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Photoelectric effect
What is the photo electric effect? If we shine a light on a metal, then the metal produces electrons.

The electrons are released from the surface of the metal. This seems very simple. However, the way
in which the electrons are released at the particle level is very strange and didn’t fit with the idea that
light was a wave.

It was Einstein who finally came up with the idea that the effect could be explained by assuming that
the energy in the light was bundled up into packets or quanta called photons. The energy of each
photon is directly proportional to the frequency of the light.

Earlier research by Von Lenard had shown that different metals required a different minimum
frequency to start producing electrons. Below this frequency no electrons would be emitted no
matter how intense the light source.

Above the minimum frequency, an increase in intensity leads to an increase in the number of
electrons being released. This indicates that the intensity is merely a measure of the number of
photons being emitted by the light source. Each electron that is released from the metal is the result
of the absorption of a single photon. It follows that if you have more photons then more electrons will
be released. Increasing the frequency beyond the minimum value, results in electrons being
released that have an increased kinetic (movement) energy.

In other words, the energy in the photon is split between the initial amount of energy to release the
electron and the amount that is left over to become the kinetic energy of the electron. This initial
energy required to release an electron is known as the work function. This is the minimum energy
that is required just to get the electron out of the metal.

In simple equation format we have:

Energy of photon = work function + kinetic energy of electron

hf = φ + Ek

Ek is the kinetic energy of the electron in joules

f is the frequency in Hz

h is planck's constant: 6.626x10-34 m2 kg/s

φ is the working function in joules

Example

Beryllium has a work function of 2.9eV.

If a photon of energy 10eV releases an electron from the metal then what is the electron's kinetic
energy.

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hf = φ + Ek

Ek = hf - φ

Ek = 10 - 2.9

Ek = 7.1eV

Example

A photon of frequency 9.5x1015 Hz releases an electron from the same beryllium sample.

Calculate the kinetic energy of the released electron.

hf = φ + Ek

Ek = hf - φ

Ek = 6.63 x 10-34 x 9.5 x 1015 - 2.9eV

Ek = 6.63 x 9.5 x 10-34+15 - 2.9eV

Ek = 62.985 x 10-19J - 2.9eV

Ek = (62.985 x 10-19J) / (1.6 x 10-19)eV - 2.9eV

Ek = 39.37eV - 2.9eV = 36.47eV

Threshold frequency

In 1886 and 1887, Heinrich Hertz (Yes, the guy that the unit of frequency is named after) discovered
that ultraviolet light can cause electrons to be ejected from a metal surface. According to the
classical wave theory of light, the intensity of the light determines the amplitude of the wave, and so
a greater light intensity should cause the electrons on the metal to oscillate more violently and to be
ejected with a greater kinetic energy. In contrast, the experiment showed that the kinetic energy of
the ejected electrons depends on the frequency of the light. The light intensity affects only the
number of ejected electrons and not their kinetic energies. In the experiment he discovered that no
matter how bright a red light he shone on the metal, no electrons were emitted. It was only when the
frequency got into the ultraviolet region that electrons started to be emitted.

The frequency at which a metal begins to emit photons is known as the threshold frequency. This
was a major turning point in physics. Up till this point it had been established that light was a wave. It
exhibited all the wave characteristics including interference. However, this experiment indicated that
light was behaving as a stream of particles rather than waves.

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Why the photoelectric effect is significant

If we consider waves on water, then we can get a better idea of the significance of the photoelectric
effect.

One way of looking at the release of electrons is to consider the electrons as being at the bottom of
a well. To get the electrons out of this well we need to supply energy in much the same way as you
would if you were raising up a bucket of water.

Moving on from this, let’s imagine a beach ball floating next to a quayside:

The amplitude of a wave (the vertical height of the ripples) is a measure of the energy it is carrying.
To get the beach ball up on to the quayside we would need waves with a big enough amplitude to
come along. Waves that were as high as the quayside itself.

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Now the waves have the necessary energy to put the ball onto the quayside. If light was truly a
wave, then electrons would be lifted out of the metal by making sure we had a brighter light – a more
intense light – a bigger amplitude.

Yet, this isn’t what happens. In fact, increasing the brightness doesn’t lead to electrons being
released. Instead, what we find is that even the weakest light source that uses light of a frequency
above the threshold frequency is enough to start producing electrons.

It’s rather like this:

This greater frequency has enough energy to get the electrons out of the metal.

In order to explain this effect, we have to think of the energy in the light being packaged up into little
lumps, particles, quanta and that the energy of each lump is dependent on the frequency. These
lumps of light are known as photons. They are, in effect, particles of light.

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Collisions of electrons with atoms – ionisation and excitation

Gases can be ionised by directing a beam of electrons through them. Effectively the beam of
electrons dislodges electrons orbiting the nucleus of atoms in the gas creating a positively charged
atom.

Sometimes the collision between the electron and the atom does not result in ionisation. Instead the
atom becomes excited. By this we mean that one of the electrons orbiting the atom is boosted into a
higher energy orbit. The energy for this boost comes from the kinetic energy of the colliding photon.
In the process some of this kinetic energy is transferred and becomes potential energy in the
boosted electron. This loss of kinetic energy effectively means that the collision is inelastic (more on
this later in the course).

Almost always, this new boosted orbit is unstable, and the electron jumps back down to a lower
energy level. In the process it releases the energy it gained as a photon. This process is made use
of in a very common household device – the fluorescent tube. Initially these lighting devices were
mainly used in offices and factories. However, they have recently become commonplace in the
home due to their energy saving qualities. An ordinary incandescent light bulb relies on heating up
the metal filament to make it glow. This means that a considerable amount of energy is wasted as
heat. A typical 11W fluorescent bulb produces a similar amount of light as a 100W incandescent
bulb. In the near future, however, the future of lighting is likely to be dominated by LED technology.
So how does a fluorescent tube work?

When the tube is switched on, a high voltage is produced between two electrodes. This causes the
release of free electrons into the tube. These flow from one end of the tube to the other causing
ionisation and also vaporising the liquid mercury in the tube. Many of these free electrons cause
excitation of the mercury atoms. These excited atoms then go on to de-excite as the orbiting
electron falls into a lower energy state. The emitted photon from this process is in the UV range. The
photons produced go on to cause the phosphor atoms in the white coating inside the bulb to become
excited. As these de-excite they fall back to a variety of energy levels producing a broad spectrum of
photon frequencies, effectively producing white light.

Energy levels and photon emission

We are all familiar with the idea that electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom. In a way, we think of this
as being like a satellite orbiting the Earth. With a satellite, we can get it to move into a higher orbit by
switching on its engines to increase its speed – its kinetic energy. Likewise, we can decrease its
orbit by firing the thrusters at the front to slow it down. By using the engines, we can position the
satellite at any orbit we wish. We can even manoeuvre them up and down very gradually so that we
can get them to meet up with other satellites. We can choose the orbit minutely.

But, electrons orbiting the nucleus can’t do this. They can only exist in certain orbits. They can’t exist
in any orbits between these very specific orbits. In order to move from one of these specific orbits to
another, the electron must either absorb a photon of exactly the right energy (frequency) or emit a
photon of the right energy.

Each element, or even compounds have very specific orbits for their electrons that are unique to that
substance. The orbits that are permitted for electrons around a hydrogen nucleus are quite different
to those around a helium nucleus for example.

If we heat up a gas, then the electrons around the nuclei of that gas become excited. They move
into higher orbits. Some of these electrons will fall back into lower orbits. As they do this they emit
photons of very specific frequencies (energy). By looking at the glowing gas through a device such
as a spectrometer, we can see coloured lines. Each line represents a frequency resulting from an
electron falling from one specific orbit to another.

Take a look at this spectrum from a sample of glowing hydrogen gas:

The red line is due to an electron falling through a small energy difference from one orbit to another.
The violet lines are due to electrons falling through a much larger energy difference.

According to Neils Bohr these patterns can be explained by electrons jumping from one energy level
to another:

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In this example, we have three energy levels allowing three possible transitions. The transition that
leads to the greatest release of energy is b. This transition would produce a photon at a higher
frequency than the other two. In the example we have looked at, hydrogen, this would be the violet
line. The spectra emitted by substances are very unique and act like fingerprints for each substance.
Here, for example, is the helium spectrum:

You can see it is much different from the hydrogen spectrum.

If we saw this spectrum in a far distant star, then we would know that the star contained the element
helium. In fact, helium was first discovered due to its spectrum being noticed within the Sun
spectrum. Scientists noticed a set of strong lines that they couldn’t explain. It didn’t belong to any of
the substances already investigated on Earth. This new substance was given the name helium

Have a look at the spectra shown here:

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You can see that they are all different. Each spectrum is unique to each of these elements. Looking
at the neon spectrum, you can see that it has a lot of red lines. This is why neon lights appear red.

If we shine white light through a gas, then the electrons absorb photons to move into higher orbits.
Remember that these orbits are fixed. Remember that each element or substance has its own set of
unique, specific orbits. As a result, the photons that are absorbed have exactly the same energies as
the photons that are emitted when an electron falls to a lower orbit.

You can see this comparison of emission and absorptions spectra in this diagram:

In fact, if we look at the sun’s spectrum we notice that it has a huge number of absorptions lines:

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The absorption lines are due to all the different elements in the sun’s atmosphere and also the
elements and compounds in our atmosphere. Photons are absorbed by the gasses in our
atmosphere as the sun’s light travels to us. We can work out the energy of the photons that are
released by any particular orbit transition by using the equation:

hf = E1 - E2

Where:

h is Planck's constant

f is the frequency of the photon in Hz

E1 is the energy of the higher energy level and E2 is the lower energy level.

Generally, when we draw diagrams to show the permitted energy levels we do not show them as
circular orbits. Instead we draw them like:

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Notice that the energy levels become more closely packed the further out we get from the atom.
Also, the values given for the energy levels at the sides are negative (these are made up values just
for this diagram and not real values). They are negative because, we have to think about how much
energy we have to put into the electron to release it from the grip of the atom. The closer it is to the
nucleus then the greater the amount of energy that is required to get it out. It is as if the electron is
down a deep well and we have to put energy in to lift it out. This analogy is often referred to as a
potential well.

Example

Find the frequency of the photon emitted by the hydrogen transition shown:

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The first five energy levels for hydrogen are:

Energy Level Energy

1 -13.6 eV

2 -3.4 eV

3 -1.51 eV

4 -0.85 eV

5 -0.54 eV

Note that, the first energy level is the biggest value. This corresponds to the electron being in the
lowest permitted orbit around the nucleus. It takes 13.6 eV to release an electron at this level from
the atom.

 
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