GENERAL BIOLOGY 2: FINALS REVIEWER

12 – STEM | PROF: Ms. Leliosa Olmilla | BLOCK C GRADING 2

GENETIC ENGINEERING *A laboratory method used to make many

copies of a specific piece of DNA from a
sample that contains very tiny amounts of
• Genetic Engineering – the artificial that DNA. Polymerase chain reaction
manipulation, modification, and allows these pieces of DNA to be amplified
recombination of DNA or other nucleic acid so they can be detected.
molecules to modify an organism or
population of organisms. • Gene therapy – a technique that modifies a
person’s genes to treat or cure disease. It
• Recombinant DNA – a technology that uses can work by several mechanisms: replacing
enzymes to cut and paste together DNA a disease-causing gene with a healthy copy
sequences of interest. The recombined DNA of the gene. Inactivating a disease-causing
sequences can be placed into vehicles called gene that is not functioning properly.
vectors that ferry the DNA into a suitable host
cell where it can be copied or expressed.
TYPES
• Plasmids – the most used bacterial cloning
vectors. These cloning vectors contain a site • Classical Plant Breeding – uses deliberate
that allows DNA fragments to be inserted, for interbreeding (crossing) of closely or
example, a multiple cloning site or polylinker distantly related individuals o produce new
which has several commonly used restriction
crop varieties or lines with desirable
sites to which DNA fragments may be
properties. Plants are crossbred to introduce
ligated. the traits/ genes from one variety or line into
a new genetic background.
• Cloning – the process of producing • Artificial Selection – Breeders choose
individual organisms with identical or virtually which organism to mate with to produce
identical DNA, either by natural or artificial offspring with desired traits. They cannot
means. In nature, some organisms produce control what genes are passed. When they
clones through asexual reproduction. get offspring with the desired traits, they
maintain them.
• Genome – the sum of all genetic material in o Selective breeding – when animals
an individual. It provides all information about with desired characteristics are
the organism and directs all vital processes. mated to produce offspring with those
desired traits. Passing of important
• Gene Mapping – the process of establishing genes to the next generation.
the locations of genres on the chromosomes. o Hybridization – two individuals with
By following inheritance patterns, the relative unlike characteristics are crossed to
positions of genes can be determined. More produce the best in both organisms.
recently, scientists have used recombinant o Inbreeding – breeding of organisms
DNA techniques to establish the actual that are genetically similar to maintain
physical locations of genes on the desired traits.
chromosomes. • Cloning – creating an organism that is an
exact genetic copy of another.
• Biotechnology – the branch of applied o Clone: a group of cells or organisms
science that uses living organisms and their that are genetically identical as a
derivatives to produce products and result of asexual reproduction. *They
processes. These products and processes will have the same exact DNA as the
feature in healthcare, medicine, biofuels, and parent.
environmental safety. • Gene splicing – DNA is cut out of one
organism and put into another organism. A
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2: FINALS REVIEWER
12 – STEM | PROF: Ms. Leliosa Olmilla | BLOCK C GRADING 2

trait will be transferred from one organism to o As the ship’s naturalist, it was his job to
another. study and collect biological specimens at
o Transformation: when a gene from each port along the route.
one organism is transferred to a o On the Galapagos Islands, he studied
different organism. many species that were unique to the
o The organisms that have DNA islands, but similar to species elsewhere.
transferred to them are called These observations led him to consider
transgenic organisms. the possibility that species can change
o Biotechnology – (technology of life) over time.
o Transgenic (GMO) animals: genes o It took him 22 years to find an explanation
inserted into animals, so they for how species change over time.
produce what humans need. o In 1859 published On the Origin of
o Transgenic bacteria – genes Species where his theory of natural
inserted into bacteria, so they selection to explain how organisms
produce things humans need. evolve is written in which he has
o Transgenic plants – plants are given developed while sailing on the beagle.
genes, so they meet humans need.
• Gene therapy – when disease causing Adaptations: Evidence for Evolution
genes are cut out and good gene are • Structural adaptations arise over time.
inserted. *Restriction enzymes are used to o Mimicry – where one species
cut out bad genes. resembles another species.
• Gel electrophoresis – a technique used to o Camouflage – where a species
compare DNA from two or more organisms. blends with its surroundings.
• Physiological adaptations arise over time.
BIOLOGICAL CHANGE o Antibiotic resistance of bacteria.
Other Evidence for Evolution
• Evolution – fundamental concept in biology
which refers to the change in population over • Fossils
time. • Anatomy
o Homologous structures – structures
*Charles Darwin – He was the first to that are similar in anatomy but have
publish his ideas of how species evolve different functions *common evolutionary
origin.
• Common Descent – the scientific theory o Analogous structures – body parts
that all living organisms on Earth descended similar in function but have different
from a common ancestor. structures *no common evolutionary
origin.
o The structures and functions of all living o Vestigial structures – body structure
organisms are encoded in the same that has no function in present-day
basic nucleic molecules, DNA and RNA. organisms but was probably useful to an
o Similarities in amino acid sequences ancestor.
between various organisms also suggest o Biochemistry – DNA, RNA
common descent. o Embryology – as development
o The fossil record also shows cases in continues from embryo to a more mature
which one plant or animal type evolved organism, the differences increase,
into different types over time. however, in the earliest stages of growth
and development, many vertebrate
➢ Charles Darwin embryos are remarkably similar.
o He began his work in 1831 (age 21) as
the naturalist on the HMS Beagle
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2: FINALS REVIEWER
12 – STEM | PROF: Ms. Leliosa Olmilla | BLOCK C GRADING 2

Principles of Darwin’s Theory of Natural

Selection
1. Variation
2. Heritability
3. Overproduction
4. Reproductive advantage

• Species Change
- Organisms that are best matched to their
environment are more likely to survive
and reproduce.
- Adaptation – a trait that improves an
organism’s chance for survival and
reproduction.
• Adaptation
- Individual members of a single species
exhibit differences in their appearance
and function.
- Difference results from random changes
in genetic material from sexual
reproduction and mutations.
• Natural Selection
- Organisms with traits that help them
survive and reproduce pass their
characteristics to their offspring.
- Helpful traits survive and spread through
the population.
- Harmful traits disappear over time.
- As a result, a population may evolve into
a new species.