. Roots function for anchorage to hold the plant in
place.
3. Roots also absorb water and nutrients. However,
not all parts of the root are capable of absorption.
 Roots only absorb at the young portions of the root 20. There’s no lateral appendage comparable to the
where primary growth can be found. In areas where leaves and no branches in the root apex.
secondary growth occurs, absorption does not 21. Branches are usually initiated beyond the region of
occur because water does not diffuse through the the cell division.
periderm.
4. The third function of root is for the conduction of
The Apoplast and Symplast
water, nutrients, and food.
5. Roots produce some hormones. Plant growth depends on its ability to take up water and dissolved
6. Some roots also serve as storage organs. In some minerals from the soil. The root system of every plant is equipped with
the necessary tissues to facilitate the entry of water and solutes. The
plants the roots are swollen for storage purposes. A
plant tissues involved in the transport of water and minerals have two
good example is the cassava, whose roots are major compartments - the apoplast and the symplast. The apoplast
swollen because they are used for storage includes everything outside the plasma membrane of living cells and
purposes. consists of cell walls, extracellular spaces, xylem, phloem, and
tracheids. The symplast, in contrast, consists of the entire cytosol of all
7. The primary root is the one that originates from
living plant cells and the plasmodesmata - which are the cytoplasmic
the radical during development. channels interconnecting the cells.
8. The branches coming out from the main root are
called the lateral or the secondary roots. There are several potential pathways for molecules to move through
the plant tissues: The apoplastic, symplastic, or transmembrane
9. The adventitious roots developed from stems,
pathways. The apoplastic pathway involves the movement of water
leaves or other vegetative non-root organs. Any and dissolved minerals along cell walls and extracellular spaces. In the
root that would arise from a non-root organ is called symplastic route, water and solutes move along the cytosol. Once in
an adventitious roots this pathway, materials need to cross the plasma membrane when
moving from cell to neighboring cell, and they do this via the
10. The taproot system has a main root and
plasmodesmata. Alternatively, in the transmembrane route, the
secondary roots that branches off from the main dissolved minerals and water move from cell to cell by crossing the cell
root. In a taproot system, the primary root mostly wall to exit one cell and enter the next. These three pathways are not
persists throughout the life of the plant. mutually exclusive, and some solutes may use more than one route to
varying degrees.
11. Whereas the fibrous root system has no major
root that is bigger than everything else. Another potential route is the vacuolar pathway, but this route is mostly
12. In taproot you can see one big root and everything restricted to water molecule movement. Here, water moves through the
else is small; in fibrous root almost all the roots are vacuoles of plant cells through osmosis. The mechanism is similar to
the symplastic route, but instead of transport being limited to the
similar in sizes, and this is because there's no main
cytosol, the water passes through the vacuoles. Further, vacuolar
or primary root. transport is facilitated by two proton pumps - ATPase and PPase - that
13. The main root in the fibrous root system is short energize the solute uptake. Vacuoles also comprise specialized
lived and what usually occurs are adventitious roots transport proteins - the aquaporins - that participate in the transport of
water and solutes such as glucose and sucrose.
that come from the lower part of the stem.
14. In the taproot, the radicle gives rise to the main
root. In the fibrous root, there's also a radicle that
gives rise to the main root, but the radicle is
short-lived. When it dies, the root will now come
from it and will originate now with all it will arise
from the lower part of the stem.
15. What usually occurs in the fibrous root system are
adventitious roots that did not originate from the
radicle which is the primordial root.
16. The production of cells in the root apex is
bidirectional because it produces cells towards the
axis and away from the axis
17. The cells produced away from the axis produce the
root cap and the meristem involved is the
calyptrogen, the root cap meristem.
18. Because of the presence of the root cap, the apical
meristem of the root apex is subterminal.
19. The root also secretes mucilage, a slimy compound
that helps lubricate the roots for easier penetration
through the soil.
Lecture 10: Structure of the Leaf

Leaves: Form and Function

The plant body: Leaves

Function of Leaves
- Leaves are the solar energy and carbon dioxide
collectors of plants (main photosynthetic organ
of the plants)
- Carbon dioxide enters the stomata in
the leaves ● Bud is next to the node.
- Transport of assimilated material (material that
has been synthesized like sugars) Some plants, like the monocots, don’t have a stalk or a
- Transpiration (loss of water through the petiole, but have an expanded petiole called the leaf
stomata); allows for the movement of the water sheath, found at the base of the leaf.
from the soil, a pulling force of water, to move up
the stem.
- In some plants, leaves have become adapted for
specialized functions: (1) Some are succulent,
modified to store water, (2) Some are used for
climbing such as tendrils in vines. (3) Some
have spikes and spines, which have very small
surface area to be prevent water loss, seen in
cacti.

Leaves possess:
1. Blade or lamina
a. Apex, Base, Margin
b. Veins (vascular bundles) - leaves are
very thin which enables the bundles to
be seen
2. Petiole or Stalk
3. Stipules - leaf-like structures found at the base
of the leaf. Protects the developing bud.

Phyllotaxy - Studies the arrangement of leaves on a

stem
 1. Alternate - if there is a 1 leaf per node in the
stem
2. Opposite - 2 leaves per node opposite to each
other
3. Whorled - more than 2 leaves per node
4. Basal - stem is not too obvious at all since the
leaves are located at the base
b. Palmately-compound leaves - leaflets
attached at the same point at the end of
the petiole

Alternate, Opposite, Whorled, Basal

5. Decussate - special type of opposite phyllotaxy

wherein. 2 pairs of leaves are at right angles to
each other,

Leaf types:

1. Simple leaf - undivided blade with a single Pinnately-compound, Palmately-compound

axillary bud at the base of its petiole. (if there is
1 blade next to an axillary bud, then it is a simple How to figure out what a leaf is?
leaf) Axillary bud is always at the base of leaf (above
the petiole)

2. Compound - several blades next to an axillary

bud; blade divided into leaflets. Leaflets lack an
axillary bud but each compound leaf has a
single bud at the base of its petiole
a. Pinnately-compound leaves - leaves are
feather-like leaflets which occur in in
pairs; it has an extension of the stalk
where all the leaves are attached, a
structure called rachis
 ● Generally, there is a 1 layer of epidermis among
plants, except for those that contain multiple
epidermis found in xeromorphic plants - modified
there structure to adapt to an environment
where water is limited.

Leaves ● Epidermis originated from the protoderm. For

● Almost primary organs; they generally have the case of multiple epidermis, if they are all true
only primary growth epidermis, then they all originated from the
● The arrangement of tissues dictated by the protoderm. However, if some of the layers are
physical environment (e.g. water availability, light part of a hypodermis, just like in the case of the
intensity, ecological niche, and herbivores) specimen above.
● The first layer is an epidermal layer while the
Internal structure of the leaf lamina/blade layer beneath it is hypodermis → which is part of
1. Epidermis the mesophyll. These originated from the ground
2. Mesophyll (middle leaf) - sandwiched by meristem.
epidermis
3. Vascular Tissues - veins which traverse the Epidermis generally functions as an outside barrier. To
tissue of the leaves fully perform that, it has to be completely devoid of
intercellular spaces.
1. Epidermis of the leaf have these following
structures:
a. With cuticle - hydrophobic layer which
reduces water loss
b. Stomata - without the interstellar
cpsaces, the leaf needs to breathe
through these structures.
c. Trichomes - provides additional
structures by detring herbivory and also
prevents water loss.

Epidermis

● Leaves are flat: distinction between two surfaces

● Adaxial - clower to the internode above it; faces
upward
● Abaxial
 Mesophyll

● Originated from the ground meristem

● Consists of ground tissues specialized for
photosynthesis
● Parenchymatous; if specialized, two types:
○ Palisade
○ Spongy
● Chlorenchyma - parenchyma that contains lots
of chloroplasts

Palisade Parenchyma
- Elongated; rod shaped in cross section
- Arranged in rows
- Immediately below the epidermis (uni- or multi-
seriate/layers)
- On the adaxial surface

Spongy Parenchyma
- Presence of lobes
Gymnosperm - Pine leaf: Has a hypodermis and resin
- Larger volume of intercellular spaces
ducts
Photosynthetic Efficiency
Increased because:
● Majority of the chloroplasts are found in
palisade: adaxial surface which is the first one to
come in contact with the light
● Arrangement of palisade cells maximize
utilization of light
● Well-developed intercellular spaces - facilitates
rapid gas exchange; large surface area exposed
and contact with air (internal surface area - area
exposed inside the mesophyll) - easy diffusion of
gases. Veins
● Vascular bundles or and association on non
Types of Mesophyll vascular tissues that surround it
1. Dorsiventral or bifacial
a. Palisade on one side; spongy on the
other side
2. Isobilateral or isolateral or unifacial
i. Palisade present on both sides
3. Convergent or uniform
i. Mesophyll cells look the same;
no distinct palisade and spongy
parenchyma A dicot leaf has a large central vascular bundle called
the midrin.
● Usually have a bundle sheath (parenchymatous)
○ Inconspicuous in C3 plants (not very
obvious) - plants that undergo usual
photosynthesis
○ Enlarged in C4 plants - it is where the
carbon dioxide is stored. It is where the
 calvin cycle occurs to combat
photorespiration

● Larger bundles - lack sheath or with

sclerenchymatous sheath

Supporting Tissues of the leaf

Monocot leaves have parallel venation, when cut down 1. Epidermis - compact
they will have nice-looking veins. 2. Collenchyma - close to the larger veins
In stems, the xylem is inner and phloem is outer. But in a. Collenchymatous bundle sheath
the leaves, the XYLEM IS OUTER WHILE THE 3. Monocots - vascular bundles with fibers
PHLOEM STAYS IN INNER 4. Sclereids - found in some aquatic plants

Petiole
Veins are not obvious ● Similar with stem
● Epidermis continuous with stem
● Parenchyma contains a few chloroplasts
● Supporting tissues:
○ Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma
● Collateral vascular bundle (in the stem, it means
that xylem and phloem are right next to each
other)
○ Phloem found on the abaxial side;
bundles in ring (phloem external to the
xylem

VENATION - Arrangement of veins in a leaf

1. Netted-venation = common to eudicots and
some nonflowering plants
a. Pinnately-veined leaves
b. Palmately-veined leaves
2. Parallel Venation = veins are parallel to one
another, but meets at the tip
 ● Ex. Corns
○ Involution of leaves through bulliform
cells → reduces surface area

Other plants modified structures like the bulliform cells or

usually called the motor cells.they are epidermal cells
which have a relatively large vacuole which functions to
fold or roll, especially during dry conditions which helps
to reduce water loss.
●

Xerophytes
● Grow in arid habitats GYMNOSPERM LEAF
● Decreased transpiration under conditions of 1. Xeromorphic
water deficiency 2. Pinus, Cycas
● Structural adaptations to arid habitats 3. Presence of transfusion tissue and accessory
(xeromorphic plants) transfusion tissue
a. Transfusion Tissue: consists of
Specialization: Xeromorphic Plants tracheids and elongated parenchyma
● Small ratio of the external surface to its volume cells; characteristic of gymnosperms;
→ to lessen water loss passage of water and nutrient
● Small leaf side - less transpiration substances between the bundle and the
● Thick walls, cuticle, additional development of mesophyll
sclerenchyma
● Thick cuticle, multiseriate epidermis, stomatal
crypts (invagination in the lower epidermis),
abundant trichomes
● Some tendency to be isobilateral - it has two
palisades for both upper and lower epidermis
● Covered with trichomes
● Ex. Pine or Ficus
○ Has sunken stomata - found on the level
of epidermis
Pinus ● Has aerenchyma - parenchyma cells with large
● Thick walls and thick cuticle intercellular spaces
● Stomata are sunken and overarched by a ● Epistomatic (floating) - on the adaxial surface of
subsidiary cells epidermis
● Has hypodermis ● Root systems very reduced
● Mesophyll walls have ridge-like invaginations ● Vascular bundles are not complex and
into the cells (increase the surface area); contain well-developed
chloroplasts
● Transfusion tissue
● Endodermis

HOW DO LEAVES GROW?

Leaf Initiation → Leaf Buttress → Leaf Primordium →
Leaf Development

Leaf initiation
● Leaves originate from the apical meristems
Cycas
● Periclinal divisions on the sides of the
● Epidermal cell thick walled and thick cuticle
apex/peripheral zone of the shoot apex
● Stomata are sunken and abaxial surface
(outermost layer of the tunica)
● Hypodermis
● Vein surrounded by endodermis

Hydrophytes (Aquatic plants)

● Reduction of supporting and protective tissues
because they have the water to support their
weight
● Decrease vascular tissue especially xylem - so
that energy is less spent
● Presence of Air chambers - for storage of air
used for gas exchange. Sometimes it is used as
a floating device
● Cuticle is very thin - so water can just diffuse
through the epidermis
Leaf Buttress
● Protrusion as result of rates and plans of cell
division in the peripheral zone
● Initiate at the apex and in lateral buds
● Protoderm layer, inner mass of ground
meristem, and procambial strand.
● Leads to formation of mature leaves

Leaf Traces
● “Shoot” implies an intimate physical and
developmental association between leaves and
stems.
● At each node, one or more vascular bundles
diverge from the strands in the stem and enter
Leaf Primordium the leaf attached at that node in continuity with
● Protrudes as a result of continued cell division the vasculature of the leaf.
from the shoot apex as a buttress ● The Vascular bundle that will go towards the leaf
● Arise at sites that are correlated with the is called the leaf trace that will always leave a
phyllotaxis of the shoot space (Leaf gaps) from the point of diversion
which can still be filled with parenchyma cells.

Example: two primordia attached to one node -

OPPOSITE PHYLLOTAXY Anatomy of the Node
1. Leaf Trace - extensions from the vascular
Leaf Development system in the stem towards the leaves
● The leaf primordium will undergo lots of initials 2. Leaf trace gaps/interfascicular regions - the
before it becomes a mature leaf wide gaps or regions of ground tissue in the
○ Marginal Initials: Gives rise to adaxial vascular cylinder located above the level where
and abaxial epidermis leaf traces diverge towards the leaves
○ Submarginal Initials: Gives rise to all
internal leaf tissues

Origin of the Branches (also arise at the shoot tip)

● Buds - arise on the stem but become displaced
closer to the leaf base by subsequent growth
readjustments (that's why they appear at H)
● Axillary buds are initiated later than the leaves
subtending them (2nd or 3rd leaf) from the apex
● Detached meristems - meristematic tissue
derived from the apical meristem but separated
by vacuolated cells. (Axillary buds arise from
these)
Summary
1. Veins are defined as Vascular bundles plus the
non-vascular tissue that surround it.
2. The vascular bundles of the monocot leaf have
similar dimensions whereas in eudicot leaf, you can
find a one large central vascular bundle called a
mid-rib.
3. Veins have a bundle sheath which is
parenchymatous; it is where the vascular tissues
xylem and phloem can be found.
4. The bundle sheath of C3 plants is not obvious. That
type of plant undergoes the normal type of
photosynthesis.
5. C4 plants have specialized photosynthesis, and the
bundle sheaths are conspicuous where they store
the carbon dioxide.
6. Larger bundles lack sheath or with
sclerenchymatous sheath.
7. In monocots, conspicuous bundle sheath can be
observed; whereas in eudicot, the vascular bundles
are not conspicuous.
8. In the stem, the xylem is located inner compared to
the phloem in a collateral vascular bundle in a stem.
In the leaves, the phloem is located below the xylem;
xylem is outer and the phloem is inner in the leaves.
9. Venation – arrangement of veins in a leaf: netted
venation and the parallel venation.
10. One supporting structure of the leaf is the epidermis.
It holds the leaves together because it is compact.
11. Collenchyma tissues are found close to the larger
veins; collenchymatous bundle sheath.In monocots
the supporting tissue is fibers, you can find the
fibers surrounding the vascular bundles
12. Aquatic plants have supporting tissue in their
mesophyll called sclereids.
13. The petiole is similar with the stem and the
epidermis is continuous with the stem, but the
parenchyma contains a few chloroplasts.
14. Supporting tissues of the petiole are collenchyma
and sclerenchyma.
15. The xylem and phloem are next to each other in the
collateral vascular bundle.
16. The collateral vascular bundle in the petiole, the
phloem, is found on the abaxial side of the petiole. If
they're in bundles and they form a ring the phloem is
external to the Xylem just like in the stem.
17. Bulliform cells (also called motor cells) are
epidermal cells that have a very large vacuole, the
reason why they are much bigger than the other
epidermal cells.
18. When bulliform cells lose turgidity, the leaves fold.
Leaves can roll up during dry and unfavorable
conditions. This is enabled by the bulliform cells so
when leaves fold up the surface area reduces and
 reduces water loss. Xerophytes are plants living in 35. The stomata of a floating plant are distributed on the
an arid condition. upper surface of the epidermis. It would be harder
19. Leaves modified themselves depending on the water for the gas to diffuse if the stomata on the lower
availability so that they can adapt to the current epidermis are in contact with the water.
environmental conditions that they have. 36. Hydrophyte root systems are very reduced,
20. Xeromorphic plants – the ratio of the external especially the submerged one.
surface to its volume becomes small so the leaves 37. Leaves originate from the apical meristem and
become small or narrow to lessen water loss. specifically they emerge at the peripheral zones of
21. Also, xeromorphic plants have small leaf size to the shoot apex.
have lesser transpiration; they have thick walls, thick 38. At the shoot apex, periclinal divisions happen on the
cuticles, and additional development of side or the peripheral zone of the shoot apex that
sclerenchyma. leads to the production of the leaf buttress.
22. Sometimes they have multiseriate epidermis; 39. Leaf buttress is a protrusion that resulted from the
xeromorphic plants “hide” their stomata in stomatal cell division in the peripheral zone; initiated at the
crypts to lessen water transpiration. apex in lateral buds; develops to become a leaf
23. Xeromorphic plants have the tendency to become primordium.
isobilateral: it has two Palisades right, one on the 40. Leaf primordium arises from the sites correlated with
upper and on the lower. the phyllotaxy of the shoot; it leads to the formation
24. Some plants have sunken stomata (like in Pinus) of the mature leaf.
where it can be found on the second layer, the same 41. The marginal initials give rise to the adaxial and
level as the hypodermis. the abaxial epidermis; the submarginal initials give
25. Involution of leaves through the bulliform cells (found rise to everything inside the leaf tissue.
in corn and some monocots) enable the leaves to 42. Branches also arise at the shoot tip; branches start
roll to reduce surface area and save water. as a bud, but they become displaced closer to the
26. Transfusion tissue consists of tracheids, leaf base by subsequent growth readjustment. They
parenchyma and is a characteristic of gymnosperm. usually form later than the leaves subtending them,
It's a passageway of water in nutrients between the usually at the second or third leaf from the apex.
vascular bundle and mesophyll. 43. Axillary buds are initiated later than the leaves
27. Transfusion tissue is a term for a group of tissues subtending them. It can be observed that the axillary
that consists of parenchyma and vascular tissues buds arise from a meristem, called the detached
inside the endodermis. meristem.
28. The structures found in Pinus are similar to the
Light Acquisition
Cycas.
In order to produce glucose, plants need to capture sufficient light
29. Hydrophytes are aquatic plants that are submerged energy. Many modern plants have evolved leaves specialized for light
in water; they don't need a lot of supporting tissue acquisition. Leaves can be only millimeters in width or tens of meters
because the water supports their weight. Because wide, depending on the environment. Due to competition for sunlight,
evolution has driven the evolution of increasingly larger leaves and
they are immersed in water, there's a reduction of
taller plants, to avoid shading by their neighbors with contaminant
supporting and protective tissues in the hydrophytes. elaboration of root architecture and mechanisms to transport water and
30. Because hydrophytes are immersed in water, their nutrients.
epidermis does not have much cuticle or totally
Because larger leaves are more susceptible to water loss, the biggest
devoid of cuticle for the water can diffuse through
leaves are typically found in plants where rainfall is plentiful. In the
the epidermis. driest environments, chloroplasts of succulents are located in the stem
31. Hydrophytes have reduced vascular tissue of the plant, minimizing evaporation. The orientation of leaves to the
especially the xylem. sun can also influence light acquisition. In exceptionally sunny
environments, horizontally oriented leaves are susceptible to excessive
32. Presence of air chambers – could be a storage of air
dehydration. In these environments, like those of grasslands, leaves
for gas exchange. Sometimes the air chambers are may be oriented vertically to capture light when the sun is low in the
used for flotation if it is a floating aquatic plant. sky, thereby reducing sun damage.
33. Cuticles are very thin (in hydrophytes), also the
Light capture can also be optimized by the positioning of plant leaves
epidermis is almost devoid of the cuticle because it's
with respect to the stem; the arrangement of leaves on a stem is called
a waterproofing material. Less cuticle is easier for phyllotaxy. Alternate phyllotaxy describes the scenario in which a
the water to diffuse through the epidermis. single leaf emerges from a single position on the stem. Some plants
34. Aerenchyma are parenchyma cells that have large demonstrate opposite phyllotaxy, in which two leaves emerge in
opposing directions from the same location. Whorled phyllotaxy is
interstellar space.
when several leaves emerge from the same point on a stem. The plant
hormone auxin controls the pattern in which leaves emerge from the
plant stem.

The Leaf Area Index (LAI) is a representation of light capture efficiency.

By measuring the one-sided, horizontal surface area of the leaves on a
plant and dividing that by the horizontal ground area the plant covers, a
ratio is generated. Typically, a higher LAI indicates more efficient light
capture. However, over a LAI greater than seven appears to cause
shading and pruning of lower leaves, having no additional effect on
light acquisition. In practice, measurement of LAI is often accomplished
via satellite imaging and is used to measure the productivity of an
ecosystem.
The branches of the shoot are believed to originate from which of the following?
marginal initial
detached meristem
eaf primordium
submarginal initial

Question 2

1 / 1 pts

Which of the following statements is true about the leaf epidermis?

It is devoid of any pigments.

Stomata always occur on the abaxial epidermis.

It is devoid of trichomes.

It is always uniseriate.

Question 3

1 / 1 pts

Which of the following is true of Zea mays and the anatomy of its leave

It is an example of a C3 plant with a conspicuous bundle sheath.

 It is an example of a C4 plant with a conspicuous bundle sheath.

It is an example of a C3 plant with an inconspicuous bundle sheath.

It is an example of a C4 plant with an inconspicuous bundle sheath.

Incorrect

Question 4

0 / 1 pts

The vascular bundles diverging towards the leaf creates a segment in the stem stele that is
occupied by parenchyma cells instead of vascular tissues called which of the following?

interfascicular region or leaf gap

interfascicular region or leaf trace

leaf trace

leaf gap or leaf trace

interfascicular region

leaf gap

Question 5
1 / 1 pts

Arrange the following based on the correct order of leaf development.

A. Division in the tunica

B. Formation of a leaf

C. Formation of leaf buttress

D. Formation of leaf primordium

C-D-B-A

A-C-D-B

A-D-C-B

D-C-B-A

C-D-A-B

Question 6

1 / 1 pts
If leaflets arise from a single point on the petiole, the leaves are said to be which type?

simple leaf

either a palmately or a pinnately compound leaf

palmately compound leaf

pinnately compound leaf

Incorrect

Question 7

0 / 1 pts

Which of the following is present in both simple and compound leaves?

lamina, petiole, and rachis

rachis

lamina

lamina and petiole

petiole
Question 8

1 / 1 pts

In general, which of the following tissues can be found in leaves?

secondary xylem

primary phloem and secondary xylem

fascicular cambium

primary phloem

periderm

fascicular cambium, primary phloem, and secondary xylem

Question 9

1 / 1 pts

Generally, a monocot leaf has which of the following

reticulate venation, leaf sheath

parallel venation, leaf sheath

 parallel venation, leaf stalk

reticulate venation, leaf stalk

Question 10

0 / 1 pts

Leaf traces occur in which of the following?

Node and petiole

Node

Internode and petiole

Internode and node

Petiole

Internode