U

One challenge in data analyses is to identify the later arrivals, since

ULVZ, ULTRA-LOW VELOCITY ZONE they are commonly obscured by the coda of the main PcP phase,
i.e., additional arrivals due to (for example) reverberations in Earth’s
Nearly half way to Earth’s center, the boundary between the solid silicate crust due to the PcP wave.
rock mantle and the liquid iron-alloy outer core was long thought to be a Waves that travel into the Earth’s core can contain important infor-
sharp discontinuity between the two vastly different regimes. Recently, mation about anomalous properties at the CMB, which they traverse
detailed seismological analyses have depicted the core-mantle boundary at least twice. The phase PKP has been used to detect CMB structures
(CMB) as being far from simple, and in fact shows evidence for an addi- that scatter energy resulting in precursory arrivals to PKP. Figure U1c
tional thin veneer of anomalous properties in certain geographical shows PKP paths, along with an associated reference arrival PKiKP
regions. Imaged as thin as a couple of km, and up to 50-km thick, these that reflects from the inner core boundary. Anomalous topography to
unique zones are characterized by strong reductions in the speeds of seis- the ULVZ or inclusions of low velocity material can give rise to pre-
mic waves relative to the overlying mantle. These areas have thus been cursory arrivals, as shown in the theoretical predictions in the bottom
dubbed “ultra-low velocity zones” (ULVZs). panel.
Another important probe of the CMB is an S wave that encounters the
CMB at a critical angle to produce a P wave that diffracts along the CMB
Seismic probes
(Pd), then continues into the core as a P wave, then back through the
Seismology remains the most direct remote sensing tool for deciphering mantle as an S wave (Figure U1d). This phase, SPdKS, has short segments
the subtleties of Earth’s inaccessible deep interior. This is most com- of P wave diffraction at the core entry and exit locations. Additional inter-
monly accomplished through the use of elastic energy that propagates nal reflections within the layer are also emerging as important (e.g.,
away from earthquakes, traveling through the entire interior of the pla- SPuPKS). Certainly other possible seismic probes of ULVZ structure
net; some energy propagates continuously through the Earth, some are possible, as long as seismic energy either refracts, diffracts, or reflects
reflects from local or global boundaries between contrastingly different at the CMB.
materials, and some of it, in special cases, diffracts along boundaries An important next step in ULVZ research will be to find geographical
between strongly contrasting media. Each of these types has provided regions that permit analysis of more than one particular seismic phase,
evidence for extremely sluggish patches at the CMB. since different waves are sensitive to different ULVZ structural compo-
Four of the most commonly utilized seismic probes (or “phases”) nents. For example, the precursor analyses (Figure U1a-c) utilize short
to date are SPdKS referenced to SKS, and precursors (seismic energy period energy, which is particularly sensitive to sharp contrasts in prop-
that just slightly precedes a later more dominant phase) to the waves erties, and not able to well-resolve gradational changes in properties.
PcP, ScP, or PKP (Figure U1). Over the past decade a variety of SPdKS, on the other hand, is less sensitive to such contrasts, but very
research groups have documented anomalies in these arrivals and sensitive to the velocity structure within the layer, particularly at dis-
attributed them to CMB structure (see, e.g., Garnero et al., 1998). tances where the Pd segment in SPdKS is short.
ScP is a seismic phase that departs from the earthquake as an S wave,
and upon reflection at the CMB, converts to a P wave (Figure U1a). If
a low velocity boundary layer is present at the CMB, several additional Ultra-low velocity boundary layer possibilities
arrivals are possible (Figure U1a, second panel). The relative timing The seismic phases introduced in Figure U1 have played a critical role
and amplitude of these arrivals is apparent in a computer generated in revealing several possibilities for transitional structure between the
“synthetic” seismogram 60
in arc away from a 500-km deep hypothe- core and mantle. Three main possibilities are highlighted here: a layer
tical earthquake (third panel). If the top of the layer is diffuse, then on the mantle side of the CMB (which is most commonly referred to
these arrivals diminish in amplitude, which remains an active direction as ULVZ), a layer on the core-side of the CMB (essentially a core-
for current research. rigidity zone, CRZ), and some thickness over which the mantle
Figure U1b shows PcP, which also contains pre- and postcursors, changes into the core (hereafter denoted as a core-mantle transition
analogously to ScP, as well as some of the additional arrival geome- zone, CMTZ) (Figure U2). It is important to recognize these as end-
tries, and a synthetic seismogram showing the additional arrivals. member models, and that any combination of these is equally possible.
 ULVZ, ULTRA-LOW VELOCITY ZONE 971

Figure U1 Ray paths, seismic arrivals due to a ULVZ, and synthetic seismograms for (a) ScP, (b) PcP, (c) PKP, and (d) SPdKS. Synthetic
seismogram predictions of (a) and (c) are from Garnero and Vidale (1999) and Wen and Helmberger (1998), respectively.

Figure U2 P-wave (a) and S-wave (b) velocity and density (r) versus depth for ultra-low velocity boundary layering (shaded regions) on
(a) the mantle-side of the core-mantle boundary (CMB) (a ULVZ) (b) the core-side of the CMB (a CRZ), and (c) a finite thickness
transition between the mantle and core (CMTZ).

Mantle ultra-low velocity zone process (see Buffett et al., 2000). Thus, isolated regions of nonzero rigid-
ULVZ thickness has been imaged between 5 and 50km, with strong ity may exist beneath positive topography, or, “hills” on the CMB, where
lateral variations. The most commonly explored model parameters such sediments can accumulate and concentrate (up to a couple km thick;
are those compatible with partial melt of the lowermost mantle, which Rost and Revenaugh, 2001). If electrically conductive, the CRZ may
results in a three times larger reduction in shear velocity (e.g., 30%) affect Earth’s magnetic field, nutations, and possibly even magnetic field
than that for compressional waves. Density increases are also possible reversal paths.
(Figure U2a).
Core-mantle transition zone
Core-rigidity zone Finally, we consider the possibility of a transitional zone between the
If large density increases and shear velocity decreases are considered mantle and core over some finite thickness (Figure U2c). Chemical
in ULVZ modeling, one must allow for the possibility of the layer reactions between the silicate rock mantle and liquid iron-alloy outer
residing on the core-side of the CMB (Figure U2b). The liquid outer core (see Knittle and Jeanloz, 1989) can result in a thin mixing
core of the Earth is predominantly iron, along with a minor constitu- zone—an effective blurring of the CMB. The CMTZ can appropriately
ency of some lighter element(s). As the Earth cools, the solid inner core cause precursors to the short period waves (Figure U1a-c) as well as
of the Earth grows, releasing the lighter elements into the outer core, delay the SPdKS relative to SKS (Figure U1d; Garnero and Jeanloz,
which may result in “underplating” of the CMB in a sedimentation 2000).
972 ULVZ, ULTRA-LOW VELOCITY ZONE

ULVZ geographic distribution

To gain insight into the possible origin of ultra-low velocity layering at
the CMB, it is instructive to compare results to other phenomena, such
as gross properties of the deep mantle as revealed by shear wave tomo-
graphy. Figure U3 compares the strongest variations in shear wave
velocity with ULVZ distributions. There is suggestion of a connection
between ULVZ and low seismic wave speeds (Figure U3a,b). This
ULVZ distribution also correlates strongly with hot spot volcanism at
Earth’s surface (Williams et al., 1998). However, an examination of
a larger data set of higher quality broadband data reveals shorter scale
variations, with some CMB patches showing evidence for both support
and lack of an anomalous layer. Figure U3c summarizes ULVZ likeli-
hood using broadband digital SPdKS data. The correlation with large-
scale lower mantle shear velocity is more difficult to assess. Greater
geographical coverage in future studies will allow more confidence
in such comparisons. A main limitation in achieving greater spatial
coverage is uneven earthquake and seismometer distribution on the
globe, limiting where the deep interior can be probed.

Discussion and summary

While confident correlations between ULVZ layering and bulk mantle
properties may be premature at present, the existence of the layer is
clear, from a variety of studies and methods. While not constrained, it
is instructive to briefly consider possible scenarios relating CMB struc-
ture to the thermal, chemical, and dynamical environment. Figure U4
displays a multitude of possibilities beneath upwelling and downwelling
mantle regimes. The point here is to recognize the variety of structures
and their scale lengths that are possible, yet unresolved at present, and
hence future work should seek to sharpen our focusing ability for such
possibilities.
Beneath upwelling regions, possibilities include (but certainly are
not limited to) (a) a combination of ULVZ, CMTZ, and CRZ structures
in the hottest lowermost mantle regions; (b) convection within a par-
tially molten ULVZ which can sweep chemical heterogeneity into
localized piles within the ULVZ; (c) large- and fine scale CMB (as
well as ULVZ) topography, resulting in (d) multiple scale CRZs of
variable strength; (e) some ULVZ melt entrainment into overlying con-
vection currents, which may result in (f ) mantle plume genesis, and
(g) aligned melt pockets from strong boundary layer shear flow, yield-
ing seismic anisotropy; and (h) chemical mixing between the ULVZ
and outer core (or CRZ) material, giving rise to local (or widespread)
CMB blurring, including chemical coupling (or interactions).
Beneath downwelling regions, similar phenomena exist, but perhaps
suppressed in the vertical dimension (a) spatially organized ULVZ to
the front of downwelling motions, where plume instabilities (thus local
warmer zones) have been shown to exist (Tan et al., 2002); (b) a thin
(undetectable?) ULVZ throughout region; (c) small- and large-scale
CMB topography, which may provide localized basins or wells for
material with density intermediate to that of the mantle and core;
(d) possible chemical contamination from melt from either CMB che-
mical reaction product entrainment or ponding of former oceanic crust;
and (e) anisotropy due to high strains resulting from overlying subduc-
tion stresses (McNamara et al., 2002). While provocative, Figure U4 Figure U3 (a) Shear velocity distribution in the lowermost 250km
depicts the likely scenario of CMB topography that is intimately of the mantle from the model of Grand (2002). Light shaded areas
coupled to ULVZ, CMTZ, and CRZ chemistry and dynamics. Further- have velocities equal to or lower than 1% relative to the global
more, these structures probably play an important role with electro- average, dark areas are at or great than þ1%. (b) Fresnel zones of
magnetic, gravitational, thermal, and topographic coupling between SPdKS sampling at the CMB from long period analog data. Light
the mantle and core. shading is for suggested ULVZ presence; dark shading for ULVZ
Future analyses should incorporate more realistic 3D wave propaga- absence, and no shading represents no data sampling. (c) Same as
tion tools for predictions to compare to data (see, e.g., Helmberger (b), except using modern broadband digital data, and shading
et al., 1998). Analyses that utilize more that one of the wave types pre- represents the likelihood of ULVZ presence. For each 1
1

sented in Figure U1 for the same patch of the CMB will also greatly section of the CMB with data coverage, the following ratio is
reduce uncertainties. constructed and plotted: (# of records requiring an ultra-low
Lastly, it is clear that ULVZ structure is an intimate part of the core- velocity layer)/(total # of records for that cell). Thus, a value of 1
mantle transition, and likely reflects core processes that may be related indicates all data that traversed that cell are anomalous; a value
to the geodynamo. For example, if the ULVZ is enriched in iron from of 0 represents the case where no data sampling a particular
the core, it may affect geomagnetic reversal path geometries, which to region are anomalous (after Thorne and Garnero, 2004).
 UNITS 973

Tan, E., Gurnis, M., and Han, L., 2002. Slabs in the lower mantle and
their modulation of plume formation. Geochemistry, Geophysics,
Geosystems, 3(11): 1067 (doi: 10.1029/2001GC000238).
Thorne, M.S., and Garnero, E.J., 2004. Inferences on ultralow-velocity
zone structure from a global analysis of SPdKS waves. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 109: B08301 (doi: 10.1029/2004JB003010).
Wen, L., and Helmberger, D.V., 1998. Ultra-low velocity zones near
the core-mantle boundary from broadband PKP precursors.
Science, 279: 1701–1703.
Williams, Q., Revenaugh, J.S., and Garnero, E.J., 1998. A correlation
between ultra-low basal velocities in the mantle and hot spots.
Science, 281: 546–549.

Figure U4 Possible CMB scenarios beneath regions of (a)

Cross-references
upwelling, and (b) downwelling (see text for details). Significant Core Composition
(or total) uncertainty exists for many wavelengths of interest, Core Properties, Physical
which include: scale-length over which ULVZ phenomena affects Core, Boundary Layers
the lowermost mantle (lm), scale lengths of roughness of the top Core-Mantle Boundary
of the ULVZ (lru), ULVZ thickness distribution (lu), dimension of Core-Mantle Boundary Topography, Implications for Dynamics
isolated core-rigidity zones (lm), scale of roughness of the CMB, Core-Mantle Boundary Topography, Seismology
including the thickness of transition from pure core-to-mantle Core-Mantle Boundary, Heat Flow Across
(lrc), lateral and vertical scale of long wavelength CMB Core-Mantle Coupling, Electromagnetic
topography, and hence possible anomalous zones contained Core-Mantle Coupling, Thermal
within the topographic depressions/elevations (lt), and isolated Core-Mantle Coupling, Topographic
thermochemical domes, scatterers, or anomalous shapes within D00 as a Boundary Layer
the ULVZ (ld). D00 , Anisotropy
D00 , Composition
D00 , Seismic Properties
Earth Structure, Major Divisions
the first order appear anticorrelated with ULVZ distributions (Garnero Geodynamo, Numerical Simulations
et al., 1998). Certainly, uneven geographic distribution of patches of Seismic Phases
partially molten and/or chemically unique ULVZ material can result
in variability in core heat flow that may affect core fluid motions, pos-
sibly relating to Earth’s magnetic field generation and variability.
UNITS
Ed J. Garnero and M. Thorne
Scientific units were standardized to the current Système Internationale
Bibliography d’unités (SI) in about 1970. For the most part conversion involves
applying simple factors of 10 to convert centimeters and grams to
Buffett, B.A., Garnero, E.J., and Jeanloz, R., 2000. Sediments at the meters and kilograms, but in magnetism conversion is more compli-
top of the Earth’s core. Science, 290: 1338–1342. cated and confusing because the old cgs system had, for historical
Garnero, E.J., and Jeanloz, R., 2000. Earth’s enigmatic interface. reasons, two sets of units for electricity and magnetism: electrostatic
Science, 289: 70–71. and electromagnetic units. The latter, abbreviated to emu, concern us
Garnero, E.J., and Vidale, J., 1999. ScP; a probe of ultralow-velocity here. Understanding of emu is necessary to understand the old, and
zones at the base of the mantle. Geophysical Research Letters, some not so old, literature. The paleomagnetic community has been
26: 377–380. particularly slow to convert to SI, and even today some papers give
Garnero, E.J., Revenaugh, J.S., Williams, Q., Lay, T., and Kellogg, L.H., results in emu.
1998. Ultralow velocity zone at the core-mantle boundary. In SI achieved the worthy goal of unifying the system of units for both
Gurnis, M., Wysession, M., Knittle, E., and Buffet, B. (eds.) The electricity and magnetism; it also removed some factors of 4p from the
Core-Mantle Boundary. Washington, DC: American Geophysical basic equations (Table U1). The critical difference between the two
Union, pp. 319–334. systems arises from the distinction between magnetic induction or flux
Grand, S.P., 2002. Mantle shear-wave tomography and the fate of density B and magnetic field intensity H. The dimensions of H differ
subducted slabs. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in the two systems of units, as does the magnetic moment per unit
of London A, 360: 2475–2491.
Helmberger, D.V., Wen, L., and Ding, X., 1998. Seismic evidence that
the source of the Iceland hotspot lies at the core-mantle boundary.
Table U1 Relevant equations in SI and emu systems of units
Nature, 396: 251–255.
Knittle, E., and Jeanloz, R., 1989. Simulating the core-mantle bound-
SI Emu
ary: an experimental study of high-pressure reactions between sili-
cates and liquid iron. Geophysical Research Letters, 16: 609–612. B ¼
0 H þ M B ¼ H þ 4pM
McNamara, A.K., van Keken, P.E., and Karato, S.I., 2002. Develop- P ¼
0 M P¼M
ment of anisotropic structure in the Earth’s lower mantle by M ¼ wSI H M ¼ wemu H=4p
solid-state convection. Nature, 416: 310–314.
Rost, S., and Revenaugh, J., 2001. Seismic detection of rigid zones at Further discussion is given in the appendix of Jackson’s (1999), 3rd edition. Butler
the top of the core. Science, 294: 1911–1914. (1992) and Blakely (1996) also have appendices on systems of units.
974 UPWARD AND DOWNWARD CONTINUATION

Table U2 Dimensions and units of physical quantities used in geomagnetism

Physical quantity Dimension SI Emu Conversion factor

Length L m cm 102
Mass M kg G 103
Time T s s 1
Charge Q coulomb (C) coulomb 1
Electric current QT1 ampere (A) abamp 10
Potential difference L2 MT2 Q volt (V) emu 108
Electric field LMT2 Q V m1 emu 106
Resistance L2 MT1 Q2 ohm emu 109
Resistivity L3 MT1 Q2 ohmm emu 1011
Conductivity L2 M1 TQ2 siemensm1 emu 1011
Magnetic flux L2 MT1 Q1 weber (W) maxwell 108
Magnetic induction B MT1 Q1 tesla (T) gauss 104
Magnetic field intensity L1 T1 Q A m1 oersted ðMT1 Q1 Þ 103 =4p
Inductance L2 MQ2 henry (H) emu 109
Permeability LMQ2 H m1 Dimensionless 4p  107
Magnetic moment density L1 T1 Q A m1 emu ðMT1 Q1 Þ 103 =4p
Magnetic polarization MT1 Q1 T gauss 104
Susceptibility Dimensionless wSI wemu 4p

LMTQ denote length, mass, time, and charge. The conversion factor in the right column should be used to multiply a value in emu to yield the SI value. Note the difference in
definition for H, M, and w between the two systems. The siemen is sometimes called the mho.

volume of a material M. Furthermore, the definition of M differs downward. It is possible to continue the field upward or downward in
by a numerical factor of 4p between the two systems, which has the a number of different ways depending on the application at hand; for
undesirable effect that the dimensionless susceptibility w differs. example, designing continuation operators in spatial or wavenumber
The magnetic polarization P (usually denoted as J in paleomagnetism space (Henderson and Zietz, 1949; Dean, 1958), using harmonic func-
but this is used in MHD (q.v.) exclusively for electric current density), tions (Courtillot et al., 1978; Shure et al., 1982; Fedi et al., 1999), and
has the same dimensions as B in both systems. Confusion propagates deriving physical property variations of sources causing the fields
because of sloppy terminology: it is standard practice in geomagnetism (Dampney, 1969; Emilia, 1973; Langel and Hinze, 1998). Applications
and paleomagnetism to refer to B as the magnetic field rather than also vary widely: from environmental and exploration applica-
magnetic induction, and magnetization is used to mean either M or P tions involving short-wavelength anomaly fields over small height
(Table U2). differences (a few meters to kilometers) to global distribution of
anomalies measured by satellites in which anomalies are downward
David Gubbins continued from satellite altitudes (300–700km) to Earth’s surface
and also downward continuing the core part of the Earth’s field all
Bibliography the way to the top of the core to decipher features of core circulation
over time.
Blakely, R.J., 1996. Potential Theory in Gravity and Magnetic Appli- The effect of upward/downward continuation process on the fields
cations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. can be understood by examining the continuation operator in the
Butler, R.F., 1992. Paleomagnetism: Magnetic Domains to Geologic wavenumber domain. The operator has the form ejkjz , where jkj is
Terranes. Boston: Blackwell Scientific. the wavenumber (jkj ¼ 2l where l is the full wavelength) and z
Jackson, J.D., 1999. Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd edition. New is the continuation level (Dean, 1958). The negative sign in the expo-
York: Wiley. nent indicates upward continuation (away from the sources of the
field) and the positive sign implies the downward continuation (toward
Cross-references the sources of the field). The response of the continuation operator
with respect to wavelength is illustrated in Figure U5, which shows
Magnetohydrodynamics
that shorter wavelengths are attenuated and smoothed in the process
of upward continuation, whereas in downward continuation the shorter
wavelengths are amplified and sharpened. Both operations are suscep-
tible to errors in the data and their results can be rendered invalid or at
least severely compromised due to the quality of data. For example, if
UPWARD AND DOWNWARD CONTINUATION measurement errors are primarily short-wavelength, then the nature of
downward continuation operator which amplifies primarily the short-
Potential fields known at a set of points can be expressed at neighbor- wavelength components of the data can severely distort the downward
ing higher or lower spatial locations in a source free region using the continued result. On the other hand, if the long-wavelength portion
continuation integral that results from one of Green’s theorems (see, of the field is contaminated, for example, by inaccurate compilation
e.g., Blakely, 1995). The principal uses of this concept are to adjust of different surveys having different base levels, then the retention of
altitude of observations to a datum as an aid to the interpretation of the corrupt long wavelengths in the process of upward continuation
a survey (see Crustal magnetic field), reduce short-wavelength data can render the result unusable (Ravat et al., 2002).
noise by continuing the field upward, and increasing the horizontal The most straightforward upward/downward continuation of a field is
resolution of anomalies and their sources by continuing the field performed from one level surface to another level surface (Henderson
 UPWARD AND DOWNWARD CONTINUATION 975

Figure U5 Amplitude response of upward and downward continuation operators with respect to wavelength for certain heights (z ) of
continuation.

and Zietz, 1949; Henderson, 1970). This is often useful for interpreta- Taylor’s series approximation and equivalent source concept. Taylor’s
tion and joining two adjacent surveys carried out at different altitudes. series allows extrapolation of a function to nearby points and, given
As aid in interpretation, upward continuation allows one to assess the vertical derivatives of the field and certain approximations regard-
effect of deeper sources because in this process the effect of shallower, ing behavior of the field, the series yields adequate values of level-
short-wavelength features is attenuated. Preferential upward and down- to-drape transformation. Similarly, an iterative Taylor’s series can be
ward continuation operators have been designed that can help attenuate used for drape-to-level transformation (Cordell and Grauch, 1985).
only the shallow, short-wavelength part of the spectrum, leaving the The equivalent source method (Dampney, 1969) employs Green’s
deeper, long-wavelength part unaltered or, alternatively, preferentially equivalent layer concept and uses a set of sources with arbitrary mag-
amplify only the deeper part of the spectrum without the deleterious netization (often induced dipoles because of their simplicity; Emilia,
effects of amplifying short-wavelength noise (Pawlowski, 1995). Thus, 1973) to approximate the field. This process is equivalent to finding
under certain situations, it is possible to isolate a magnetic anomaly sig- the potential that satisfies the observed field. The inverted magnetiza-
nal from different depth layers of the crust. Downward continuation into tion of the sources is then used to predict the field in the neighborhood
the region of sources leads the continuation integral to diverge even in of observations. Use of local harmonic functions (Fedi et al., 1999)
the case of noise-free data; in the case of high data density noise-free can also be useful for these purposes.
data the depths at which the continuation integral blows up (data begin
to vary wildly) can be used to infer the depth to the top of the shallow Dhananjay Ravat
magnetic sources in the region.
When airborne magnetic surveys (see Aeromagnetic surveying) are
conducted in rugged terrain made up of magnetic formations, it is
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Cross-references
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