OCEAN SCIENCE SERIES

Sharks
The State of the Science
Executive Summary
The biological characteristics of sharks make them particularly vulnerable to overfishing. They grow slowly,
become sexually mature relatively late and produce few offspring. This vulnerability is reflected in the large
number of shark species that are considered to be threatened or endangered.
A review of the current scientific literature on the number of sharks killed per year, the causes of this
mortality, the status of shark species worldwide and the impact on ecosystems after large predators are
removed provides the following key points:
■■ Millions of sharks are killed every year to supply the fin trade. In 2000, for example, 26 million to 73
million sharks were killed for fins, corresponding to 1.21 million to 2.29 million tons of shark.
■■ Commercial fisheries targeting sharks occur throughout the world. Sharks are sought primarily for their
fins and meat but also for their cartilage, liver and skin.
■■ The highest numbers of reported shark landings are from: Indonesia; India; Taiwan, Province of China;
Spain; and Mexico.
■■ Shark bycatch is frequently reported in pelagic longline fisheries targeting tuna and swordfish and can
represent as much as 25 percent of the total catch. This bycatch is considered to be a major source of
mortality for many shark species worldwide.
■■ Blue sharks make up an especially large fraction of shark bycatch in pelagic fisheries (47–92 percent).
■■ The value of shark fins has increased with economic growth in Asia (specifically China), and this increased
value is a major factor in the commercial exploitation of sharks worldwide.
■■ Declines in population sizes of sharks, as much as 70–80 percent, have been reported globally. Some
populations, such as the porbeagle sharks in the northwestern Atlantic and spiny dogfish in the
northeastern Atlantic, have been reduced by up to 90 percent.
■■ The removal of large sharks can negatively impact whole ecosystems by, for example, allowing an
increase in the abundance of their prey (fewer sharks eat less prey), or influencing prey species through
non-lethal means, by causing behavioral changes to prey habitat use, activity level and diet.
■■ Live sharks have a significant value for marine ecotourism (for example, recreational diving, shark feeding
and shark watching) that is typically more sustainable and often more valuable than their individual value
to fisheries. Whale shark tourism, for example, is estimated to be worth $47.5 million worldwide.
Sharks
The State of the Science
Alexia C. Morgan, Ph.D.*

Introduction
The current literature identifies dramatic declines
How many sharks are
killed each year?
in population sizes for several species of sharks A recent quantitative study of the Hong Kong shark
worldwide. Sharks are susceptible to overfishing fin market found that the number of sharks killed
because of their life history characteristics, which to supply the fin trade in 2000 was 26 million to 73
include slow growth, slowness to reach matura- million, which corresponds to 1.21 million to 2.29
tion and few offspring (Cortés 2002; Heppell et al. million tons (Clarke et al. 2006a). This is the only
1999). The International Union for Conservation comprehensive estimate of worldwide shark catches
of Nature (IUCN) Red List designates 17 percent for any period (compared to other estimates that are
of assessed shark and ray species (of a total 1,045 not based on real data sets) and is three to four times
assessed species) to be Threatened (11 percent higher than the concurrent estimated shark capture
Vulnerable, 4 percent Endangered and 2 percent production data (volume of shark landings by coun-
Critically Endangered), 13 percent Near Threat- try of capture, species and year for all commercial,
ened, 23 percent Least Concern and 47 percent industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes)
Data Deficient (Camhi et al. 2009). compiled by the United Nations Food and Agri-
The status of individual shark species is often culture Organization (FAO) (Clarke et al. 2006a).
difficult to determine because of a shortage of The disparity between these estimates is probably
long-term data on fishing effort and species-specific because the FAO has only landing records (i.e., a
catches, landings and discards in commercial fish- shark is offloaded from a fishing vessel to another
eries (Anderson 1990; Stevens et al. 2000; Bonfil vessel or shoreside location/facility or to a port,
2005; Camhi et al. 2009). Sharks are targeted and dock, etc.) and has no data related to sharks that
caught as bycatch throughout the world’s oceans are unrecorded, recorded in non-shark categories
and in fisheries that include pelagic and bottom or discarded at sea (Clarke et al. 2006a). Indeed,
longlines, drift and set gillnets and trawls (Gilman Clarke et al. (2006a) note that their paper may have
et al. 2008; Camhi et al. 2009; Morgan et al. 2009). underestimated global catches of sharks because
Sharks are targeted primarily for their fins but also landings, particularly in Asia (e.g., Japan and
for their meat, cartilage and oils (Vannuccini 1999). Taiwan, Province of China), and discards of whole
One study of the global shark fin trade estimated sharks at sea may not have been accounted for in the
that 26 million to 73 million sharks were killed in analysis. For example, Bonfil (1995) estimated that
2000 to supply the fin trade (Clarke et al. 2006a). around 300,000 tons of sharks were caught annually
Ecosystem models and some field studies suggest as bycatch in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s and
that the removal of these top predators has the are therefore not reported or accounted for in fishing
potential to negatively impact marine ecosystems mortality estimates. The highest numbers of reported
(Stevens et al. 2000; Bascompte et al. 2005; Myers shark landings are from: Indonesia; India; Taiwan,
et al. 2007; Polovina et al. 2009). This document Province of China; Spain; and Mexico. Combined,
summarizes current scientific literature on the they accounted for 42 percent of the landings in
number of sharks killed per year, the forces behind 2007 (Camhi et al. 2009).
this mortality, the status of shark species worldwide Blue sharks (Prionace glauca) were the most
and the impact on ecosystems after large predators commonly represented species (17 percent) in the
are removed. Hong Kong fin market and it was estimated that
11 million (5 million-to-16 million range) blue
sharks were represented in the shark fin trade in

* alexia.morgan2@gmail.com
Sharks: The State of the Science 1
 2000. (Clarke et al. 2006a). Shortfin mako (Isurus for porbeagles (Campana et al. 2008) and spiny
oxyrinchus), silky (Carcharhinus falciformis), sand- dogfish (Wallace et al. 2009). The Pacific waters
bar (C. plumbeus), bull (C. leucas), hammerhead of Canada also have a directed longline fishery for
(Sphyrna spp.) and thresher (Alopias spp.) sharks spiny dogfish (Wallace et al. 2009). Off the coast
represented 2 to 6 percent at that market (Clarke et of Washington, Oregon and California, thresher (A.
al. 2006b). vulpinus) and shortfin mako sharks are targeted by
the drift gillnet fishery (Pacific Fisheries Manage-
Sharks are particularly The most significant causes ment Council 2008).
of shark mortality A demersal gillnet fishery in southern Western
vulnerable to over-
Australia targets young dusky (Simpfendorfer 1999a
fishing because of Commercial shark fishing and b; Simpfendorfer and Donohue 1998; Heald
Commercial fisheries targeting sharks occur 1987), sandbar and gummy (Mustelus antarcticus)
their slow growth,
throughout the world. Sharks are targeted primarily sharks (McAuley and Simpfendorfer 2003; Punt et
late sexual maturity, for their fins and meat but also for their cartilage, al. 2000). In New South Wales, large sharks (sand-
liver and skin (Vannuccini 1999). Well-documented bar, dusky and spinner [C. brevipinna], for example)
and small number
collapses of directed shark fisheries (where sharks are targeted in the ocean trap-and-line fishery
of offspring are the primary target) include: (Macbeth et al. 2009). New Zealand has targeted
■■ the spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) off Brit- fisheries for rig (M. lenticulatus) and school sharks
ish Columbia (Ketchen 1986) and the North (New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries 2008).
Sea (Hoff and Musick 1990; Holden 1968), In Mexico, fishermen use several types of gear,
■■ soupfin (or school) sharks (Galeorhinus galeus) including bottom and surface gillnets and longlines,
off Australia (Olsen 1959) and off California to target large and small coastal sharks (Holts et
(Ripley 1946), al. 1998; Pérez-Jiménez et al. 2005). In the state
■■ porbeagle sharks (Lamna nasus) in the North of Sonora, for example, landings from artisanal
Atlantic Ocean (Campana et al. 2008; Cam- shark and ray fisheries using bottom-set gillnets are
pana et al. 2001; Anderson 1990), typically made up of small sharks such as Mustelus
■■ sandbar and dusky (C. obscurus) sharks in the spp. (Bizzaro et al. 2009). Smooth hammerhead (S.
Northwest Atlantic (National Marine Fisheries zygaena), silky and blue sharks make up the major-
Service 2006; Cortés et al. 2006). ity of the catch at one fishing village, La Cruz de
Huanacaxtle, and scalloped hammerhead (S. lewini)
Directed shark fisheries are typically charac- and Pacific sharpnose (Rhizoprionodon longurio)
terized by a “boom and bust” pattern, wherein high sharks made up the majority of the catch at Isabel
initial catches rapidly diminish and the species is Island in the Central Mexican Pacific (Pérez-Jimé-
very slow to recover once the fishery is restricted. nez et al. 2005). Fishermen in these areas use a
In the southeastern United States, the pri- combination of bottom-fixed longlines and drift and
mary gear used to harvest coastal sharks is bottom bottom-fixed gillnets (Pérez-Jiménez et al. 2005).
longline (Morgan et al. 2009; Hale and Carlson Although these and other target shark fisheries
2007). Gillnet fisheries there also target sharks but are well-documented, there are many others world-
to a much lesser degree (Passerotti and Carlson wide about which little is known. Unfortunately,
2009). Historically, the bottom longline fishery has many of these fisheries operate in the Indo-Pacific,
primarily targeted sandbar and blacktip sharks (C. where shark biodiversity and endemism is high,
limbatus), and the gillnet fisheries have targeted which means that many obscure, range-restricted
blacktip sharks, although many other species of sharks may be in danger of biological extinction.
sharks are caught in both fisheries (Morgan et al. For example, India and Indonesia are two of the
2009; Passerotti and Carlson 2009). However, top shark-fishing nations by landings, but little
recent amendments to the Consolidated Atlantic is known about the species composition in these
Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan fisheries (Camhi et al. 2009). Fishermen in the
drastically reduced the directed shark fishery in the Maldives use longlines to target sharks, primarily
U.S. Atlantic after the abundance of several spe- catching silky sharks (Anderson and Waheed 1990).
cies declined severely (National Marine Fisheries Oman’s targeted shark fishery is well-established,
Service 2007a). but only recently has the fishery been described in
In the Northeast Atlantic, French and Spanish a published study (Henderson et al. 2007). Artisa-
longline fisheries target porbeagle and other pelagic nal fishermen in this fishery use bottom longlines,
sharks (Clarke et al. 2008). In the Northwest bottom-set gillnets and driftnets to catch a variety
Atlantic waters of Canada, directed fisheries exist of species, including the milk (R. acutus), bigeye

Sharks: The State of the Science 2

 houndshark (Iago omanensis) and spottail sharks A study by Morgan et al. (2010) determined that
(C. sorrah) (Henderson et al. 2007). McVean et more than 90 percent of the total bycatch observed
al. (2006) studied the directed shark fisheries of in the U.S. bottom longline fishery, targeting large
two villages in Madagascar and determined that coastal sharks (sandbar and blacktip), was made up
13 species of sharks, mostly hammerheads, were of other shark species.
represented in their catch. Studies like these on In Portuguese waters, sharks were caught as
other undocumented directed shark fisheries are bycatch in the trawl (Monteiro et al. 2001), pelagic
needed so scientists and managers can fully under- longline hake (Erzini et al. 2001), coastal trammel
stand the impact commercial fishing has on shark nets and semi-pelagic longline fisheries (Coelho et
populations worldwide. al. 2005). Sharks represented 33 percent of the total
catch in the semi-pelagic fishery, and of those, 68
Shark bycatch fisheries percent were discarded at sea (Coelho et al. 2005).
Bycatch can be defined as part of the catch that is Sharks have also been reported to make up a portion
not the targeted species and may be retained and of the bycatch in the south Brazilian gillnet monkfish
landed for sale. Bycatch is typically discarded at fishery (Perez and Wahrlich 2005), Gulf of Mexico
sea dead or released alive. High levels of shark shrimp trawl fishery (Shepherd and Myers 2005;
bycatch are a major issue for fishermen because of Martinez and Nance 1993), Australia’s northern
profit lost through depredation, damage and loss of prawn trawl fishery (Stobutzki et al. 2002) and indus-
fishing gear; risk to the crew while handling sharks; trial trawl fisheries off Northwest Africa (Zeeberg et
and time lost while crews remove shark bycatch al. 2006).
from the gear (Gilman et al. 2008). Because blue sharks are globally distributed
The amount of shark bycatch varies among in the pelagic zone and are very abundant, this
fisheries and typically depends on the gear used and species makes up an especially large fraction of
where the fishing grounds are (Gilman et al. 2008). shark bycatch in pelagic fisheries (Nakano and
High levels of shark bycatch have been reported in Seki 2003). For example, blue sharks represent
several pelagic longline fisheries that target tuna 50 percent of the Canadian pelagic longline tuna
and swordfish (Xiphias gladius) (Gilman et al. 2008; and swordfish fishery bycatch (Smith 2001); 47
Mandelman et al. 2008; Bailey et al. 1996; Herber percent of the total shark catch in the Australian
and McCoy 1997). This type of bycatch is con- longline tuna-and-billfish fishery; 82 percent of the
sidered to be a major source of mortality for many total shark catch in the U.S. Hawaii longline tuna
shark species worldwide (Mandelman et al. 2008; fishery; 92 percent of the total shark catch in the
Gilman et al. 2007). In general, shallow-set pelagic U.S. Hawaii longline swordfish fishery; more than
longlines and those that use wire leaders or squid 70 percent of the total shark catch in the Japanese
for bait have the highest levels of shark bycatch longline fishery; and 69 percent of the South Afri-
(Gilman et al. 2008). In pelagic longline fisheries, can longline tuna-and-swordfish fishery total shark
sharks can make up more than a quarter of the total catch (Gilman et al. 2008). In contrast, silky sharks
catch (target and bycatch) and of total bycatch. are the numerically dominant (31.4 percent) shark
For example, in the Western Pacific Ocean, sharks species in the southeastern U.S. pelagic longline
made up the majority of the bycatch (27 percent) fishery, followed by dusky (14.7 percent), night
(Bailey et al. 1996), and in the subtropical pelagic (C. signatus) (12.4 percent) and blue (9.4 percent)
longline fisheries, sharks made up 18 percent of the sharks (Beerkircher et al. 2002).
bycatch (Herber and McCoy 1997). Sharks made up
A recent study a fourth of the bycatch in the U.S. pelagic longline Recreational targeted fishing
tuna-and-swordfish fishery between 1992 and 2003 Recreational fisheries that target sharks are also
estimates that as 73
(Abercrombie et al. 2005). In the southeastern common in many areas, particularly in the United
million sharks have U.S. pelagic longline fishery, sharks represented States, Australia, New Zealand and the United
15 percent of the total catch from 1992 to 2000 Kingdom (Babcock 2008). Blue sharks are a main
been killed in a single
(Beerkircher et al. 2002). In the Australian longline component of recreational fisheries throughout the
year to supply the fin tuna-and-billfish fishery and the Fiji longline tuna North Atlantic, and other pelagic species such as
fishery, sharks represented more than 25 percent shortfin mako, porbeagle and thresher sharks are
trade, actual catches
of the total catch in 1999; in the Hawaii longline also of interest to anglers (Camhi et al. 2009). For
may be much higher swordfish fishery, sharks represented 32 percent of example, in Irish waters, blue sharks are consid-
the catch (Gilman et al. 2008). From 1998 to 2005, ered one of the largest and most valuable marine
sharks made up 16 percent of the total catch in the sportfishes (Fitzmaurice and Green 2000; Crum-
South African longline fishery (Gilman et al. 2008). mey et al. 1991) and in Canadian waters represent

Sharks: The State of the Science 3

 99 percent of sharks landed at recreational shark (Clarke et al. 2004b). Shark fins can be sold in sev-
fishing tournaments (Campana et al. 2005). Blue eral forms, including wet, raw, semi-prepared and
sharks have also been targeted by anglers in fully prepared; fin nets; and “ready to eat” (Verlecar
southwest England since the 1950s (Clarke et al. et al. 2007). Fins are graded by type, size and color,
2008). Shortfin mako, blue and thresher sharks each of which affects their price (Verlecar et al.
are commonly taken in recreational fisheries off 2007). In Hong Kong, fins are placed in 30 to 45
the East Coast of the United States (Babcock and market categories (Xiang et al. 2005). According to
Skomal 2008). In the South African province of Clarke et al. (2006b) and Abercrombie et al. (2005),
KwaZulu-Natal, dusky and milk sharks were the several of these market categories match individual
most commonly caught species (26 and 18 percent, shark species, suggesting that monitoring trade in
respectively) in the competitive shore recreational these categories could yield species-specific trade
fishery between 1977 and 2000 (Pradervand et al. data. Chapman et al. (2009) showed that fins from
2007), and bull (McCord and Lamberth 2009) and scalloped hammerhead sharks in the Hong Kong
sand tiger (Carcharias taurus) sharks (Dicken et market could be traced by their DNA back to their
al. 2006) are also reported to be a component of population of origin, a technique that could in the
the recreational shark fisheries in this region. In future be used to obtain region and species-specific
New Zealand, spiny dogfish, school, rig, mako and trade data. From 1985 to 1998, shark fin imports
blue sharks are caught in the recreational fishery to Hong Kong and Taiwan, Province of China,
(Francis 1998). increased by more than 214 percent and 42 per-
cent, respectively (Food and Agriculture Organiza-
Sharks are killed The driving forces behind tion 2001; Vannuccini 1999); and between 1991
shark fishing and 2000, trade in shark fins in the Chinese market
for their fins and
grew by 6 percent a year (Clarke 2004b). Shark fins
meat, and also Meat are considered one of the most valuable food items
Shark meat, which has been used as food in coastal in the world (Fong and Anderson 2002), reaching
for their cartilage,
areas for thousands of years (Vannuccini 1999), has prices as high as US$700 per kg (Clarke 2004b).
liver and skin become more popular (Gilman et al. 2007) but is A small number of trading centers in Asia account
less economically valuable than shark fins or meat for the majority of global sourcing of shark fins
from other more popular pelagic fish species, such (Clarke 2004b). The minimum value of the global
as tuna and swordfish (Anak 2002). For example, trade of shark fins has been estimated at $400 mil-
U.S. exports of shark fins in 2006 had a value of lion to $550 million a year (Clarke et al. 2007).
US$93.68 per kilogram, compared to fresh and fro- “Shark finning”—the practice of cutting off the
zen shark meat (US$2.09 per kg and US$1.94 per fins at sea and discarding the rest of the shark—
kg, respectively) (National Marine Fisheries Service is not synonymous with the shark fin trade. Shark
2009). Shark meat is more difficult to process than finning is illegal in several countries, including the
meat from most fish species because of its high urea United States, South Africa, Brazil, Costa Rica and
content (Vannuccini 1999), which also makes it less the countries of the European Union (Fowler et al.
marketable in many areas. However, shortfin mako, 2005). Several regional fishery management orga-
thresher and porbeagle sharks are considered high- nizations—including the International Commission
value species for meat in the European and U.S. for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT),
seafood markets and for sashimi in Asia (Vannuc- the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission and
cini 1999). Many smaller species such as the spiny the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (Camhi et al.
dogfish are also commonly utilized for food (Van- 2008)—have also declared shark finning illegal.
nuccini 1999; Ketchen 1986). Some shark species, Finning is also regulated through administrative
such as blue and hammerhead sharks, are targeted measures in Australia and Canada (Clarke et al.
specifically for their fins because of the poor quality 2006a); New Zealand (New Zealand Ministry of
of their meat (Vannuccini 1999). Fisheries 2009), and other countries are consider-
ing similar bans.
Fins There have been large declines in shark
The value of shark fins has increased in recent fin imports by Hong Kong from countries with
years with economic growth in China, and this shark finning regulations (Clarke et al. 2007). For
growth is a major factor in the commercial exploi- example, exports from the European Union dropped
tation of sharks worldwide (Clarke et al. 2007; by 30 percent after finning was banned, and U.S.
Clarke et al. 2004a). The shark fin trade in China is exports dropped by 54 percent after Hawaii out-
driven by economic, traditional and cultural factors lawed shark finning (Clarke et al. 2007). However,

Sharks: The State of the Science 4

 exports of shark fins from the United States to Hong from shark blood have been used in anticoagu-
Kong increased slightly after the ban on finning was lants, shark corneas are used in medical treatments
put in place in 2002 (Clarke et al. 2007). The effect (Bonfil 2002), jaws and teeth are sold as souve-
of shark finning regulations on the entire shark fin nirs, dogfish are used as dissection specimens and
trade is not completely understood (Clarke et al. sharks can be used in fishmeal and/or as fertilizer
2007). Factors such as changes in the economy, (Rose 1996).
shifts in trade from Hong Kong to mainland China
Shark bycatch can and the trade going underground due to increased What is the status of
regulations could account for some of these reported shark populations?
represent as much as
changes (Clarke et al. 2007). The unevenness of the Given high levels of exploitation and the general
25% of the total catch regulations complicates the situation. As additional life history characteristics of sharks (slow growth,
data become available, researchers will have an late age at maturity and few young), it makes sense
in pelagic longline
easier time determining what effect finning regula- that many shark species would be in decline. Dulvy
fisheries targeting tions have had on the shark fin trade as a whole. et al. (2008) used the IUCN (International Union
for Conservation of Nature) Red List Categories and
tuna and swordfish
Oil, cartilage and other products Criteria (www.iucnredlist.org) to determine the sta-
Several parts of sharks, including cartilage and liver tus of 21 pelagic shark and ray species commonly
oil, are being investigated for their use in combat- caught in high seas fisheries. Eleven species were
ing human illnesses (Walsh et al. 2006; Ostrander considered Globally Threatened (Critically Endan-
et al. 2004) and medicinal and other uses. The liver gered, Endangered or Vulnerable):
oil has been studied for anti-cancer effects in mice ■■ whale shark (Rhinodon typus),
(Hajimoradi et al. 2009), treatment of conditions ■■ pelagic thresher (A. pelagicus),
resulting from poor immune responses (Lewkowicz ■■ bigeye thresher (A. superciliosus),
et al. 2006), as an adjunct to a vaccine that stimu- ■■ thresher,
lates the immune system, as a treatment for some ■■ basking (Cetorhinus maximus),
types of cancer (Lewkowicz et al. 2006) and for ■■ great white (Carcharodon carcharias),
treatment of bacterial, viral and fungal infections ■■ shortfin mako,
(Lewkowicz et al. 2005). Squalene, found in the ■■ longfin mako,
liver oil of all sharks, has been used in many prod- ■■ porbeagle,
ucts, including cosmetics, other health and beauty ■■ oceanic whitetip.
products and fuel for street lamps, and in the pro-
duction of vitamin A (Vannuccini 1999). Squalene Five species were considered Near Threatened,
is an adjuvant that stimulates the immune system two as Least Concern and three as Data Deficient.
and is used in several vaccines, including some for More generally, the IUCN Red List classifies 17
the H1N1 flu virus (Clark et al. 2009), malaria (Saul percent of assessed shark and ray species (of a total
et al. 2005; Fox 2009) and is being used in clinical 1,045 species) as Threatened (11 percent Vulner-
trials for hepatitis B, human papilloma virus and able, 4 percent Endangered and 2 percent Criti-
tuberculosis (Fox 2009). Additionally, shark liver cally Endangered), 13 percent Near Threatened, 23
oil has been shown to deter seabirds from longline percent Least Concern and 47 percent Data Deficient
fishing gear (Pierre and Norden 2006). (Camhi et al. 2009).
Shark cartilage is used as a dietary supplement Recent stock assessments and a variety of
to aid in joint ailments (Sim et al. 2006). Gelatin studies in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean have found
has been extracted from shortfin mako shark carti- declines in many shark species. For example,
Shark populations lage (Kwak et al. 2008), and research has suggested sandbar sharks have been depleted by 64 to 71 per-
that shark cartilage may be a good candidate for cent from unexploited population levels (National
have been reduced
studies on cancer therapy because it inhibits vessel Marine Fisheries Service 2006), and dusky sharks
by 90% or more growth (Walsh et al. 2006; Hassan et al. 2005). have declined by at least 80 percent from unex-
However, study results have been mixed, with some ploited population levels (Cortés et al. 2006). Both
in some regions
indicating that shark cartilage has no positive effect species are considered overfished (National Marine
in cancer treatment (Loprinzi et al. 2005). It is Fisheries Service 2009). Declines in the abundance
generally thought that components of shark carti- of hammerhead sharks (S. lewini, S. mokarran and
lage may inhibit cancer growth but that unrefined S. zygaena) of about 70 percent since 1981 have
extracts are not effective (Ostrander et al. 2004). also been reported in this region (Jiao et al. 2009).
In addition, shark skin is used as leather (Anak Hayes et al. (2009) determined that there was a
2002) and as food (Vannuccini 1999). Extracts high probability that the population of scalloped

Sharks: The State of the Science 5

 hammerheads was overfished in 2005 and that the that reef shark populations inside areas with high
population had declined by 83 percent from 1981 fishing pressure are diminished relative to protected
to 2005. The population of blacknose sharks was areas on the Great Barrier Reef.
estimated to be overfished and at about 20 percent Although the population status of some shark
of unexploited levels in 2005 (National Marine species is well understood, there are still a large
Fisheries Service 2009; National Marine Fisheries number of species about which little information on
Service 2007b). The population of porbeagle sharks population status is available. This lack of informa-
appears to have “crashed” for the second time since tion is largely due to deficiencies in long-term time-
1967—it is at 10 to 20 percent of “virgin” levels series data on fishing effort, catches, landings and
(Campana et al. 2008) and is considered over- discards in commercial fisheries (Anderson 1990;
fished (National Marine Fisheries Service 2009). Stevens et al. 2000; Bonfil 2005; Camhi et al. 2009)
Additionally, North Atlantic shortfin mako shark and highlights the need for the continued collection
populations are at about 50 percent of virgin levels of these data on a species and region-specific basis.
(International Commission for the Conservation of
Atlantic Tunas 2008) and appear to be approach- The fate of an ecosystem when
ing an overfished status (National Marine Fisher- top predators such as sharks
ies Service 2009). In the Northeast Atlantic, the are lost
population of spiny dogfish is less than 10 percent The loss of top predators has been shown to cause
of unexploited levels (International Council for the dramatic shifts in ecosystems and communities in
Exploration of the Sea 2006). Large declines in the marine and terrestrial realms. Sharks are top
catch rates of several pelagic shark species have predators and thus ecologically important in most
also been reported (Baum et al. 2003; Baum et marine ecosystems (Libralato et al. 2005), where
al. 2005; Baum and Myers 2004). These studies they are thought to play a major role in maintain-
suggest severe declines have occurred in ham- ing ecosystem structure and function (Piraino et al.
merheads, silky, oceanic whitetip (C. longimanus) 2002; Stevens et al. 2000). The removal of sharks
and longfin mako (I. paucus) sharks among others. may drive an increase in prey abundance, which
Further research indicates that shortfin mako, silky, can cause a cascade of indirect effects, including
oceanic whitetip and longfin mako sharks are highly changes to the abundance of other organisms (Baum
susceptible to overexploitation by pelagic longlines and Worm 2009; Myers et al. 2007; Duffy 2003;
(Cortés et al. 2008; Simpfendorfer et al. 2008). Schindler et al. 2002).
In the Indian Ocean, analysis of data collected The ecological effects of shark removal can be
from the protective gillnet program off KwaZulu- difficult to research and quantify. Several stud-
Natal beaches in South Africa from 1978 to 2003 ies have attempted to do so through quantitative
revealed significant declines in catch rates for ecosystem modeling.
bull, blacktip and scalloped and great (S. mokar- For example, modeling of Caribbean coral reef
ran) hammerheads (Dudley and Simpfendorfer ecosystems suggests that the loss of large preda-
2006). The biomass of sandbar sharks caught in tory sharks may increase large piscivorous fish,
the northern shark fisheries off Western Australia which then leads to the decline of herbivorous fish
is considered depleted and is estimated to be about (Bascompte et al. 2005). In the North Pacific, an
35 percent of virgin levels (McAuley 2008a). The increase in short-lived and fast-growing species—
status of gummy sharks in the Western Australia mahimahi (Coryphaena hippurus), sickle pomfret
demersal gillnet and longline fishery is considered (Taractichthys steindachneri), escolar (Lepidocy-
Removing sharks can to be acceptable, while the populations of dusky bium flavobrunneum) and snake mackerel (Gempy-
and sandbar sharks caught in this fishery are con- lus serpens)—occurred after longline fishing caused
negatively impact
sidered depleted and the whiskery shark (Furgaleus a decline in several top predators (blue sharks and
entire ecosystems and macki) population is recovering (McAuley 2008b). tunas [Thunnus spp.]) (Polovina et al. 2009). Model-
In the Pacific Ocean, research on coral reef atolls in ing of an ecosystem in the French Frigate Shoals
marine foodwebs
the northern Line Islands found that areas unin- showed that the removal of tiger sharks caused reef
habited by humans (Kingman Reef and Palmyra shark, sea turtle and seabird abundance to increase,
Atoll, for instance) had reef systems dominated by while tuna and jack abundance decreased (Stevens
top predators such as sharks, while populated areas et al. 2000).
(such as Tabuaeran and Kiritimati) were dominated Other modeling studies have examined concur-
by small planktivorous fish (Sandin et al. 2008). rent time-series of abundance for sharks and other
Robbins et al. (2006) and Heupel et al. (2009) show ecosystem components to infer the effects of shark

Sharks: The State of the Science 6

 removal. Myers et al. (2007) correlated declines in often difficult to document. It is therefore important
the abundance of sharks in the coastal Northwest that shark populations be managed to reduce the
Atlantic with increases in several ray species. They possibility of lethal and nonlethal effects of shark
implicated one of these, the cownose ray (Rhi- removal on organisms, communities and ecosystems
noptera bonasus) in the decline of the bay scallop (Heithaus et al. 2008).
due to increased predation rates (Myers et al. 2007).
Live sharks have a They further suggested that this cascading effect How do sharks economically
may also eventually inhibit the recovery of hard benefit sectors other
significant value for
clams, soft-shell clams and oysters in the region. In than fisheries?
marine ecotourism a similar analysis for the northern Gulf of Mexico, Live sharks have a significant value for marine
shrimp trawling appears to have removed large ecotourism (for example, recreational diving, shark
sharks, which resulted in an increase in deeper- feeding and shark watching from boats) that is typi-
water sharks (Atlantic angel [Squatina dumeril] and cally more sustainable and often higher than their
smooth dogfish [M. canis]) (Shepherd and Myers individual value to fisheries (Rodriguez-Dowdell et
2005). Schindler et al. (2002) determined that al. 2007; Newman et al. 2002). Among the places
removing blue sharks through commercial fishing where shark ecotourism can be found are the
had a large impact on the food web structure of the Bahia de los Angeles conservation area in Mexico
pelagic Pacific Ocean. (Cheng 2009; Rodriguez-Dowdell et al. 2007), the
Predators such as sharks can also influence the Seychelles off East Africa (Rowat and Engelhardt
populations of prey by causing behavioral changes 2007; Cheng 2009), South Africa (Hara et al. 2003),
(Creel and Christianson 2008), including modi- the Philippines (Newman et al. 2002), Phuket,
fied activity level, diet and habitat use (Heithaus Thailand (Bennett et al. 2003), Maldives (Anderson
et al. 2007). These behavioral changes can affect and Ahmed 1993), Belize (Graham 2004) and Nin-
how prey utilize resources within an ecosystem galoo Marine Park in Western Australia (Newman et
(Heithaus et al. 2007). Field research has been al. 2002). Indeed, Carwardine and Watterson (2002)
conducted on what effect nonlethal changes have document more than 200 shark dive tourism opera-
on habitat use, activity level or diet caused by tions around the world.
the presence and absence of sharks (Heithaus et Although many shark species are the focus
al. 2007). For example, in Australia’s Shark Bay, of marine ecotourism (Carwardine and Waterson
dugongs (Dugong dugon) optimize foraging tactics 2002), large charismatic species yield the highest
Whale shark tourism, and habitat use based on the abundance of tiger revenue. It has been estimated that whale shark
sharks. When the sharks are not abundant, dug- tourism, mainly through recreational diving, is
mainly through
ongs spend more time foraging on seagrass and worth about $47.5 million worldwide (Graham
diving, is estimated stay closer to the interior of the bay (Wirsing et al. 2004). In the Ningaloo Marine Park, participants
2007a; Wirsing et al. 2007b). Green sea turtles paid about AU$3,198 apiece in 1995 to participate
to be worth $47.5
(Chelonia mydas) in this area move to safer habitats in whale shark tours, and it was estimated that the
million globally that have nutrient-poor seagrass when tiger sharks industry value of these tours was between AU$6.4
are abundant (Heithaus et al. 2007). Removing tiger million and $12.8 million from 1995 to 2000
sharks from this ecosystem would therefore change (Newman et al. 2002). Another study found that in
the distribution of grazing species and their foraging 2006, participants spent AU$6 million on whale
behavior, which could in turn change the distribu- shark tours at the park, which added about AU$2
tion and abundance of sea grass. Nonlethal effects million to $5 million to the regional economy (Jones
of sharks on their prey are likely to be important et al. 2009). The value of whale shark encounters
and widespread, and as such, shark removals may in the Seychelles was about US$5 million during
have large effects on ecosystems and communities a 14-week season (Rowat and Engelhardt 2007).
beyond those that stem from trophic cascades (the In Phuket, Bennett et al. (2003) estimated that
cascading effect that a change in the size of one whale sharks were a US$110 million resource and
population has on the populations below it in the were reported to be the third most important reason
food web). divers visited the area. In Gansbaai, South Africa,
Combined, these findings illustrate the intri- shark-diving tourists typically spend R$1000/
cate relationship between predatory sharks, their day and shark-diving operators brought in R$30
prey and the ecosystems they share. Changes in million annually in 2000/2001 (Hara et al. 2003),
shark abundance can impact ecosystems in signifi- and Belize reported an economic return of US$3.7
cant ways that at this time are unpredictable and million annually from whale shark ecotourism

Sharks: The State of the Science 7

(Graham 2003). In Australia, the value of each Conclusion
living whale shark was estimated at AU$282,000 The exploitation of sharks in commercial fisheries
(Norman and Catlin 2007), and in Belize the worth for their fins, meat, liver oil, cartilage and other
was US$2.09 million over a shark’s lifetime, or parts has led to large declines in the popula-
$34,906 a year (Graham 2004). In the Maldives, tion sizes of many species of sharks worldwide.
individual grey reef sharks (C. amblyrhynchos) were Although the Asian fin market has increased the
estimated to have an annual value of US$33,500 in monetary value of sharks in commercial fisheries,
1993 (Anderson and Ahmed 1993). In 2005, whale shark ecotourism has increased the value of live
shark ecotourism created 300 jobs, an increase in sharks in many areas of the world. Removing sharks
annual income and an economic return of about from the ocean has been shown to have a variety of
US$623,000 in Donsal, Philippines (Quiros 2005). effects on an ecosystem, including increasing the
Despite the large economic incentive associated abundance of prey species or causing behavioral
with shark ecotourism, there are potentially several changes. The overall effects of these losses are
long-term risks to the sharks that can occur without not well known, however, because of difficulties
proper management and visitor guidelines, includ- associated with this type of research. This report
ing mortality, injury, stress, disruption of feeding has provided an overview of the literature bearing
patterns and mating behaviors, and changes to on these and other issues and highlights the need
migratory pathways (Mau 2008; Quiros 2006). for continued research on the effects of commercial
exploitation of shark populations worldwide.

Bascompte, J., C.J. Melián and E. Sala. 2005. Interaction

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Suggested citation: Morgan, A.C. 2010. Sharks: The State of the Science. Ocean Science Division,
Pew Environment Group, Washington, DC.
Photography: © Pasquale Pascullo, http://ppfotos.com/

Sharks: The State of the Science 12

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