See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/315669865

Chemical Properties of Soils

Technical Report · March 2017

CITATIONS READS

16 66,263

1 author:

A. Balasubramanian
University of Mysore
388 PUBLICATIONS 923 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Indian Social Sceince Congress-Trends in Earth Science Research View project

Ecological Modeling of Dalavoy Lake in Mysore City, Karnataka, India View project

All content following this page was uploaded by A. Balasubramanian on 28 March 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Prof. A. Balasubramanian
Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science,
University of Mysore,
Mysore

Objectives:

Soil is a natural resource comprised of solid minerals and organic matter, liquids and gasses that occur
on the surface. Soil provides habitats for organisms and moisture and nutrients for the basic
requirements of plant growth. Soil is the basis of the production in agriculture and forestry. Soil is an
important component of the human environment and is a significant component of terrestrial
ecosystems. Soils are characterised by physical, chemical and biological properties. This report
highlights the chemical properties of soils and their importance.

1. Introduction:

A healthy soil is always the foundation of the food production system. Soils help to produces healthy
crops. Plants obtain nutrients from two natural sources of soils. They are 1) organic matter and 2) the
minerals. Both are present in soils. The organic matter includes any plant or animal material that
returns to the soil and goes through the decomposition process. In addition to providing nutrients and
habitat to organisms that are living in the soil, the soil organic matter also binds the soil particles to
form soil aggregates and improves the water holding capacity of soils. Soils are the bases for survival
of life on earth.

2. Soil is a complex earth mass:

Soil is considered to be a complex mass containing five major components. They are:
1. mineral matter obtained by the distintergration and decomposition of rocks;
2. organic matter, obtained by the decay of plant residues, animal remains and microbial tissues;
3. water, obtained from the atmosphere and the reactions in soil (chemical, physical and
microbial);
4. air or gases, from atmosphere, reactions of roots, microbes and chemicals in the soil
5. living organisms, both big (worms, insects) and small (microbes).

1
On the basis of organic matter present in soils, soils are characterized as mineral soils or organic soils.
The mineral soils form most of the world’s cultivated land and may contain from a trace concentration
to 30 percent of organic matter.

Soil chemistry is very unique. The chemistry of soil plays the primary role in all concepts of soil
ecology. Let us understand the chemical properties of soils.

3. Chemical properties of soils:

The Chemical properties of soils include the following aspects:

(1) Inorganic matters of soil
(2) Organic matters in soil
(3) Colloidal properties of soil particles and
(4) Soil reactions and Buffering action
(i) Acidic soils
(ii) Basic soils.

4. Inorganic Matters of Soil( Soil Mineralogy):

The inorganic component (mineral matter) of the soil is composed of many types of minerals. These
minerals influence the properties of the soil. The differences among soils are due mainly to the
differences in the type and relative abundance of such minerals.

Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic compounds having definite crystalline structures. In soils,
they are classified into primary and secondary minerals.

Primary minerals are those formed at elevated temperature and inherited unchanged from igneous and
metamorphic rocks whereas secondary minerals are formed at low temperature reactions and either
inherited from sedimentary rocks or formed directly by weathering in soils.

5. The major mineral groups

The major mineral groups commonly found in soil include:

(1) aluminosilicates,
(2) oxides, and
(3) organic matter.

Soils possess electrochemical properties. The electrochemical properties of soils are very important
for the understanding of the physico-chemical phenomena which affect soil fertility and the
availability of nutrients for plants.

Through their surface electrochemical properties, these soil minerals control adsorption,
transformation, and other behavior of chemical constituents.

Soil-surface electrochemical properties vary between soil types and depend on factors such as parent
material, climate, and vegetation.

A. Aluminosilicate Minerals:

Soils contain much amount of alumino-silicates. The aluminosilicates are also called as
phyllosilicates. These are inorganic crystalline structures which make up a large part of the < 0.2 mm
soil-sized particles. These minerals are commonly referred to as clay minerals.

B. Primary minerals of soils include:

2
The primary minerals are components of parent rocks. There are almost 3000 known minerals, but
only 20 are common. Just 10 minerals make up 90 % of the earth's crust. Primary minerals are
defined as minerals found in soil but not formed in soil. The secondary minerals are formed in
soils.

Primary minerals of soils include the following minerals:

Quartz, Muscovite, Biotite, Feldspars, Orthoclase, Microcline, Albite, Amphiboles, Tremolite

Pyroxenes, Enstatite, Diopside, Rhodonite, Olivine, Tourmaline.

Secondary Minerals: Clay minerals, Kaolinite, Montmorillonite, Vermiculite, Chlorite, Allophane

Goethite, Hematite, Maghemite, Ferrihydrite, Gibbsite, Pyrolusite, Dolomite, Calcite, Gypsum.

The sand and silt fraction consists mainly of quartz and other primary minerals like feldspars, micas,
pyroxene, olivine.

In addition to these, some small amounts of secondary minerals such as oxides of aluminium
(gibbsite) and iron (hematite) are also found in soils.

The clay fraction is mainly composed of secondary silicate minerals such as kaolinite, illite and
montmorillonite.

C. Metal-Oxides
Iron and manganese are commonly found in soils and often in large quantities. Metal oxides are
present in soils as, Free oxides, Clay mineral coatings and Clay edges.

6. Soil Organic Matter (SOM):

Most of the soil organic matter originates from plant tissues.

Plant residues contain 60–90 percent of moisture.
The remaining dry matter consists of carbon (C), oxygen, hydrogen (H) and small amounts of sulphur
(S), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). Although
present in small amounts, these nutrients are very important from the viewpoint of soil fertility
management.

Soil organic matter consists of two general groups of components:

(i) fresh or partially decomposed plant and animal residues having some recognisable physical
structures traceable to its origin; and
(ii) the humus, which is a more resistant product of decomposition and colloidal in nature.

Organic component of the soil consists of substances of organic origin; living and dead.
In sandy soil of arid zone, it is found in very poor quantity (one or less than one per cent) but in peaty
soil, it may be as high as 90%.
When the plants and animals die, their dead remains are subjected to decomposition.
As a result of decomposition a number of different organic products or compounds are formed from
the original residues.

In the course of decomposition, the original materials are converted into dark coloured organic
complexes, called humus.
Sometimes the living micro-organisms also add sufficient amount of organic matters in to the soil in
the form of metabolic wastes.
Only small fraction of total organic matter is soluble in water but majority of them are soluble in
alkali solution.

7. Decomposition of organic matter

3
Decomposition of organic matter is largely a biological process that occurs naturally.
Its speed is determined by three major factors: soil organisms, the physical environment and the
quality of the organic matter.
In the decomposition process, different products are released: carbon dioxide (CO2), energy, water,
plant nutrients and resynthesized organic carbon compounds.
Successive decomposition of dead material and modified organic matter results in the formation of a
more complex organic matter called humus. This process is called humification.

8. Peat, muck and Humus:

Peat is formed from the undecomposed plant tissues.

Muck is highly decomposed organic material. Mucky peat is of intermediate in decomposition.
The black or brown colour usually observed in the surface layers of soil profiles is due to the presence
of humus.

Humus is the most reactive part of the organic matter. Humus affects soil properties.
As it slowly decomposes, it colours the soil darker; increases soil aggregation and aggregate stability;
increases the CEC (the ability to attract and retain nutrients); and contributes N, P and other nutrients.
Soil organisms, including micro-organisms, use soil organic matter as food.

As they break down the organic matter, any excess nutrients (N, P and S) are released into the soil in
forms that plants can use. This release process is called mineralization.
Its capacity to hold water and nutrients greatly exceeds that of clay, its inorganic counterpart.
The fresh and partially decomposed plant and animal residues generally occur in the sand and silt
fraction of the soil and the humus occurs in the clay fraction.

9. Compounds and function of humus

Humus is a relatively stable component formed by humic substances, including humic acids, fulvic
acids, hymatomelanic acids and humins.
It is probably the most widely distributed organic carbon-containing material in terrestrial and aquatic
environments.

Humus cannot be decomposed readily because of its intimate interactions with soil mineral phases
and is chemically too complex to be used by most organisms.

One of the most striking characteristics of humic substances is their ability to interact with metal
ions, oxides, hydroxides, mineral and organic compounds, including toxic pollutants, to form water-
soluble and water-insoluble complexes.
Humic and fulvic substances enhance plant growth directly through physiological and nutritional
effects. Some of these substances function as natural plant hormones.

10. Chemically humus contains the following organic molecules:

A. Amino Acids
B. Proteins
C. Aromatic Molecules
D. Uronic Acids
E. Aliphatic Acids
F. Aminosugars
G. Pentose Sugars
H. Hexose Sugars
I. Sugar Alcohols
J. Methyl Sugars.

4
Besides these compound, the soil also contains fats, oils, waxes, resins, tannin, lignin and some
pigments.

11. Rate of decomposition of materials in soils:

The organic matter is also classified on the basis of their rate of decomposition:
1. Rapidly decomposed : Sugars, starches, proteins etc.
2. Less rapidly decomposed : Hemicelluloses, celluloses etc.
3. Very slowly decomposed : Fats, waxes, resins, lignins etc

12. Non-humic substances: significance and function

Non-humic organic molecules are released directly from cells of fresh residues, such as proteins,
amino acids, sugars, and starches.
This part of soil organic matter is the active, or easily decomposed, fraction.
This active fraction is influenced strongly by weather conditions, moisture status of the soil, growth
stage of the vegetation, addition of organic residues, and cultural practices, such as tillage.
It is the main food supply for various organisms in the soil.

13. Carbohydrates occur in the soil in three main forms: free sugars in the soil solution, cellulose
and hemicellulose; complex polysaccharides; and polymeric molecules of various sizes and shapes
that are attached strongly to clay colloids and humic substances.
The simple sugars, cellulose and hemicellulose, may constitute 5–25 percent of the organic matter in
most soils, but are easily broken down by micro-organisms.

14. Polysaccharides (repeating units of sugar-type molecules connected in longer chains) promote
better soil structure through their ability to bind inorganic soil particles into stable aggregates.
The soil lipids form a very diverse group of materials, of which fats, waxes and resins make up 2–6
percent of soil organic matter.

15. Natural factors influencing the amount of organic matter

The transformation and movement of materials within the soil organic matter part is a dynamic
process. It is influenced by climate, soil type, vegetation and soil organisms.
All these factors operate within a hierarchical and spatial scale.

16. Practices that influence the amount of organic matter:

Human interventions that influence soil organic matter are many.
Various types of human activities decrease the soil organic matter contents and their biological
activities. The practices that decrease soil organic matter include repetitive tillage or burning of
vegetation, burning of crop residues. Overgrazing and removal of crop residues also reduce SOM.

17. Ways to increase organic matter contents of soils

 compost
 cover crops/green manure crops
 crop rotation
 perennial forage crops
 zero or reduced tillage
 agroforestry

18. Colloidal Fraction of Soil:

5
There are two types of colloids in the soil. These are:
(1) Mineral colloids or clay colloids, and
(2) Organic or humus colloids.

These two colloidal fractions of soil are very intimate to each other and it is very difficult to separate
them.
The inorganic colloids occur as very fine particles and organic colloids occur in the form of humus
particles.

A. Clay colloids:

As regards the size, clay fraction of soil contains both non-colloidal and colloidal particles.
The clay particles are formed mainly of silica, alumina, iron and combined water.
Colloidal clay may also contain rich accumulation of plant nutrients.

The clay colloids are lyophilic (water loving). So, they are important from the standpoint of the
adsorption of large quantity of water.

B. Organic colloids or humus colloids:

Organic colloids in the soil are chiefly due to presence of humus.

The humus contains 8% each of lignin, protein, polyuronides (sugars and uronic acid complex).
Organic colloids may be present in appreciable proportion in the soils.
In sandy soil, it forms minor part of colloids.
In peaty soil, organic colloids may be more than 50%.
These colloids show adsorptive capacity many times greater than clay colloids.

Organic colloids are negatively charged like clay colloids.

Addition of organic colloids to the sandy soil increases temporarily its moisture and nutrient retaining
capacity.

19. Colloidal Properties of Soil Particles:

There are two types of substances occurring in soils, as crystalloids and colloids.
Crystalloids are those crystalline solid substances which form true solution on being mixed with other
substances.
In true solution, crystal particles cannot be seen with the help of microscope.
The word colloid was first coined by Grahm (1849).
It is derived from Greek words kolla meaning glue and eoids meaning appearance, i.e., glue like in
appearance.

Colloid is in amorphous state of the substances which do not form true solution if mixed with other
substances.
The particles of colloidal substances float in the solvent in suspension state but do not tend to settle at
the bottom.
Colloids are not found in ionic or molecular form but are found in aggregates of atoms or molecules.
A major portion of the clay fraction (2mu) exists in the colloidal state (1 to 200 mu).
This fraction exhibit the typical colloidal properties such as Tyndall effect, Brownian movement and
possession of electric charges.

Colloidal system or suspension contains two phases which are:

(i) Dispersion phase, i.e., medium in which the particles are suspended, and
(ii) Dispersed phase, i.e., suspended particles.

Colloidal suspension may be of different kinds, such as:

6
(1) Suspension of liquid, in liquid, as milk (fats in water).
(2) Suspension of solid in liquid as India ink (or clay suspension in water).
(3) Suspension of solid in gas, as smoke (coal particles suspended in air).
(4) Suspension of liquid in gas, e.g., cloud and fogs in atmosphere.

The commonest colloids are those which remain suspended in a liquid medium:
If the colloidal suspension exhibits properties of fluid, it is called sol, but sometimes sols exhibit solid
like behaviour and form solid or nearly so.
This condition is called gel. Some sols form reversible gel while the others form irreversible gel.

Some of the important properties of colloids in general are as follows:

1) Particle size:

Crystalloids and colloids differ from each other in their size range.
Particles of crystalloid in true solution are 0.2 to 1 mµ (millimicron) while those of colloids in
suspension are 1 to 200 mµ.

2) Adsorption:

Because the colloidal particles of dispersed phase are very small, they have got large exposed surface
areas. Owing to their large exposed surface areas, these colloidal particles show great adsorptive
capacity. In adsorption, particles of particular substances come to lie on the surface of colloids and
they do not enter deep in the colloidal particles.

3) Electrical properties:

The electrically charged colloids are termed as micelles.

Colloids have some electrical charge on them. They may be charged either positively or negatively.
Colloidal particles of one electrical charge have tendency to attract colloids of opposite charge.
In the soil clay particles are negatively charged, thus they attract cations (+ charged ions).

Colloid particles differ from electrolytes in the fact that when electric current is passed in the colloidal
suspension, all the colloidal particles are attracted towards one electrode or the other depending upon
the nature of charge they carry on them.
This phenomenon is called electrophoresis.

The electrolytes, when dissolved in solvent, dissociate into two types of ions among which half will
bear positive charge (cations) and remaining half will bear negative charge (anions).
When electric current is passed in the solution of electrolyte all the positively charged ions will
accumulate on negative pole and remaining negatively charged ions will collect on positive pole.
The soil colloid particles show almost all the characteristics of typical colloidal system, i.e.,
adsorption, Tyndal effect, Brownian movement, coagulation, electrophoresis, dialysis etc.

4) Coagulation or flocculation of colloidal particles:

Colloidal particles in the suspension can be coagulated either by heating or by adding some
substances which contain opposite charged ions. When substances carrying positive ions are added in
suspension containing negatively charged colloid particles, ions will move and accumulate on the
surface of colloids carrying opposite charge. Finally a stage comes when colloidal particles cannot
attract more opposite charged ions. This is called isoelectric point. As a result of ion accumulation
on their surface, the colloids first become large and heavier and finally they tend to settle at the
bottom in floccules. This process is known as flocculation.

5) Tyndal phenomenon:

7
Colloidal particles in suspension can be seen when a strong beam of light is passed through
suspension and observer looks it from the place at right angle to the path of light.
The colloidal particles become visible as strongly illuminated particles and they appear bigger than
normal size. This phenomenon is known as “Tyndal effect”.

6) Brownian movement:

Colloidal particles when suspended in dispersion medium show a characteristic continuous zig-zag
motion, called Brownian movement. This type of movement was first observed by English botanist
Robert Brown, hence it is called Brownian movement. The movement is exhibited because of
characteristic collision of one particle with others. This prevents the particles from settling down.

7) Dialysis: Because colloidal particles in suspension are larger than the particles of crystalloid in
true solution and are larger than the diameter of pores of porous membranes, e.g., parchment
membrane, they are not allowed to be filtered down and are retained the membrane. Thus, they can be
separated in pure state from the mixture of crystalloids and colloids by filtration process. This
separation process is known as dialysis.

20. Cation Exchange Capacity of soils(CEC):

Since the soil colloids (clay and organic colloids) have negative charges on them, they attract and hold
positive ions (cations).
When cations are added to the soils such as
a) Ca++ in the form of lime,
b) K+ ions in the form of potassium fertilizer, and
c) NH++ in the form of ammonium fertilizer, the adsorption of cations will take place on the surface of
colloid micelle.
This will be accompanied by release of one or more ions held by colloid micelle.
This is known as cationic exchange.

The cation exchange in the soil may take place between:

(1) Cations present in the soil solutions and those already present on surface of soil colloids
(2) Cations released by plant roots and those present on the surface of soil colloids, and
(3) Cations present on the surface of two clay crystals either two organic colloids or an organic colloid
and a clay colloid.

The Exchange reaction is always very quick and reversible.

The exchange of ions continues till an equilibrium stage is attained.
All cations are not adsorbed with equal ease.
Some are easily adsorbed while others are replaced with difficulty.
Divalent cations are more effective than the monovalent ones.
Hydrogen is exception because, it is held by colloids most tenaciously and it is the most powerful
replacer of cations.

Replacing capacities of some cations are as follows:

H+ > Ca++ > K+ > Na+> Na+
The number of cations adsorbed per unit weight of one hundred grams dry soil is called cation
exchange capacity. It is the sum total of exchangeable cations adsorbed per unit weight of one
hundred gms of dry soil.

Factors which are responsible for cation exchange or base exchange are as follows:
(1) Relative concentration and number of cations present in the soil,
(2) Replacing capacity of the ions, and
(3) Number of charges on the ions.

8
21. Anion Exchange Capacity:
Soils rich in organic colloids show anion exchange also.
In this process, negatively charged ions held by colloids are replaced by OH–, H2PO4–, SO4—, and
NO3– ions.
The relative order of exchange is
OH– > H2PO4–, > SO4— > NO3–
Among these anions, exchange of PO4—, ions is most important.
SO4—and NO— are not retained in the soil for long period of time, hence not available for anionic
exchange.
The knowledge of cation and anion exchange is of great help in reclaiming acidic and saline or
alkaline soils.

22. Soil Reactions:

Many chemical properties of soils centre round the soil reactions.
As regards their nature, some soils are neutral, some are acidic and some basic.
The acidity, alkalinity and neutrality of soils are described in terms of hydrogen ion concentrations or
pH values. In order to understand soil reaction, the knowledge of pH is very much necessary.

It can be understood in the following ways:

Water dissociates into H+ ion and OH– ion.

Hence the ionic constant of water can be represented as follows:

Ionic constant of water = [H+][OH–]/[H2O]. But the rate of dissociation of water is so slow that
ionization constant of water can be expressed simply as product of concentration of H+ and OH– ions,
thus ionization constant of water Kw = [H+][OH–].
Concentration of H+ and OH– ions are expressed in terms of equivalents per litre.

Only one molecule in ten million water molecules is in dissociated condition.

At neutrality, H+ concentration is 0.0000001 or 10-7 gm of hydrogen per litre solution.
The ionization constant of water is 10-14 at 25°C and thus in any aqueous system products of H+ and
OH– ion concentration is 10-14.

Now, the above equation can be written as:

10-14 = [H+][OH–]
This can also be represented in the following way by dividing both sides in one and taking logarithms.

The value of log 1/[H+] and log 1/[OH–] are generally pH and pOH respectively.
These pH and pOH are indices of the acidity and alkalinity respectively.
Thus, pH can be defined as negative logarithms of the H+ ion concentration.
When the system is neutral, pH will be equal to pOH and when Kw is 10-14, the value of pH and pOH
at neutral point will be 7 for each. When pH value is less than 7, it is acidic.
The pH value above 7 indicates alkalinity. If in a system, hydrogen ion concentration is 1/.000001 or
000001 gm/litre, the pH value will be 6.

23. Buffering in Soil:

It refers to the resistance to change in pH of a system.

9
 Some solutions are reasonably permanent in pH value even after addition of some alkali or acid to
them.

These are called as solutions with reserved acidity or alkalinity or more often “buffer solutions”.
Suppose, a certain amount of acid is added to distilled water, the resulting solution will show acidic
reaction and that will have a pH below 7, but if the same quantity of acid is added to a neutral soil
suspension, there would be very minor change in pH.

This property of soil to resist a change in pH is called “buffer action”.

Buffer solutions are usually formed of a mixture of salt of weak acid and acid itself in various
proportions, as for example, a mixture of sodium acetate and acetic acid if added to water will result
in a buffer solution.
Soils should have good buffering capacity.

Therefore, it is necessary to add considerably large amount of acids or alkalis in order to bring about
any change in the original pH of soil.
Buffering action is due to presence of large quantity of weak acids and their salts in the soil.
Phosphates, carbonates, bicarbonates and other salts of weak inorganic acids and corresponding acids
themselves are important buffering agents in the soils.
Besides these, colloids associated with cations are important buffering agents.
The buffering action of soil is directly governed by the amount and nature of clay and organic or
humus colloids present in it.

Buffering action of soil is important in agriculture in the following respects:

(1) Stabilization of pH:

This protects the higher plants and micro-organisms form direct adverse and injurious effects of
sudden change in soil reaction.

(2) Amount of amendments necessary to correct the soil reaction:

The greater is the buffering capacity of soil the smaller will be the amount of the amendments
required such as lime, sulphur etc. to correct the acidity or alkalinity.

24. Conclusion:

Soils are porous media created at the land surface through weathering processes. From the point of
view of chemistry, soils are open, multicomponent, biogeochemical systems, containing solids,
liquids, and gases. The weathering of the parent material by water determines, to a large extent, the
chemical composition of the soil. Some chemicals are leached into the lower soil layers where they
accumulate. Other chemicals, mostly the insoluble ones, are left in the upper layers of the soil. The
chemical properties of soils largely depend on the soil collides. It is, therefore, important to know
about the soil colloids and their nature to have an insight into their influence on various chemical
properties of soils.

10

View publication stats