Republic of the Philippines

OCCIDENTAL MINDORO STATE COLLEGE

Labangan, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro
website: www.omsc.edu.ph email address: omsc_9747@yahoo.com
Tele/Fax: (043) 457-0231 CERTIFIED TO ISO 9001:2015
CERT. NO.: 50500643 QM15

A Learning Module
in
HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

Prepared by:
CHERYL BARRIENTOS ASUNCION, MAN
&

JAZEL SANTOS GAYONA, RN

2020 Revision
 Republic of the Philippines
OCCIDENTAL MINDORO STATE COLLEGE
Labangan, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro
website: www.omsc.edu.ph email address: omsc_9747@yahoo.com
Tele/Fax: (043) 457-0231 CERTIFIED TO ISO 9001:2015
CERT. NO.: 50500643 QM15

APPROVAL SHEET

This Instructional Material entitled A LEARNING MODULE IN HUMAN

ANATOMY AND PHYSILOGY, authored by CHERYL B. ASUNCION & JAZEL S.
GAYONA, A.Y. 2020-2021, is recommended for production and utilization by the students
and faculty members of the Occidental Mindoro State College.

PANEL OF EVALUATORS

Local Evaluation Committee

College of Art, Sciences and Technology / Midwifery Department

ARTEMIO M. GONZALES, JR, RM,RN,MPH MARCIEL N. SALVADOR, PhD

Member Member

MARICRIS M. USITA, EdD

Chairperson

Overall Instructional Materials Development Committee

VENESSA S. CASANOVA, PhD MA. IMELDA C. RAYTON, MA

Member Member

Recommending Approval:

JESSIE S. BAROLO, JR., MAEd

Chairperson

Approved:

ELBERT C. EDANIOL, EdD

Vice President for Academic Affairs
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
(This is optional)
 DEDICATION

(This is optional)

(Please insert your approved syllabus here)

 Republic of the Philippines
OCCIDENTAL MINDORO STATE COLLEGE
Rizal Street, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro 5100
Website: www.omsc.edu.ph Email address: omsc_9747@yahoo.com
Tele/Fax: (043) 491-1460 CERTIFIED TO ISO 9001:2015

CERT. NO.: 50500779 QM15

College of Arts, Sciences and Technology
San Jose Campus

DIPLOMA IN MIDWIFERY

OBE COURSE SYLLABUS

OMSC VISION
A premier higher education institution that develops globally competitive, locally responsive, innovative professionals and life- long learners.
OMSC MISSION
OMSC is committed to produce intellectual and human capitals by developing excellent graduates through outcome- based instruction, relevant
research, responsive technical advisory services, community engagement, and sustainable production.
COLLEGE GOAL
The College of Arts, Sciences and Technology aims to provide excellent education equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills in their
profession.

COURSE TITLE: Human Anatomy and Physiology

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
The course covering the structure and functional relationship of the human body. Topics also include health related environment.
COURSE CODE: CC1101
CREDIT UNITS: 5 units
PREREQUISITES: None
PROGRAM GOAL:
The diploma in Midwifery aims to:
Develop the knowledge, attitude and skills of first level midwives in the care of the girl-child, the adolescent and the adult women prior to,
during, and following pregnancy. This prepares the midwives to give the necessary supervision, care and advice to women during pregnancy,
labor and post- partum period, manage normal deliveries on her own responsibility and care for the child.

Specifically, graduates of the 2- year program are expected to: perform primary health care services within the community, counsel and educate
women, family and community regarding family planning including preparation for parenthood/ parenting, detect abnormal conditions in the
mother and infant, procure specialized assistance as necessary ( consultation or referral)
PROGRAM OUTCOMES: (Consider the Curriculum Mapping. Select the applicable outcome for the course/subject.)
Provide the necessary supervision, care and advise to low risk women during pregnancy, labor and puerperium, Specifically, they should be
able to:
Obtain pertinent history
Do simple laboratory examination such as hemoglobin determination and urine test for sugar and albumin
Assess the progress of labor
Perform relevant midwifery procedures.
Provide appropriate care to the mother and the new born.
Provide life-saving measures during obstetrical emergencies such as administering IV fluids and cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
Detect abnormal conditions of the mother and/ or newborn,
Facilitate referrals as necessary.
Perform primary health care services within the community. Specifically, they should be able to:
Implement government health programs following proper protocols
Administer first aid measures as needed
Give appropriate health teachings to individual, families and the community
Supervise barangay health workers
Manage a barangay health station.
COURSE OUTCOMES: (knowledge, values and skills all learners are expected to demonstrate at the end of the course)
At the end of the of the course, the students be able to:
Identify the different systems of the human body, their gross structure and functions.
Explain the functional relationship of the various systems of the human body.
Distinguish different deviation or abnormalities from the normal situation as to be used in the assessment process.
Appreciate the whole human anatomy and physiology in holistic approach
Apply the said learnings in this course after completing the program in their respective workplace for the betterment of rendering health care
services
COURSE OUTLINE
We Desired Course Content Textbooks/ Teaching/Learnin Resource Materials Assessment
ek Learning References g Activities
Outcomes
Introduction Registration form Name chain Laptop and monitor Output of
1. Explore one’s Creative introduction Class record Discussion Syllabus individual
personality of self Student Handbook Copy of GAD basic expectation
related to the OMSC VGMO Concept and Laws
discovery of CAST Goal
strength and GAD Concerns Graded recitation
weaknesses. on OMSC VMGO,
2 Discuss the CAST Goal, and
VMGO of the Midwifery
institution and Department Goal
1
of the college. and Objective.
3. Expand the Reaction paper
horizon about GAD
regarding the concerns
scope of Gender
and
Development as
well as to
understand the
basic concepts
 laws embodied
hereto.
Introduction to Tortora, Gerard, Books
Anatomy and (2008) Principles of Group activities Multi media presentation
Physiology Anatomy and Individual Laptop
th
4.Discuss basic Anatomy Physiology,10 ed. activities LCD Recitation on the
concepts a. systemic John Wiley & Sons, Audio system introduction to
regarding the b. regional Inc. Hand outs Anatomy and
subject to be c. surface Eder, Douglas, et Al Board and white board Physiology.
able to set the d. gross (2006).Laboratory marker
minds for new anatomy Atlas of Anatomy and Illustration/diagram/mod Objective pen and
knowledge and e. cytology Physiology, 5th ed. el paper test (Quiz)
information. f embryology McGraw Hill Brainstorming
g.comparative Chase, Robert
anatomy A.(2002) The Bassett Oral Recitation
5. Express ideas Physiology atlas of Human
2-3 effectively a. system Anatomy, The
about the b. cellular Benjamin/Cummings
different part of c. human Publishing Company
this course Living matter Shier, David, et
which will a. Al,(2002) Hole’s
become the characteristics Human Anatomy and
foundation of b. constituents Physiology, 11th ed,
the program. and functions. McGraw Hill.
Structural levels of Moini, Jahangir,
the body (2016) Anatomy and
Overview of the Physiology for Health
organ systems and Professionals, 2nd,ed,
their functions Jones &Bartlett
The Normal Learning Inc.
Anatomical Position
 Directional Terms to
Describe Anatomical
feature
Major Planes of the
Body
Body Regions
Subdivisions of
Quadrants of the
body
Cavities of the Body

6.Apply the said The Cell Chase, Robert Group Dynamic Books Objective pen and
learnings in this The cell A.(2002) The Bassett Multi media presentation paper test (Quiz)
course after a. Parts atlas of Human Laptop Hands on
completing the b. Anatomy, The LCD exercises/activities
program in their Functions Benjamin/Cummings Audio system .
respective The cell cycle and Publishing Company Hand outs Satisfactory
workplace for reproduction Eder, Douglas, et Al Board and white board accomplishment of
the betterment (2006).Laboratory marker laboratory
of rendering Atlas of Anatomy and Illustration/diagram/mod exercises/activities
health care Physiology, 5th ed. el
4
services McGraw Hill Laboratory
Moini, Jahangir, activities/exercis
(2016) Anatomy and es
Physiology for Health
Professionals, 2nd,ed.
Jones &Bartlett
Learning
Shier, David, et
Al,(2002) Hole’s
Human Anatomy and
 Physiology, 11th ed,
McGraw Hill.
Tortora,
Gerard,(2008)
Principles of
Anatomy and
Physiology,10th ed.
John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.

7 Illustrate the Tissues and Chase, Robert Class discussion Books Board work
tissue slides, Membranes A.(2002) The Bassett Hand out Multi media presentation Objective pen and
their gross Tissues atlas of Human Group dynamics Laptop paper test (Quiz)
characteristics, a. Types Anatomy, The Multimedia LCD
functions, and b.Gross Benjamin/Cummings Audio system Case analysis
areas in the characteristics Publishing Company Hand outs
body where c. functions Eder, Douglas, et Al Board and white board
they may be Membranes (2006).Laboratory marker
found. a. types Atlas of Anatomy and Illustration/diagram/mod
b. function Physiology, 5th ed. el
8.Apply the said McGraw Hill Laboratory
5
learnings in this Moini, Jahangir, activities/exercises
course after (2016) Anatomy and
completing the Physiology for Health
program in their Professionals, 2nd,ed.
respective Jones &Bartlett
workplace for Learning
the betterment Shier, David, et
of rendering Al,(2002) Hole’s
health care Human Anatomy and
services Physiology, 11th ed,
McGraw Hill.
 Tortora,
Gerard,(2008)
Principles of
Anatomy and
Physiology,10th ed.
John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.

9.Show/Describ Integumentary Chase, Robert Multimadia Books Video/ Powerpoint

e the parts and System A.(2002) The Bassett Multi media presentation Presentation
their Overview atlas of Human Laptop Oral recitation
corresponding Structure and Anatomy, The LCD
functions. Functions Benjamin/Cummings Interactive learning Audio system Question and
a.Layers Publishing Company Cross word puzzle Hand outs answer assessment
b.Appendages/Acces Eder, Douglas, et Al Board and white board Case study/
10.Relate the sory (2006).Laboratory marker analysis
said learnings in Roles of the Skin in: Atlas of Anatomy and Illustration/diagram/mod Satisfactory
this course after a. protection/defense Physiology, 5th ed. el accomplishment of
completing the b. temperature McGraw Hill Laboratory laboratory
program in their regulation Moini, Jahangir, exercises/activities exercises/activities
6
respective c. Vitamin D (2016) Anatomy and Practical exam
workplace for production Physiology for Health
the betterment d. Sensation Professionals, 2nd,ed.
of rendering e. Excretion Jones &Bartlett
health care Learning
services Shier, David, et
Al,(2002) Hole’s
Human Anatomy and
Physiology, 11th ed,
McGraw Hill.
Tortora,
Gerard,(2008)
 Principles of
Anatomy and
Physiology,10th ed.
John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.

11.Explain the Skeletal System Chase, Robert Lecture/ oral Books Oral recitation
divisions and Bone Structure A.(2002) The Bassett explanation Multi media presentation
the bones a.macroscopi atlas of Human Class discussion Laptop Objective pen and
comprising it. c Anatomy, The Brainstorming LCD paper test (Quiz)
b.microscopic Benjamin/Cummings Audio system Seatwork/boardwo
12.Identify its Types of bone and Publishing Company Group discussion Hand outs rk
division and the their function Eder, Douglas, et Al Peer teaching Board and white board
bones Descriptive terms (2006).Laboratory marker
comprising used to describe Atlas of Anatomy and Illustration/diagram/mod Case study/
each. anatomical feature of Physiology, 5th ed. el analysis
bones. McGraw Hill Satisfactory
13.Apply the Division of Bones Moini, Jahangir, accomplishment of
said learnings in a. Axial (2016) Anatomy and laboratory
7-8
this course after Physiology for Health exercises/activities
completing the b.Appendicular Professionals, 2nd,ed. Practical exam
program in their Joints or Articulation Jones &Bartlett
respective a. Identification Learning
workplace for b. Types and Shier, David, et
the betterment Examples Al,(2002) Hole’s
of rendering c. Types of Human Anatomy and
health care Joint movement Physiology, 11th ed,
services McGraw Hill.
Tortora,
Gerard,(2008)
Principles of
Anatomy and
 Physiology,10th ed.
John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.

MIDTERM
9 EXAMINA
TION
14.Identify the Muscular System Chase, Robert Books Objective pen and
types of muscle Muscle Tissue A.(2002) The Bassett Hand out Multi media presentation paper test (Quiz)
tissues, their Types and Location atlas of Human Lecture-Discussion Laptop Seatwork
characteristics Properties of Muscles Anatomy, The Peer teaching LCD
and locations in Parts of Muscle Benjamin/Cummings Multimedia Audio system
the body where Attachments Publishing Company Hand outs Case study
they may be Muscle Anatomy Eder, Douglas, et Al Board and white board /analysis
found a.General (2006).Laboratory marker Satisfactory
15.Apply the principles Atlas of Anatomy Illustration/diagram/mod accomplishment of
said learnings in b.Nomenclatu and Physiology, 5th el laboratory
this course after re ed. McGraw Hill exercises/activities
completing the Muscles used in Body Moini, Jahangir, Group Dynamics
10 program in their Movements (2016) Anatomy and
respective Types of Muscular Physiology for Interactive Seatwork
workplace for Activity Health Professionals, discussion Board work
the betterment 2nd,ed. Jones Oral recitation
of rendering &Bartlett Learning
health care Shier, David, et Paper and pen
services Al,(2002) Hole’s assessment (Quiz)
Human Anatomy and Oral recitation
16.Discuss Physiology, 11th ed,
general McGraw Hill.
principles of Tortora,
muscle anatomy Gerard,(2008)
and how Principles of
 muscles are Anatomy and
named. Physiology,10th ed.
John Wiley & Sons,
17. Identify the Inc.
types of
muscular activity
by utilizing a
model of
muscular system.
Circulatory System  Chase, Robert  Books
Components of the A.(2002) The  Lecture/  Multi media
18. Explain the Circulatory System Bassett atlas oral presentation  Seatwork
anatomy and  The heart of Human explanation  Laptop  Boardwork
functions of the a. Size, Anatomy,  Class  LCD  Oral
heart form and The discussion  Audio system recitation
19 State the location Benjamin/Cu Hand out  Hand outs
functions of the b. Coverin mmings  Board and white
blood g and Publishing board marker  Oral
20 Name the layers Company  Illustration/diagr recitation
components of c. Chamber  Eder,  Group am/model
11-
blood and their s and Douglas, et discussion  Laboratory
12
normal values. valves Al  Peer Exercises/Activit  Objective
21. d. Major (2006).Labora teaching ies paper and
Differentiate vessels tory Atlas of pen test
arteries, veins, e. Function Anatomy and (Quiz)
capillaries and s Physiology,  Class
lymphatic  Blood 5th ed. recitation  Satisfactory
vessels as to a.Functions McGraw Hill  Questioning accomplish
structure and b  Moini, techniques ment of
functions. Components of Jahangir, laboratory
22. Identify the normal values (2016) exercises/a
blood vessels, Anatomy and ctivities
 and trace the a. Form Physiology
flow if blood ed for Health
throughout the elem Professionals,
body. ents 2nd,ed. Jones
23. Apply the b. Plas &Bartlett
said learnings in ma Learning
this course after  Blood  Shier, David,
completing the Vessels et Al,(2002)
program in their a. Arteries Hole’s
respective b. Veins Human
workplace for c. Capillari Anatomy and
the betterment es Physiology,
of rendering d. Lymphat 11th ed,
health care ic McGraw Hill.
services Vessels  Tortora,
 Names and Gerard,(2008)
locations Principles of
of major Anatomy and
blood Physiology,10
th
vessels ed. John
 Circulatio Wiley &
n Sons, Inc.
a.Pulmonary
b.Systemic

Respiratory System  Chase, Robert  Books

24.Discuss the Structure and A.(2002) The  Hand out  Multi media  Objective
structure and Function Bassett atlas presentation pen and
13
their function.  conducting of Human  Laptop paper test
25 Illustrate the portion Anatomy,  LCD (Quiz)
pathway of air The  Audio system
from outside to  respiratory Benjamin/Cu  Group  Hand outs  Oral
the alveoli. portion. mmings discussion  Board and white recitation
26.Discuss the  Ventilation Publishing  Peer board marker
phases in  Respiration Company teaching  Illustration/diagr  Boardwork
respiration. a. Definition  Eder, am/model
b. Phases in Douglas, et  Laboratory  Satisfactory
respiration Al exercises/activiti accomplish
 inspiration/in (2006).Labora es ment of
halation tory Atlas of laboratory
expiration/ex Anatomy and exercises/a
halation Physiology, ctivities
5th ed.  Practical
McGraw Hill exam
 Moini,
Jahangir,
(2016)
Anatomy and
Physiology
for Health
Professionals,
2nd,ed. Jones
&Bartlett
Learning
 Shier, David,
et Al,(2002)
Hole’s
Human
Anatomy and
Physiology,
11th ed,
McGraw Hill.
  Tortora,
Gerard,(2008)
Principles of
Anatomy and
Physiology,10
th
ed. John
Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Digestive System  Chase, Robert  Books

 Digestive A.(2002) The  Hand out  Multi media
27.Identify the Organs, Bassett atlas  Lecture/Dis presentation
structures Accessory, of Human cussion  Laptop  Seatwork
comprising the Structure Anatomy,  Group  LCD
digestive and The discussion  Audio system
system and their Function Benjamin/Cu  Peer  Hand outs
functions.  Digestive mmings teaching  Board and white
Hormones, Publishing board marker  Boardwork
Enzymes, Company  Illustration/diagr  Objective
14 28. Identify the juices and  Eder, am/model pen and
principal Functions Douglas, et  Laboratory paper test.
digestive  Physiology Al exercises/activiti (Quiz)
hormones, of (2006).Labora es
enzymes and Digestion tory Atlas of  Seatwork
juices and cite Anatomy and
its function. Physiology,  Recitation
29. Discuss the 5th ed.
process of McGraw Hill
chemical and  Moini,
Jahangir,
 mechanical (2016)
digestion. Anatomy and
Physiology
for Health
Professionals,
2nd,ed. Jones
&Bartlett
Learning
 Shier, David,
et Al,(2002)
Hole’s
Human
Anatomy and
Physiology,
11th ed,
McGraw Hill.
 Tortora,
Gerard,(2008)
Principles of
Anatomy and
Physiology,10
th
ed. John
Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

30.Distinguish Excretory System  Chase, Robert  Lecture/  Books  Group

the gross  Structure A.(2002) The oral  Multi media presentatio
15 anatomy of each and Bassett atlas explanat presentation n
organ of the Function of Human ion  Laptop  Objective
excretory of Organs Anatomy,  LCD pen and
system and their comprisin The  Class  Audio system paper test
function. g the Benjamin/Cu discussi  Hand outs (Quiz)
31.Describe the Excretory mmings on  Board and white  Practical
normal System Publishing board marker exam
characteristics  Characteri Company  Hand  Illustration/diagr
and stics and  Eder, out am/model
composition of Compositi Douglas, et  Laboratory
the urine. on of Al exercises/activiti
Urine (2006).Labora es
tory Atlas of
Anatomy and
Physiology,
5th ed.
McGraw Hill
 Moini,
Jahangir,
(2016)
Anatomy and
Physiology
for Health
Professionals,
2nd,ed. Jones
&Bartlett
Learning
 Shier, David,
et Al,(2002)
Hole’s
Human
Anatomy and
Physiology,
11th ed,
McGraw Hill.
  Tortora,
Gerard,(2008)
Principles of
Anatomy and
Physiology,10
th
ed. John
Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

32.Discuss the The Nervous System  Chase, Robert  Lecture/  Books  Pre-
2 main divisions  Division of A.(2001)The oral  Multi media test/post
of the nervous the Nervous Bassett atlas explanation presentation test
system and their System of Human  Class  Laptop  Objective
characteristics. a. CNS Anatomy, discussion  LCD paper and
b. PNS The  Audio system pen test
33.Differentiate  The CNS Benjamin/Cu  Hand outs (Quiz)
the gross a. Brain mmings  Hand out  Board and white  Satisfactory
structure and b. Spinal Cord Publishing board marker accomplish
functions of c. Meninges Company  Illustration/diagr ment of
16 CNS and PNS  PNS  Eder, am/model laboratory
34.Identify the a. Cranial nerve Douglas, et  Laboratory exercises/a
cranial nerves b. Spinal nerves Al exercises/activiti ctivities
and their c. Sympathetic (2006).Labora es  Oral
functions NS tory Atlas of recitation
d. Parasympath Anatomy and  Boardwork
etic NS Physiology,
5th ed.
McGraw Hill
 Moini,
Jahangir,
 (2016)
Anatomy and
Physiology
for Health
Professionals,
2nd,ed. Jones
&Bartlett
Learning
 Shier, David,
et Al,(2002)
Hole’s
Human
Anatomy and
Physiology,
11th ed,
McGraw Hill.
 Tortora,
Gerard,(2008)
Principles of
Anatomy and
Physiology,10
th
ed. John
Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
e.
35..Expalin and Reproductive  Tortora,  Brainstormi  Books  Board work
describe the System Gerard, ng  Multi media  Seatwork
anatomy of  Anatomy of (2008)  Class presentation
17 male and female the Male Principles of recitation  Laptop
reproductive reproductive Anatomy and  LCD  Satisfactory
system. System Physiology,10  Audio system accomplish
a. Scrotum th
ed. John  Hand outs ment of
 b. Testes Wiley &  Lecture/  Board and white laboratory
36.Relate the c. Penis Sons, Inc. oral board marker exercises/a
different organs d. Male duct  Eder, explanation  Illustration/diagr ctivities
of the system Douglas, et Al  Class am/model
reproductive e. Male (2006).Labora discussion  Laboratory
system in the accessory tory Atlas of exercises/activiti  Practical
birthing process glands Anatomy and  Hand out es exam
f. Semen Physiology,
 Anatomy of 5th ed.
37.Appreciate Female McGraw Hill
the diagram as Reproductive  Chase, Robert
its System A.(2002) The
representation a. Ovaries Bassett atlas
of the actual b. Female of Human
birthing duct system Anatomy, The
process. c.External Benjamin/Cu
genitalia mmings
 Mammary Publishing
glands Company
 Shier, David,
et Al,(2002)
Hole’s
Human
Anatomy and
Physiology,
11th ed,
McGraw Hill.
 Moini,
Jahangir,
(2016)
Anatomy and
Physiology
 for Health
Professionals,
2nd,ed, Jones
&Bartlett
Learning

FINAL
18 EXAMINAT
ION
SUGGESTED www.biologyjunction.co
LEARNING m
RESOURCES: www.biologycorner.com
www.pppst.com
www.nclark.net
www.sciencespot.net
 COURSE REQUIREMENTS:  Case Study (Project)
 Compilation of Laboratory Activities
 Portfolio with documentations of the Activity

(Lecture = 60% + Laboratory = 40%)

Class Standing =50%
Mid-Term/Final Examination =40%
GRADING SYSTEM
Project =10%
100%
*Final Rating = Midterm (40%) + Final Term (60%)
COURSE POLICIES Attendance
 1. Students having seven (7) absences without valid reasons will be
dropped from the class. Students are required to present admit to class
slip from the Office of Student Affairs and Services after being absent
in the previous meeting.
2. Three (3), not necessarily consecutive, tardiness without further notice
is equivalent to one (1) absence.
Submission of requirements:
1. Submitted requirements such as project laboratory activities and the
likes except assignment will be evaluated as follows, Cleanliness,
orderliness, format is 20%, Content or accuracy of output is 80%.
2. Student failed to submit required output as scheduled without any valid
reason will be given 75% and will be given only 1week grace period to
comply.
3. Failure to submit required output will be given a grade of 65%.

Incomplete Grade:
1. Students who were not able to take the midterm/final examinations will
receive an incomplete grade.
2. Incomplete grade should be complied within one year.
Prepared by: Noted: Approved:

CHERYL B. ARTEMIO M. GONZALES JR, RM, ELBERT C. EDANIOL, EdD

ASUNCION, MAN MPH Vice President for Academic Affairs
Faculty Program Head
_________________
Recommending Approval: Date
-
__________________ MARICRIS M. USITA, EdD
___ Dean, CAST

Date _____________________
Date
 PREFACE

College Art, Sciences and Technology, Midwifery Department demands skills development that
prepare students for employment both locally and globally. In this regard, … Develop the
knowledge, attitude and skills of first level midwives in the care of the girl-child, the adolescent
and the adult women prior to, during, and following pregnancy. This prepares the midwives to
give the necessary supervision, care and advice to women during pregnancy, labor and post-
partum period, manage normal deliveries on her own responsibility and care for the child.

This module is divided into Twelve chapters that cover the essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology

Lesson 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Lesson 2: The Cell
Lesson 3: Tissues and Membranes
Lesson 4: Integumentary System
Lesson 5: Skeletal System
Lesson 6: Muscular System
Lesson 7: Circulatory System
Lesson 8: Respiratory System
Lesson 9: Digestive System
Lesson 10: Excretory System
Lesson 11: The Nervous System
Lesson 12: Reproductive System

-The Author

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Lesson 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy
a. systemic
b. regional
c. surface
d. gross anatomy
e. cytology
f embryology
g.comparative anatomy
Physiology
a. system
b. cellular
c. human
Living matter
a. characteristics
b. constituents and functions.
Structural levels of the body
Overview of the organ systems and their functions
The Normal Anatomical Position
Directional Terms to Describe Anatomical feature
Major Planes of the Body
Body Regions
Subdivisions of Quadrants of the body
Cavities of the Body

Lesson 2: The Cell

a. Parts
b. Functions
The cell cycle and reproduction

Lesson 3: Tissues and Membranes

Tissues
a. Types
b.Gross characteristics
c. functions
Membranes
a. types
b. function

Lesson 4: Integumentary System

Overview
Structure and Functions
a. Layers
b. Appendages/Accessory
Roles of the Skin in:
a. protection/defense
b. temperature regulation
c. Vitamin D production
d. Sensation
e. Excretion
Lesson 5: Skeletal System
Bone Structure
a.macroscopic
b.microscopic
Types of bone and their function
Descriptive terms used to describe anatomical feature of bones.
Division of Bones
a. Axial
b.Appendicular
Joints or Articulation
a. Identification
b. Types and Examples

Lesson 6: Muscular System

Muscle Tissue
Types and Location
Properties of Muscles
Parts of Muscle
Attachments
Muscle Anatomy
a. General principles
b. Nomenclature
Muscles used in Body Movements
Types of Muscular Activity

Lesson 7: Circulatory System

Components of the Circulatory System
The heart
Size, form and location
Covering and layers
Chambers and valves
Major vessels
Functions
Blood
a.Functions
b Components of normal values
Formed elements
Plasma
Blood Vessels
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
Lymphatic Vessels
Names and locations of major blood vessels
Circulation
a.Pulmonary
b.Systemic

Lesson 8: Respiratory System

Structure and Function
conducting portion
respiratory portion.
Ventilation
Respiration
a. Definition
b. Phases in respiration
inspiration/inhalation expiration/exhalation

Lesson 9: Digestive System

 Digestive Organs, Accessory, Structure and Function
 Digestive Hormones, Enzymes, juices and Functions
 Physiology of Digestion

Lesson 10: Excretory System

 Structure and Function of
 Organs comprising the Excretory System
 Characteristics and Composition of Urine

Lesson 11: The Nervous System

 Division of the Nervous System
c. CNS
d. PNS
 The CNS
d. Brain
e. Spinal Cord
f. Meninges
 PNS
f. Cranial nerve
g. Spinal nerves
h. Sympathetic NS
i. Parasympathetic NS

Lesson 12: Reproductive System

 Anatomy of the Male reproductive System
g. Scrotum
h. Testes
i. Penis
j. Male duct system
k. Male accessory glands
l. Semen
Anatomy of Female Reproductive System
a. Ovaries
b. Female duct system
c.External genitalia
Mammary gland
 LESSON 1
Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

TOPICS
1.Anatomy
a. systemic

b. regional

c. surface

d. gross anatomy

e. cytology

f embryology
g.comparative anatomy
Physiology
a. system
b. cellular
c. human
Living matter
a. characteristics
b. constituents and functions.
Structural levels of the body
Overview of the organ systems and their functions
The Normal Anatomical Position
Lesson 1: Anatomy
Directional and
TermsPhysiology
to Describe Anatomical feature
Major Planes of the Body
Body Regions
Pretest Subdivisions of Quadrants of the body
Cavities of the Body
A Anatomy
a. systemic
b. regional
c. surface
d. gross anatomy
e. cytology
Before further studying the succeeding topics, answer the following questions based on the
previous knowledge that you have acquired:
1.The maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment in the human body is termed as:
a. positive feedback c. homeostasis
b. negative feedback d. effector control
2. The lungs are to the respiratory system as the spleen is to the
a. lymphatic system c. digestive system
b. cardiovascular system d. urinary system
3. The pituitary and thyroid are components of the
a. respiratory system c. lymphatic system
b. endocrine system d. cardiovascular system
4. Support, protection of soft tissue , mineral storage and blood formation are functions of which
system?
a. nervous c. skeletal
b. muscular d. integumentary
5. The chemical or molecular level of organization begins with______ and forms ___________?
a. cells, tissues c. organs, systems
b. molecules, atoms d. atoms, molecules
6. Which sectional plane divides the body so the face remains intact?
a. midsagittal c. sagittal
b. coronal d. parasagittal
7. Which of the following cavities are spaces for joints?
a. orbital c. oral
b. synovial d. nasal

What is Anatomy?

Study of the STRUCTURE of the Human Body

Closely related to PHYSIOLOGY!
Physiology is the study of the FUNCTION of the human body
• Anatomy – the study of the structure and shape of the body and body parts & their relationship
to one another. The term anatomy comes from the Greek words meaning to cut (tome) apart (
ana) .

• Gross anatomy( macroscopic anatomy) – the study of large, easily observable

structures (by naked eye), such as the heart or bone.

• Microscopic anatomy (cytology, histology) – the study of very small structures, where a
magnifying lens or microscope is needed.

Divisions of Anatomy

• Gross Anatomy-Structures that can be seen with the naked eye. Muscles, bones, various organs
(brain, heart, kidneys, lungs and skin.

• Regional Anatomy- all structures in a certain body region are examined at the same time.
Example; if an arm were examined, structures would include skin, muscle, bones, nerves, blood
vessel and others.

• Surface Anatomy- this is the examination of internal structures related to overlying skin surface.
For example, to locate the correct blood vessels used for phlebotomy.

• Systemic Anatomy- each body system is examined. For example the heart would be examined
when studying cardiovascular system but so would all blood vessels of the whole body.

• Microscopic Anatomy-Structures that cannot be seen with the eye. Need to use a microscope.

• Cytology = study of cells

 • Histology = study of tissues

• Embryology- a subdivision of developmental anatomy that focuses on developmental change

occurring before birth.

• Comparative Anatomy – a subdivision of anatomy that confirm all vertebrates share a basic
pattern of organization, most noticeable during embryology.

Physiology- is concerned with how the body functions often focusing on cellular or molecular activities

Relationship between Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology are always related. Structure determines what functions can take place. For
example, the lungs are not muscular chambers like the heart and cannot pump blood, but because the
walls of lungs are very thin, they can exchange gasses and provide oxygen to the body.

What are you made of?

Ways to Study Anatomy

• Regional Anatomy – study one region of the body at a time and learn everything about the region

• Systemic Anatomy – study one body system at a time. This is the approach we will use in this
course

• Anatomical Organization

Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ Systems
Organism

Levels of Structural Organization

The human body exhibits 6 levels of structural complexity:
1- Chemical level , the simplest level of structural ladder .At this level atoms combine to form molecules
such as water, sugar, & proteins
2- Cellular level the smallest units of living things.
3- Tissue level , groups of similar cells that have a common function (4 basic types)
4- Organ level, an organ is a structure composed of 2 or more tissue types that performs a specific
function .
5- Organ System is a group of organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose (each organ
has its own job to do)
6- Organismal level , represents the highest level of structural organization( total of 11 organ systems)
Maintaining Life Necessary Life Functions: All living organisms carry out certain vital functional
activities necessary for life, including:
1- Maintenance of boundaries: Every living organism must maintain its inside distinct from outside.
-All the cells are surrounded by a selectively permeable membrane.
-The body as a whole is enclosed and protected by the integumentary system, or skin, which protects our
internal organs from drying out, bacteria, heat, sunlight, and harmful chemicals.
2- Movement:
-It includes the activities promoted by the muscular system, the skeletal system provides the bony
framework that the muscles pull on as they work.
-Movement also occurs when substances such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled through
internal organs.
- On the cellular level, the muscle cell’s ability to move by shortening is more precisely called contractility.
3- Responsiveness or irritability, is the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and then
respond to them.
-you involuntarily pull your hand away from the painful stimulus.
-When carbon dioxide in your blood rises to dangerously high levels, your breathing rate speeds up.
Because nerve cells are highly irritable and communicate rapidly with each other via electrical impulses,
the nervous system is most involved with responsiveness. However, all body cells are irritable to some
extent.
4- Digestion -is the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into
the blood. The nutrient-rich blood is then distributed to all body cells by the cardiovascular system.
In a simple, one-celled organism such as an amoeba, the cell itself is the “digestion factory,” but in the
multicellular human body, the digestive system performs this function for the entire body.
5- Metabolism is a broad term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells. It
includes breaking down substances into their simpler building blocks (catabolism), synthesizing more
complex cellular structures from simpler substances (anabolism), and using nutrients and oxygen to
produce (via cellular respiration) ATP, that power cellular activities.
Metabolism depends on the digestive and respiratory systems to make nutrients and oxygen available to
be distributed throughout the body. Metabolism is regulated largely by hormones secreted by endocrine
system glands.
6- Excretion is the process of removing excreta (ek-skre′tah), or wastes, from the body. – The digestive
system rids the body of indigestible food residues in feces.
-The urinary system disposes of nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes, such as urea, in urine.
- Carbon dioxide, a by-product of cellular respiration, is carried in the blood to the lungs, where it leaves
the body in exhaled air.
7- Reproduction: is making a whole new person which is the major task of the reproductive system.
- When a sperm unites with an egg, a fertilized egg forms, which then develops into a baby within the
mother’s body.
- The reproductive system is regulated by hormones of the endocrine system.
- Because males produce sperm and females produce eggs (ova), there is a division of labor in the
reproductive process, and the reproductive organs of males and females are different.
- The female’s reproductive structures provide the site for fertilization of eggs by sperm, then protect and
nurture the developing fetus until birth.
8- Growth is an increase in size of a body part or the organism. It is usually accomplished by increasing
the number of cells. However, individual cells also increase in size when not dividing. For true growth to
occur, constructive activities must occur at a faster rate than destructive ones
II. Survival Needs
Survival needs include:
a. Nutrients, taken in via the diet, contain the chemical substances used for energy and cell building.
-Carbohydrates are the major energy fuel for body cells.
- Proteins, and to a lesser extent of fats, are essential for building cell structures.
- Fats also provide a reserve of energy-rich fuel.
- Selected minerals and vitamins are required for the chemical reactions that go on in cells and
for oxygen transport in the blood. The mineral calcium helps to make bones hard and is required
for blood clotting.
b. Oxygen: All the nutrients in the world are useless unless oxygen is also available. Because the chemical
reactions that release energy from foods are oxidative reactions that require oxygen, human cells can
survive for only a few minutes without oxygen. Approximately 20% of the air we breathe is oxygen. It is
made available to the blood and body cells by the cooperative efforts of the respiratory and cardiovascular
systems.
c. Water accounts for 60–80% of body weight and is the single most abundant chemical substance in the
body. It provides the watery environment necessary for chemical reactions and the fluid base for body
secretions and excretions. Water is obtained chiefly from ingested foods or liquids and is lost from the
body by evaporation from the lungs and skin and in body excretions
d. If chemical reactions are to continue at life-sustaining rates, normal body temperature must be
maintained. As body temperature drops below 37°C (98.6°F), metabolic reactions become slower and
slower, and finally stop. When body temperature is too high, body proteins lose their characteristic shape
and stop functioning. At either extreme, death occurs. Most body heat is generated by the activity of the
muscular system
e. Atmospheric pressure is the force that air exerts on the surface of the body. Breathing and gas exchange
in the lungs depend on appropriate atmospheric pressure. At high altitudes, where atmospheric pressure
is lower and the air is thin, gas exchange may be inadequate to support cellular metabolism.
Notice: The mere presence of these survival factors is not sufficient to sustain life. They must be present
in appropriate amounts; excesses and deficits may be equally harmful. For example, the food we eat must
be of high quality and in proper amounts; otherwise, nutritional disease, obesity, or starvation is likely.

Organ Systems

1. Integumentary
2. Skeletal
3. Muscular
4. Nervous
5. Endocrine
6. Cardiovascular
7. Lymphatic
8. Respiratory
9. Digestive
10. Urinary
11. Reproductive
Four-footed body directions

Planes and Sections

Body planes and sections

A section is a cut made along a plane

 Sagittal – cut made along the lengthwise or longitudinal plane of the body dividing it into left and
right parts, divides the body into right and left sides

 Midsagittal (median) plane – right and left parts are of equal size, straight down the center of the
body

 Frontal (coronal) plane – cut made along a lengthwise plane that divides the body into anterior
and posterior parts, divides the body into front and back sides

 Transverse plane (cross section) – cut made along a horizontal plane dividing the body or organ
into superior and inferior parts, cut straight across the body
Body Cavities
Body Quadrants

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

Homeostasis – is a term that describes a stable internal body environment. It requires a constant
balance, or a normal concentration of nutrients, oxygen, and water to be normal and balanced.
Anatomical Position

Standing erect
Feet parallel
Arms hanging at the sides
Palms facing forward
Anatomical position – body is erect with the feet parallel and the arms hanging at the sides with the
palms facing forward. (It’s important to note throughout this course, most terminology refers to this
position regardless of the position the body happens to be in at the time)

Directional terms

Superior (cranial or cephalic) – toward the head end or upper part of a structure or body; above
Inferior (caudal) – away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or body; below
Anterior (ventral) – toward or at the front of the body; in front of
Posterior (dorsal) – toward or at the backside of the body; behind
Medial – toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
Lateral – away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
Proximal – close to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.
Distal – farther from the origin of a body or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.
Superficial (external) – toward or at the body surface.
Deep (internal) – away from the body surface; more internal

BODY CAVITIES

There are two sets of internal body cavities called the dorsal and ventral body cavities. These cavities are
closed to the outside.

1. Dorsal Body Cavity

Which protects the fragile nervous system organs has two subdivisions. The cranial cavity, in the skull,
encases the brain. The vertebral, or spinal, cavity, which runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses
the delicate spinal cord. The cranial and spinal cavities are continuous with one another
Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

Because the abdominopelvic cavity is large and contains several organs, it helps to divide it into smaller
areas for study.

One division method, used primarily by anatomists, uses two transverse and two parasagittal planes.
These planes, divide the cavity into nine regions :

-The umbilical region is the centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel).
The epigastric region is located superior to the umbilical region (epi = upon, above; gastri = belly).
-The hypogastric (pubic) region is located inferior to the umbilical region (hypo = below).
-The right and left iliac, or inguinal, regions (ing′gwĭ-nal) are located lateral to the hypogastric region
(iliac = superior part of the hip bone).
-The right and left lumbar regions lie lateral to the umbilical region (lumbus = loin).
-The right and left hypochondriac regions flank the epigastric region laterally (chondro = cartilage).
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
You should now be familiar with:

-The characteristics of life.

-The sciences of anatomy and physiology and their various subdivisions.
-The levels of organization in the human body.
-The definition and importance of homeostasis.

Task/Activity

Post test
Answer the following questions using the concept/knowledge learned/ acquired from the
previous lesson/discussion..
1.Which of the following terms indicates the front (anterior) of the body?
a. ventral c. posterior
b. dorsal d. proximal
2. The navel is located between which of the following?
a. left and right lungs c. left and right iliac regions
b. left and right lumbar regions d. left and right hypochondriac region
3. Which of the following is an example of positive feedback?
a.blood pressure regulation c. contraction before birth
b. control of blood glucose d. body temperature regulation
4. A cut passing through the midline of the body that divides it into equal left and right halves
referred to as which of the following plane?
a. coronal c. transverse
b. midsagittal d. frontal
5. Skin, hair and nails are associated with
a. digestive system c. lymphatic system
b.endocrine system d. integumentary system
6. Which of the following is/are lateral to the nose?
a. forehead c. eyes
b. chin d. chest
7. The chest is ______________ to the mouth.
a. inferior c. superior
b. posterior d. anterior
8. The thoracic cavity contains the_____________.
a. cranium c. abdominal cavity
b. pelvic cavity d. pericardial cavity

Critical thinking question:

An 8- year old boy had severe abdominal pain, a low fever, nausea and vomiting. He was
brought to the emergency department. His parents explained that his pain had started about 14
hours before. After physical examination on the boy’s abdomen, the physician located the site of
pain and then suspected the boy had appendicitis.
1.Explain the nine abdominal regions
2. Explain which abdominal region contains the appendix.

Laboratory Activity
A. Write your own examples using these directional terms
1. Inferior
2. Superior
3. Anterior
4. Posterior
5. Medial
6. Lateral
7. Distal
8. Proximal
9. Deep
10. Superficial

B. Label the body cavities

C. Label the body regions

Supplemental lesson: Anatomical position

Link https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/career-clusters/health-science/ap15305/anatomical-
terminology-relative-position
Review the body regions through this drag-and-drop exercises
Link https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/general-education/anatomy-and-
physiology1/ap15405/anatomical-terminology-body-regions
 Lesson 2: The Cell

Lesson 2 The Cell

a. Parts
b. Functions
The cell cycle and reproduction

Pre test
Before studying further the succeeding topics, answer the following questions based on
the previous knowledge that you have learned/acquired:
1.Which of the following is the control center for cellular operations?
a.cell membrane c. nucleus
b.lysosomes d. mitochondria
2. Which of the following organelles is involved in the digestion of foreign material?
a. ribosomes c. mitochondria
b. lysosomes d. golgi apparatus
3. Where is most of the ATP required to power cellular operations produced?
a.mitochondria c. golgi apparatus
b. nucleoli d. centrioles
4. Where does synthesis of lipids take place?
a. lysosomes c. rough endoplasmic reticulum
b. nucleoli d. smooth endoplasmic reticulum
5. A solution that contains a higher solute concentration than the cytoplasm of a cell is
referred to as:
a. hypertonic c. hypotonic
b. isotonic d. semitonic
6. Which of the following is true about cell membrane?
a. they are impermeable c. they are differentially permeable or semipermeable
b. they are freely permeable d. they are actively permeable
7. The movement of oxygen from area of high concentration to an area of low concentration is
an example of:
a. filtration c. osmosis
b. diffusion d. active transport
Objectives
1. Explain parts of cell’s structure.
2. Compare and define cilia and flagella
3. Explain cell cycle and reproduction

Cell Structure and Function

Smallest living unit
Most are microscopic

Discovery of Cells

Robert Hooke (mid-1600s)

Observed sliver of cork
Saw “row of empty boxes”
Coined the term cell
 • (1839)Theodor Schwann & Matthias Schleiden

“ all living things are made of cells”

• (50 yrs. later) Rudolf Virchow

“all cells come from cells”

Principles of Cell Theory

• All living things are made of cells

• Smallest living unit of structure and function of all organisms is the cell

• All cells arise from preexisting cells

(this principle discarded the idea of spontaneous generation)

Characteristics of All Cells

- A surrounding membrane
- Protoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid
- Organelles – structures for cell function
- Control center with DNA Characteristics of All Cells

Representative Animal Cell

Cell Parts and Functions:

a. Plasma Membrane
• Contains cell contents
• Double layer of phospholipids & proteins
b. Cytoplasm
-Viscous fluid containing organelles
- components of cytoplasm
a. Interconnected filaments & fibers
b. Fluid = cytosol
c. Organelles (not nucleus)
d. storage substances
c. Cilia & Flagella

• Provide motility
• Cilia
– Short
– Used to move substances outside human cells
• Flagella
– Whip-like extensions
– Found on sperm cells

d. Centrioles
-Pairs of microtubular structures
-Play a role in cell division

e. Nucleus
-Control center of cell
-Double membrane
-Contains:
a. Chromosomes
b. Nucleolus
f. Nuclear Envelope
-Separates nucleus from rest of cell
-Double membrane
-Has pores
g. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
Hereditary material
-Chromosomes
– DNA
– Protiens
– Form for cell division
- Chromatin
g. Nucleolus
• Most cells have 2 or more
• Directs synthesis of RNA
• Forms ribosomes

h. Endoplasmic Reticulum
-Helps move substances within cells
-Network of interconnected membranes
Two types
a. Rough endoplasmic reticulum-
- Ribosomes attached to surface
- Manufacture protiens.
- Not all ribosomes attached to rough ER
-May modify proteins from ribosomes
 b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
No attached ribosomes
Has enzymes that help build molecules
- Carbohydrates
-Lipids

i.Golgi Apparatus/Bodies
• Involved in synthesis of cell wall
• Packaging & shipping station of cell

i. Lysosomes
-Contain digestive enzymes
Functions
-Aid in cell renewal
-Break down old cell parts
-Digests invaders
k. Mitochondria
(release energy)
Have their own DNA
Bound by double membrane

Functions of Mitochondria
Break down fuel molecules (cellular respiration)
– Glucose
– Fatty acids
– Release energy
– ATP
 l. ribosomes
(store energy)
Review of Cell Structure & Function

Cell Life Cycle

The cell life cycle is regulated via stimulation from hormones or growth factors.
Disruption of the cycle can affect the health of the body. Most human cell divide from
40 to 60 times before they die. The life cycle of a cell includes the following steps:
Interphase- the cell obtain nutriens to grow and duplicate. This actually is the period from cell
formation to cell division.
Cell division (mitosis)- the nucleus divides
Cytoplasmic Division (cytokinesis) – the cytoplasm divides
Differntiation- the cell becomes specialized.

Mitosis-the division of the nucleus of a cell and cytokinesis. All except the egg and sperm can be
divided by mitosis.
Stages of Mitosis:
1, Prophase- the two new centriole pairs move to opposite ends of the cell. The chromatin
becomes shorter and thicker. Spindle fibers develop, whereas the nucleolus and nuclear
membrane disappear.
2. Metaphase- the chromosomes line up near the middle portion (the equator of the cell),
between the centrioles and spindle fibers attach to them.
3. Anaphase- the centromere sections of each chromosomes are pulled apart to become
individual homologous chromosomes and move toward opposite ends of the cell.
4. Telophase- the spindle fibers disappear, and the chromosomes lengthen and unwind, with a
nuclear envelope forming around them and nucleoli appearing in each newly formed nucleus.

Task/Activity

Post test
Answer the following questions using the concept/knowledge acquired from the previous
lesson/discussion.
1.The fluid filled cavity within mitochondria is called the:
a. matrix c. vesicle
b. cristae d.anticodon
2. The basic structural unit of human body is the:
a. tissue c. organ
b. cell d. chromosomes
3. Which organelles are responsible for protein synthesis?
a. mitochondria c. lysosomes
b. ribosomes d. golgi apparatus
4. The cell membrane is also called the:
a. cutaneous membrane c. mucous membrane
b. serous membrane d. plasma membrane
5. The primary substances that make up the cell membranes are
a. proteins c.lipids
b. carbohydrates d. both A and C
6. The clear liquid part of the cytoplasm is known as the
a. centromere c. microfilament
b. cytosol d. vesicle
7. Which of the following is made up mostly of RNA and proteins and has surrounding
membrane?
a. nucleolus c. mitochondria
b. vesicle d. lysosomes
8. Which of the following is not a passive cell mechanism?
a. diffusion c. endocytosis
b. osmosis d. filtration

Critical thinking question:

A 63 -year old woman was diagnosed with carcinoma of thyroid. Unfortunately, it had
metastasized to her vertebral bones.
1.Explain the cell division in relation to cancer
2. Describe the term metastasis and the common cause of cancer

Laboratory Activity
A. Access this link-
http://mrsdlovesscience.com/MICROSCOPEpgs/lifemicrowetmount.html

1) Study the cell model and identify the following organelles and structures: cell
membrane cytoplasm nucleus & nucleolus organelles: ribosome, endoplasmic
reticulum, golgi bodies, mitochondria, centrioles, lysosomes, cilia & flagella
2) Study the general functions of each cell structure and organelle listed above
3) Make a wet mount of cheek cells following your instructor’s directions and
identify as many cellular structures as you can.
4) Compare some of the different kinds of cells (epithelium, blood, muscle and
sperm) from the slides indicated above and describe their visible similarities and
differences

B. Draw a somatic cell and label the following parts:

1. Golgi body
2. Ribosome
3. Lysosome
4. Mitochondria
5. Endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth)
6. Vacuole
7. Centrosome
8. Cytosol
9. Cytoskeleton
10. Nucleus
11. Cell membrane
C. In tabular form, write the function of each cell part listed above.
D. Cell cycle
1) Describe the cell cycle.
2) Name the three phases of interphase.
3) In which phase does DNA replicate?
4) Describe the four stages of mitosis.
E. Differentiate mitosis and meiosis.
Supplemental lesson: Viewing a cell model
Instructions:
1. Click on the link https://www.cellsalive.com/cells/cell_model_js.htm
2. Click on animal cell
3. Hover your cursor on the cell model. You should be able to see the labels.
4. Click on any cell part to review their functions
5. Click on RETURN TO CELL DIAGRAM to view other cell parts
Supplemental lesson: Interactive Mitosis
Instructions:
1. Click on the link https://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis_js.htm
2. Click on play
3. You can pause on each phase for better viewing.

Lesson 3: Animal Tissue

Pretest
Before studying further, the succeeding topics, answer the following questions based on
the previous knowledge that you have learned/acquired:

1.Which of the following tissue binds structure and provides protection?

a. epithelial c. nervous
b. muscle d. connective
2.A matrix is a characteristic of which of the following types of tissue?
a. neural c. connective
b. epithelial d. muscle
3. The most common type of cartilage is
a. hyaline c. elastic
b. fibrocartilage d. collagenous
4. Stratified squamous epithelium covers or lines which of the following parts of the body?
a. vagina c. skin
b. mouth d. all of the above
5. Epithelium is connected to underlying connective tissue by
a. intracellular glue c. a fibrous netting
b. a basement membrane d. reticular fiber
6. Simple cuboidal epithelium is found
a. lining the trachea c. lining glandular ducts
b. lining the esophagus d. lining the blood vessels
7. Which of the following tissues is specialized for the conduction of electrical impulses?
a. epithelial tissue c. nervous tissue
b. areolar tissue d. muscle tissue

Tissues

 Definition: a group of closely associated cells that perform related functions and are
similar in structure
 Four basic types of tissue…function
 Epithelium…covering
 Connective tissue…support
 Muscle tissue…movement
 Nervous tissue…control
The study of tissues is called “Histology”
1.Epithelia (plural)
 Epithelium: sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity/internal
organs; also form most of the body’s glands
 Roles: as interfaces and as boundaries
 Functions:
Physical Protection Absorption
Sensory reception Ion transport
Secretion Filtration
Formation of slippery surfaces for movement
Special characteristics of epithelia:
 Cellularity
 Specialized contacts
 Polarity
 Free upper (apical) surface
 Lower (basal) surface contributing basal lamina to basement membrane
 Support by connective tissue
 Avascular but innervated
 Without vessels
 With nerve endings
 Regeneration
Classification of epithelia:
 According to thickness
 “simple” - one cell layer
 “stratified” – more than one layer of cells (which are named according to the
shape of the cells in the apical layer)
  According to shape
 “squamous” – wider than tall
 “cuboidal” – as tall as wide
 “columnar” - taller than wide

2. Squamous Epithelium
 Cells very thin, much wider than they are thick.
 Simple Squamous Epithelium
 Air sacs of respiratory
 Lining of blood vessels, heart and lymphatic tubes
 Stratified Squamous Epithelium
 Skin
 Vagina
 Esophagus
 Mouth
Cuboidal Epithelium
 Cells cube shaped- secretion and absorption.
 Kidney tubules
 Duct and small glands
 Surface of ovary

Columnar Epithelium
 Elongated cells, much longer than they are wide.
 Simple Columnar Epithelium
 A single layer of cells that line the digestive tract, gallbladder and
excretory ducts of some glands. Has microvilli at surface for absorption.
 Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
 Lines the bronchi, trachea, uterine tubes and some of the uterus.
PropelsConnective tissue
 Characterized by the cells widely separated from each other in a matrix that is
produced by the cells.
 Connective tissue proper (examples: fat tissue, fibrous tissue of
ligaments)
 Cartilage
 Bone
 Blood

 Originate from embryonic tissue called mesenchyme

 Most diverse and abundant type of tissue
 Many subclasses (see previous slide)
 Function: to protect, support and bind together other tissues
 Bones, ligaments, tendons
 Areolar cushions; adipose insulates and is food source
 Blood cells replenished; body tissues repaired
 Cells separated from one another by large amount of nonliving extracellular matrix

Classes of Connective Tissue: note the cell types and great variety of subclasses
Basic functions of connective tissue
 Support and binding of other tissues
 Holding body fluids
 Defending the body against infection
 macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells, WBCs
 Storing nutrients as fat
Mesenchyme- embryonic connective tissue:
Muscle tissue
 Skeletal
 Cardiac
 Smooth
 Neurons
 Supporting cells

Nervous Tissue

The Nervous system has three major functions:

 Sensory – monitors internal & external environment through presence of
receptors
 Integration – interpretation of sensory information (information processing);
complex (higher order) functions
 Motor – response to information processed through stimulation of effectors
- muscle contraction
- glandular secretion
Two types of neural cells in the nervous system:
 Neurons - For processing, transfer, and storage of information
 Neuroglia – For support, regulation & protection of neurons
CNS neuroglia:
• astrocytes
• oligodendrocytes
• microglia
• ependymal cells
 PNS neuroglia:
• Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes)
• satellite cells
Neuron structure

Classification of neurons
Functional classification based on type of information & direction of information
transmission:
• Sensory (afferent) neurons –
• transmit sensory information from receptors of PNS towards the CNS
• most sensory neurons are unipolar, a few are bipolar
• Motor (efferent) neurons –
• transmit motor information from the CNS to effectors
(muscles/glands/adipose tissue) in the periphery of the body
• all are multipolar
• Association (interneurons) –
• transmit information between neurons within the CNS; analyze inputs,
coordinate outputs
• are the most common type of neuron (20 billion)
• are all multipolar
o injury
 Immune: takes longer and is highly specific
 Inflammation
 Nonspecific, local, rapid
 Inflammatory chemicals
 Signs: heat, swelling, redness, pain
 Repair – two ways
 Regeneration
 Fibrosis and scarring
 Severe injuries
 Task/Activity

Post test
Answer the following questions using the concept, knowledge learned from the previous
lesson/discussion.
1. Which of the following muscle tissues is multinucleated?
a. smooth muscle c. involuntary muscle
b. skeletal muscle d. cardiac muscle
2. Which of the following is not a type of epithelial tissue?
a. glandular c. pseudostratified columnar
b. cartilage d. transitional
3. Which of the following statements is true about cardiac muscle?
a. it can contract independently of neutral stimulation c. it forms muscle fibers
b. it has multiple nuclei d. it contains visible striations
4. Another term for skeletal muscle tissue is
a. involuntary tissue c. striated voluntary tissue
b. smooth voluntary tissue d. smooth tissue
5. The urinary bladder contains which of the following types of tissue?
a. stratified squamous c. simple cuboidal
b. transitional epithelium d. pseudostratified columnar epithelium
6. Heparin and histamine are released from
a. macrophages c. lymphocytes
b. fibroblast d. mast cells
7. Which of the following is not one of the four types of membranes in the human body?
a. serous c. mucous
b. cartilage d. cutaneous
8. Which of the following are apocrine glands?
a. salivary glands c. mammary glands
b. sweat glands d. pancreatic glands

Critical thinking question

A 17-year-old girl delivered her baby but lost a lot of blood during the process. She was
anemic, and the physician prescribed some supplements to treat anemia.

1. What are the major components of blood?

2. Explain the main four types of tissues in the body, and the one that blood is considered
to be.
Laboratory Activity
A. There are 4 primary tissues:
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Nervous
4. Muscular
*Write the functions of each type and give an example (body organ) in which they can be found.

B. The photo shows the three types of muscle tissue. In tabular form, differentiate each type
according to appearance and function.

Supplemental lesson: Tissue Identification

Link https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/natural-science/life-science/ap1402/tissue-identification
 Lesson 4: Human Integumentary System

Pre- test
Before studying further, the succeeding topics, answer the following questions based on
the previous knowledge that you have learned/acquired:
1. Which of the following layers of the epidermis is found only on the skin of the soles of
the feet and palms of the hands?
a. stratum germinativum c. stratum granulosum
b. stratum granulosum d. stratum lucidum
2. The most abundant cells in the epidermis are
a. melanocytes c. adipocytes
b. keratinocytes d. leukocytes
3.which of the following glands discharge an oily secretion into the hair follicles?
a. merocrine sweat glands c. apocrine sweat glands
b. sebaceous glands d. ceruminous glands
4. The nail body covers the
a. nail bed c. free edge
b. nail root d. lunula
5. The highest concentration of merocrine sweat glands can be found
a. on the palms of the hands c. on the upper back
b. on the chest d. in the axillae
6. Which of the following vitamins is formed in the skin when it is exposed to sunlight?
a. vitamin A c. vitamin C
b. vitamin B d. vitamin D
7. Which of the following is a true statement about merocrine sweat glands?
a. They primarily function in lubricating hairs.
b. They secrete a watery fluid directly onto the surface of the skin.
c. They increase in number and activity with aging.
d. They produce a toxin that destroys bacteria.

Objectives:
After studying the topic, the students should be able to:
1. Explain the structure of the epidermis and the dermis
2. Know the different functions of the skin
3. Describe the structure of the nails
4. Explain the anatomic parts of the hair
5. Describe the effects pf aging on the integumentary system.
Overview:
The word integument is derived from a Latin word meaning “to cover.” Skin, nails, hair and sweat
and sebaceous (oil) glands make up the integumentary system.
The skin serves as a first line of defense for the body, protecting against infection and UV
radiation. It also helps to regulate temperature and remove wastes. The top layer of skin, known
as the epidermis, is a layer of dead cells containing keratin, making the skin more waterproof.
Cells in the epidermis also produce the pigment melanin. The dermis, which is below the
epidermis, contains blood vessels, nerves, sense receptors, hair follicles and smooth muscle. The
dermis contains two types of glands, sebaceous and sweat. Beneath both the epidermis and
dermis, the subcutaneous layer is made of connective tissue (mostly fat) and helps to insulate,
store energy and protect the body.

A. Structure and Functions

Consists of the skin, hair, and nails
Skin
a. Epidermis
b. Dermis
Accessory Structures
a. Nails
b. Hairs
c. Glands in the Skin

Functions of the Integumentary System

1. Protection: chemical barrier (antibacterial sebum), physical barrier (hardened

keratinized surface), and biological barrier (phagocytes)
2. Temperature regulation: Skin vasculature & sweat glands, regulated by nervous system
3. Cutaneous sensation: sensory receptors respond to temperature, touch, pressure and
pain
4. Metabolic functions: Vitamin D synthesized from cholesterol in skin cells
5. Blood reservoir: extensive vascular supply of dermis
6. Excretion: sweat contains small amounts of nitrogen wastes

 Composed of skin and its derivatives (sweat & oil glands, hairs and nails)
 Primary function is protection
The Skin
Two distinct regions
1. Epidermis
- outermost protective shield
- composed of epithelial cells
- avascularized, obtains nutrients by diffusing through tissue fluid from blood vessels in
the dermis.

Epidermal Layers
a. Stratum Germinativum- ( germinative or basal layer) is the innermost epidermal
layer0 also known as “stratum Basale”
b. Stratum Spinosum- ( the spinous or prickle cell layer) made up of 8 to 10 layers of
keratinocyte that are bound together by desmosomes- cell structure specialized for
cell to cell adhesion.
c. Stratum Granulosum ( granular layer) 3rd layer that consist of only three to six
layers of keratinocytes.
 d. Stratum Lucidum ( “clear layer”) which is only found on the palms of the hands and
soles of the feet, with glassy or clear appearance. Therefore the overall skin of the
palms and soles is thicker than on the other parts of the body.
e. Stratum Corneum- ( the horny layer) makes up the surface of the skin and contains
15 to 30 layers of keratinized cells that are protective and filled with keratin
- the process of keratinization is also known as cornification
Cells move from stratum germinativum to stratum corneum in 7 to 30 days.

Epidermal Cells
a. Melanocyte- located in the stratum germinativum either between or deeply rooted
in the epithelial cell. (produce the “Melanin”
- It is made up of tyrosine amino acid and has two forms that ranges
colors from red – yellow to brown to black.
b. Keratinocytes- produce “Keratin”- which is the fibrous protein that aids the
epidermis in the protecting the body. Most epidermal cells are keratinocytes, which
arise in the stratum basale.
c. Dendritic cells or Langerhans cells a star shaped cells- they consume foreign
substance and play a key role in activating the immune system.
d. Tactile cells or Merkels cell- are located at the epidermal – dermal junction. They
have spiked shapes and combine with the disc like sensory nerve endings to form
tactile disc- which are receptor for the sense of touch.

2.Dermis
- makes up bulk of skin
- tough, leathery layer; fibrous connective tissue
- vascularized

Excessive stretching of the skin can tear the dermis, leaving silver white scars known
as striae or “ stretch mark”. These are often due to events such as pregnancy. Also
acute trauma that is short term may cause a blister, a fluid filled pocket between the
epidermal and dermal layers.

Hair

 Hair consists of dead, heavily keratinized cells

 Hair color reflects amount and kind of melanin present
 2 regions:
 Root (embedded in skin)
 Shaft (projects from the skin)
 Hair structure:
 Central medulla (core)
 Cortex
Outer cuticle

Hair Follicles

• Extend from epidermal surface into the dermis, deep end expands forming a bulb
• Richly vascularized
 • Sensory nerve endings, root hair plexus, wraps around each hair bulb. Bending hair
stimulates these endings, hair act as sensitive touch receptors
• Arrector pili muscles pull follicles into an upright position, producing goose bumps
• Components:
• inner epidermal root sheath, enclosing the matrix (region of hair bulb that
produces hair)
• Outer connective tissue sheath derived from dermis

Nails

 Scale-like modification of the epidermis

 Correspond to hooves or claws or other animals
 Composed of keratin, like hair
 Normally appear pink because of bed of capillaries under nail bed, region over thick nail
matrix appears as a white crescent, “lunula”

Post Test
Answer the following questions using the concept, knowledge learned from the previous
lesson/discussion.
1. An albino individual lacks the ability to produce
a. carotene c. keratin
b. melanin d. vitamin D
2. The cutaneous membrane includes which of the following components?
a. epidermis and hypodermis c. epidermis and dermis
b. integuments and dermis d. epidermis and superficial fascia
3. which layer of the epidermis undergoes cell division?
a. stratum germinativum c. stratum spinosum
b. stratum granulosum d. stratum corneum
4. Nails begin growing at the nail
a. cuticle c. body
b. root d. bed
5. A mammary gland is one type of
a. ceruminous gland c. apocrine sweat gland
b. merocrine gland d. eccrine sweat gland
6. Which of the following layers of the skin provides initial protection against bacteria?
a. subcutaneous layer c. stratum corneum
b. dermis d. epidermis
7. The region of the dermis that is in direct contact with the epidermis is the
a. papillary region c. hypodermis
b. stratum corneum d. reticular region
8. Which of the following statements about the function of skin is false?
a. It helps regulate body temperature.
b. It participates in the synthesis of vitamin d.
c. It is waterproof.
d. It detects stimuli related to temperature and pain.

Critical Thinking Question

A 10-year-old boy who lived in Florida his entire life was diagnosed with melanoma. The
boy previously had a mole that was ignored.
1. Why is melanoma the deadliest type of skin cancer?
2. List the methods that may be used to reduce livelihood of developing melanoma.
3. How is melanoma differentiated from the other types of skin cancer discussed in this
chapter?

Laboratory Activity
A. Draw a cross-section of the skin and identify the following layers:
1. Epidermis
2. Dermis
3. Hypodermis/ Subcutaneous
4. Muscle layer

B. Identify which layer will you administer the following injections:

1. Intradermal
2. Intramuscular
3. Subcutaneous

C. Define the following abnormal skin colors and write their cause/s.
1. Cyanosis
2. Jaundice
3. Pallor
4. Erythema
5. Hematoma
6. Albinism
Supplemental lesson:
Skin cross-section explorer
https://www.innerbody.com/image/nerv16.html
Review the structures of the integumentary system
Link https://www.purposegames.com/game/1566d27ff4
 Lesson 5: Human Skeletal System

Pre Test
Before studying further, the succeeding topics, answer the following questions based on
the previous knowledge that you have learned/acquired:
1.Which of the following is a component of the axial skeleton?
a. femur c. hyoid
b. humerus d. scapula
2. Which of the following is a bone of the forearm?
a. radius c. fibula
b. femur d. humerus
3. The olecranon process is located on the
a. femur c. ulna
b. tibia d. radius
4. Which of the following bones is triangular in shape?
a. stermum c. clavicle
b. scapula d. hyoid
5. The first cervical vertebra is the
a. stermum c. axis
b. scapula d. atlas
6. The bones that form the wrist are the
a. metacarpals c. tarsals
b. metatarsals d. carpals
7. Which of the following is the longest bone in the body?
a. tibia c. fibula
b. femur d. humerus

Topic Objectives:- Skeletal System

1. Discuss the major functions of bones/Skeletal System
2. Distinguish between the axial and appendicular skeleton.
3. Discuss the major parts of the long bone.
4. Name the different bones of the axial and appendicular
skeleton.
5. Discuss about the functions and types of joints.
 Functions
 Framework and support
 Protection- for vital organs
 Storage- for minerals like calcium and phosphorus
 Axial and appendicular skeleton
 Bone structure
 Joints and ligaments
 The skeleton forms a sturdy internal framework of 206 bones and associated tissues –
cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. Bones provide the base to which muscles attach and
also the leverage required to accomplish external movement. The skeleton protects vital
organs such as the brain, spinal cord, heart and lungs. As a living, dynamic tissue, bone
stores vitamins and minerals (especially calcium and phosphorus) and houses red bone
marrow, which produces blood cells. ( skull, vertebrae,, sternum, ribs and hipbones)
Anatomists divide the skeleton into two parts, axial and appendicular. The axial skeleton
(upright, or core of the body) includes the skull, ribs, sternum and vertebral column.
Comprised of the shoulders, arms, hips and legs, the appendicular skeleton forms the
appendages that attach to the axial skeleton.
Approximately four times as strong as concrete, bone is one of the strongest materials
produced by nature. It is a connective tissue composed of cells called osteocytes, which
are embedded in a hard, calcified matrix. Bones are made of a dense outer layer of
compact material that surrounds a core of loosely structured spongy bone. The compact
layer of bone is covered by a fibrous membrane called the periosteum. Cavities within
each bone contain red bone marrow (blood-forming tissue) or yellow bone marrow (fat
storage).
Movement of the skeleton occurs at the joints where two or more bones meet. There are
three categories of joints. Slightly movable joints allow some movement but function
mainly as a cushion (eg, joints between the vertebra). Freely movable, or synovial, joints
allow a range of movement determined by the structure of the joint. Examples of
movable joints are the ball and socket (shoulder), hinge (elbow), pivot (between radius,
ulna and humerus), and saddle joint (thumb). A few joints found in the skull are non-
movable (sutures). Ligaments are inelastic connective tissues which hold bones together
in a joint.
Bone Homeostatic Imbalance
Rickets- is a disease in children that is nearly identical to osteomalacia in adults- however
it is severe in children since the bones of the children are actively growing. Rickets and
osteomalcia are caused by Vitamin D deficiency and dietary Calcium.
Osteomalacia- as variety of disorders involving poor bone mineralization. The
bone become soft and weak due to inadequate deposition of calcium salts. The affected
individual may feel pain when weight is put on affected bones (lower spine, pelvis, hips,
legs and ribs)

Parts of the skeletal system

 Bones (skeleton)
 Joints
 Cartilages
 Ligaments (bone to bone) (tendon=bone to muscle

Skeleton comes from a Greek word meaning dried up body.

Bone appears dead and dried up, but it is not!
Bone is living tissue
Newborn human has 350 bones
Adult human has 206 bones
Two basic types of bone tissue
Compact bone
Dense/hard- external layer
Spongy bone- made up of small flat, or needle like pieces called “Trabeculae”
(Cancellous)
Many open spaces- filled with red/yellow bone marrow
Decrease weight of bone/contain red bone marrow

Bones of the Human Body

Classification of Bones
1.Long bones
Typically longer than wide
Have a shaft with heads at both ends
Contain mostly compact bone
Found in legs and arms
Examples: Femur, humerus
2.Short bones
Generally cube-shape and small
Contain mostly spongy bone
Found in wrist, ankles, and toes
Examples: Carpals, tarsals
Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape

3.Flat bones
Thin and flattened
Usually curved
Cover organs/provide surface for lg. muscle
Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of spongy bone
Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum
4.Irregular bones
Irregular shape
 Do not fit into other bone classification categories
Example: Vertebrae and hip bone.
5.Sutural bones- also known as” Wormian bones”, these are small and flat and irregular
bones between the flat bones of the skull. They range in size from a large as a quarter to
as small as a grain of sand.
6.Sesamoid bones- theses are small, flat bones resembling sesame seeds that are most
often located near joints of the hands, knees and feet. The patella are sesamoid bones.
Chemical Composition of Bone
Organic components: includes osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoid-
includes- (proteoglycans, glycoproteins(making up its ground substance) and collagen
fibers
Inorganic Components- made up of mineral salts- calcium phosphate- responsible for
bone hardness and ability of the bone to resist compression.

Growth and Development of Bones

Bones begin to form during the first 8 weeks after fertilization. During this first 8 weeks
of development, the skeleton is cartilaginous. The bones increase greatly in size as the
fetus develops and throughout childhood . Bone growth continues through adolescence.
The process of replacing other tissue with bone is Called “Ossification”
Throughout life , the bone can become thicker due to “ Osteogenesis” – defined as
the formation of bone.
Two divisions of Skeletal System
Axial skeleton ~ bones of the cranium, face, vertebral column, and bony thorax.
Appendicular skeleton ~ includes the bones of the pelvic girdles, the upper extremities and
lower extremities.

The Axial Skeleton

-Forms the longitudinal part of the body
Divided into three parts
-Skull
-Vertebral column
-Bony thorax

The Skull (28 bones) (18 names!)

-Sits on top of the vertebral column
Two sets of bones
-Cranium (8 bones)
-Facial bones (14 bones)
*Bones are joined by sutures
*Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint
The Cranium
-Bony structure that encases and protects the brain.
-8 bones
Frontal Bone ~ forehead/upper part of the bony structure surrounding the eyes.
Parietal Bone (2) ~ upper sides of the head and the roof of the cranial cavity (top of the head).
Temporal Bones (2) ~ sides of the head, close to ears.
*Commonly called the temples
-Includes the external auditory meatus
-Opening for the ear
-Includes the zygomatic process
-Part of the cheekbone
Occipital Bone ~ back and base of the cranium
-Includes the foramen magnum
*Foramen means hole
Large hole for the brainstem/spinal cord
Sphenoid Bone ~ forms sides of cranium and parts of orbits of the eyes
Butterfly shaped
-Includes Sella Turcica (Turk’s Saddle)
-where pituitary gland sits
Ethmoid Bone ~ irregularly shaped bone located between the eye orbits
Major supporting bone of the nasal cavity

Facial Bones
• 14 bones
• Most of these bones come in pairs
• Only the mandible and vomer are single bones
• Mandible ~ the lower jaw bone
• Carries the lower teeth
• The anterior portion forms the chin
• Only freely movable joint in the skull
• Maxilla (2) ~ Upper jaw
• Two bones fused together
• Roof of the mouth
• Also form parts of the nasal cavity and eye orbits
• Palatine Bones (2) ~ form the posterior part of the hard palate and the floor of the nasal
cavity.
• Failure of the palatine and/or maxillary bones to fuse causes a cleft palate.

• Zygomatic Bones (2) ~ the cheekbones

• Also forms a part of the orbits of the eyes

Other Facial Bones

Lacrimal Bones (2) ~ inner wall of eye sockets

Nasal Bones (2) ~ bridge of nose
Vomer ~ nasal septum
Inferior Nasal Conchae (2)

The Hyoid Bone

-U shaped
-Found in the upper neck
 -The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
-Serves as a moveable base for the tongue
Middle Ear

3 Tiny bones ~ transmit vibrations

All derived from Latin words
Malleus (hammer)
Incus (anvil)
Stapes (stirrup)
Smallest bone in the body
The Vertebral Column

The backbone or spine

Consists of 26 bones called vertebrae
C1-C7 ~ in the neck region
7 cervical vertebrae
T1-T12 ~ located in the chest region
12 thoracic vertebrae
L1-L5 ~ located in the lower back
5 lumbar vertebrae
Sacrum ~ curved bone of the lower back (posterior wall of the pelvis)
fused sacral vertebrae
5 vertebrae at birth
Coccyx ~ the tailbone
4 vertebrae at birth
• The Bony Thorax (Thoracic Cage)

a. Sternum ~ breastbone.

-Dagger-shaped bone located along the midline of the anterior chest.

b. Ribs ~ 12 pairs of ribs attach posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae

True ribs ~ first 7 pair

False ribs ~ last 5 pairs (last 2 pairs are called as floating ribs.

The Appendicular Skeleton

Limbs (appendages)
Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
Pelvic girdle

The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

 Composed of two bones

 Clavicle – collarbone

 Scapula – shoulder blade

Bones of the Upper Limb/Extremities
Humerus

Radius - located on the lateral or thumb side when the palm of the hand is facing
forward

Ulna - the longer of the two forearm bones.

- Located on the medial or little finger side of the forearm

The hand

Carpals – wrist
Metacarpals – palm
Phalanges – fingers
 Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

Composed of two coaxial bones (hip bones)

Composed of three pair of fused bones

- Ilium
-Ischium
- Pubis
Bones of the Lower Limbs

Femur – thigh bone

Patella ~ knee cap- triangular bone located within a tendon that passes over the knee.
 The leg has two bones

 Tibia - “shin bone” , larger bone of the lower limb

 Fibula- Long and thin

 The foot

-Tarsal (7)– ankle

- Metatarsals (5)– sole/instep
-Phalanges (14) – toes

Joints
 Articulations of bones

 Functions of joints

 Hold bones together

 Provide flexibility

 Ways joints are classified

 *By their function

*By their structure

Functional Classification of Joints

- Synarthroses – immovable joints
- Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
- Diarthroses – freely moveable joints

Structural Classification of Joints

 Fibrous joints

 Generally immovable, Bones united by fibrous tissue – synarthrosis or largely

immovable.

 Cartilaginous joints

Immovable or slightly moveable, bones connected by cartilage

Example
symphysis pubis (Sipit- sipitan)
Intervertebral joint

 Synovial joints

Freely moveable,
Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
Reinforced by ligaments
6 Types of Synovial Joints
1. Hinge joint
• Movement is like two boards joined together by a hinge
• Movement in one direction
• Elbow, knees, fingers
2. Ball and Socket Joint
• When ball-shaped end of one bone fits into the cup-shaped socket of another
• Bones can move in many directions
• Shoulder, hip
• 3. Pivot Joint
• Allows for rotation around the length of a bone.
• Allows only for rotation
• Head (side to side “no” action)
• Forearm joints (palms) supination/pronation
• 4. Saddle Joint
• When the surfaces of both articulation bones are saddle-shaped
• Concave/convex
 • Thumb
• Wide range of motion
• 5. Gliding Joint
• Interaction of flat surfaces of articulating bones
• Limited but complex movement
• Wrist, ankle
• 6. Condyloid Joint
• Oval-shaped articular surface of one bone fits into the oval-shaped depression
of another. Mandible and knuckles

Task/Activity

Post Test
Answer the following questions using the concept, knowledge acquired from the previous
lesson.
1.Which of the following portions of the sternum articulates with the clavicles?
a. manubrium c. body
b. xiphoid process d. tuberculum
2. The ankle consists of how many bones?
a. 3 c. 7
b. 5 d. 8
3. Which of the following bones contains the external auditory meatus?
a. parietal c. occipital
b. temporal d. sphenoid
4. The spinal column of the thorax contains how many vertebrae?
a. 5 c. 12
b. 7 d. 26
5. Which of the following is the largest bone in the foot?
a. cuneiform c. navicular
b. calcaneus d. talus
6. The pituitary gland is housed in the
a. foramen lacerum c. sinuses of the ethmoid bone
b. maxillae d. sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
7. Which of the following cells of bone tissue are bone-forming cells that secrete the bone
matrix?
a. osteoclasts c. osteocytes
b. osteoblasts d. bone lining cells
8. Which of the following is the structural unit of compact bone?
a. lamella c. osteon
b. central canal d. osteoclast
Critical Thinking Question
During a game, an 18-year-old football player was injured. He was suffering from severe
pain in his lower forearm. He was taken to the emergency department, and x-rays showed
fracture of the radius.

1.Clinically, what medical term is used for this fracture?

2. Explain the articulations of the upper and lower parts of the radius?

Laboratory Activity
Label the following bones
Supplemental lesson: Review the bones of the skull and the appendicular skeleton
https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/service/barber-cosmetology/cos2219/the-skull-screencast
https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/health/medical-assistant/mea5518/the-appendicular-skeleton-
screencast
https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/career-clusters/health-science/mea304/the-skeleton-bones-
joints

Lesson 6: Muscular System

Pre Test
Before studying further, the succeeding topics, answer the following questions based on
the previous knowledge that you have learned/acquired:
1.Which of the following terms refers to the cytoplasm of a skeletal muscle fiber?
a. sarcomere c. sarcosome
b. sarcoplasm d. sarcolemma
2. Which of the following is not a function of skeletal muscle?
a. maintain body temperature c. metabolize food
b. maintain posture d. produce movement
3. The muscle that flexes the foot is the
a. quadriceps femoris c. gluteus maximus
b. gastrocnemius d. gluteus medius
4. Skeletal muscles need all of the following factors to contract except
a. vitamin D c. actin
b. myosin d. calcium
5. The adductor magnus muscle is located in which portion of the body?
a. forearm c. neck
b. leg d. buttocks
6. The deltoid muscle can
a. raise the arm c. adduct the arm
b. flex the arm d. abduct the arm
7. Which of the following muscles is located in the torso?
a. pectoralis major c. soleus
b. external oblique d. biceps

Introduction to Muscular System

Bones and joints do not produce movement
The human body has more than 600 individual muscles
Muscles cause bones and supported structures to move by alternating between contraction and
relaxation
Functions of Muscle
Muscle has the ability
to contract,
permitting muscles to perform various functions
Functions:
Movement
Stability
Control of body openings and passages
Heat production
Functions of Muscle: Movement
Skeletal muscles
Attached to bones by tendons
Cross joints so when they contract, bones they attach to move
Smooth muscle
Found on organ walls
Contractions produce movement of organ contents
Cardiac muscle
Produces atrial and ventricular contractions
This pumps blood from the heart into the blood vessels
Functions of Muscle: Stability
Hold bones tightly together
Stabilize joints
Small muscles hold vertebrae together
Stabilize the spinal column
Functions of Muscle: Control of Body Openings and Passages
Sphincters
Valve-like structures formed by muscles
Control movement of substances in and out of passages
Example:
A urethral sphincter prevents or allows urination
Sphincters
Valve-like structures formed by muscles

Heat is released with muscle contraction

Helps the body maintain a normal temperature
Moving your body can make you warmer if you are cold
Types of Muscle Tissue
Muscle cells
Myocytes called muscle fibers
Sarcolemma – cell membrane
Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of cell
Myofibrils – long structures in sarcoplasm
Arrangement of filaments in myofibrils produces striations
Types of Muscle Tissue: Skeletal Muscle
Muscle fibers respond to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
Causes skeletal muscle to contract
Following contraction, muscles release the enzyme acetylcholinesterase
 Breaks down acetylcholine
Allows muscle to relax
Types of Muscle Tissue: Smooth Muscle
Multiunit smooth muscle
In the iris of the eye and walls of blood vessels
Responds to neurotransmitters and hormones
Visceral smooth muscle
In walls of hollow organs
Responds to neurotransmitters AND
Stimulate each other to contract so that muscle fibers contract and relax
together in a rhythmic motion – peristalsis
Types of Muscle Tissue:
Smooth Muscle (cont.)
Peristalsis – rhythmic contraction that pushes substances through tubes of the
body
Neurotransmitters for smooth muscle contraction
Acetylcholine
Norepinephrine
Will cause or inhibit contractions, depending on smooth muscle type
Cardiac Muscle
Intercalated discs
Connect groups of cardiac muscle
Allow the fibers in the groups to
contract and relax together
Allows heart to work as a pump
Self-exciting – does not need nerve stimulation to contract
Nerves speed up or slow down contraction
Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine – slows heart rate
Norepinephrine – speeds up rate
Production of Energy for Muscle
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) A type of chemical energy needed for sustained
or repeated muscle contractions
Muscle cells must have three ways to store or make ATP
Creatine phosphate
Rapid production of energy
Aerobic respiration
Uses body’s store of glucose
Lactic acid production
Small amounts of ATP

Production of Energy: Oxygen Debt

Develops when skeletal muscles are used strenuously for several minutes and cells are
low in oxygen
Production of Energy: Muscle Fatigue
Condition in which a muscle has lost its ability to contract
Causes
Accumulation of lactic acid
Interruption of the blood supply to a muscle
A motor neuron loses its ability to release acetylcholine onto muscle fibers

Structure of Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscles
The major components of the muscular system
Composition Connective tissue
Skeletal muscle tissue
Blood vessels
Nerves
Structure: Connective Tissue Coverings
Fascia
Covers entire skeletal muscles
Separates them from each other
Tendon
A tough, cord-like structure made of fibrous connective tissue connects muscles to bones
Aponeurosis
A tough, sheet-like structure made of fibrous connective tissue, attaches muscles to other
muscles
Epimysium
A thin covering that is just below the fascia of a muscle and surrounds the entire muscle
Perimysium
Connective tissue that divides a muscle into sections called fascicles
Endomysium
Covering of connective tissue that surrounds individual muscle cells

Attachments and Actions of Skeletal Muscles

Actions depend largely on what the muscles are attached to
Attachment sites
Origin – an attachment site for a less movable bone
Insertion – an attachment site for a more moveable bone
Movement usually produced by a group of muscles
Prime mover – muscle responsible for most of the movement
Synergists – muscles that help the prime mover by stabilizing joints
Antagonist (agonist) – produces movement opposite to prime mover
Relaxes when prime mover contracts

Attachments and Actions: Body Movements

Flexion – bending a body part
Extension – straightening a body part
Hyperextension – extending a body part past the normal anatomical position
Dorsiflexion – pointing the toes up
Flexion – bending a body part
Extension – straightening a body part
Hyperextension – extending a body part past the normal anatomical position
Dorsiflexion – pointing the toes up
Circumduction – moving a body part in a circle
Pronation – turning the palm of the hand down
Supination – turning the palm of the hand up
Inversion – turning the sole of the foot medially

Eversion – turning the sole of the foot laterally

Retraction – moving a body part posteriorly
Protraction – moving a body part anteriorly
Elevation – lifting a body part; for example, elevating the shoulders as in a shrugging expression
Depression – lowering a body part; for example, lowering the shoulders
Major Skeletal Muscles
The muscle name indicates
Location
Size
Action
Shape
OR
Number of attachments of the muscle
As you study muscles, you will find it easier to remember them if you think about what the
name describes

Major Skeletal Muscles: The Head

Sternocleidomastoid
Pulls the head to one side
Pulls the head to the chest
Frontalis
Raises the eyebrows
Splenius capitis
Rotates the head
Allows it to bend to the side
Orbicularis oris
Allows the lips to pucker
Orbicularis oculi
Allows the eyes to close
Zygomaticus
Pulls the corners of the mouth up
Platysma
Pulls the corners of the mouth down
Masseter and temporalis
Close the jaw

Major Skeletal Muscles: Upper Arm

Pectoralis major
Pulls the arm across the chest
Rotates and adducts the arms
Latissimus dorsi
 Extends and adducts the arm and rotates the arm inwardly
Deltoid
Abducts and extends the arm at the shoulder
Subscapularis
Rotates the arm medially
Infraspinatus
Rotates the arm laterally

Major muscles of the Forearm

Biceps brachii
Flexes the arm at the elbow
Rotates the hand laterally
Brachialis
Flexes the arm at the elbow
Brachioradialis
Flexes the forearm at the elbow
Triceps brachii
Extends the arm at the elbow
Supinator
Rotates the forearm laterally (supination)
Pronator teres
Rotates the forearm medially (pronation
Major Skeletal Muscles: Wrist, Hand, and Fingers
Flexor carpi radialis and flexor carpi ulnaris
Flex and abduct the wrist
Palmaris longus
Flexes the wrist
Flexor digitorum profundus
Flexes the distal joints of the fingers, but not the thumb
Extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis
Extend the wrist and abduct the hand
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Extends the wrist
Extensor digitorum
Extends the fingers, but not the thumb
Major Skeletal Muscles: Abdominal
External and internal obliques
Compress the abdominal wall
Transverse abdominis
Also compresses the abdominal wall
Rectus abdominis
Flexes the vertebral column
Compresses the abdominal wall

Major Skeletal Muscles: Pectoral Girdle

Trapezius
Raises the arms
 Pulls the shoulders downward
Pectoralis minor
Pulls the scapula downward
Raises the ribs

Major Skeletal Muscles: Leg

Psoas major and iliacus
Flexes the thigh
Gluteus maximus
Extends the thigh
Gluteus medius and minimus
Abduct the thighs
Rotate them medially
Adductor longus and magnus
Adduct the thighs
Rotate them laterally
Biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus
Known as the “hamstring group”
Flex the leg at the knee
Extend the leg at the thigh
Rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and vastus intermedius
Extend the leg at the knee
Sartorius
Flexes the leg at the knee and thigh
Abducts the thigh, rotating the thigh laterally but rotating the lower leg medially

Major Skeletal Muscles:

Ankle, Foot, and Toes
Tibialis anterior
Inverts the foot and point the foot up (dorsiflexion)
Extensor digitorum longus
Extends the toes and point the foot up
Gastrocnemius
Flexes the foot and flexes the leg at the knee
Soleus
Flexes the foot
Flexor digitorum longus
Flexes the foot and toes

Muscle Strains and Sprains

Strains – injuries due to over-stretched muscles or tendons
Sprains – more serious injuries that result in tears to tendons, ligaments, and/or
cartilage of joints
RICE is recommended treatment for either
Rest
Ice
 Compression
Elevation
Prevention
Warm up muscles
A few minutes before an intense activity raises muscle temperature and makes
muscle more pliable
Stretching
Improves muscle performance and should always be done after the warm-up or
after exercising
Cooling down or slowing down
Before completely stopping prevents pooling of blood in the legs and helps
remove lactic acid from muscles
 Task/Activity

Post Test
Answer the following questions using the concept, knowledge learned from the previous
lesson
1.What is the main muscle involved in the act of inspiration?
a. diaphragm c. larynx
b. stomach d. trachea
2. The Cell membrane of skeletal muscle is called the
a. sarcoplasm c. sarcolemma
b. sarcosome d. sarcoplasmic reticulum
3. The more movable end of a muscle is the
a. origin c. insertion
b. proximal end d. distal end
4. Which of the following muscles can extend the arm when doing push-ups?
a. deltoids c. biceps brachii
b. triceps brachii d. pectoralis major
5. Cross-Bridges are located on
a. myosin molecules c. troponin molecules
b. actin molecules d. calcium ions
6. Which of the following flexes the head?
a. trapezius c. pectoralis major
b. deltoid d. sternocleidomastoid
7. The sartorius muscle is located in the
a. chest c. abdomen
b. thigh d. foot
8. Which of the following muscles contain the calcaneal tendon?
a. tibialis anterior c. gastrocnemius
b. vastus lateralis d. biceps femoris

Critical Thinking Question

A 70-year-old man decided to go the gym for regular workouts to build up his muscle size.
After 1 year, his muscles were much stronger and more solid.

1.Describe what source of energy his muscles need to continue workouts.

2. What will this man be unable to continue his workouts for as long as much younger
man?
3. Explain how his muscle became larger after 1 year.
Laboratory Activity
Label the following muscles
Supplemental lesson: Muscular system anatomy explorer
Link https://www.innerbody.com/image/musfov.html
Review the muscles in the human body through this drag-and-drop activity
https://www.realbodywork.com/articles/game-muscles-1/
https://www.realbodywork.com/articles/game-muscles-2/
https://www.realbodywork.com/articles/game-muscles-3/

Lesson 7: Cardiovascular System

Pre test
Before studying further, the succeeding topics, answer the following questions based on
the previous knowledge that you have learned/acquired:
1.Which of the following terms means “the process of RBC production”
a. erythropoiesis c. erythropenia
b. erythrocytosis d. hemocytosis
2. Immature RBCs are found in peripheral blood samples and are referred to as
a. myeloblasts c. reticulocytes
b. erythroblasts d. normoblasts
3. The formed elements of the blood are called
a. clotting proteins c. albumins
b. lipoproteins d. blood cells
4. Which of the following are the most abundant proteins in blood plasma?
a. fibrinogens c. lipoproteins
b. albumins d. globulins
5. Which of the following WBCs produce antibodies?
a. monocytes c. eosinophils
b. lymphocytes d. basophils
6. Platelets are formed from cells in the bone marrow known as
a. megakaryocytes c. lymphoblasts
b. erythroblasts d. myeloblasts
7. Which of the following vitamins is needed for the formation of clotting factors?
a. vitamin A c. vitamin K
b. vitamin D d. vitamin E

Learning Objectives:
1. Describe the important components of the blood.
2. Describe the size of the heart and its location in the thorax.
 3. Identify the layers of the heart wall and the function of each.
4. Identify the four chambers of the heart and list its associated great vessels.
5. Name the four chambers, valves and describe the location and function of each.
6. Distinguish the structures and functions of various blood vessels.

The cardiovascular system composes of the blood, heart and the blood vessels Blood is pump
from the heart through a closed circuit of blood vessels to the body tissue, returning back to the
heart.

 The cardiovascular system is transport system of body

 It comprises blood, heart and blood vessels.

 The system supplies nutrients to and remove waste products from various tissue of body.

 The conveying media is liquid in form of blood which flows in close tubular system.

FUNCTION OF CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

 Transport nutrients, hormones

 Remove waste products

 Gaseous exchange

 Immunity

 Blood vessels transport blood

◦ Carries oxygen and carbon dioxide

◦ Also carries nutrients and wastes

 Heart pumps blood through blood vessels

COMPONENTS OF CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Blood- is made up of cells, fragments of cells and dissolved biochemical containing nutrients,
oxygen , hormones and waste.

It helps to distribute body heat

“The RIVER of LIFE”

-It is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body cells.

-Accounts approximately 8% of body weight.

Blood Function:

Distribution- delivery of oxygen from the lungs, delivery of nutrients from the
gastrointestinal tract to cell in the body, transport the hormones from the endocrine organs to
the target organ and transport of metabolic waste product from cells to the various elimination
sites. (kidneys- for nitrogenous waste in the urine and lungs for elimination of carbon dioxide)
 Regulation -maintenance of proper blood volume in the circulatory system.

Protection- prevention of infection, via the actions of antibodies, complement proteins,

and WBC- this protects the body against bacteria, viruses and other foreign agents, prevention of
blood loss via the action of platelets and plasma proteins, which begin clot formation and slow or
stop the blood loss.

Blood cells

RBC ( erythrocytes)- red blood cells- have a biconcave shape – they are basically round, with a
center that is depressed in comparison with their edges. Contain Hemoglobin

Normal values of RBC= 3-5 m/dl

-Functions primarily to ferry oxygen in blood to all cells of the body.

-Anucleate
- also contain very few organelles
- Matured RBC – will circulate in the body up to 120 days, after will die- disintegration of heme
and globin, and the rest of the Red Blood cells will be buried in the liver.

WBC (leukocytes)- white blood cells

Normal values of WBC= 4-10m/dl

They are crucial to body defense against diseases.
It contains the nuclei and usual organelles.
They form a protective, movable army that helps defend the body against damage by
bacteria, viruses, parasites and tumor cells.
 Possesses POSITIVE CHEMOTAXIS- capability of the WBC to locate areas of tissue
damage and infection in the body.
They have TWO major groups:

Granulocytes- granule containing WBC’s

1. Neutrophils- have multilobed nucleus and very fine granules that respond to acid and
base stains. They aid as phagocytes at the sites of acute infection.
2. Eosinophils- have blue-red nucleus that resembles an old -fashioned telephone receiver.
Their number increases rapidly during allergies and infections by parasitic worms
(flatworms, tapeworms, etc.)
3. Basophils- contain large histamine containing granules.
Histamine- an inflammatory chemical that makes blood vessels leaky and attracts
other WBC to the inflammatory site.

Agranulocytes- lacks visible cytoplasmic granules

1. Lymphocytes- have a large dark purple nucleus that occupies most of the cell volume.
They play an important role in the immune response.
2. Monocytes- largest of the WBC’s. When they migrate into the tissues, they change
into macrophages with huge appetite
Macrophages- important in fighting chronic infections such as PTB, COPD, etc.

Platelets (Thrombocytes)- smallest part of blood

Normal values= 150.00-300.00/dl

-Fragments of multinucleate cell (Megakaryocytes) which rupture, releasing thousands of

anucleate pieces that quickly seal themselves off from the surrounding fluids.

-They are needed for the clotting process that occurs in plasma when blood vessels are
ruptured or broken.

 Plasma- liquid portion of the blood

Blood Group
It is determined by the antigens present on the surface of the RBC’s
 Antigen- is a molecule that acts as a signal, enabling the body to recognize
foreign substances in the body

Human blood is classified as A, B, AB. And O

Type “A”-: A- antigen, B- antibody

Type “B”: B- antigen, A- antibody

Type “AB”: A and B antigen

Type “O” : A and B antibody

Type AB- known as “Universal Recipient”- they can receive blood any blood type

Type O- is known as “Universal Donor” – they can donate to any blood type.

HEART
FUNCTIONS OF THE HEART

Generating blood pressure

Routing blood
Heart separates pulmonary and systemic circulations
Ensuring one-way blood flow
Heart valves ensure one-way flow
Regulating blood supply
Changes in contraction rate and force match blood delivery to changing metabolic needs
STRUCTURES OF THE HEART
 • Heart is a four chambered, hollow muscular organ approximately the size of the person’s
closed fist.

• Its more pointed Apex is directed towards the left hip and rest on the diaphragm.

• Its broader posterosuperior aspect, Base points towards the right shoulder and lies
beneath the second rib.

• Location:

-Superior surface of diaphragm

-Left of the midline
-Anterior to the vertebral column, posterior to the sternum
-Pumps blood through the blood vessels to all body cells.
-Is covered by a protective sac called the pericardium which is divided into two layers the
visceral and parietal pericardium.
-Is divided into right and left sides by the septum.
-Each side consists of an atria and a ventricles.

• Layers of the Heart

-Epicardium (outermost layer)

-Myocardium (middle layer of muscular tissue)
-Endocardium (inner layer)

Heart Chambers
Right and left atria are the upper chambers of the heart.
Right and left ventricles are the lower chambers of the heart.
Valves of the Heart

A.Atrioventricular Valves-Control blood flow within the heart

1.Bicuspid valve (mitral)- a two cusps valve which prevents the flowing back of
blood into the left atrium from the left ventricle. Heard over the heart apex, in the fifth
intercostal space, in line with the middle of the clavicle.

2.Tricuspid valve- a three cusps valve which prevent the flowing back of blood
from right atrium to the right ventricle. Heard in the right sternal margin of the fifth
intercostal space.

B.Semilunar Valves- Prevent the backflow of blood into the heart

• a.Pulmonary valve- found at the entrance to the pulmonary trunk- prevents the
blood from moving from the pulmonary trunk to the right ventricle during the
ventricular relaxation. Heard in the second intercostal space at the left sternal
margin.

• b.Aortic valve- found at the entrance of the aorta, which prevents blood from
moving from the aorta into the left ventricle. Heard in the second intercostal
space at the right sternal margin.

FUNCTIONS OF THE HEART

-Generating blood pressure

-Routing blood
-Heart separates pulmonary and systemic circulations
-Ensuring one-way blood flow
- Heart valves ensure one-way flow
- Regulating blood supply
- Changes in contraction rate and force match blood delivery to changing metabolic needs.
Cardiac Conduction System:

Depolarization and contraction of cardiac muscle are intrinsic and do not depend on the nervous
system ( the heart can continue to beat in rhythm even when all nerves are severed.

Cardiac pacemaker cells have an unstable resting potentials.

1. Sino- atrial node (S-A node)- is a small crescent shaped mass of specialized tissue just
beneath the epicardium, in the right atrium. It is located near the opening of the superior
vena cava, with fiber continuous with those of the atrial syncytium. ( syncytium is a mass
of merging cells that function as a unit)
2. Atrioventricular Node (A-V node)- the impulse passes along the junctional fibers of the
conduction system. It is located in the inferior interatrial septum, beneath the
endocardium. This node provides the only normal conduction pathway between the atrial
and ventricular syncytia.
3. A-V Bundle /Bundle of His- entering the upper part of the interventricular septum. The
atria and ventricles are not connected by gaps junctions even though they meet each
other. The only electrical connection between them is the A-V bundle.
4. Right and Left Bundle Branches- the A-V bundle splits into the right and left bundle
branches. These branches move along the interventricular septum towards the apex of
the heart.
5. Purkenji Fibers- nearly halfway down the septum, the right and left bundle branches
spread into enlarged Purkenji fibers, e xrtending into the papillary muscles. The fibers
consist of long strands of barrel shaped with only a few myofibrils, which continue to the
heart apex, curving around the ventricles and passing over their lateral walls.

A heartbeat makes a characteristics double thumping sound when heard though a stethoscope,
because of vibrations of the heart tissues related to the valve closing.

Lub- the first sound which denotes the beginning of the ventricular contraction (systole). It is
usually the loudest, longest and most resonant heart sound.

Dup- the second sound occurs during the ventricular relaxation (diastole) when the pulmonary
and aortic or semilunar valves close. The sound is shorter and sharper than the first.
CARDIAC OUTPUT

-Heart actions determine the amount of blood the atrial system with each ventricular
contraction

Stroke Volume- is the volume of blood discharged from the ventricle with each contraction. An
average adult male’s stroke volume is relatively constant, about 70 ml.

Cardiac Output- is the volume discharged from the ventricle per minute.

The average cardiac output is calculated as follows:

CO= HRx SV= 75beats X 70 ml per beat

Minute beat
= 5,250 ml = 5.25L
Minute minute

 Cardiac output increases when stroke volume increases,0r when the heart beat faster, or
both. It decreases when one or both of these factors decrease.

BLOOD VESSELS

• General structure

1.Tunica intima- innermost layer/wall

2.Tunica media- middle layer

3.Tunica adventitia- outermost layer.

1.ARTERIES

 Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart are called arteries.

 They are the thickest blood vessels and they carry blood high in oxygen known as
oxygenated blood (oxygen rich blood).

 Accompanied by vein and nerves

 Lumen is small

 No valves

Repeated branching

CLASSIFICATION OF ARTERIES

• Elastic- e.g. (Aorta & its Major branches)

• Muscular -e.g.(Renal, Testicular, Radial, Tibial etc.)

• Arterioles (<0.1 mm)-

2. CAPILLARIES (5-8 micron)

The smallest blood vessels are capillaries and they connect the arteries and veins.
 This is where the exchange of nutrients and gases occurs.
3. VEINS
Blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart are called veins.
They have one-way valves which prevent blood from flowing backwards.
They carry blood that is high in carbon dioxide known as deoxygenated blood (oxygen
poor blood).

• Thin Walled
• Large irregular lumen
• Have valves
• Dead space around
• Types:
Large
Medium
Small

Difference between the layers of the artery (A) and vein(B)

Factors responsible for venous return:

1. Muscle contraction

2. Negative intrathoracic pressure

3. Pulsation of arteries

4. Gravity Valves

CIRCULATION

– Coronary circulation – the circulation of blood within the heart.

– Pulmonary circulation – the flow of blood between the heart and lungs.

– Systemic circulation – the flow of blood between the heart and the cells of the
body.
 – Fetal Circulation

Task/Activity

Post Test
Answer the following question using the knowledge, concept learned from the previous
lesson
1.Thrombocytes are
a. small cells that lack of nucleus c. fragments of large megakaryocytes
b. small cells with many-lobed nuclei d. large cells with prominent nuclei
2. Which of the following WBCs release histamine and heparin?
a. basophils c. neutrophils
b. monocytes d. eosinophils
3. Erythrocytes are formed in
a. the spleen c. yellow bone marrow
b. red bone marrow d. the liver
4. Which of the following hormones regulates production of RBCs?
a. erythropoietin c. epinephrine
b. thymosin d. somatotropin
5. Which of the following is the major protein in a RBC?
a. myoglobin c. albumin
b. fibrinogen d. hemoglobin
6. Older erythrocytes are broken down by the
a. kidney c. spleen
b. lungs d. pancreas
7. Allergies stimulate an increased ___________count
a. erythrocytes c. monocyte
b. eosinophil d. neutrophil
8. People in which of the following blood groups are known as universal recipients?
a. group O c. group B
b. group A d. group AB

Critical Thinking Question

A 25-year-old woman was pregnant and undernourished. Her blood was also Rh-negative.
The physician advised her to take some iron supplements.
1. Why is iron so important for pregnant women to have in their diet?
2. if the fetus was Rh positive, what are the potential consequences?

Laboratory Activity

I. Draw and label the following:

A. Draw a diagram showing the flow of the blood through the heart and towards the
body (adult).
B. Draw a diagram showing the fetal blood circulation.
C. What notable differences did you see in the two diagrams?
D. Label the parts of the heart.
Supplemental lesson:
Video clip- What happens during a heart attack?
Link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3_PYnWVoUzM
Video clip- What happens during a stroke?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-NJm4TJ2it0
Video clip- Why do blood types matter?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xfZhb6lmxjk
II. Research on the following diseases and disorders of the cardiovascular system
including its pathophysiology:
BLOOD PRESSURE ( Hypotension & Hypertension)
HEMORRHAGE/STROKE
ARTERIOSCLEROSIS
ANEURYSM
CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE (CAD)
HEART ATTACK
CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE (CHF)
ANEMIA, HEMOPHILIA, AND LEUKEMIA

Lesson 8: The Respiratory System

Pre test
Before studying further, the succeeding topics, answer the following questions based on
the previous knowledge that you have learned/acquired:
1.the openings of the nostrils are called the
a. internal nares c. turbinate
b. vestibules d. external nares
2. Which of the following cells secrete mucus in an airway?
a. mast cells c. goblet cells
b. phagocytes d. dust cells
3. Which of the following is the portion of the pharynx that receives both air and blood?
a. nasopharynx c. laryngopharynx
b. oropharynx d. glottis
4. The vocal folds are located in the
a. larynx c. nasopharynx
b. trachea d. oropharynx
5. The trachea contains how many tracheal cartilages?
a. 5 c. 20
b. 10 d. 25
6. The airway between the larynx and the primary bronchi is the
a. trachea c. bronchiole
b. pharynx d. alveolar duct
7. The actual sites of gas exchange within the lungs are the
a. bronchioles c. alveoli
b. terminal sacs d. pleural spaces

Objectives:
1.Describe the primary functions of the respiratory system.
2.Identify the organs of the upper respiratory system and describe their functions.
3.Define and compare the processes of external and internal respiration.
4.Describe how oxygen is picked up, transported and released in the blood.

Fun Facts about the respiratory System

- At rest, the body takes in and breathes out about 10 liters of air each minute.
- The right lung is slightly larger than the left.
- The surface area of the lungs is roughly the same size as a tennis court.
- The capillaries in the lungs would extend 1,600 kms if placed end to end.
- We lose half a liter of water a day through breathing. This is the water vapor we see
when we breathe onto the glass.
- A person at rest usually breathes between 12 to 25 times a minute.
- The breathing rate is faster in children and women than in men.

The Respiratory System- is the system that helps you breathe in and out, so oxygen (O2) can be
pumped through your body and carbon dioxide can be removed from the blood stream.

Respiratory system function

Respiratory systems allow animals to move oxygen (needed for cellular respiration) into body
tissues and remove carbon dioxide (waste product of cellular respiration) from cells.
- Air distributor
- Gas exchanger
- Filter, warms and humidifies air
- Influences speech

Human respiratory system

Parts of the respiratory system include:
Nose- warms, moistens and filters air. Palatine bone separates nasal cavity from mouth.
Septum- separates right and left nostrils rich blood supply.

Mouth- This is where it all begins. This is where the oxygen first enters your body and also
where Carbon Dioxide leaves
Pharynx- base of skull to the esophagus.
Oropharynx- behind nose to soft palate. Adenoids swell and block. It is the only “Air
Passageway”
Nasopharynx- behind mouth, soft palate to hyoid bone.
Laryngopharynx- hyoid bone to esophagus. It is both for “Food and Air passageway”
Epiglottis – is a leaf shaped in the throat that prevents food from entering the windpipe and
lungs . It stand open during breathing, allowing air into the larynx.
Larynx- ‘ voice box’, root to upper end of the trachea, and made of cartilage.
Trachea- is held open by :incomplete rings of cartilage”. Without these rings the trachea might
close off and air would no be able to get from your lungs.
Bronchus- the trachea splits up into two bronchi tubes. These two tubes keep splitting up and
form the bronchioles
Bronchioles- the bronchi tubes splits up like tree branches, and get smaller and smaller inside
the lungs.- an organ for which the alveoli can be found.
Alveoli- are tiny air sacs that fil up with air/oxygen when we breath in, and where the exchange
of gases occurs- oxygen and carbon dioxide.

The respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Air moves
through the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and lungs. After reaching the lungs, the trachea
branches into smaller and smaller tubes called bronchioles, which end in alveoli, or air sacs.

What Is Respiration?
In biology, respiration means different things.
Cellular respiration is the release of energy from the breakdown of food in the presence of
oxygen

At the organism level, respiration is the process of gas exchange—the release of carbon dioxide
and the uptake of oxygen that occurs between RBCs and alveoli

Breathing is the actual mechanical intake of air

BREATHING
Lungs are sealed in pleural membranes inside the chest cavity.
At the bottom of the cavity is a large, flat muscle known as the diaphragm.

During inspiration (inhalation)

the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract.
the diaphragm contracts and the rib cage rises up.
This expands the volume of the chest cavity.
The chest cavity is sealed, so this creates a partial vacuum inside the cavity.
Atmospheric pressure fills the lungs as air rushes into the breathing passages.

During exhalation, these muscles relax. The diaphragm domes upwards. Often exhaling is a
passive event.
When the rib cage lowers and the diaphragm relaxes, pressure in the chest cavity is greater than
atmospheric pressure.
Air is pushed out of the lungs.

How Breathing Is Controlled

Breathing is controlled by the medulla oblongata.
The medulla oblongata monitors carbon dioxide in the blood.
As carbon dioxide increases, nerve impulses make the diaphragm contract, bringing air into the
lungs.
The higher the carbon dioxide level, the stronger the impulses.

RESPIRATION
Alveoli are grouped in clusters.
A network of capillaries surrounds each alveolus.
The alveoli are moist, thin-walled pockets which are the site of gas exchange.
A slightly oily surfactant prevents the alveolar walls from collapsing and sticking together.
Circulation and Gas Exchange
Recall the interconnection between circulation and the respiratory system.
Gas exchange at the lungs and in the body, cells moves oxygen into cells and carbon dioxide out.
Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli.
Oxygen diffuses into the blood.
Carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses into the alveolus.

In the alveolus
The respiratory surface is made up of the alveoli and capillary walls.
The walls of the capillaries and the alveoli may share the same membrane.

Gas exchange
Air entering the lungs contains more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than the blood that flows in
the pulmonary capillaries.

Oxygen transport
Hemoglobin binds to oxygen that diffuses into the blood stream.

Carbon dioxide transport

Carbon dioxide can dissolve in plasma, and about 70% forms bicarbonate ions.
Some carbon dioxide can bind to hemoglobin for transport.
VOLUMES OF AIR EXCHANGE
- Tidal Volume- amount of air exhaled normally after a typical inspiration.. Normal
amount is about 500 ml.
- Expiratory Reserve Volume- additional amount of air forcibly expired after tidal
expiration (1000- 1200 ml)
- Inspiratory Reserve Volume- (deep breath) amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled
over and above normal.
- Residual Volume- amount of air that stays trapped in the alveoli (about 1.2 liters)
- Vital Capacity- the largest volume of air an individual can move in and out of the lungs.
Some of the Lung Terms/Disorder/Diseases

Eupnea- normal quiet breathing, 12-17 breaths per minute.

Hyperpnea- increase in breathing to meet an increased demand by body for oxygen.
Hyperventilation- increase in pulmonary ventilation in excess of the need for oxygen.
Hypoventilation- decrease pulmonary ventilation.
Apnea- temporary cessation of breathing at the end of normal expiration.
Asthma- severe allergic reaction characterized by the constriction of bronchioles

Bronchitis- inflammation of the lining of the bronchioles.

v
Pneumonia- condition in which the alveoli become filled with fluid, preventing the exchange of
gases.
Lung Cancer- irregular and uncontrolled growth of tumors in the lung tissue.

Effects of smoking
Inhaled smoke contains:
CO2, which affects the CO2 diffusion gradient.
carcinogenic chemicals that can trigger tumors.
toxic nicotine, which paralyzes cilia that normally clean the lungs.
Emphysema
Besides cancer, smoking can also lead to emphysema. Alveoli become dry and brittle, and
eventually rupture.
Both active and passive smoking (“second-hand” smoke) can lead to can lead to lung problems.

Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis is one of the most common inherited disorders in the Caucasian population in the
U.S.
CF is caused by mutation of a single gene, the CFTR gene, which controls salt balance in the lungs.
A normal CFTR protein regulates the amount of chloride ions across the cell membrane of lung
cells.
If the interior of the cell is too salty, water is drawn from lung mucus by osmosis, causing the
mucus to become thick and sticky.
At this point there is no cure for CF, though there are therapies that have extended the lives of CF
patients, including lung transplants.
Gene therapy may one day insert “good” CFTR genes into lung cells to make them operate
normally.
 Task/Activity

Post test
Answer the following questions using the knowledge, concept learned from the previous
lesson
1.which of the following statements describes surfactant?
a. it replaces mucus in the alveoli
b. it helps prevent alveoli from collapsing
c. it protects the surface of the lungs
d. it replaces mucus in the alveoli
2. When the external intercostal muscles and diaphragm contract
a. the volume of the lungs decreases
b. the volume of the thorax increases
c. the volume of the thorax decreases
d. the lungs collapse
3. The residual volume of the lungs equals
a. 500 ml c. 1,200 ml
b. 1,100 ml d. 2,300 ml
4. The vital capacity plus the residual volume creates the
a. total lung capacity c. inspiratory capacity
b. functional residual capacity d. vital capacity
5. Ordinary air consists of mostly
a. nitrogen c. oxygen
b. hilum d. carbon dioxide
6. Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is transported as
a. carbonic acid c. solute dissolved in the plasma
b. carbaminohemoglobin d. bicarbonate ions
7. The most important chemical regulator of respiration is
a. the bicarbonate acid c. oxygen
b. carbon dioxide d. the sodium ion
8. With aging
a. vital capacity increases
b. the lungs become more elastic
c. the lungs become more compliant
d. pulmonary ventilation decreases

Critical Thinking Question

A 52 year-old man with no history of smoking was diagnosed with primary lung cancer.
He worked in the human resources section of his local health department . His sister died
7 years previously from breast cancer. The patient’s wife had a history of smoking two
packs of cigarettes a day for 20 years

1.Explain the most common types of lung cancer

2. How could this patient have contracted lung cancer without being a smoker?

Laboratory Activity: Breathing and exercise

Normal breathing rates range from 12-20bpm. In this activity, you will compare your breathing rate
at rest and your breathing rate after exercise.
Procedure:
Run in place for 30 seconds. Sit down. Notice how your breathing pattern and rate changed from
when you were at rest.
Run in place again; this time, run for 1 minute. Sit down. Notice how your breathing pattern and
rate changed.
Questions:
1. How did exercise affect your breathing rate?
2. What other factor besides exercise can affect your normal breathing rate?
3. Aside from breathing rate, did you notice other changes in your breathing after exercise?
4. Give a possible reason for the changes in your breathing after exercising.

Supplemental lesson:
Video clip- How do lungs work?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8NUxvJS-_0k
Video clip-What happens during an asthma attack?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PzfLDi-sL3w
 Lesson 9: The Digestive System

Pre test
Before studying further, the succeeding topics, answer the following questions based on
the previous knowledge that you have learned/acquired:

1.Which of the following is not a function of the oral cavity?

a. lubrication c. digestion of carbohydrates
b. digestion of cholesterol fats d. mechanical processing of food
2. Blood vessels and lymphocytes are found in which of the following layers of the
digestive system
a. mucosa c. muscularis
b. submucosa d. serosa
3. which of the following organs is not a component of the digestive system
a. colon c. spleen
b. stomach d. pharynx
4. The crown of a tooth is covered by
a. enamel c. dentin
b. pulp d. cementum
5. the connection of the anterior portion of the tongue to the underlying epithelium is the
a. glossal connection c. uvula
b. labial frenulum d. lingual frenulum
6. Parietal cells secrete
a. secretin c. gastrin
b. hydrochloric acid d. pepsinogen
7. which of the following is the point of the tongue to the underlying epithelium is the
a. fundus c. pylorus
b. antrum d. cardia

Introduction

Digestive System
Composed of GI tract and accessory organs
Breaks down ingested food for use by the body
Digestion occurs by mechanical and chemical mechanisms
Excretes waste products or feces through process of defecation
Essential Terms

digestion
process of mechanically or chemically breaking down food

absorption
passage of small molecules into blood and lymph

digestive system
organs which carry out process of digestion and absorption

metabolism
all the chemical reactions of the body

Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract

GI Tract / Alimentary Canal

Continuous tube from mouth to anus
Mouth
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine

Accessory Digestive Organs

Provide mechanical and chemical mechanisms to aid digestion
Teeth
Tongue
Salivary glands
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas

Functions of Digestive System

Ingestion
Secretion
Mixing and propulsion
Motility
Digestion
Mechanical and chemical
Absorption
Defecation

Layers of GI Tract
Same in all areas of GI tract
From deep to superficial:
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis
Serosa

Layers of GI Tract
Mucosa
Epithelium
Type varies
Lamina propria – areolar connective tissue
MALT – mucus-associated lymphatic tissue
Muscularis mucosae – smooth muscle
Submucosa
Areolar connective tissue
Blood and lymphatic vessels
Neurons – submucosal plexus

Muscularis
Skeletal and smooth muscle
Neurons – myenteric plexus

Serosa
Areolar and simple squamous epithelium
Visceral peritoneum
Peritoneum
Mesothelium
Parietal peritoneum
Visceral peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity
Retroperitoneal

Folds of Peritoneum
Greater omentum
Adipose tissue
Falciform ligament
Liver to anterior abdominal wall
Lesser omentum
Mesentery
Small intestine to posterior abdominal wall
Mesocolon

Neural Innervation of GI Tract

Regulated by autonomic nervous system
Enteric division
Myenteric plexus / plexus of Auerbach
Submucosal plexus / plexus of Meissner
Able to function independently from rest of nervous system
Linked to CNS by extrinsic sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves
Sympathetic nerves decrease GI secretions & motility
Parasympathetic nerves increase GI secretion and motility
Accessory Organs of the Head

Mouth Parts of Digestive System

Mouth formed by several parts:
Cheeks
Lips / labia
Labial frenulum
Orbicularis
Vestibule
Oral cavity proper
Fauces
Hard and soft palate
Uvula
Palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal arch

Tongue
Skeletal muscle and mucous membrane
Helps form floor of oral cavity
Extrinsic muscles
Intrinsic muscles
Lingual frenulum

Papillae
Fungiform
Filiform
Circumvallate
Foliate

Lingual glands
Lingual lipase

Salivary Glands
Release saliva to oral cavity
3 pairs of salivary glands
Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual
Composition of Saliva
99.5 % water
0.5% other solutes
Ions
Mucus
Immunoglobulin A
Enzymes
Salivation controlled by autonomic nervous system
Stimulated by various mechanisms

Teeth
External regions
Crown
Root
Neck

Internal components
Enamel
Dentin
Cementum
Pulp cavity
PulpRoot canals
Apical foramen
Dentitions
Deciduous teeth – first set (20 teeth)
Permanent teeth – secondary (32 teeth )

Carry out mechanical digestion by mastication

Creates bolus
Salivary amylase
Breakdown starch
Lingual lipase
Breakdown triglycerides

Swallowing

Pharynx
Composed of skeletal muscle
Lined by mucous membrane

Nasopharynx

Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx

Esophagus
Collapsible muscular tube through esophageal hiatus of diaphragm

Mucosa
Submucosa contains areolar connective tissue

Muscularis
Skeletal muscle
Upper and lower esophageal sphincter

Adventitia
Attaches esophagus to nearby structures
Secrets mucus and transports food
Deglutition

Stages of swallowing
Voluntary
Mouth to oropharynx
Pharyngeal
Deglutition center in medulla oblongata and pons
Closing of epiglottis
Involuntary
Esophageal
Involuntary
Peristaltic contractions

Stomach
Serves as mixing chamber and storage area for ingested food
Rugae allow for increased volume

4 main regions
Cardia
Fundus
Body
Pylorus

Pyloric antrum and canal

Pyloric sphincter
Lesser and greater curvatures

Stomach Histology
Mucosa
Surface mucous cells
Lamina propria

Muscularis mucosae
Gastric glands and pits
Parietal cells
Chief cells
G cells

Submucosa – areolar connective tissue

Muscularis
3 layers of smooth muscle

Serosa
Mechanical and Chemical Digestion
Mixing waves caused by peristaltic movement
Chyme released in process of gastric emptying
Proton pumps bring H+ into the lumen
Carbonic anhydrase forms carbonic acid to provide H+ and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
Chemical digestion stimulated by nervous system
Parasympathetic neurons release acetylcholine
Works with gastrin
HCl released in presence of histamine
Pepsin begins digestion of proteins
Stomach protected by alkaline mucus secretion
Gastric lipase digests triglycerides
Few molecules absorbed by stomach
Water, ions, short-chain fatty acids, alcohol

Accessory Organs of the Abdomen

Pancreas
Produces secretions to aid digestion
Head
Body
Tail
Pancreatic duct /duct of Wirsung
Hepatopancreatic ampulla
Sphincter of the heatopancreatic ampulla (sphincter of (Oddi)
Regulates passage of pancreatic juice and bile
Accessory duct (duct of Santorini)

Histology of Pancreas
Glandular epithelial cells
99% exocrine clusters
Secrete pancreatic juice
Fluid and enzymes
Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
1% endocrine cells
Hormones
Glucagon
Insulin
Somatostatin
Pancreatic polypeptide

Pancreatic Juice
1200-1500 mL/day
pH 7.1-8.2
Water
Salts
Sodium bicarbonate
Enzymes
Pancreatic amylase
Trypsin
Entereokinase
Chymotrypsin
Carboxypeptidase
Elastase
Pancreatic lipase
Ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease

Liver and Gallbladder

Liver
Largest gland at 1.4 kg (~3 lb)
Gallbladder
Closely associated with liver

Anatomy of Liver
Right and left lobe separated by falciform ligament
Quadrate lobe
Caudate lobe
Round ligament (ligamentum teres)
Remnant of umbilical vein
coronary ligaments
Lobule
Hepatocytes radiating from central vein
Sinusoids
Reticuloendothelial (Kupffer) cells
Stationary phagocytes
Bile Duct System
Bile secreted by hepatocytes
Bile canaliculi
Bile ducts
Right and left hepatic ducts
Common hepatic duct
Common bile duct
Gallbladder for temporary storage of bile
Cystic duct

Blood Supply of Liver

Hepatic artery provides oxygenated blood
Hepatic portal vein provides deoxygenated blood
Nutrients, drugs, toxins, microbes
Hepatic artery and vein carry blood to sinusoids
Substances exchanged by hepatocytes
Blood drains to central vein and eventually hepatic vein
Portal triad
Hepatic portal vein
Hepatic artery
Bile duct

Bile
800-1000 mL/day
pH 7.6 – 8.6
Water
Bile acids
Bile salts
Emulsification
Cholesterol
Lecithin
Bile pigments
Bilirubin
Stercobilin

Liver Functions
Metabolism of:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Process drugs and hormones
Excrete bilirubin
Synthesize bile salts
Storage
Glycogen
Vtamins
Minerals
Phagocytosis
Activate Vitamin D

The small intestine is an organ located within the gastrointestinal tract. It is approximately
6.5m in the average person and assists in the digestion and absorption of ingested food.

It extends from the pylorus of the stomach to the ileocaecal junction, where it meets the
large intestine at the ileocaecal valve. Anatomically, the small bowel can be divided into
three parts; the duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

In this article, we shall examine the anatomy of the small intestine – its structure and
neurovascular supply, as well as some clinically important feature.
Fig 1 – The anatomical divisions of the small intestine.

The Duodenum

The most proximal portion of the small intestine is the duodenum. Its name is derived
from the Latin ‘duodenum digitorum’, meaning twelve fingers length. It runs from the
pylorus of the stomach to the duodenojejunal junction.

The duodenum can be divided into four parts; superior, descending, inferior and
ascending. Together these parts form a ‘C’ shape, that is around 25cm long, and which
wraps around the head of the pancreas.

Superior (Spinal level L1)

The first section of the duodenum is known as ‘the cap’. It ascends upwards from the
pylorus of the stomach, and is connected to the liver by
the hepatoduodenal ligament. This area is most common site of duodenal ulceration.

The initial 3cm of the superior duodenum is covered anteriorly and posteriorly by visceral
peritoneum, with the remainder retroperitoneal (only covered anteriorly).

Descending (L1-L3)

The descending portion curves inferiorly around the head of the pancreas. It
lies posteriorly to the transverse colon, and anterior to the right kidney.
Internally, the descending duodenum is marked by the major duodenal papilla – the
opening at which bile and pancreatic secretions to enter from the ampulla of
Vater (hepatopancreatic ampulla).

Inferior (L3)

The inferior duodenum travels laterally to the left, crossing over the inferior vena
cava and aorta. It is located inferiorly to the pancreas, and posteriorly to the superior
mesenteric artery and vein.

Ascending (L3-L2)

After the duodenum crosses the aorta, it ascends and curves anteriorly to join the jejunum
at a sharp turn known as the duodenojejunal flexure.

Located at the duodenojejunal junction is a slip of muscle called the suspensory muscle
of the duodenum. Contraction of this muscle widens the angle of the flexure, and
aids movement of the intestinal contents into the jejunum.

Jejunum and Ileum

The jejunum and ileum are the distal two parts of the small intestine. In contrast
to the duodenum, they are intraperitoneal.

They are attached to the posterior abdominal wall by mesentery (a double layer
of peritoneum).

The jejunum begins at the duodenojejunal flexure. There is no clear external

demarcation between the jejunum and ileum – although the two parts are
macroscopically different. The ileum ends at the ileocaecal junction.

At this junction, the ileum invaginates into the cecum to form the ileocecal valve.
Although it is not developed enough to control movement of material from the ileum
to the cecum, it can prevent reflux of material back into the ileum (if patent, see
below).

Histology of Small Intestine

Mucosa
Cell types
Absorptive
Goblet
Endocrine
Paneth
Lysozyme
Intestinal glands (crypts of Lieberkühn)
S cells
Hormone secretin
CCK cells
Hormone – cholecystokinin (CCK)

The intestines are a long, continuous tube running from the stomach to the anus. Most
absorption of nutrients and water happen in the intestines. The intestines include the
small intestine, large intestine, and rectum.
The small intestine (small bowel) is about 20 feet long and about an inch in diameter. Its
job is to absorb most of the nutrients from what we eat and drink. Velvety tissue lines the
small intestine, which is divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
The large intestine (colon or large bowel) is about 5 feet long and about 3 inches in
diameter. The colon absorbs water from wastes, creating stool. As stool enters the
rectum, nerves there create the urge to defecate.
Post test
Answer the following questions using the concept learned from the previous lesson
1.Peyer’s patches are characteristics of the
a. colon c. duodenum
b. ileum d. jejunum
2. The middle portion of the small intestine is the
a. cecum c. ileum
b. duodenum d. jejunum
3. Which of the following intestinal hormones stimulates the pancreas?
a. cholecystokinin c. secretin
b. gastrin d. gastric inhibitory peptide
4.The Kupffer cell of the liver
a. are phagocytic c. form urea
b. produce bile d. store cholesterol
5. Which of the following is not a function of the liver
a. formation of plasma proteins c. formation of bile
b. production of antibodies d. detoxification
6. a haustra is
a. a gland in the large intestine that secretes enzymes
b. an external pouch of the colon
c. a ridge in mucosa of the large intestine
d. a hormone of the colon
7. Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the
a. mouth c. duodenum
b. stomach d. jejunum
8.The teniae coli are
a. three long longitudinal bands of muscle located beneath the serosa of the colon
b. ridges in the mucosa of the colon
c. external pouches of the large intestine
d. the sigmoid colon and rectum

Critical Thinking Question

A 56-year-old man who has had nausea, vomiting, and vague pain in his abdomen severe
jaundice. He has smoked two packs of cigarettes per day for the past 20 years. His father
had diabetes mellitus

1.According to the scenario, which organ would be most likely to these symptoms?
2. if this patient was diagnosed with cancer, what would be the prognosis.

Laboratory Activity:
A. Define the following and write their causes:
 1. Heartburn
2. Choking
3. Constipation
4. Diarrhea
5. Emesis
6. Hiccups
7. Belching
B. Draw a diagram showing the passage of food from the mouth through the rest of the digestive
system. Include the major digestive enzymes in the digestive process.
Supplemental lesson:
Video clip- How your digestive system works
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Og5xAdC8EUI
Video clip- Heart burn
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jP-9AD0wMOk
 Lesson 10: The Excretory/Urinary System

Pretest
Before studying further, the succeeding topics, answer the following questions based on
the previous knowledge that you have learned/acquired:
1.Which of the following is not a part of urinary system?
a. kidneys c. ureter
b. gallbladder d. urethra
2. Which of the following is the innermost layer of the kidney?
a. major calyx c. renal cortex
b. renal pelvis d. renal medulla
3. Bowman’s capsule and the glomerulus are made up of the
a. renal corpuscle c. renal pyramid
b. renal papilla d. loop of Henle
4. The portion of the nephron nearest to the renal corpuscle is the
a. loop of Henle c. distal convoluted tubule
b. collecting duct d. proximal convoluted tubule
5. The process of filtration occurs at
a. the collecting duct c. glomerulus
b. loop of Henle d. the proximal convoluted tubule
6. Which of the following potion of the nephron is able to concentrate urine?
a. collecting duct c. proximal convoluted tubule
b. loop of Henle d. urinary bladder
7. Which of the following type of epithelium lines the urinary bladder?
a. pseudostratified columnar c. simple cuboidal
b. stratified squamous d. transitional

The excretory system includes all the tissues and organs that remove waste from the body.

Why is excretion necessary?

• In order for cells to stay alive, they must continually intake water and other molecules.

• The cells would continue to get bigger and bigger if they only took in molecules

• They must also export molecules

– These molecules may be important signaling molecules such as hormones, or they

may be molecules of glucose on their way to other cells, or they may be waste
products of cellular metabolism that cells need to dispose.

I. Parts of the Human Excretory System:

 A. The Urinary System- Excretes water, nitrogenous wastes, and salts. These exit the body
as urine.

B. The Digestive System- Eliminates water, some salts, bile (stomach acid), and
indigestible food matter. These materials combine to make feces.

C. Respiratory System- Eliminates carbon dioxide and water vapor

D. Integumentary System (the Skin)- Excretes sweat which includes water, salts, and small
amounts of nitrogenous wastes.

The Urinary System in Detail

1. The Kidneys- remove waste from the blood, balance the fluids of the body, and
form urine.

- Location- The body’s two kidneys are at your lower back

- Inside the kidneys are Nephrons.

- Nephrons are microscopic, coiled sets of tubes with a tiny capillary filled bulb at
one end.
2.The kidney’s jobs:
-Excretion of waste.
-Breakdown of excess salts and toxins.
-Deamination: when amino acids are broken down and nitrogen is
released
-Filtering urea out of the body
The Hard-working Kidneys
• The two kidneys in the body receive between 1100 – 2000 liters (1160 – 2100
quarts or 500 gallons) of blood per day – about the volume of a car!
• Because the body has only about 5.6 liters of blood, your blood runs through the
kidneys to be cleaned about once every four minutes.
- Wastes from the Excretory System
- In order for cells to stay alive, they must continually intake water and other
molecules.
- The cells would continue to get bigger and bigger if they only took in molecules
- They must also export molecules
- These molecules may be important signaling molecules such as hormones,
or they may be molecules of glucose on their way to other cells, or they
may be waste products of cellular metabolism that cells need to dispose.
- Carbon dioxide – a waste product of cellular respiration is dumped into the blood
stream and eventually removed by the lungs
- Ammonia (NH3) is removed through water
- This waste comes from the cells breakdown of old proteins
- It is also what makes bleach smell, so in high concentrations it is poisonous
to the
cells and must be removed
Removal of Ammonia
• Once excreted into the blood stream by cells, it is carried to the liver where it is
converted from ammonia into urea which is much less toxic
• It is then carried from the liver to the kidneys where it is removed
The Job of the Kidneys
• They are responsible for cleaning the blood by removing metabolic wastes, excess
solutes, and excess water and excreting them as urine
• Besides removing urea, it also removes excess salts or glucose, the remnants of
drugs (reason for urine tests), and excess water.

Formation of Urine
• If there is too much water in the blood, then it is removed and put in urine.
• If there is not enough water in the blood, the kidneys will not remove it.
• If there is too much urea or other solutes in the blood, the kidneys will remove
these excess solutes.
• By regulating solute numbers and water volume, the kidneys normally maintain
homeostasis in blood solute concentration.
Factors that affect kidney function
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) – prevents excess water loss from kidneys
• Alcohol – inhibits secretion of ADH = more urine volume
• Aldosterone – prevents excess loss of sodium and water from kidneys
• Caffeine – increases rate of salt and water loss from kidneys
 • Increased blood pressure – increase rate of water loss from kidneys.

Regulation of Water Levels

• If the blood becomes too dilute or too concentrated with solutes, then it can
interfere with normal cellular activity. Recall hypertonic, hypotonic & isotonic
solutions!
• The kidneys are able to regulate water concentration in the blood by removing
excess water if the blood is too dilute or conserving water in the blood if it is not
dilute enough
- Urea
- Uric acid
Maintaining Water Balance.
-The kidneys are responsible for maintaining a steady level of water in the body, even
when the amount of water entering the body varies from day to day.
 So, if you have too much, you’ll excrete some out. If you don’t have enough,
you’ll hold it in.
Excretion of unwanted substances:
- Urea is filtered out of the blood by the bulb end of the Nephron. This structure is called
the Glomerulus.
. Filtering Waste in the Urinary System
1. Liquid waste collects in the
kidneys. It’s just like a
coffee filter.
2. Solid wastes are filtered out.
3. If the body needs water, some will go back out to the
bloodstream by way of the capillaries.
4. Excess water, urea, ammonia, and uric acid will travel down the ureters.
5. The bladder fills with liquid.
6. When the bladder is full, the liquid exits through the urethra.
Urine usually contains the following substances:
- Urea and uric acid (these contain lots of nitrogen)
- Salts, also known as electrolytes.
-Yellow coloring from bile (digestive juices)
Urine should NOT contain the following unless something is WRONG:
1. Glucose (sugar)
-If sugar is in the urine, this means your cells are not absorbing sugar. That may
be a sign of diabetes.
2. Blood
- If blood is in the urine, there is some type of kidney disease or infection of the
urinary system.
Summary
Structures Functions

• 2 Kidneys To remove solid and liquid wastes from the blood

stream.
To reach an isotonic equilibrium in the blood.
• 2 Ureters
• 1 Bladder
1 Urethra

Disorders of the Urinary System:

A. Kidney Disorders:
1. Kidney stones - these are formed when salts and calcium are not dissolved. They
clump up in the kidneys and get stuck there.
- Larger ones can be removed with surgery.
- Smaller ones can pass through the ureters, then bladder, and then urethra. This
process is VERY PAINFUL!!!
2. Kidney Failure results when nephrons are no longer able to perform their normal
functions.
- Kidney failure may cause dehydration, a build-up of nitrogen wastes in the blood, salt
imbalances, anemia (low red blood cells) and high blood pressure.
- Dialysis- This is when a patient who has kidney failure is hooked up to a machine that
filters the body’s wastes
- A kidney transplant is the final treatment for kidney failure.
REMEMBER THAT THE BODY’S IMMUNE SYSTEM NEEDS TO BE WEAKENED BEFORE A
TRANSPLANT SO THAT THE IMMUNE SYSTEM DOES NOT “REJECT” THE NEW ORGAN.

3. Gout- results when the body makes uric acid crystals instead of urea.
-the crystals collect in the joints in the legs, causing pain and swelling.
Post test
Answer the following questions using the concept learned from the previous lesson
1.When antidiuretic hormone level in the blood increases
a. less urine is produced c. more salt is removed from the urine
b. more urine is produced d. less water is reabsorbed from collecting duct
2. The glomerulus is located within the
a. renal capsule c. renal corpuscle
b. renal pelvis d. renal tubule
3. Which of the following substances is not normally allowed to pass through the filtration
membrane?
a. amino acids c. glucose
b. albumin d. urea
4. Conical structures in the renal medulla are called
a. calyces c. renal pelvises
b. nephrons d. pyramids
5. Which of the following is not a normal function of the urinary system?
a. elimination of organic waste c. regulation of blood volume
b. secretion of excess glucose molecules d. regulation of plasma concentration of
electrolytes
6. Which of the following segments of the nephron is horseshoe- shaped?
a. minor calyx c. loop of Henle
b. collecting duct d. proximal convoluted tubule
7. Which of the following hormones is secreted from the kidneys?
a. erythropoietin c. thymosin
b. aldosterone d. prolactin
8. The bladder’s internal floor has a triangular area called the
a. mucous coat c. urethral gland
b. detrusor muscle d. trigone

Critical Thinking Question

A 35- year – old who was born with one kidney was brought to the emergency department
after a severe car accident. He was diagnosed with hypovolemic shock
1.A person must have at least one functioning kidney to survive. Why do you believe a
person cannot live without kidneys
2. During hypovolemic shock, how does the body regulate blood pressure?

Laboratory Activity:
A. Define the following terms:
1. Proteinuria
2. Ketonuria
3. Bilirubinuria
4. Hematuria
5. Glycosuria
6. Hemoglobinuria
7. Pyuria
B. Complete the table.
Characteristic of urine Normal Abnormal

Amount (adult) in 24 hours

Color, clarity
Odor
Sterility
pH
Specific gravity
Glucose
Ketone bodies
Blood

Supplemental lesson: Video clip- Urine formation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FN3MFhYPWWo
 Lesson 11: The Nervous System

Pre Test
Before studying further, the succeeding topics, answer the following questions based on
the previous knowledge that you have learned/acquired:

1.Which of the following neurotransmitters is released by cholinergic synapses

a. serotonin c. norepinephrine
b. acetylcholine d. adrenaline
2. Adrenergic fibers release which of the following neurotransmitters?
a. dopamine c. norepinephrine
b. acetylcholine d. serotonin
3. Which of the following cranial nerves attach directly to the cerebrum?
a. olfactory nerves c. oculomotor nerves
b. trigeminal nerves d. trochlear nerves
4. the brachial plexuses are composed of the anterior branches of which of the following
cervical nerves?
a. C1 to C3 c. C5 to C8
b. C3 to C6 d. C6 to C7
5. Motor fibers of which cranial nerves transmit impulses to pharynx muscles, the salivary
glands, and part of the tongue?
a. facial c. abducens
b. glossopharyngeal d. accessory
6. Nociceptors are sensory receptors for
a. pain c. physical distortion
b. temperature d. chemical concentration
7. The somatic nervous system initiates somatic motor commands that direct the
a. contractions of smooth and cardiac muscle c. stimulation of the autonomic nervous
system
b. control skeletal muscle d. activities of fat cells and glands

Outline
Functions of the Nervous System
Nervous Tissue: Neuron Structure and Types
System Organization: Main Divisions of the Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Central Nervous System
Brain
Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System
Cranial Nerve
Spinal Nerves

–
Functions of the Nervous System

Helps coordinate all the other systems of the body in conjunction with the endocrine
system.
Helps govern all organ function and the composition of blood.
Helps coordinate movement.
Helps regulate blood pressure, heart rate, breathing rate.
Helps regulate peristalsis in digestive tract.
Involved in reproduction.
Involved in control of urination and defecation.
Provides us with the ability to reason and communicate.
Nervous Tissue: Neuron Structure and Types
 • Nervous Tissue contains two types of cells.

– Neurons transmit nerve impulses between parts of the nervous system.

– Neuroglia support and nourish neurons.

Types of Neuroglial Cells

• Central Nervous System Neuroglia

1. Astrocytes- most abundant; have projections around neurons & blood capillaries,
anchor neurons to nutrient supply, help determine capillary permeability, control
chemical environment of the neurons

2. Microglia- spider-like phagocytes, remove debris & bacteria

3. Oligodendrocytes- wrap plasma membranes around neurons, create myelin

sheath for CNS neurons, increases conduction speed of neuronal impulse

4. Ependymal Cells- line cavities in the brain, cilia circulates the cerebrospinal fluid-
cushioning fluid in the brain

• Peripheral Nervous System Neuroglia

1. Schwann Cells- wrap plasma membranes around neurons, create myelin sheath
for PNS neurons, increases conduction speed of neuronal impulse

2. Satellite Cells- act as protective, cushioning cells

Neuron Structure

• Neurons contain three basic parts.

– Cell body contains nucleus and other organelles.

– Dendrites receive signals from sensory receptors or other neurons.

– Axon conducts nerve impulses to another neuron.

Neuron Types

• Neurons are classified according to function.

– Sensory neurons take impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS.

– Interneurons receive input from sensory neurons, and other neurons, and then
communicate with other interneurons connected to the brain and with motor
neurons.

– Motor neurons take nerve impulse away from the CNS to an effector that carries
out responses to environmental change.

The Nerve Impulse

• The nervous system uses the nerve impulse to convey information.

– Resting potential is the voltage level when an axon is not conducting an impulse.

• Sodium-potassium pump (requires ATP) causes greater concentration of Na + outside the

axon, and greater concentration of K+ inside the axon.

– Unequal ion distribution causes inside of axon to be negative relative to the

outside.

Action Potential

• An action potential is a rapid change in polarity across an axomembrane as the nerve

impulse occurs.

– All-or-none once threshold is reached.

 Sodium gates open, allowing Na+ to move inside the axon.

 Potassium gates open, allowing K+ to move outside the axon.

Propagation of an Action Potential

• Each preceding portion causes an action potential in the next portion of an axon.

– As soon as an action potential has moved on, the previous portion of an axon
undergoes a refractory period in which the sodium gates are unable to open.

Transmission Across a Synapse

• Synapse is point of interaction between neurons.

• Not a direct interaction; a space between called synaptic cleft.

• Transmission across a synaptic cleft is carried out by chemicals called neurotransmitters

stored in synaptic vesicles.

• Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on postsynaptic membrane.

 • Depending on the neurotransmitter and the receptor, response of postsynaptic neuron
can be towards excitation or inhibition.

System Organization

• Central Nervous System

– The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the spinal cord and the brain.

 Both are wrapped in protective membranes, meninges, with spaces

between meninges filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

– CNS is composed of two types of nervous tissue.

 Gray matter – Cell bodies and short, nonmyelinated fibers.

 White matter - Myelinated axon bundles or tracts.

CNS: The Brain

Functions of the brain:

Interprets sensations
Determines perception
Stores memory
Reasoning
Makes decisions
Coordinates muscular movements
Regulates visceral activities
Determines personality

Major parts of the brain:

Cerebrum
Frontal lobes
 Parietal lobes
Occipital lobes
Temporal lobes
Insula
Diencephalon
Cerebellum
Brainstem
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Cerebral cortex
Thin layer of gray matter that constitutes the outermost portion of cerebrum
Contains 75% of all neurons in the nervous system
Sensory Areas

Cutaneous sensory area

Parietal lobe
Interprets sensations on skin
Sensory speech area (Wernicke’s area)
Temporal /parietal lobe
Usually left hemisphere
Understanding and formulating language
Visual area
Occipital lobe
Interprets vision
Auditory area
Temporal lobe
Interprets hearing
Sensory area for taste
Near base of the central sulcus
Sensory area for smell
Arises from centers deep within the cerebrum

Association Areas

Regions that are not primary motor or primary sensory areas

Widespread throughout the cerebral cortex
Analyze and interpret sensory experiences
Provide memory, reasoning, verbalization, judgment, emotions

Frontal lobe association areas

Concentrating
Planning
Complex problem solving
Frontal lobe association areas

Concentrating
 Planning
Complex problem solving

Temporal lobe association areas

• Interpret complex sensory experiences
• Store memories of visual scenes, music, and complex patterns
Occipital lobe association areas
• Analyze and combine visual images with other sensory experiences
Diencephalon
Between cerebral hemispheres and above the brainstem
Surrounds the third ventricle
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Optic tracts
Optic chiasma
Infundibulum
Posterior pituitary
Mammillary bodies
Pineal gland

Thalamus
Gateway for sensory impulses heading to cerebral cortex
Receives all sensory impulses (except smell)
Channels impulses to appropriate part of cerebral cortex for interpretation
Hypothalamus
Maintains homeostasis by regulating visceral activities
Links nervous and endocrine systems (hence some say the neuroendocrine system
The Limbic System
Consists of:
Portions of frontal lobe
Portions of temporal lobe
Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Basal nuclei
Other deep nuclei
Functions:

Controls emotions
Produces feelings
Interprets sensory impulses.
 The Cerebrum.

The cerebrum, telencephalon, is the largest portion of the human brain.

Communicates with, and coordinates activities of, other parts of the brain.
Divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres.
Divided by longitudinal fissure.

Diencephalon is made up of hypothalamus and thalamus, and circles the third ventricle.
Hypothalamus: Hunger, sleep, thirst, body temperature, water balance; control pituitary gland
Thalamus: Visual, auditory, somatosensory
Cerebellum is separated from the brain stem by the fourth ventricle.
Input from eyes, ears, joints, muscles for maintenance of posture and balance; coordinated
voluntary movements
The brain stem contains the midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata, reticular formation.
Medulla oblongata: Regulation of heartbeat, breathing, vasoconstriction
Reticular formation is a complex network of nuclei and fibers in the brain stem; regulates
alertness, waking up.
Peripheral Nervous System
Functions of the Spinal Cord.
The spinal cord extends from the base of the brain through the foramen magnum into the
vertebral canal.
The spinal cord provides a means of communication between the brain and the peripheral
nerves that leave the cord, and is a center for reflex actions.
Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of nerves and ganglia.
Nerves are bundles of axons.
Both sensory and motor axons exist in the nerves.
Ganglia are areas of nerves containing collections of cell bodies.
The sensory neurons are subdivided into two categories: 1. somatic sensory (head, body wall,
limbs, special senses), 2. autonomic sensory (visceral organs)
The motor neurons are subdivided into two categories:
Somatic motor (skeletal muscle; voluntary)
Autonomic motor (smooth, cardiac muscle, glands; involuntary)
The autonomic motors are subdivided into two categories:
Sympathetic division (fight or flight)
Parasympathetic division (rest and digest)

Nerve and Nerve Fiber Classification

Sensory nerves
Conduct impulses into brain or spinal cord
Motor nerves
Conduct impulses to muscles or glands
Mixed (both sensory and motor) nerves
Contain both sensory nerve fibers and motor nerve fibers
Most nerves are mixed nerves
ALL spinal nerves are mixed nerves (except the first pair)
Cranial Nerves
Remember:
Cranial nerves are designated with Roman numerals (I – XII)
Olfactory nerve (CN I)
Sensory nerve
Fibers transmit impulses associated with smell
Optic nerve (CN II)
Sensory nerve
Fibers transmit impulses associated with vision
Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
Primarily motor nerve
Motor impulses to muscles that:
Raise eyelids
Move the eyes
Focus lens
Adjust light entering eye

Trochlear nerve (CN IV)

Primarily motor nerve
Motor impulses to muscles that move the eyes
Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Mixed nerve
(1) Ophthalmic division
Sensory from surface of eyes, tear glands, scalp, forehead, and upper eyelids
(2) Maxillary division
Sensory from upper teeth, upper gum, upper lip, palate, and skin of face
(3) Mandibular division
Sensory from scalp, skin of jaw, lower teeth, lower gum, and lower lip
Motor to muscles of mastication and muscles in floor of mouth
Abducens nerve (CN VI)
Primarily motor nerve
Motor impulses to muscles that move the eyes
Facial nerve (CN VII)
Mixed nerve
Sensory from taste receptors
Motor to muscles of facial expression, tear glands, and salivary glands
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
Acoustic or auditory nerve
Sensory nerve
Two (2) branches:
Vestibular branch
Sensory from equilibrium receptors of ear
Cochlear branch
Sensory from hearing receptors
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Mixed nerve
Sensory from pharynx, tonsils, tongue and carotid arteries
Motor to salivary glands and muscles of pharynx
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Mixed nerve
Somatic motor to muscles of speech and swallowing
Autonomic motor to viscera of thorax and abdomen
Sensory from pharynx, larynx, esophagus, and viscera of thorax and abdomen
Accessory nerve (CN XI)
Primarily motor nerve
We called this “Spinal” Accessory because:
Cranial branch
Motor to muscles of soft palate, pharynx and larynx
Spinal branch
Motor to muscles of neck and back
Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
Primarily motor
Motor to muscles of the tongue
Summary of the Different Functions of Cranial Nerves
Spinal Nerves
ALL are mixed nerves (except the first pair)
31 pairs of spinal nerves:
8 cervical nerves
(C1 to C8)
12 thoracic nerves
(T1 to T12)
5 lumbar nerves
(L1 to L5)
5 sacral nerves
(S1 to S5)
1 coccygeal nerve
(Co)
Cauda equina

PNS: Autonomic Nervous System

Autonomic nervous system regulates the activity of cardiac and smooth muscles and
glands.
This system covers all motor output to all the organs and blood vessels of the body.
Broken down to two divisions, both use two neurons and one ganglion.
Two autonomic divisions regulate:
Sympathetic division (speeds up)
Prepares body for ‘fight or flight’ situations
Parasympathetic division (slows down)
Prepares body for ‘resting and digesting’ activities
Control of Autonomic
Activity
Controlled largely by CNS
Medulla oblongata regulates cardiac, vasomotor and respiratory activities
Hypothalamus regulates visceral functions, such as body temperature, hunger, thirst,
and water and electrolyte balance
Limbic system and cerebral cortex control emotional responses

Lifespan Changes
 Brain cells begin to die before birth
 Over average lifetime, brain shrinks 10%
 Most cell death occurs in temporal lobes
 By age 90, frontal cortex has lost half its neurons
 Number of dendritic branches decreases
 Decreased levels of neurotransmitters
 Fading memory
 Slowed responses and reflexes
 Increased risk of falling
 Changes in sleep patterns that result in fewer sleeping hours

Post Test
Answer the following questions using the concepts learned from the previous lesson.

1.Adrenergic stimulation is able to do which of the following?

a. accelerates heart rate c. decrease diameter of respiratory passage
b. decrease force of cardiac contraction d. increase salivation
2.The cranial nerve with a cervical origin in the spinal cord is the
a. optic nerve c. accessory nerve
b. hypoglossal nerve d. abducens nerve
3. A major nerve of the lumbar plexus is the
a. sciatic nerve c. ilioinguinal nerve
b. tibial nerve d. vagus nerve
4. Nerves that carry impulses from the CNS are only
a. motor nerves c. afferent nerves
b. mixed nerves d. efferent nerves
5. The sciatic nerve is composed of which two nerves?
a. tibial and common fibular c. posterior femoral cutaneous and tibial
b. common fibular and tibial d. pudendal and fibular
6. Which of the following cranial nerves only has sensory fibers?
a. facial c. oculomotor
b. trigeminal d. olfactory
7. A fracture of the ethmoid bone may result in damage to which cranial nerve?
a. vagus c. olfactory
b. optic d. accessory
8. if the dorsal root of a spinal nerve were cut, which of the following may result?
a. complete loss of sensation
b. complete loss of involuntary and voluntary movement
c. complete loss of voluntary movement
d. loss of neither sensation nor movement but only of autonomic control

Critical Thinking Question

An Iraq war veteran went to see his physician, during a conversation with the receptionist,
he got very angry about his bill and couldn’t be calmed down. The physician asked him to
come back into the examination room for a private discussion. After a while, the physician
was able to calm the veteran down.
1.In this scenario, which part of ANS released neurotransmitter that contributed to his
stress?
2. List the other effects of this part of the ANS in a condition such as this.

Laboratory Activity:
A. How will you assess each of the 12 cranial nerves? Write in tabular form.
B. Draw a reflex arc showing the following components:
1. Receptor - reacts to a stimulus
2. Afferent pathway (sensory neuron) - conducts impulses to the CNS
3. Interneuron - consists of one or more synapses in the CNS (most are in the spine)
4. Efferent pathway (motor neuron) conducts impulses from CNS to effector.
5. Effector - muscle fibers (as in the Hamstring muscle) or glands responds by contracting or
secreting a product.

Supplemental lesson: Video clip- How do nerves work

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uU_4uA6-zcE
Supplemental lesson: Video clip- Cranial nerves
https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/natural-science/life-science/ap11504/the-12-cranial-nerves
 Lesson 12: The Reproductive System

Pre test
Before studying further, the succeeding topics, answer the following questions based on
the previous knowledge that you have learned/acquired:

1.A bundle of tissue that contains the ductus deferens blood vessels, and nerves is called
a. a straight tubule c. a spermatic cord
b. an efferent duct d. an ejaculatory duct
2. Interstitial cells of the testis produce
a. nutrients c. androgens
b. sperm d. inhibin
3. Sperm production occurs in the
a. epididymis c. ejaculatory ducts
b. rete testis d. seminiferous tubules
4. Which of the following structures are located at the base of the penis , and produce a
lubricating substance?
a. bulbourethral glands c. prostate gland
b. preputial gland d. seminal vesicles
5. The fold of skin that covers the tip of the penis is the
a. corpus spongiosum c. prepuce
b. corpus cavernosa d. penile urethra
6. The inferior portion of the uterus that projects into the vagina is the
a. fornix c. fundus
b. cervix d. isthmus
7. The structure that transports the ovum to the uterus is the
a. infundibulum c. endometrium
b. uterine ice d. fundus

Introduction

Sexual reproduction produces new individuals

Gametes (sperm & egg) formed by testes and ovaries
Fertilization produces one cell (a zygote)with one set of chromosomes from each parent
Creates genetic variation
Gonads produce gametes & secrete sex hormones
Reproductive systems
Gonads, ducts, glands & supporting structures
Gynecology is study of female reproductive system
Urology is study of urinary & male reproductive system
Male Reproductive System
Parts of the Male Reproductive System and its function:

Seminal vesicle-semen
Prostate-semen
Urethra-urine
Epididymis-sperm maturation
Scrotum-cools testis
Testis-sperm formation- Testes- Paired oval glands measuring 2 in. By 1in. contains nearly
one half of a mile of seminiferous tubules.
Surrounded by dense white capsule
Septa form 200 - 300 compartments called lobules
Seminiferous tubules contain
Sperm forming cells
Sertoli cells (supporting cells)
It is here where sperm are actually formed

Interstitial cells in between tubules secrete testosterone

Interstitial endocrine cells “ also known as “Leydig cells”- lie inside the soft connective
tissue that surrounds the seminiferous tubules.
Sertoli cells -- extend from basement membrane to lumen
form blood-testis barrier
support developing sperm cells
produce fluid & control release of sperm into lumen
secrete inhibin which slows sperm production
Spermatogenesis

Each of four spermatids develop into a sperm

Second meiosis division give four spermatids, each with 23 single stranded
chromosomes
First meiosis division give two secondary spermatocytes, each with 23 chromosomes
that become double stranded.
Primary spermatocyte with 2n=46 chromosomes
Spermatogonium with 2n=46 chromosomes multiply by mitosis.

Sperm Morphology

Adapted for reaching and fertilizing the egg

Head contains DNA and the acrosome with enzymes for penetrating the egg
Midpiece contains mitochondria to form ATP for energy
Tail is flagellum used for locomotion

Hormonal Control of Male Physiology

Hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)

Anterior pituitary secretes FSH and LH
FSH causes Sertoli cells to secrete ABP and inhibin
LH causes interstitial cells to secrete testosterone
ABP and testosterone stimulate spermatogenesis
Control is Negative FB by testosterone and inhibin
Male Glands
Seminal Vesicles/Glands
Secrete a slightly alkaline fluid that is yellowish in color and viscous- this fluid helps
to regulate the pH of the tubular contents as sperm cells travel to the outside of the body.
The yellow color of seminal fluid comes from a pigment that becomes fluorescent under
ultraviolet light. The seminal fluid contains fructose

Secrete 60% of clear, alkaline seminal fluid, with fructose sugar, ATP and
prostaglandins for normal sperm nutrition & function.

Ductus deferens-sperm duct- is also called as the vasa deferentia, are muscular tubes
approximately 45 cm (18 inches) in length.
Penis- is a cylindrical in shape and conveys urine and semen through the urethra.
The penis is divided into three regions:
The root of the penis- is the fixed portion that attaches the penis to the body wall. It is
covered by the foreskin “ Prepuce” – which is surgically removed soon after birth in a
procedure called “circumcision”
The body of the penis- is the tubular , movable portion of the organ. It contains the 3
columns of erectile tissue
Dorsal portion - corpora cavernosa (2)
Ventral portion- corpus spongiosum
Scrotum- encloses the testes. Consist of a fleshy pouch of skin and subcutaneous tissue
suspended below the perineum and anterior to the anus.
 Sac of loose skin, fascia & smooth muscle divided into two pouches by a septum
Temperature regulation of testes
Sperm survival requires 2-3 degrees lower temperature than core body temperature
Muscle in scrotum
Elevates testes on exposure to cold & during arousal
Warmth reverses the process
Prostate
Secretes 30% of milky, slightly acidic seminal fluid with an antibiotic to kill bacteria.
Seminal Glands- are sac like structure lying on the posterior bladder surface. They are
approximately 5 cm long , attached to the ductus deferens near the base of the bladder
Cowper’s Glands -secrete clear, alkaline-mucus to buffer and lubricate urethra
Semen
Mixture of sperms and seminal fluid
60% from seminal vesicles, 30% from prostate
Slightly alkaline, milky appearance and sticky
Contains nutrients, clotting proteins & an antibiotic to protect the sperms
Typical ejaculate is 2.5 to 5 ml in volume
Normal sperm count is 50 to 150 millions/mL
Actions of many sperm are needed for one to enter
If less than 20 millions/mL sterile
Epididymis- it is coiled and twisted to take up only a small amount of space, about 3.8 cm
(1.5 in.)It controls the composition of the fluid produced by the seminiferous tubules. It
also absorbs and recycles damaged spermatozoa and absorbs cellular debris- the
products of the breakdown of enzymes are released. It also stores and protects
spermatozoa and facilitates their functional maturation.

Erection
Sexual stimulation
Parasympathetic nervous system reflex
Dilation of the arterioles supplying the penis
Blood enters the penis compressing the veins so that the blood is trapped
Blood sinuses of penis engorge with blood
Erection
Emission and Ejaculation
Emission
Muscle contractions close sphincter at base of bladder
Fluids propelled through ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, & ejaculatory ducts into bulb
of penis
Prostatic fluid secreted into urethra
Ejaculation
Sympathetic nervous system reflex
Skeletal muscles squeeze semen out through urethra

Temperature regulation of testes

Sperm survival requires 2-3 degrees lower temperature than core body temperature
Muscle in scrotum
Elevates testes on exposure to cold & during arousal
Warmth reverses the process

Female Reproductive System

Ovaries produce eggs (oöcytes) & hormones

Uterine tubes transport the eggs
Uterus where fetal development occurs
Vagina or birth canal
External genitalia constitute the vulva
Mammary glands produce milk
The Ovary
Pair of organs, size of unshelled almonds in upper pelvic region
Histology
Capsule of dense CT
Cortex just deep to capsule contains follicles with egg cells (oöcytes)
Medulla is middle region composed of connective tissue, blood vessels & lymphatics
Germinal epithelium is peritoneal membrane covering the ovary
Ovarian Follicles
Ovarian Follicles
Contain oöcytes (egg cells) in various stages of development
Secrete estrogens that function for:-
Growth and repair of uterine lining
Regulation of monthly female cycle
Female sexual characteristics
Maintenance of bone and muscle
Mature (Graafian) follicle releases an oöcyte each month during ovulation
Oöcytes (egg cells) develop within follicles
Stages of follicular development
Primordial follicle
Single layer of squamous cells around the oöcyte
Primary follicle
Layers of cuboidal granulosa cells around the oöcyte
Granulosa cells secrete estrogens
Secondary follicle
Antral cavity forms
Graafian follicle
Follicle mature ready to ovulate oöcyte
Ovulation
Follicle ruptures releasing oöcyte
Corpus Luteum
After ovulation, empty follicle becomes a corpus luteum
Corpus Luteum secretes:-
Progesterone – completes the preparation of uterine lining
Estrogens – work with progesterone
Relaxin – relaxes uterine muscles and pubic symphysis
Inhibin – decreases secretion of FSH and LH
Corpus albicans is a white scar tissue left after the corpus luteum dies.
Oögenesis – Oögonia to Oöcytes
Germ cells from yolk sac migrate to ovary and become potential egg cells called oögonia
In fetus, millions of oögonia produced by mitosis but most of them degenerate (atresia)
Some develop into immature egg cells called primary oöcytes during fetal development
200,000 to 2 millions present at birth
40,000 remain at puberty but only 400 mature during a woman’s reproductive life
Each month about 20 primary oöcytes become secondary oöcytes but usually only one
survives to be ovulated from Graffian follicle
Egg forming cells (oöcytes) go through two divisions
1º = primary
2º = secondary
Starts with a 2n=46 1ºoöcyte that divides, resulting in two n=23 cells, but one is a large
2º oöcyte and one is a small 1st polar body that may itself divide
Second division only occurs if 2º oöcyte is fertilized. Results in one large n=23 ovum
(egg) and one small n=23 2nd polar body
Thus oögenesis results in one large fertilized egg (zygote) and possibly three small polar
bodies

Uterine or Fallopian Tubes

Narrow, 4 inch tube that extends from the ovary to uterus
Infundibulum is open, funnel-shaped portion near the ovary
Fimbriae are moving finger-like processes
Ampulla is central region of tube
Isthmus is narrowest portion joins uterus
Functions -- events occurring in the uterine tube
fimbriae sweep oöcyte into tube
Cilia and peristalsis move it along
Sperm reaches oöcyte in ampulla
Fertilization occurs within 24 hours after ovulation
Zygote reaches uterus about 7 days after ovulation
Anatomy of the Uterus
Site of menstruation
& development of fetus
Description
3 inches long by 2 in.
Wide and 1 in. Thick
Subdivided into fundus,
body & cervix
Interiorly contains uterine cavity accessed by cervical canal
Histology of the Uterus
Endometrium
Simple columnar epithelium
Stroma of connective tissue and endometrial glands
Functional layer
Shed during menstruation
Basal layer
Replaces functional layer each month
Myometrium
3 layers of smooth muscle
Perimetrium
Visceral peritoneum

Vagina
Passageway for birth, menstrual flow and intercourse
Description
4 inch long fibromuscular organ ending at cervix
Lies between urinary bladder and rectum
Orifice partially closed with membrane (hymen)
Mammary Glands
Modified sweat glands that produce milk (lactation)
Amount of adipose tissue determines size of breast
Milk-secreting mammary glands alveoli open by lactiferous ducts at the nipple
Areola is pigmented area around nipple
Suspensory (Cooper’s) ligaments suspend breast from deep fascia of pectoral muscles
Physiology of the Breast

Milk production and secretion

Estrogens develop the ducts system in the breasts
Progestrone develop the milk-secreting glands which are called alveoli
Prolactin stimulate milk synthesis in the alveoli
Oxytocin stimulate milk ejection from the alveoli
Milk ejection (release from glands)
Nursing stimulates the hypothalamus to produce oxytocin
Oxytocin secreted from the posterior pituitary
Oxytocin causes smooth muscles around alveoli to contract and squeeze milk into
lactiferous ducts, lactiferous sinuses and into the nipple
Operated by positive feedback
Female Reproductive Cycle

Controlled by monthly hormonal cycle from the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and
ovary
Monthly cycle of changes in ovary and uterus
Ovarian cycle
Changes in ovary during and after maturation of the follicle and oocyte
Uterine cycle (menstrual cycle)
Preparation of the uterus to receive fertilized ovum
If implantation does not occur, the functional layer of endometrium is shed during
menstruation
Hormonal Regulation of Reproductive Cycle
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH), secreted by the hypothalamus, controls the
female reproductive cycle
Stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) & Luteinizing
Hormone (LH)
FSH & LH target the ovaries and drive the ovarian cycle (monthly changes in the ovary)
Estrogens and progesterone from the ovaries drive the uterine cycle (monthly changes
in the uterus)
Phases of Ovarian Cycle
Follicular Phase
FSH from anterior pituitary stimulates follicle growth
Follicles grow into Graafian (mature) follicle
Granulosa cells of follicle secrete estrogens and inhibin
Increasing levels of estrogens and inhibin inhibit FSH
Increasing estrogens also stimulates secretion of LH
Ovulation
LH stimulates rupture of the Graafian follicle and release of oöcyte from ovary into the
pelvic cavity
Fimbriae of Fallopian tube picks up the ovulated oöcyte
Phase of Ovarian Cycle
Luteal phase (postovulatory phase)
LH stimulates development of Corpus luteum from ovulated or ruptured follicle
Corpus luteum secretes mostly progesterone & some estrogens
Progesterone prepares endometrium for possible pregnancy
Proliferative phase
Rising estrogen levels from the growing follicle stimulates growth of the functional layer
of endometrium to 4-10 mm thickness
Secretory phase
Corpus luteum of ovary secretes progesterone
Progesterone stimulates
Increased thickening of the functional layer of endometrium to 12-18 mm
Increased blood supply into the endometrium
Growth of endometrial glands and secretion of uterine milk
Phase of Uterine Cycle
Menstruation phase (menses)
Decline in progesterone levels causes functional layer of endometrium to discharge
resulting in vaginal bleeding called menstruation
Mark the beginning of the next cycle
Negative Feedback Controls Cycle
If no pregnancy
Increasing levels of progesterone cause negative feedback that inhibits LH secretion
After about two weeks corpus luteum atrophies to corpus albicans (white body)
Progesterone and estrogen levels decline
Functional layer of endometrium discharged into first five days of next cycle
Starting the next cycle
With the decline in progesterone, estrogens and inhibin secretion:-
Inhibition of GnRH, FSH and LH stops
Renewed secretion of these hormones starts a new cycle of growth and preparation in
ovaries and uterus
Pregnancy
If fertilization occurs:-
Embryo implants in endometrium
Must maintain levels of progesterone to maintain the endometrium and pregnancy
Since corpus luteum secretes progesterone, it must be maintained
LH normally maintains the corpus luteum, but LH is inhibited by high progesterone
levels
What maintains the corpus luteum during pregnancy?
What was not present before?
The outer part of blastocyst (the chorion) secretes the hormone human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG)
hCG takes the place of LH and maintains the corpus luteum
After about 3-4 months of pregnancy, corpus luteum degenerates
Placenta now produces its estrogen and progesterone and maintains endometrium

MEDICAL TERMS RELATED TO REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Menstrual Abnormalities
Amenorrhea = absence of menstruation
Caused by hormone imbalance, extreme weight loss or low body fat as with rigorous
athletic training
Dysmenorrhea = pain associated with menstruation
Severe enough to prevent normal functioning
Caused by uterine tumors, ovarian cysts, endometriosis or intrauterine devices
Abnormal uterine bleeding = excessive amount or duration of menstrual bleeding
Caused by fibroid tumors or hormonal imbalance
Hysterectomy
Surgical removal of the uterus
Indications for surgery
endometriosis, ovarian cysts, excessive bleeding, cancer of cervix, uterus or ovaries
Complete hysterectomy removes uterus and cervix
Radical hysterectomy removes uterus, cervix, tubes, ovaries, part of vagina, pelvic lymph
nodes and supporting ligaments
Circumcision

Removal of prepuce
3 - 4 days after birth
Possibly lowers UTIs, cancer & sexually transmitted disease
Erectile Dysfunction (Impotence)
Consistent inability of adult male to hold an erection long enough for sexual intercourse
Causes
psychological or emotional factors
physical factors
diabetes mellitus, vascular disturbances, neurological disturbances, testosterone
deficiency, drugs (alcohol, nicotine, antidepressants, tranquilizers,etc)
Viagra causes vasodilation of penile arteries and brings on an erection
Testicular Cancer

Most common cancer in age group 20-35

one of the most curable
Begins as problem with spermatogenic cells within the seminiferous tubules
Sign is mass within the testis
Regular self-examination is important
Inguinal Canal & Inguinal Hernias

Inguinal canal is 2 inch long tunnel passing through the

3 muscles of the anterior abdominal wall
Indirect hernia -- loop of intestine protruding through deep ring
Direct hernia -- loop of intestine pushes through posterior wall of inguinal canal
More common in males
Prostate Cancer
Leading male cancer death
treatment is surgery, radiation, hormonal and chemotherapy
Blood test for prostate-specific antigen (PSA)
enzyme of epithelial cells
amount increases with enlargement (indication of infection, benign enlargement or
cancer)
Over 40 yearly rectal exam of prostate gland
acute or chronic prostatitis is an infection of prostate causing swelling, tenderness &
blockage of urine flow
treatment with antibiotics
Endometriosis

Growth of endometrial tissue outside of the uterus

tissue discharged from open-end of uterine tubes during menstruation
can cover ovaries, outer surface of uterus, colon, kidneys and bladder
Problem is tissue responds to hormonal changes by proliferating then breaking down &
bleeding
causes pain, scarring & infertility
Breast Cancer

Second-leading cause of cancer death in the U.S.

1 in 8 women affected
rarely before 30, but more common after menopause
5% of cases are younger women (genetic mutation)
Detection by self-examination & mammography
ultrasound determines if lump is benign, fluid-filled cyst or solid & possibly malignant
Risk factors
family history, no children, radiation, alcohol & smoking
Treatment
lumpectomy, radical mastectomy, radiation therapy or chemotherapy
Ovarian Cancer
Most common cause of gynecological deaths excluding breast cancer
difficult to detect before metastasis
Risk factors
over 50, white, family history, nulliparity, first pregnancy after 30, diet (high fat, low
fiber and lack of vitamin A), asbestos & talc
Early symptoms unremarkable -- heartburn, nausea, bloating, loss of appetite, etc
Cervical Cancer

Starts as cervical dysplasia (change in shape, growth & number of cells)

May progress to cervical cancer
Detected in Pap smear
Linked to genital warts and large number of sexual partners at an early age
Sexually Transmitted Disease
Chlamydia -- bacteria; asymptomatic, leads to sterility from scar tissue formation
Gonorrhea -- bacteria, discharge common, blindness if newborn is infected during
delivery
Syphilis -- bacteria, painless sores (chancre), 2nd stage all organs involved, 3rd stage
organ degeneration is apparent (neurosyphilis)
Genital Herpes -- virus, incurable, painful blisters
AIDS & hepatitis B --viruses

Yeast Infection

Candida albicans is yeast-like fungus that grows on mucous membranes

Causes vulvovaginal candidiasis or vaginitis
inflammation of the vagina
severe itching and pain
yellow discharge with odor
More likely after antibiotic therapy for some other disease
Post Test
Answer the following questions based on the knowledge that you have acquired in the
previous lesson
1.During menses
a. the old functional layer pf tissue is sloughed off
b. the secretory gland and blood vessels develop in the endometrium
c. a new uterine lining is formed
d. the corpus luteum is formed
2. Which of the following is incorrect?
a. the head of a human spermatozoa contains a nucleus
b. the tail of a human spermatozoa is called a flagellum
c. the middle piece of a human spermatozoa contains acrosome
d. the human spermatozoa contains many mitochondria
3.Which of the following is incorrect
a. an ovary releases FSH c. an ovary produces progesterone
b. an ovary produces estrogen d. an ovary is located in the peritoneal cavity
4. A membranous fold sometimes found at or near the vaginal canal opening is called the
a. cul-de-sac c. hymen
b. fornices d. ampulla
5. The erectile tissue located on the ventral surface of the penis is the
a. prepuce c. membranous urethra
b. corpora cavernosa d. corpus spongiosum
6. A typical ejaculation releases approximately __________ sperm.
a. 200,000 c. 100 million
b. 800,000 d. 250 million
7. Which portion of the uterine tube is closest to the ovary?
a. infundibulum c. isthmus
b. ampulla d. anterior segment
8. The principal hormone secreted by the corpus luteum is
a. estrogen c. FSH
b. LH d. progesterone

Critical Thinking Question:

A 17-year-old boy felt a small nodule on the anterior part of his testes after showering.
Because there was no pain, he ignored this nodule. Three years after, he experienced a
severe heaviness in one side of his testes, especially when walking. His physician
examined him, and after biopsy diagnosed him with testicular cancer

1.Explain the structure of the testes and penis

2. Describe the treatment of choice for testicular cancer without metastasis.
Laboratory Activity:
A. Create a diagram showing the pathway of the ovum (from ovaries) from
ovulation to menstruation and/or implantation.
B. Create a diagram showing the pathway of the sperm as it travels from the testes
to the outside.
C. Define the following:

1. Ectopic pregnancy
2. Hydatidiform mole

D. Describe what happens in each phase of the uterine cycle (include the duration):
1. Menstrual phase
2. Proliferative phase
3. Secretory phase

Supplemental lesson: Video clip- How menstruation works

https://ed.ted.com/lessons/how-menstruation-works-emma-bryce

REFERENCES
Internet Sources
www.biologyjunction.com
www.biologycorner.com
www.pppst.com
www.nclark.net

www.sciencespot.net

https://ed.ted.com/lessons/how-menstruation-works-emma-bryce
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uU_4uA6-zcE
Books

Chase, Robert A. (2002) The Bassett atlas of Human Anatomy, The Benjamin/Cummings
Publishing Company

Eder, Douglas, et Al. (2006) Laboratory Atlas of Anatomy and Physiology, 5 th ed. McGraw Hill

Moini , Jahangir, (2016) Anatomy and Physiology for Health Professionals, 2 nded. Jones
&Bartlett Learning

Shier, David, et Al. (2002) Hole’s Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11 th ed, McGraw Hill.

Tortora, Gerard, (2008) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology,10 th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.