MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

EMT 1101: ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I LECTURE NOTES 2018/2019

CHAPTER ONE: CONCEPT OF A FUNCTION

Instructor: Thomas Makumbi

BSc. Eng (MUK, Uganda)
MSc. RET (MUK, Uganda)
MSc. SEE (HIG, Sweden)

1
Course objectives
o To provide a general introductory treatment of mathematical concepts fundamental to
Engineering.
o To help students develop the analytical and critical thinking abilities fundamental to problem
solving in Engineering.
Course outline
1. Concept of a function
2. Differential calculus
3. Integral calculus
4. Infinite Series
5. Ordinary Differential Equations
Reference text books
1. Engineering mathematics by Stroud
2. Calculus and analytical geometry by Edwards
3. Introduction to University mathematics by Smyrl
4. Advanced Engineering mathematics by Wylie
5. Advanced engineering mathematics by Kreyszig
6. Advanced Engineering mathematics by Bajpai
Course assessment
Three course work assignments with an assignment at the end of every pair of chapters and two
tests with a test at the end of three chapters.

o Course work and take home tests: 15%

o Continuous assessment tests: 25%
o Final examination: 60%

2
 CONCEPT OF A FUNCTION

The key to the mathematical analysis of a geometric or scientific analysis is the identification of
the relationship between variables that describe the situation. Such a relationship may be a
formula that expresses one variable as a function of another e.g. the area, A, of the circle with
radius r is given by A = πr2, the volume of V of a sphere of radius r is given by V = (4/3)πr3.
These are examples of real valued functions of a real variable.

Definitions

 A variable is a symbol identifying elements of a given set.

 A real – valued function, f, defined on a set D, of real numbers is a rule that assigns to each
number, x, in D, exactly one real number f(x). f(x), is called the value of the function, f, at the
number or point, x.
 The set D of all those numbers x for which f(x) is defined is called the domain of the
function.
 The set of all values y = f(x) is called the range of the function f.
i.e.
 When we describe the function f by writing a formula y = f(x), then x is referred to as the
independent variable and y is called the dependent variable.

Examples
1. Find the domain of the function given by;

Solution
is defined only if
In order that g(x) can be defined, then the denominator,
Hence the domain of g is the interval;
Note
The curl brackets ( or ) are used in case the limit of the interval is not inclusive in the domain;
this is called an open interval. Square brackets are used in case the limit at that point is
inclusive in the domain range; this is called a closed interval.

3
2. Find the domain and range of the following functions:
(i)

For the function to be defined then

This inequality is solved as follows:

- + +
- - +
+ - +

Therefore;
Domain,
Range,

(ii)

This can be re – written as; therefore, f(x) is defined if,

. This inequality can be solved according to

the table below:

- - +
- + +
+ - +
Therefore,

(iii)

f(x) is only defined if

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 - + +
- - +
+ - +

(iv)

and

x < -1 -1 < x < 0 x >0

X - - +
x +1 - + +
+ - +

Therefore,

Problems
Find the domain and range of the following functions:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

(iv)

(v)

5
CURVE SHIFTING
Vertical shifting

 For y = f(x) + C, move the graph of y = f(x), C units up.

 For y = f(x) – C, move the graph of y = f(x), C units down.
Horizontal shifting

 For y = f(x – C), move the graph for y = f(x), C units to the right
 For y = f(x + C), move the graph of y = f(x), C units to the left.

6
Examples
By completing squares, use translation and change of scale to sketch:
(i) y = x2 – 2x – 1
Solution
y = x2 – 2x – 1 = x2 – 2x + 1 – 1 – 1 = (x – 1)2 – 2
This can be sketched by translating the curve y = x2, 2 units down and 1 unit to the right.
See figure below:

-2

(ii) y = 3x2 + 6x + 2
This can be written as; y = 3(x2 + 2x) +2 = 3(x2 + 2x + 1 – 1) + 2
Therefore, y = 3(x2 +2x + 1) + 2 – 3 = 3(x + 1)2 – 1
Hence this curve can be sketched by translating the curve y = 3x 2, 1 unit down and 1unit to
the left as shown in the figure below:

-1

7
 (iii) y =

This function is sketched by translating the curve of , 1 unit to the right.

REFLECTION
(i) In the x – axis

y = f(x), on reflection in the x – axis becomes y = - f(x).

(i) In the y – axis

8
 y = f(x) on reflection in the y – axis becomes y = f(-x)
Question
Given the curve y = , find its reflection in the y and x – axes.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS
1. Constant function
This is a function that has a constant value over a given interval i.e. f(x) = K.
y

f(x) = K

2. Step function
This is a function that is defined through some interval I and is constant over each one of a
set of non – intersecting intervals.
y

3. Multiple value function

This is a function which has more than one value for the independent variable e.g
.
4. Absolute value function
This is a function that only considers magnitude e.g.

9
5. Odd and even functions
A function y =(x) is said to be an even function if . Examples are and

A function y = f(x) is said to be odd if – , e.g.

Examples
Identify each of the following as even, odd or neither:

(i)

Since y(-x) = -y(x), then the function is an odd function.

(ii)

(iii)

; hence an odd function.

(iv)
; hence function is neither odd nor even.
10
6. Polynomial function
If the relationship is of the form where
n is a non – negative integer and A is a constant, then the given function is called a
polynomial function. E.g.
7. Rational function
This is of the form where and are both polynomial

functions.
8. Functions of several variables
If the domain, D, is a plane, then the function y = f(x, y) is a relationship that associates with
each point (x , y) of the plane. E.g.
9. Rounded function
It is a function whose numerical value is less than or equal to a certain given constant e.g.
is rounded if there exists a constant K such that
10. Inverse functions
If a function f(x) has a one to one mapping or correspondence in the open interval (a, b) and
if each value f(x) of the interval corresponds to one value of x, then we can find the
relationship g(x) such that g(x) is an inverse of f(x) and vice versa.
Note
The graphs of f(x) and g(x) are reflections of each other in the line y = x.
Examples
Find the inverse functions of the following:
1.
Letting
Interchanging variables, gives

2.

3.

11
 4. Ans:

5. ; Ans: g(x) =
11. Inverse trigonometric functions
The inverse function of the trigonometric function;

The inverse sine function is defined as y = sin-1x if and only if siny = x where
Graph of y = sin-1x

Graph of y= cos-1x

12
 The inverse cosine function is defined as y = cos-1x if and only if cosy = x and

Graph of y = tan-1x

The inverse tangent function is defined as y = tan-1x.

13
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Investigation of limits of functions
1. Consider the function y = x2 + 3; as we get closer to x = 2;
X Y
2.0500 7.2025
2.0100 7.0401
2.0010 7.0040
2.0000 7.0000
1.9990 6.9960
1.9900 6.9601
1.9000 6.6100

The closer we get to 2, the closer y gets to 7.0

2. Let us now investigate as x tends to 1

x y
1.0100 2.0100
1.0001 2.0001
1.0000 ?
0.9990 1.9990
0.9900 1.9900

Hence the function tends to 2 as x tends to 1.0; however the function does not exist at x = 1

Definition

Let L be a real number and let f(x) be defined in an open interval containing a constant a, but not
necessarily, then; lim f ( x)  L .
x a

Condition for the limit to exist

To discuss the limit of f at a does not require that f(x) be defined at a. Neither its value there nor
the possibility that it has no value at a, is of importance. All we need is that f(x) is defined in
some deleted neighbourhood of a i.e. it is necessary that f(x) be defined on both sides of a point,

14
a, for the limit to exist. If f(x) is undefined on one side or if f(x) is discontinuous at x = a, the
limit does not exist.

Finding limits
1. Given a function f(x) defined at a point, a, then lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a

x4 7
Example; if , then lim f ( x)  lim  f (3)   1
x 3 x 3 2 x  1 7

2. If ; then f(a) is undefined, but for all

g ( x)
Therefore, lim f ( x)  lim . This means that limits are concerned with values of x close
x a x a h( x )
to, a, but different from, a.
If the expression is a quotient of two functions, any common factors should be eliminated
from the numerator and denominator.

15
 Examples
Find the following limits:
x2  9
1. lim
x 3 x2  x  6
f(3) is not defined but the limit exists; (Ans: 6/5)
1
1
2. lim x
x 0 1
1
x
1 ( x  1)
1
lim x  lim x  lim x  1  1
x 0 1 x0 ( x  1) x 0 x  1
1 x
x

Limits laws
1. Constant law
lim C  C , (C being a constant)
x a

Note: in the following three laws, assume that, lim f ( x)  L and lim g ( x)  M
x a x a

2. Additional law
lim f ( x)  g ( x)  L  M
x a

The limit of the sum is the sum of the limits and the limit of the difference is the difference of
the limits.
3. Product law
lim f ( x) g ( x)  LM
x a

The limit of the product of two or more functions is the product of their limits.
4. Quotient law
f ( x) L
lim  if
xa g ( x) M
The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of the limits, provided that the limit
of the denominator is not zero.
5. Root law

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 lim n x  n a n is a positive integer and a > 0 if n is even.
xa

(i) lim x n  a n
xa

xa
n

(ii) lim f ( x)  lim f ( x )  Ln
xa

n

Examples
Find the following limits


1. lim x 2  2 x  4
x 3

x 3
 
lim x 2  2 x  4  lim x 2  2 lim x  lim 4
x 3 x 3 x 3

 (3)  2(3)  4
2

19
2x  5
2. lim
x 3 x  2x  4
2

2x  5 2(lim x)  lim 5
lim  x 3 x 3
x 3 x  2 x  4 lim( x  2 x  4)
2 2
x 3

65

19
11

19
x 2  3x
3. lim ; Ans: 2
x4 3x  2
x2  4
4. lim ; Ans 4/5
x2 x2  x  6
6. Substitution law

x a xL x a

x a

Suppose that lim g ( x)  L and lim f ( x)  f ( L) , then lim f g ( x)  f lim g ( x)  f ( L) .

The condition under which the law holds is that the limit of the outer function f does not only
exist at x = L but it is also equal to the value of the function, f(L) at x = L.
Special cases of the substitution law

17
 (i) With where n is a positive integer, then lim n g ( x)  n lim g ( x) . This holds
x a x a

under the assumption that the limit of g(x) exists as x tends to a (and is positive if n is
even).
(ii) With , where m is a positive integer, the equation above becomes
a
m m
lim x n n
assuming a > 0. These equations may be regarded as generalized root laws.
xa

Examples

Find the following limits;

(i) lim x 2  9
x  4

This can be written as lim f g ( x)  , with and

x 4


lim x 2  9  25
x  4

Hence, lim x 2  9  lim x  5
x  4 x  25

Alternatively, this can be easily evaluated as below;

lim x 2  9 
x 4

lim x 2  9 
x 4
 16  9  5

18
 
(ii) lim 3x 2  20 x
x 4
3

1/ 3

 
 lim 3x 3 / 2  20 x
x 4

1/ 3

 3 lim x 3 / 2  20 lim x
x 4 x 4
1/ 3


 3(4)3 / 2  20 4 1/ 3
 3 64  4
7. Squeeze law
Suppose that in some deleted neighborhood of a and also that,
lim f ( x)  L  lim h( x) , then lim g ( x)  L as well.
x a x a x a

Examples
x2
1. Apply the squeeze law to prove that lim 0
x 0 1  (1  x 4 ) 5 / 2

Since for all x, we see that,

, for all values of x

We can now apply the squeeze law with and . Because

lim f ( x)  lim h( x)  0 , it follows that the limit as x tends to zero of the trapped function,
x 0 x 0

x2
lim 0
x 0 1  (1  x 4 ) 5 / 2

x
2. Using the squeeze law show that, lim 0
x 0 1 x2
We can take, and

x 0
lim f ( x)    0 and lim h( x)  lim x  0
x 0
1  x  2 2 12 x 0 x 0

From the squeeze law, since and lim f ( x)  lim h( x)  0

x 0 x 0

x
It implies that, lim g ( x)  lim 0
x 0 x 0 1 x2
x2
3. Find lim using the squeeze law.
x  0 (1  x 4 ) 1 / 2

We can take, and

19
 x2
lim f ( x)  lim  0 and lim h( x)  lim x 2  0
x 0 x 0 (1  x )
4 x 0 x 0

From the squeeze law, since and lim f ( x)  lim h( x)  0 , it follows

x 0 x 0

x2
that, lim g ( x)  lim 0
x 0 x 0
1  x 
4 1/ 2

One sided limits

1. Right hand limits of a function

y

f(x)

a x

The right hand limit of f(x) is L suppose that f is defined on an open interval (a, c). Then we say
that the number L is the right – hand limit of f(x) as x approaches, a, from the right and we write;
lim f ( x)  L , provided that the number f(x) can be made as close to L as one approached merely
x a 
by choosing the point, x, in (a, c) sufficiently near the number, a.
2. The left hand limit of a function
y

y = f(x)

a x

20
 Suppose that f is defined on an open interval (c, a). Then we say that the number, L, is the left
– hand limit of f(x) as x approaches a, and we write this as; lim f ( x)  L , provided that the
x a
number f(x) can be made as close to L as one pleases merely by choosing the point, x, in (c,
a) sufficiently near the number, a.
Theorem (Conditional for existence of the limit as x approaches a)
Suppose that the function f is defined on the deleted neighbourhood of the point a. then the limit
lim f ( x) exists and is equal to the number L if and only if the one – sided limits lim f ( x) and
xa x a

lim f ( x) both exist and both equal the number L.

x a 

Examples
1. Discuss the existence of the limit lim f ( x) , where;
x0


x  1
2
If x  0
f ( x)   2

x 1 If x  0
Left hand limit
lim f ( x)  lim x 2  1  1
x 0 x 0
 
Right hand limit
lim f ( x)  lim x 2  1  1
x 0 x 0
 
Since lim f ( x)  lim f ( x) , the limit does not exist.
x 0 x 0
2. Find the following one sided limits;

(i) lim 4  3x 3 / 2 ; (Ans: 4)
x 0

4x
(ii) lim (Ans: Limit does not exist)
x 0 x4
Limits at infinity and infinite limits
1. Limits at infinity
If f(x) is defined for large values of x and if f ( x)  L as x increases without bound, then
lim f ( x)  L
x 
If the limit is taken to infinity all terms are divided by the largest power of x, the independent
variable in the expression. This will leave at least one constant. Any quantity divided by a
power of x vanishes as x tends to infinity.

21
 Example
2x2  2x 1
Find lim
x  x2  4x
2x 2 2x 1 2 1
 2  2 2  2
2x  2x  1
2 2
x x
lim  lim x 2 x x  lim
x  x 2  4x x  x 4x x 
1 4
2
 2 x
x x
 lim 2  2
x 
2. Infinite limits
Consider the function
y

Note that 1/x increases without bound as x approaches zero from the right but decreases without
bound as approaches zero from the left, so;
1
lim f ( x)  lim   (Does not exist)
x 0 x 0 x
1
lim f ( x)  lim   (Does not exist)
x 0 x 0 x

22
Let us now consider the function,

1 1
lim 2
  and lim 2   , the limit does not exist.
x 0 x x 0 x

1
And even for, f ( x ) 
 x  12
y

1 x

1 1
lim   and lim  
x 1 x  12
x 1  x  1
2

L’Hopital’s Rule
This is used when the numerator and denominator of the expression both approach zero (0) or
infinity as x tends to a value a.
h( x ) 0 
If and lim  or , then;
x a g ( x) 0 

h( x ) h1 ( x) h11 ( x) h n ( x)
lim f ( x)  lim  lim 1  lim 11  .....  lim n
x a x a g ( x) x a g ( x) x a g ( x) x a g ( x)

23
Examples
Find the following limits:

(i)
ex  e x  2 0
Since lim  , then by L’Hopital’s rule;
x 0 2 cos 2 x  2 0
x
e e 2
x
e x  ex 0
lim  lim  . Applying L’Hopital’s rule again;
x 0 2 cos 2 x  2 x 0  4 sin 2 x 0
x x
e e 2
x
e e
x
2 1
lim  lim  
x 0 2 cos 2 x  2 x 0  8 cos 2 x 8 4

a  a2  x2
(ii) lim
x 0 x2
a  a2  x2 a  a2  0 0
Since, lim  lim  , then by L’Hopital’s rule;
x 0 x2 x 0 0 0

a  a2  x2

1 2
a  x 2  (2 x)
1 / 2

1 1 1
lim 2
 lim 2  lim  
x 0 x 0 x 0
x 2x 2 a 2  x 2 2 a 2 2a

Continuity of the function at a point

Definition
Suppose that the function, f, is defined in a neighbourhood of, a. we say that, f, is continuous at,
a, provided that lim f ( x) exists and moreover, that the value of this limit is f (a).
xa

Therefore, the conditions for the function to be continuous at a point x = a are:

(i) f(x) must be defined at x = a i.e. f(a) must exist.
(ii) The limit of f(x) as x approaches a must exist i.e. lim f ( x) must exist
xa

(iii) The limit lim f ( x) must be equal to f(a)

xa

If any of these conditions is not satisfied, then the function f(x) is not continuous at, a, i.e.
f(x) is discontinuous at a.
Examples
1. Discuss the continuity of f(x), given;

 x  4; x  2
2

f ( x)   3

x ; x2

Solution
For x < 2

24
 lim f ( x)  lim( x 2  4)  8 , hence, lim f ( x)  f (2)  8
x 2  x 2 x 2

For

lim f ( x)  lim x 3  8 , hence, lim f ( x)  f (2)  8

x 2  x 2 x 2

Therefore, the function f(x) is continuous everywhere.

 1
 ( x  3)( x  2) ; x  0

2. Discuss the continuity of the function; f ( x)  
 1
; x0
 ( x  2)( x  3)
For x < 0

Therefore,

1 1
lim f ( x)  lim 
x 0  x 0 ( x  3)( x  2) 6
1
Therefore, lim f ( x)  f (0)  
x 0 6
For

Hence,

1 1
lim f ( x)  lim 
x 0 x 0 ( x  2)( x  3) 6
1
Therefore, lim f ( x)  f (0)  
x 0 6
Thus the function f(x) is continuous everywhere including the transition point x = 0, but it is
discontinuous at x = -2 and x = 2

25
Theorems of continuity

Theorem 1: Continuity of compositions

The composition of two continuous functions is itself continuous. More precisely, if g is itself
continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then f(g(x)) is continuous at a.

Examples
Find the following limits

1. lim sin( x 2   )
x 0

and

 
lim sin( x 2   )  sin lim( x 2   )  sin   0
x 0 x 0

3
 x2  9 
2. lim  (Ans: 216)
x 3
 x3 

Theorem 2: Continuity of inverse functions

Let f be a continuous function with domain in the open interval I. suppose that f has an inverse
function g with domain in the open interval J. then g is continuous at each point of J.

For example consider (n is a positive integer). If n is odd, I is the whole real

line . If n is even, I is the positive half – line . Then f(x) has its inverse
function, . The domain of g is in the interval J, where if n is odd and
if n is even.

Since is continuous on I, theorem 2 implies that g(x) is continuous on J. Thus

lim n x  n a
xa

With the stipulation that a > 0 if n is even, this proves the root law.

26
Continuous functions on closed intervals

The function f(x) defined on the closed interval is said to be continuous on the interval
provided that it is continuous at each point of the open interval (a, b) and that lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a

and that lim f ( x)  f (b) .

x a

The last two conditions mean that at each end point, the value of the function is equal to its limit
from within the interval.

Continuous functions defined on closed intervals are very special. Such functions have
maximum value property and intermediate value property.

Definition: maximum and minimum value

If c is in the interval , then f(c) is called the maximum value of f(x) on if
for all x in . Similarly for the value d in , f(d) is called minimum value of f(x) if
for all x in .

Theorem 3: Maximum value property

If f(x) is continuous on the closed interval , then there exists a number c in such that
f(c) is the maximum value of f on .

Theorem 4: Intermediate value property

Suppose that the function f is continuous on the closed interval . Then f(x) assumes every
intermediate value between f(a) and f(b). Thus, if is any number between f(a) and f(b), then
there exists at least one point c in such that f(c) = γ.

Piece – wise continuous

A function is said to be piece – wise continuous in an interval if that interval can be sub –
divided into finite number of smaller intervals in each of which the function is continuous and
has finite left and right values.

27
Trigonometric functions and their limit
lim cos  1
 0

lim sin  0
 0

lim tan   0
 0

Theorem 1: Continuity of sine and cosine

The functions sinx and cosx are continuous functions of x on the whole real line.

Theorem 2: The basic trigonometric limit

sin
lim 1
x 0 

Examples
1  cos
1. Show that lim 0
x 0 
Solution
1  cos 1  cos 1  cos
lim  lim .
x 0  x 0  1  cos
sin 2  sin  sin 
 lim  lim  lim 
 0  1  cos   0 
  0 1  cos 
 0 
 lim(1) 0
 0
11
tan 3 x
2. Evaluate lim
x 0 x
tan 3 x 3 tan 3 x tan 3 x
lim  lim  3 lim
x 0 x x  0 3x x  0 x
Letting
tan 3 x tan   sin   1 
 lim  3 lim  3 lim  lim 
 0 
x 0 x   0    0 cos 
1
 (3)(1)   3
1

28
SEQUENCES

A sequence is the one that can be written in the form, where n is a positive integer.

e.g. , this is a finite sequence.

, this is an infinite sequence.
Examples
1.

Therefore,

2.
Then

Since a sequence is a function, it can be represented as a graph, but a smooth or continuous curve
cannot be drawn since a sequence is only defined for integers and not for values in between i.e. it
is defined for discrete values.

Limits of sequences

If a sequence Sn has a finite limit S for a considerable large value of n, then we say; lim Sn  S ,
n

then the sequence is said to be convergent to S as n tends to infinity.

A sequence is said to be divergent if it has an infinite limit, i.e. when lim S n  

n

Examples

1. lim 2n  1   - divergent sequence

n

1
2. lim  0 - convergent sequence
n  n

Properties of limits of sequences

1. Suppose the limit lim f ( x)  L and if it is also defined for a positive integer n, i.e.
x 

lim Sn  lim f ( x)  L
n x 

29
Example

1. If

5
3
3x  5
2
x2  3
lim S n  lim f ( x)  lim  lim
n  x  x  x2 x  1
3n 2  5
 lim S n  lim 3
n  x  n2
2. Let r be a real number, then

0 r  1
 lim r n  
 r  1

n 

3. If lim a n  L and lim bn  M , then;

n  n

(i)  lim(an  bn )  L  M
n

(ii) lim Can  C.L

n

(iii) lim anbn  L.M

n

an L
(iv) lim 
n  b M
n

4. If lim an  A and f(x) is continuous at f(x) = A; then lim f (an )  f ( A)

n n

Example

 n 2  1 
Find lim tan  2
n 
 3  4n 

 1 
 n 2  1   n 2  1    n 2 
lim tan  2 
 tan lim   tan lim  
n 
 3  4 n  n  3  4n 2
  n 
 3 
 n 2  4 

30
5. Squeeze law for sequences
If an, bn, and cn are general terms of sequences for all n and ; and
lim an  lim cn  L , then lim bn  L also.
n n n

Example
sin n
Evaluate lim using the squeeze law.
n  n

We can take and

sin n
lim  0 and lim sin n  0 . By the squeeze law, since , then
n  n2 n

sin n
lim  0 also.
n  n
6. L’Hopital’s rule
f ( n) 0 
If an = f(n) and bn = g(n), and if lim  or , then;
n  g ( n) 0 

an f ( n) f 1 ( n) f 11 (n) f n ( n)
lim  lim  lim 1  lim 11  .......... .... lim n
n  b n  g ( n) n  g ( n) n  g ( n) n  g ( n)
n

Examples

3n 2
1. Evaluate lim
n  e 2 n

3n 2 
lim  Applying L’Hopital’s rule,
n  e 2 n 

3n 2 6n 
lim  lim 2 n  , Applying L’Hopital’s rule again;
n  e 2 n n  2e 
6 6
 lim  0
n  4e 2n

en
2. Find the lim 2 (Ans: divergent)
n  n

3. Prove that the limit of

31
 Let

 n 1
ln 
 lim ln y  lim 
n  0

n  n  1 0
n
Considering the RHS; Applying L’Hopital’s rule;
 n 1 1 1 1
ln  
n(n  1)
lim 
n 
 lim n  1 n  lim
n
 lim
n  1 n   1 n   1 n   n 1
n  2  2
n n
1
 lim 1
n  1
1
n
   
 ln lim y  1  lim y  e
n n

n
 1
Thus, lim1    e
n 
 n

4. Find lim1  n n (Ans: 1.0)

1

n 

Exponential, hyperbolic and logarithmic functions of a real variable

Definition: The natural logarithm
The natural logarithm lnx of the positive number x is defined to be

Note that lnx is not defined for . Geometrically, lnx is the area under the graph of

from t = 1 to t = x.

The exponential function

The natural logarithm function lnx is continuous and increasing for x > 0, and it attains large
positive and negative values. It follows that lnx has an inverse function that is defined for all x.
because lnx is an increasing function, there is only one such number x with ln x = y. This inverse
function to lnx is called the natural exponential function.

32
Definition: The natural exponential function
The natural exponential function is defined for all x by; if and only if lny = x. Thus ex is
simply that positive number y whose natural logarithm is x. It is an immediate consequence of
that for all x.
Laws of logarithms
If x and y are positive numbers and r is a rational number, then;
ln xy  ln x  ln y

1
ln    ln x
 x
x
ln   ln x  ln y
 y
 
ln x r  r ln x
Laws of exponentials
If x, x1, and x2 are real numbers and r is a rational, then;
e x1 e x2  e x1  x2
1
ex 
ex
(e x ) r  e rx
“Recall trigonometric functions”
Hyperbolic functions
The hyperbolic cosine and the hyperbolic sine of real number x are denoted by coshx and sinhx
respectively and are defined as;
e x  e x e x  ex
cosh x  and sinh x 
2 2
The particular combinations of familiar exponentials are useful in certain applications of calculus
and are also helpful in evaluation of certain integrals.
sinh x e x  e  x
tanh x  
cosh x e x  e  x
cosh x e x  e  x
coth x   (for )
sinh x e x  e  x

33
 1 2
sec hx   x
cosh x e  e  x
1 2
cos echx   x (for )
sinh x e  e  x
Recall the following identities
 cosh2 x  sinh 2 x  1
 1  tanh 2 x  sec h 2 x
 coth2 x  1  cos ech 2 x
 sinh( x  y )  sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y

 cosh(x  y )  cosh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y

 sinh 2x  2 sinh x cosh x

 cosh 2 x  cosh2 x  sinh 2 x

Example
Prove that cosh2 x  sinh 2 x  1

e x  e x e x  ex
From, cosh x  and sinh x 
2 2

 cosh2 x  sinh 2 x 
4

1 x
e  ex 
2

4

1 x
e  e x 
2

4

1 2x
 1

e  2  e  2 x  e 2 x  2 e  2 x
4


e 2 x 1 e 2 x e 2 x 1 e 2 x
      1
4 2 4 4 2 4

Note:

(i) The other identities can be derived similarly.

(ii) The identity cosh2   sinh 2   1 tells us that the point (coshθ, sinhθ), lies on the
hyperbola x 2  y 2  1 , and this is the reason for the name “hyperbolic functions”.

34
Question
Prove the following expressions:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

END

35