Ged101 Module in UTS

1
GED 101 Understanding the Self
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Bersoto, M.A., Arcega, A.M., & Cullar, D. S.
GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

WEEK 1: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
Introduction to Self Understanding
Understanding oneself is essential to understand behaviors and beliefs

that affects ourselves and others specifically in becoming effective and
successful person in life, work, and relationship. Moreover, self-understanding
(1) provides a sense of purpose; (2) leads to healthier relationships; (3) helps
harness your natural strength; and (4) promotes confidence.
This module will introduce you to the basic concepts of self and
personality, and how they are related with each other. Self and personality
characterized the way we define our existence, also these refers on how we
organized
our experiences that are reflected to our behavior. On the other hand, people have different ideas about
themselves. These ideas represent the self of the person. Moreover, we behave in different ways in a
given situation, but people also behave fairly stable in different circumstances. The relatively permanent
pattern of behavior represents personality of the person. In details,
Personality
 The etymological derivative of personality comes from the word “persona”, the theatrical masks
worn by Romans in Greek and Latin drama. Personality also comes from the two Latin words
“per” and “sonare”, which literally means “to sound through”.
 Personality have no single definition since different personality theories have different views on
how to define it. However, the commonly accepted definition of personality is that it is a
relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality
to a person’s behavior (Roberts & Mroczek, 2008).
 Personality plays a key role in affecting how people shape their lives. It involves the complex
relationship of people with their environment, how they cope and adjust through life, and how
they respond to demands of physical and social challenges.
 Personality is the overall pattern or integration of a person’s structure, modes of behavior,
attitudes, aptitudes, interests, intellectual abilities, and many other distinguishable personality
traits. Personality is the conglomeration of the following components: physical self, intelligence,
character traits, attitudes, habits, interest, personal discipline, moral values, principles and
philosophies of life.
Determinants of Personality
Personality refers to the total person in his/her overt and covert behavior. The determinants of
factors of personality are as follows:
 Environmental Factors of Personality. The surroundings of an individual compose the

environmental factors of personality. This includes the neighborhood a person lives in, his school,
college, university and workplace. Moreover, it also counts the social circle the individual has.
Friends, parents, colleagues, co-workers and bosses, everybody plays a role as the determinants
of personality.
 Biological Factors of Personality. This further includes:

1) hereditary factors or genetic make-up of the person that inherited from their parents. This
describes the tendency of the person to appear and behave the way their parents are;
2) physical features include the overall physical structure of a person: height, weight, color,
sex, beauty and body language, etc. Most of the physical structures change from time to
time, and so does the personality. With exercises, cosmetics and surgeries, many physical
features are changed, and therefore, the personality of the individual also evolves; and
3) brain. The preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research
gives indication that better understanding of human personality and behavior might come
from the study of the brain.

 Situational Factors of Personality. Although these factors do not literally create and shape up
an individual’s personality, situational factors do alter a person’s behavior and response from
time to time. The situational factors can be commonly observed when a person behaves
contrastingly and exhibits different traits and characteristics.
 Cultural Factors. Culture is traditionally considered as the major determinants of an individual’s

personality. The culture largely determinants what a person is and what a person will learn. The
culture within a person is brought up, is very important determinant of behavior of a person.
Culture is complex of these belief, values, and techniques for dealing with the environment which
are shared among contemporaries and transmitted by one generation to the next.
Personality Traits
Personality traits reflect people’s characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Personality traits imply consistency and stability—someone who scores high on a specific trait like
Extraversion is expected to be sociable in different situations and over time. Thus, trait psychology rests
on the idea that people differ from one another in terms of where they stand on a set of basic trait
dimensions that persist over time and across situations.
The most widely used system of traits is called the Five-Factor Model. This system includes five
broad traits that can be remembered with the acronym OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Each of the major traits from the Big Five can be divided
into facets to give a more fine-grained analysis of someone's personality. In addition, some trait theorists
argue that there are other traits that cannot be completely captured by the Five-Factor Model. Critics of
the trait concept argue that people do not act consistently from one situation to the next and that people
are very influenced by situational forces. Thus, one major debate in the field concerns the relative power
of people’s traits versus the situations in which they find themselves as predictors of their behavior.
The Five-Factor Model of Personality
Research that used the lexical approach showed that many of the personality descriptors found in
the dictionary do indeed overlap. In other words, many of the words that we use to describe people are
synonyms. Thus, if we want to know what a person is like, we do not necessarily need to ask how
sociable they are, how friendly they are, and how gregarious they are. Instead, because sociable people
tend to be friendly and gregarious, we can summarize this personality dimension with a single term.
Someone who is sociable, friendly, and gregarious would typically be described as an “Extravert.” Once
we know she is an extravert, we can assume that she is sociable, friendly, and gregarious.
The most widely accepted system to emerge from this approach was “The Big Five” or “Five-
Factor Model” (Goldberg, 1990; McCrae & John, 1992; McCrae & Costa, 1987). The Big Five comprises
five major traits shown in the Figure 2 below. A way to remember these five is with the acronym OCEAN
(O is for Openness; C is for Conscientiousness; E is for Extraversion; A is for Agreeableness; N is for
Neuroticism). The table below provides descriptions of people who would score high and low on each of
these traits.
Table 1. Descriptions of Personality Traits

Big 5 Trait Definition
Openness The tendency to appreciate new art, ideas, values, feelings, and behaviors.
Conscientiousness The tendency to be careful, on-time for appointments, to follow rules, and
to be hard working.
Extraversion The tendency to be talkative, sociable, and to enjoy others; the tendency to
have a dominant style.
Agreeableness The tendency to agree and go along with others rather than to assert one
owns opinions and choices.
Neurotism The tendency to be frequently experience negative emotions such as anger,
worry, and sadness, as well as being itnerpersonally sensitive.

Table 2. Example behaviors for those scoring low and high for the big 5 traits
Big 5 Trait Example Behavior for LOW Example Behavior for HIGH Scorers
Scorers
Openness Prefers not to be exposed to Enjoys seeing people with new types
alternative moral systems; narrow of haircuts and body piercing;
interest; inartistic; not analystica; curious; imaginative; untraditional
down-to-earth
Conscientiousness Prefers spur-of-the-moment Never late for a date; organized;
action to planning; unrealiable; hardworking; neat, persevering;
hedonistic; careless; lax punctual; self-disciplined
Extraversion Preferring a quiet evening reading Being the life of the party’ active;
to a loud party; sober; aloof; optimistic; fun-loving; affectionate
unenthusiastic
Agreeableness Quickly and confidently asserts Agrees with other about political
own rights; irritable; opinions; good-natured; forgiving;
manipulative; uncooperative; rude gullible; helpful; forgiving
Neurotism Not getting irritated by sall Constantly worrying about little
annoyances; calm, unemotional; things; insecure; hypochondrical;
hardy; secure; self-satisfied feeling inadequate
Scores on the Big Five traits are mostly independent. That means that a person’s standing on one
trait tells very little about their standing on the other traits of the Big Five. For example, a person can be
extremely high in Extraversion and be either high or low on Neuroticism. Similarly, a person can be low
in Agreeableness and be either high or low in Conscientiousness. Thus, in the Five-Factor Model, you
need five scores to describe most of an individual’s personality. In the exercises part of this module there
is a short scale to assess the Five-Factor Model of personality (Donnellan, Oswald, Baird, & Lucas,
2006). You can take this test to see where you stand in terms of your Big Five scores.
Traits are important and interesting because they describe stable patterns of behavior that persist
for long periods of time (Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005). Importantly, these stable patterns can have
broad- ranging consequences for many areas of our life (Roberts, Kuncel, Shiner, Caspi, & Goldberg,
2007). For instance, think about the factors that determine success in college. If you were asked to guess
what factors predict good grades in college, you might guess something like intelligence. This guess
would be correct, but we know much more about who is likely to do well. Specifically, personality
researchers have also found the personality traits like Conscientiousness play an important role in college
and beyond, probably because highly conscientious individuals study hard, get their work done on time,
and are less distracted by nonessential activities that take time away from school work. In addition, highly
conscientious people are often healthier than people low in conscientiousness because they are more
likely to maintain healthy diets, to exercise, and to follow basic safety procedures like wearing seat belts
or bicycle helmets. Over the long term, this consistent pattern of behaviors can add up to meaningful
differences in health and longevity. Thus, personality traits are not just a useful way to describe people
you know; they actually help psychologists predict how good a worker someone will be, how long he or
she will live, and the types of jobs and activities the person will enjoy.
Who Am I?
Have you ever ask yourself the question, “Who am I?”? Answering the question 'Who am I?' can
lead to a solid self-concept and self-understanding. For many people, answering this question isn't very
easy. For others, a solid understanding of who they are is a big part of their lives. Understanding of who
you are as a person is called self-concept and understanding what your motives are when you act is
called self-understanding.
In definition, self-concept is generally thought of as our individual perceptions of our behavior,

abilities, and unique characteristics—a mental picture of who you are as a person. For example, beliefs
such as "I am a good friend" or "I am a kind person" are part of an overall self-concept.

Self-concept tends to be more malleable when people are younger and still going through
the process of self-discovery and identity formation. As people age, self-perceptions become
much more detailed and organized as people form a better idea of who they are and what is
important to them.
According to the book Essential Social Psychology by Richard Crisp and Rhiannon Turner:
 The individual self consists of attributes and personality traits that differentiate us
from other individuals. Examples include introversion or extroversion.
 The relational self is defined by our relationships with significant others. Examples
include siblings, friends, and spouses.
 The collective self reflects our membership in social groups. Examples include British,
Republican, African-American, or gay.
At its most basic, self-concept is a collection of beliefs one holds about oneself and the
responses of others. It embodies the answer to the question "Who am I?". The lesson to follow
will facilitate learning about the self, and self concept.

WEEK 2: THE SELF ACCORDING TO PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy
Philosophy is defined as the study of knowledge or wisdom from its Latin

roots, philo (love) and sophia (wisdom). This field is also considered as “The
Queen of All Sciences” because every scientific discipline has philosophical
foundations.
Various thinkers for centuries tried to explain the natural causes of everything
that exist specifically the inquiry on the self preoccupied these philosophers in
the history. The Greek philosophers were the ones who seriously questioned myths
and moved away from them in attempting to understand reality by exercising the art of questioning that
satisfies their curiosity, including the questions about self. The following lecture will present the different
philosophical perspectives and views about self.
Socrates
 A philosopher from Athens, Greece and said to have the

greatest influence on European thought.
 According to the history he was not able to write any of
his teachings and life’s account instead, he is known from the
writings of his student Plato who became one of the greatest
philosophers of his time. Socrates had a unique style of asking
questions called Socratic Method.
 Socratic Method or dialectic method involves the search
for the correct/proper definition of a thing. In this method,
Socrates did not lecture, he instead would ask questions and
engage the person in a discussion. He would begin by acting as if
he did not know anything and would get the other person to
Image Source: https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/275648.Socrates
clarify their ideas and resolve logical inconsistencies (Price,

2000).
 The foundation of Socrates philosophy was the Delphic
Oracle’s that command to “Know Thyself”. Here, Socrates would like to emphasize that knowing
or understanding oneself should be more than the physical self, or the body.
 According to Socrates, self is dichotomous which means composed of two things: The physical
realm or the one that is changeable, temporal, and imperfect. The best example of the physical
realm is the physical world. The physical world is consisting of anything we sense – see, smell,
feel, hear, and taste. It is always changing and deteriorating. The ideal realm is the one that is
imperfect and unchanging, eternal, and immortal. This includes the intellectual essences of the
universe like the concept of beauty, truth, and goodness. Moreover, the ideal realm is also present
in the physical world. One may define someone as beautiful or truthful, but their definition is
limited and imperfect for it is always relative and subjective. It is only the ideal forms themselves
that are perfect, unchanging, and eternal.
 For Socrates, a human is composed of body and soul, the first belongs to the physical realm
because it changed, it is imperfect, and it dies, and the latter belongs to ideal realm for it survives
the death. Socrates also used the term soul to identify self.

 The self, according to Socrates is the immortal and unified entity that is consistent over time. For
example, a human being remains the same person during their childhood to adulthood given the
fact that they undergone developmental changes throughout their lifespan.
Plato
 A student of Socrates, who introduced the idea of a

three- part soul/self that is composed of reason, physical appetite
and spirit or passion.
o The Reason enables human to think deeply, make wise
choices and achieve a true understanding of eternal
truths. Plato also called this as divine essence.
o The physical Appetite is the basic biological needs of
human being such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire.
o And the spirit or passion is the basic emotions of human
being such as love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness and
empathy.
 These three elements of the self works in every
individual inconsistently. According to Plato, it is always the
Image Source: https://www.alamy.com/plato
responsibility of the reason to organize, control, and

reestablish harmonious
relationship between these three elements.
 Plato also illustrated his view of the soul/self in “Phaedrus” in his metaphor: the soul is like a
winged chariot drawn by two powerful horses: a white horse, representing Spirit, and a black
horse, embodying appetite. The charioteer is reason, whose task is to guide the chariot to the
eternal realm by controlling the two independent-minded horses. Those charioteers who are
successful in setting a true course and ensuring that the two steeds work together in harmonious
unity achieve true wisdom and banquet with the gods. However, those charioteers who are unable
to control their horses and keep their chariot on track are destined to experience personal,
intellectual, and spiritual failure.
St. Augustine
 He is considered as the last of the great ancient
philosophers whose ideas were greatly Platonic. In melding
philosophy and religious beliefs together, Augustine has been
characterized as Christianity’s first theologian.
 Like Plato, Augustine believed that the physical body is
different from the immortal soul. Early in his philosophical
development he described body as “snare” or “cage” of the soul
and said that the body is a “slave” of the soul he even
characterized that “the soul makes war with the body”. Later on
he came to view the body as “spouse” of the soul, with both
attached to one another by a “natural appetite.” He concluded,
“That the body is united with the soul, so that man may be entire
and complete, is a fact we recognize on the evidence of our own
Image Source: http://lexchristianorum.blogspot.com/ nature.”
 According to St. Augustine, the human nature is

compos
ed of
two
realms:

1. God as the source of all reality and truth. Through mystical experience, man is capable
of knowing eternal truths. This is made possible through the existence of the one eternal
truth which is God. He further added that without God as the source of all truth, man
could never understand eternal truth. This relationship with God means that those who
know most about God will come closest to understanding the true nature of the world.
2. The sinfulness of man. The cause of sin or evil is an act of mans’ freewill. Moral
goodness can only be achieved through the grace of God.
 He also stated that real happiness can only be found in God. For God is love and he created
humans for them to also love. Problems arise because of the objects humans choose to love.
Disordered love results when man loves the wrong things which he believes will give him
happiness. Furthermore, he said that if man loves God first and everything else to a lesser degree,
then all will fall into its rightful place.
Rene Descartes
 A French philosopher, mathematician, and considered
the founder of modern philosophy.
 Descartes, famous principle the “cogito, ergo sum—“I
think, therefore I exist” established his philosophical views on
“true knowledge” and concept of self.
 He explained that in order to gain true knowledge, one
must doubt everything even own existence. Doubting makes
someone aware that they are thinking being thus, they exist.
The essence of existing as a human identity is the possibility
of being aware of our selves: being self-conscious in this way
is integral to having a personal identity. Conversely, it would
be impossible to be self-conscious if we did not have a
personal identity of which to be conscious. In other words, the
Image Source: https://www.sapaviva.com/
essence of self is being a thinking thing.

 The self is a dynamic entity that engages in metal operations – thinking, reasoning, and
perceiving processes. In addition to this, self-identity is dependent on the awareness in engaging
with those mental operations.
 He declared that the essential self or the self as the thinking entity is radically different from the
physical body. The thinking self or soul is a non-material, immortal, conscious being,
independent of the physical laws of the universe while the physical body is a material, mortal,
non-thinking entity, fully governed by the physical laws of nature.
 He also maintained that the soul and the body are independent of one another and each can exist
and function without the other. In cases in which people are sleeping or comatose, their bodies
continue to function even though their minds are not thinking, much like the mechanisms of a
clock.
 He identified the physical self as part of nature, governed by the physical laws of the universe,
and available to scientific analysis and experimentation, and the conscious self (mind, soul) is a
part of the spiritual realm, independent of the physical laws of the universe, governed only by the
laws of reason and God’s will. And because it exists outside of the natural world of cause-and-
effect, the conscious self is able to exercise free will in the choices it makes.

John Locke
 An English philosopher and physician and famous in his
concept of “Tabula Rasa” or Blank Slate that assumes the
nurture side of human development.
 The self, according to Locke is consciousness. In his

essay entitled On Personal Identity (from his most famous work,
Essay Concerning Human Understanding) he discussed the
reflective analysis of how an individual may experience the
self in everyday living. He provided the following key points:
1. To discover the nature of personal identity, it is
important to find out what it means to be a person.
2. A person is a thinking, intelligent being who has the
abilities to reason and to reflect.
3. A person is also someone who considers themself to be
Image Source: https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/
the same thing in different times and different places.

4. Consciousness as being aware that we are thinking—
always accompanies thinking and is an essential part of the thinking process.
5. Consciousness makes possible our belief that we are the same identity in different times and
different places.
 Although Locke and Descartes believed that a person or the self is a thinking intelligent being
who has the abilities to reflect and to reason, Locke was not convinced with the assumptions of
Plato, St. Augustine and Descartes that the individual self necessarily exists in a single soul or
substance. For Locke, personal identity and the soul or substance in which the personal identity is
situated are two very different things. The bottom line of his theory on self is that self is not tied
to any particular body or substance. It only exists in other times and places because of the
memory of those experiences.
David Hume
 He was a Scottish philosopher and also an empiricist.
 His claim about self is quite controversial because he
assumed that there is no self! In his essay entitled, “On
Personal Identity” (1739) he said that, if we carefully examine
the contents of [our] experience, we find that there are only
two distinct entities, "impressions" and "ideas".
 Impressions are the basic sensations of our experience,
the elemental data of our minds: pain, pleasure, heat, cold,
happiness, grief, fear, exhilaration, and so on.
 On the other hand, ideas are copies of impressions that
include thoughts and images that are built up from our
primary impressions through a variety of relationships, but
because they are derivative copies of impressions, they are
once removed from reality.
Image Source: https://www.britannica.com/
 Hume considered that the self does not exist because all
of the experiences that a person may have are just perceptions
and this includes the perception of self. None of these perceptions resemble a unified and
permanent self-identity that exists over time.

 He further added that there are instances that an individual is limited in experiencing their
perception like in sleeping. Similarly, when someone died all empirical senses end and according
to him, it makes no sense to believe that self exists in other forms. As an empiricist, Hume
provide an honest description and analysis of his own experience, within which there is no self to
be found.
 Hume explained that the self that is being experienced by an individual is nothing but a kind of
fictional self. Human created an imaginary creature which is not real. “Fictional self” is created to
unify the mental events and introduce order into an individual lives, but this “self” has no real
existence.
Sigmund Freud
 A well-known Australian psychologist and considered as
the Father and Founder of Psychoanalysis. His influence in
Psychology and therapy is dominant and popular in the 20th to
21st century.
 The dualistic view of self by Freud involves the
conscious self and unconscious self.
 The conscious self is governed by reality principle. Here,
the self is rational, practical, and appropriate to the social
environment. The conscious self has the task of controlling the
constant pressures of the unconscious self, as its primitive
impulses continually seek for immediate discharge.
 The unconscious self is governed by pleasure principle.
Image Source: https://www.researchgate.net/
It is the self that is aggressive, destructive, unrealistic and

instinctual. Both of Freud’s self needs immediate gratification
and reduction of tensions to optimal levels and the goal of every individual is to make unconscious
conscious.
 Freud proposed how mind works, he called this as provinces or structures of the mind. By illustrating
the tip of the iceberg which according to him represents conscious awareness which characterizes the
person in dealing with the external world. The observable behavior, however, is further controlled by
the workings of the subconscious/unconscious mind.
 Subconscious serves as the repository of past experiences,
repressed memories, fantasies, and urges. The three levels of
the mind are:
1. Id. This is primarily based on the pleasure principle. It
demands immediate satisfaction and is not hindered
by societal expectations.
2. Ego. The structure that is primarily based on the
reality principle. This mediates between the impulses
of the id and restraints of the superego.
3. Superego. This is primarily dependent on learning the
difference between right and wrong, thus it is called
moral principle. Morality of actions is largely
dependent on childhood upbringing particularly on
rewards and punishments. Image Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/

 According to Freud, there are two kinds of instinct that drive individual behavior – the eros or the life
instinct and the thanatos of the death instinct. The energy of eros is called libido and includes urges
necessary for individual and species survival like thrist, hunger, and sex.in cases that human behaior
is directed towards destruction in the form of aggression and violence, such are the manifestations of
thanatos.
Gilbert Ryle
 A British analytical philosopher. He was an important
figure in the field of Linguistic Analysis which focused on the
solving of philosophical puzzles through an analysis of
language.
 According to Ryle, the self is best understood as a
pattern of behavior, the tendency or disposition for a person to
behave in a certain way in certain circumstances.
 He opposed the notable ideas of the previous
philosophers and even claimed that those were results of
confused conceptual thinking he termed, category mistake.
 The category mistake happens when we speak about the
self as something independent of the physical body: a purely
Image Source: https://www.jstor.org/ mental entity existing in time but not space
Immanuel Kant
 A German Philosopher who made great contribution to
the fields of metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Kant is
widely regarded as the greatest philosopher of the modern
period.
 Kant maintained that an individual self makes the
experience of the world comprehensible because it is
responsible for synthesizing the discreet data of sense
experience into a meaningful whole.
 It is the self that makes consciousness for the person to
make sense of everything. It is the one that help every
individual gain insight and knowledge. If the self failed to do
this synthesizing function, there would be a chaotic and
insignificant collection of sensations.
Image Source: https://mediaethicsmorning.wordpress.com/
 Additionally, the self is the product of reason, a

regulative principle because the self regulates experience
by making
unified experience possible and unlike Hume, Kant’s self is not the object of consciousness, but it
makes the consciousness understandable and unique.
 Transcendental apperception happens when people do not experience self directly, instead as a

unity of all impressions that are organized by the mind through perceptions. Kant concluded that

all objects of knowledge, which includes the self, are phenomenal. That the true nature of things
is altogether unknown and unknowable (Price, 2000).
 For Kant, the kingdom of God is within man. God is manifested in people’s lives therefore it is
man’s duty to move towards perfection. Kant emphasized that people should always see duty as a
divine command (Price, 2000).
Paul and Patricia Churchland

 An American
philosopher interested in the
fields of philosophy of mind,
philosophy of science, cognitive
neurobiology, epistemology, and
perception.
 Churchlands’ central
argument is that the concepts and
theoretical vocabulary that
people use to think about the
selves— using such terms as
belief, desire, fear, sensation,
pain, joy— actually misrepresent
Image Source:
http://thesciencenetwork.org/ the reality of minds and selves.
He claims that the self is a
activity. product of brain
 The behavior of the self can be attributed to the neuropharmacological states, the neural activity
in specialized anatomical areas.
 Neurophilosopy was coined by Patricia Churchland, the modern scientific inquiry looks into the
application of neurology to age-old problems in philosophy. The philosophy of neuroscience is
the study of the philosophy of science, neuroscience, and psychology. It aims to explore the
relevance of neurolinguistic experiments/studies to the philosophy of the mind.
 Patricia Churchland claimed that man’s brain is responsible for the identity known as self. The
biochemical properties of the brain according to this philosophy of neuroscience is really
responsible for man’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
 Paul Churchland is one of the many philosophers and psychologists that viewed the self from a
materialistic point of view, contending that in the final analysis mental states are identical with,
reducible to, or explainable in terms of physical brain states. This assumption was made due to
the physiological processes of the body that directly affecting the mental state of the person. The
advent of sophisticated technology and scientific research gives hope to understand the
connection between the physical body and the mind/brain relationship that integrated in the self.
 Being an eliminative materialist, he believes that there is a need to develop a new vocabulary and
conceptual framework that is grounded in neuroscience. This new framework will be a more
accurate reflection of the human mind and self.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty
 A French philosopher and phenomenologist.
 He took a very different approach to the self and
the mind/body “problem.” According to him, the
division between the “mind” and the “body” is a
product of confused thinking. The self is experienced as
a unity in which the mental and physical are seamlessly
woven together. This unity is the primary experience of
selves and begin to doubt it when an individual use their
minds to concoct abstract notions of a separate mind
and body.
 Developed the concept of self-subject and
contended that perceptions occur existentially. Thus, the
consciousness, the world, and the human body are all
interconnected as they mutually perceive the world.
Image Source: http://all-to-human.blogspot.com/  According to him, the world and the sense of
self are emergent phenomena in the ongoing process of
man’s becoming.
 Phenomenology provides a direct description of

the human experience which serves to guide
man’s conscious actions. He further added that,
the world is a field of perception, and human
consciousness assigns meaning to the world.
Thus man cannot separate himself from his
perceptions of the world.
 Perception is not purely the result of sensations
nor it is purely interpretations. Rather
consciousness is a process that includes sensing
as well as interpreting/reasoning.

WEEK 3: THE SELF ACCORDING TO SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
Sociology and Anthropology
Sociology and Anthropology are two interrelated disciplines that

contributes to the understanding of self. Sociology presents the self as a
product of modern society. It is the science that studies the development,
structure, interaction, and collective behavior of human being. On the other
hand, Anthropology is the study of humanity. This broad field takes an
interdisciplinary approach to looking at human culture, both past and present.
The following set of sociologists and anthropologist offered their views about
self.
George Herbert Mead and the Social Self
 Mead is an American philosopher, sociologist, and

psychologist. He is regarded as one of the founders of social
psychology and the American sociological tradition in general.
Mead is well-known for his theory of self.
 He postulated that, the self represents the sum total of
people’s conscious perception of their identity as distinct from
others. Mead argued that the self like the mind is social
emergent. This means that individual selves are the products of
social interaction and not logical or biological in nature.
 He claimed that the self is something which undergoes
development because it is not present instantly at birth. The
self arises in the process of social experience and activity as a
result of their relations to the said process as a whole and to
other individuals within that process. In other words, one
cannot experience their self alone, they need other people to
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experience their self.

 The social emergence of self is developed due to the three forms of inter-subjective activity, the
language, play, and the game.
 He proposed the stages of self formation:
1. Preparatory Stage. Mead believed that the self did not exist at birth. Instead, the self
develops over time. Its development is dependent on social interaction and social
experience. At this stage, children’s behaviors are primarily based on imitation. It was
observed that children imitate the behaviors of those around them. At this stage, knowing
and understanding the symbols are important for this will constitute their way of
communicating with others throughout their lives.
2. The Play Stage. Skills at knowing and understanding the symbols of communication is
important for this constitutes the basis of socialization. Through communication, social

relationship are formed. Now children begin to role play and pretend to be other people.
Role-taking in the play stage is the process of mentally assuming the process of another
person to see how this person might behave or respond in a given situation (Schefer,
2012). The play stage is significant in the development of the self. It is at this stage where
child widens his perspective and realizes that he is not alone and that there are others
around him whose presence he has to consider.
3. The Game Stage. Here, the child is about eight or nine years of age and now does more
than just role-take. The child begins to consider several tasks and various types of
relationships simultaneously. Through the learnings that were gained in stage two, the
child now begins to see not only his own perspective but at the same time the perspective
of others. In this final stage of self development, the child now has the ability to respond
not just to one but several members of his social environment.
 Generalized other the person realizes that people in society have cultural norms, beliefs and
values which are incorporated into each self. This realization forms basis of how the person
evaluate themselves.
 The self, according to Mead is not merely a passive reflection of the generalized other. The
responses of the individual to the social world are also active, it means that a person decides what
they will do in reference to the attitude of others but not mechanically determined by such
attitudinal structures. Here, Mead identified the two phases of self:
1. the phase which reflects the attitude of the generalized other or the “me”; and
2. the phase that responds to the attitude of generalized other or the “I”.
 In Mead’s words, the "me" is the social self, and the "I" is a response to the "me". Mead defines
the "me" as "a conventional, habitual individual and the “I” as the “novel reply” of the individual
to the generalized other.
 Generally, Meads theory sees the self as a perspective that comes out of interactions, and he sees
the meanings of symbols, social objects, and the self as emerging from negotiated interactions.

The Self as a product of modern society among other constructions
Georg Simmel
 Simmel was a German sociologist, philosopher, and

critic. He was intensely interested in the ways in which
modern, objective culture impacts the individual’s subjective
experiences.
 In contrast to Mead, Simmel proposed that there is
something called human nature that is innate to the
individual. This human nature is intrinsic to the individual
like the natural inclination to religious impulse or the gender
differences. He also added that most of our social
interactions are individual motivations.
 Simmel as a social thinker made a distinction between
subjective and objective culture. The individual or subjective
culture refers to the ability to embrace, use, and feel culture.
 Objective culture is made up of elements that become
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separated from the individual or group’s control and
identified as separate objects.
 There are interrelated forces in modern society that tend to increase objective culture according to
Simmel. These are urbanizations, money, and the configuration of one’s social network.
 Urbanization is the process that moves people from country to city living. This result to the
concentration of population in one place brought about by industrialization. This paved way to
the organization of labor or increased division of labor, which demands specializations wherein
this creates more objective culture.
 Simmel also stressed that the consumption of products has an individuating and trivializing effect
because this enables the person to create self out of things. By consumption, an individual able to
purchase things that can easily personalized or express the self. People used commodities to
create self-concept and self-image. Simmel also said that products used in the modernity to
express and produced the self is also changing. It becomes more and more separated from
subjectivity (subjective culture) due to division of labor and market economy. Many products are
easily replaced, subjected to the dynamics of fashion and diversification of markets which leads
to inappropriate sign use.
 Money creates a universal value system wherein every commodity can be understood. Money
also increases individual freedom by pursuing diverse activities and by increasing the options for
self- expression. Money also makes the individual to be less attached to the commodities because
the individual tends to understand and experience their possession less in terms of their intrinsic
qualities and more of their objective and abstract worth. Additionally, money also discouraged
intimate ties with people. Money comes to stand in the place of almost everything – and this
includes relationship! Money further discourages intimate ties by encouraging a culture of
calculation.
 Because of urbanization, Simmel observed that social networks also changed. Group affiliations
in urban is definitely different from rural settings wherein the relationship are strongly influenced
by family. An individual tends to seek membership to the same group which makes the family as
basic socialization structure. This natural inclination to join groups is called by Simmel as organic
motivation and the grouping is called primary group. This group is based on ties of affection and
personal loyalty endure over long periods of time, and involve multiple aspects of a person’s life.
 On the other hand, in the modern urban settings, group membership is due to rational motivation
or membership due to freedom of choice. This characterized the secondary group which is goal
and utilitarian oriented, with a narrow range of activities, over limited time spans. As a result, it is
more likely that an individual will develop unique personalities. Moreover, Simmel said that a
complex web of group affiliations produces role conflicts and blasé attitude. Role conflict is a
situation that demands a person of two or more roles that clash with one another. Blasé attitude is
an attitude of absolute boredom and lack of concern. This is the inability or limited ability to
provide emotional investment to other people.
The Self and Person in the Contemporary Anthropology
 The four subfields of anthropology – Archeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics, and

Cultural Anthropology, suggest that human beings are similar and different in varying ways and
tendencies. For example, people have the same need for food and water, but they have different
means on how to satisfy them. These similarities and differences make life so interesting. As one
learn facts/information that make them similar to the other, they will also discover that they have
different characteristics the define them. This knowledge aims to highlight the uniqueness of each person and
making them value life and existence even more. The subfields of Anthropology are as follows:
o Archeology. Focus on the study of the past and how it may have contributed to the
present ways of how people conduct their daily lives. Archeologists have so far
discovered the unique ways in which human beings adapted to the changes in their
environment in order for them to survive. Among their discoveries around the world is
the species, homo sapiens did not become extinct because of their ability to think, use
tools and learn from experience. In relating to the contemporary society, people still
aim for survival, for their basic needs to be fulfilled and to live legacy to their society.
o Biological Anthropology. Focus on how the human body adapts to the different earth
environments. Among the activities of Anthropologists are identification of probable
causes of diseases, physical mutation, and death, evolution, and comparison of dead
and living primates. They are interested in explaining how the biological
characteristics of human being affects their way of living. Accordingly, human beings
at present still share the same biological strengths and vulnerabilities. Like eating
balanced nutrients and minerals that are beneficial to all human beings while being
exposed to a virus in a pandemic might cause negative implications to many.
o Linguistic Anthropology. Focused on using language as means to discover a group’s
manner of social interaction and their worldview. Anthropologists in this field want to
discover how language is used to create and share meanings, to form ideas and
concepts and to promote social change. Furthermore, they also study how language
and modes of communication changes over time.
o Cultural Anthropology. Focused in knowing what makes one group’s manner of
living forms an essential part of the member’s personal and societal identity. This
encompasses the principles of Theory of Cultural Determinism which suggests that the
human nature is determined by the kind of culture he is born and grew up in. Cultural
diversities are manifested in different ways and different levels of dept. The following
are the ways in which culture may manifest itself in people:
 Symbols. These are the words, gestures, pictures or objects that have recognized
or accepted meaning in a particular culture. Example: colors have similar
meaning across all cultures.
 Heroes. These are persons from the past or present who have characteristics that
are important in culture. They may be real of work of fictions. Example: Fiction
– Thor, Captain America; Real – Jose Rizal, Apolinario Mabini.
 Rituals. These are activities participated by a group of people for the fulfilment
of desired objectives and are concerned to be socially essential. Example:
Wedding, fiesta, Christmas celebration, graduation, etc.
 Values. These are considered to be the core of every culture. These are
unconscious, neither discuss or observed, and can only be inferred from the way
people act and react to situations. Example: hospitality, respect for elders etc.
 The field of Anthropology offers another way by which a person can view themselves. As self is
formed or determined by the past and present condition, by biological characteristics, the
communication and language use, and the lifestyle we choose to live
The Self Embedded in the Culture

Clifford Geertz
Image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Geertz
 Clifford Geertz was an Anthropology Professor at the University of Chicago. He studied different
cultures and explored on the conception of the self in his writings entitled, “The Impact of the Concept of
Culture on the Concept of Man” (1966) in his fieldwork at Java, Bali and Morrocco.
 The analysis of Geertz (1966) in his cultural study about the description of self in Bali is that the
Balinese person is extremely concerned not to present anything individual (distinguishing him or her from
others in social life but to enact exclusively a culturally prescribed role or mask. In one instance, Geertz
(1973) gave an example of the stage fright that pervades persons in Bali because they must not be
publicly recognizable as individual selves and actors points precisely to the fact that agency or an ability
to act in one’s own account is an integral ability of human beings—an ability which continually threatens
the culturally established norm of nonindividuality.

WEEK 4: THE SELF ACCORDING PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology
Psychology is a scientific study of mental processes and human

behavior. It aims to describe, analyze, predict, control human
behavior in general. Self is an essential construct in psychology
because it fulfills the goals of the discipline in studying human and
the reason for their action. Many psychologists tried to define the
origin of mental processes and behavior but they all settle down
with numerous theories and assumptions. The following
descriptions on the formation of self were presented for you to
have a clear picture on
the psychological perspective of self.
The Self as Cognitive Construction
 The cognitive aspect of the self is known as self-concept. Self-concept is defined as self-
knowledge, a cognitive structure that includes beliefs about personality traits, physical
characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles, as well as the knowledge that an individual exist
as individuals. As humans grow and develop, self-concept becomes abstract and more complex.
 According to the psychologist Dr. Bruce A. Bracken in 1992, there are six specific domains that
are related to self-concept these are:
1) the social domain or the ability of the person to interact with others;
2) the competence domain or the ability to meet the basic needs;
3) the affect domain or the awareness of the emotional states;
4) the physical domain or the feelings about looks, health, physical condition, and overall
appearance;
5) academic domain or the success or failure in the school; and
6) family domain or how well one function within the family unit.
William James and the Me-Self and I-Self

 William James is a well-known figure in Psychology
who is considered as the founder of functionalism. He brought
prominence to U.S. psychology through the publication of The
Principles of Psychology (1890) that made him more
influential than his contemporaries in the field.
 James made a clear distinction between ways of
approaching the self – the knower (the pure or the I – Self) and
the known (the objective or the Me – Self). The function of the
knower (I-Self) according to James must be the agent of
experience. While the known (Me-Self) have three different
but interrelated aspects of empirical self (known today as self-
concept): the Me viewed as material, the Me viewed as social,
and the Me viewed as spiritual in nature.
 The material self is consists of everything an individual
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call uniquely as their own, such as the body, family, home or
style of dress. On the other hand, social self refers to the
recognition an individual get from other people. Lastly,
spiritual self refers to the individual inner or subjective being.
Real and Ideal Self

Carl Rogers
 Carl Rogers is best known as the founder of client-
centered therapy and considered as one of the prominent
humanistic or existential theorists in personality. His therapy
aimed to make the person achieve balance between their self-
concept (real-self) and ideal self.
 The real self includes all those aspects of one's identity
that are perceived in awareness. These are the things that are
known to oneself like the attributes that an individual
possesses.
 The ideal self is defined as one’s view of self as one
wishes to be. This contains all the aspirations or wishes of an
individual for themselves.
 A wide gap between the ideal self and the self-concept
indicates incongruence and an unhealthy personality.
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Psychologically healthy individuals perceive little discrepancy
between their self-concept and what they ideally would like to
be.
Multiple versus Unified Self
 According to Multiple Selves Theory, there are different aspects of the self exist in an individual.
From here, we can say that self is a whole consist of parts, and these parts manifest themselves when
need arise.
 Gregg Henriques proposed the Tripartite Model of Human Consciousness, wherein he described that
self is consist of three related, but also separable domains these are the experimental self, private
self, and public self.

o The experiential self or the theater of consciousness is a domain of self that defined as felt
experience of being. This includes the felt consistency of being across periods of time. It is tightly
associated with the memory. This is a part of self that disappears the moment that an individual
enter deep sleep and comes back when they wake up.
o The private self consciousness system or the narrator/interpreter is a portion of self that verbally
narrates what is happening and tries to make sense of what is going on. The moment that you read
this part, there is somewhat like a “voice” speaking in your head trying to understand what this
concept is all about.
o Lastly, the public self or Persona, the domain of self that an individual shows to the public, and
this interacts on how others see an individual. Henriques’ Tripartite Model attempts to capture the
key domains of consciousness, both within the self and between others.
 Unified being is essentially connected to consciousness, awareness, and agency. A well-adjusted
person is able to accept and understood the success and failure that they experienced. They are
those kinds of person who continually adjust, adapt, evolve and survive as an individual with
integrated, unified, multiple selves.
True versus False Self

Donald Winnicott
 Donald Winnicott was a pediatrician in London who

studied Psychoanalysis with Melanie Klein, a renowned
personality theorist and one of the pioneers in object relations
and development of personality in childhood.
 According to him, false self is an alternative personality
used to protect an individual’s true identity or one’s ability to
“hide” the real self. The false self is activated to maintain social
relationship as anticipation of the demands of others.
Compliance with the external rules or following societal norms
is a good example of this. false self can be a healthy self if it is
perceived as functional for the person and for the society and
being compliant without the feeling of betrayal of true self. On
the other hand, unhealthy false self happens when an individual
feels forced compliance in any situation.
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 On the contrary, true self has a sense of integrity and

connected wholeness that is rooted in early infancy. The baby
creates experiences of a sense of reality and sense of life worth living. Winnicott claimed that true
self can be achieved by good parenting that is not necessarily a perfect parenting.
The Self as Proactive and Agentic

Albert Bandura

 Albert Bandura is a psychologist and Professor Emeritus
of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University. He
is known for his theory of social learning by means of
modeling. He is famous for his proposed concept of self-
efficacy.
 His personality theory, The Social Cognitive Theory
asserts that a person is both proactive and agentic, which
means that we have the capacity to exercise control over
our life. This theory emphasized that human beings are
proactive, self-regulating, self-reflective, and self-
organizing.
 Self as proactive means an individual have control in any
situation by making things happen. They act as agent in
doing or making themselves as they are. Agency is a
defining feature of modern selfhood. Agents assume some
degree of ownership and control over things, both
internally (I control my own thoughts) and externally (I
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make things happen in the environment). The ability of an
individual to pursue their goals in life is an example of
agentic approach to self.
 According to Bandura (1989), self-efficacy beliefs
determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and
behave. Such beliefs produce these diverse effects through four major processes. They include
cognitive, motivational, affective and selection processes. A strong sense of efficacy enhances human
accomplishment and personal well-being in many ways.
 In contrast Bandura (1989) said that people who doubt their capabilities shy away from difficult tasks
which they view as personal threats. They have low aspirations and weak commitment to the goals
they choose to pursue. When faced with difficult tasks, they dwell on their personal deficiencies, on
the obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse outcomes rather than concentrate on how to
perform successfully. They fall easy victim to stress and depression.

WEEK 5: THE SELF IN THE WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN
THOUGHT
Western and Oriental/Eastern Thought
Cultural differences and environment creates different perceptions

of the self. The most common distinction between people and cultures is
the Eastern-Western distinction. Eastern are known as the Asian countries,
and Western represents the Europe and Northen America. It must be noted
that countries who are geographically closer to each other my share
commonalities, but factors that may create diffrences must be considered.
Individualistic versus Collective Self
Understanding individualism and collectivism could help in the understanding of the cross-
cultural values of a person. Not every culture is at one end or the other of the spectrum, but the majority
tend to favor one over the other in everyday life.
Individualistic Self
 Individualism is not the idea that individuals should live like isolated entity, nor the idea that they
should never get or give help from others, nor the idea that an individual never owes anything to other
people.
 Individualism is the idea that the fundamental unit of the human species that thinks, lives, and acts
toward goals is the individual. This means that we can form our own independent judgments, act on
our own thoughts, and disagree with others.
 Each adult individual can consider what is in his own best interests. Each can act on his own private
motivations and values and can judge other people as good people to form relationships with, or as
bad people to be avoided. Each can decide whether to cooperate with others to solve problems. Each
can choose to think for himself about the conclusions that the majority of others in a group come to,
accepting or rejecting their conclusions as indicated by his own thought.
 Example of the description would include an individual identifies primarily with self, with the needs
of the individual being satisfied before those of the group. Looking after and taking care of ourselves,
being self-sufficient, guarantees the well-being of the group. Independence and self-reliance are
greatly stressed and valued.
 In general, people tend to distance themselves psychologically and emotionally from each other. One
may choose to join groups, but group membership is not essential to one’s identity or success.
Individualist characteristics are often associated with men and people in urban settings.
 Western cultures are known to be individualistic.

Collective Self
 Collectivism is the idea that the fundamental unit of the human species that thinks, lives, and acts
toward goals is not the individual, but some group. In different variants, this group may be the
family, the city, the economic class, the society, the nation, the race, or the whole human species.
The group exists as a super-organism separate from individuals: A group may make its own
decisions, acts apart from the actions of individuals, and has its own interests apart from those of
the individuals that compose it.
 Under collectivism, individuals are analogous to ants in the protection of their queen ant. The
individual ant doesn’t have minds of their own, and generally cannot disagree with the hive. Any
ant that acts in a way contrary to the interests of the group is a malfunctioning ant. If an ant does
not follow the certain pattern of how they protect their queen, it will be entirely unable to support
itself, find other ants that support other queen ant and will surely die in short order. If the
malfunctioning ant stays within the group, it will be a threat to the line appropriate to protecting
the queen ant.
 Examples of the collectivist thinking is when our identity is in large part, a function of our
membership and role in a group, e.g., the family or work team. The survival and success of the
group ensures the well-being of the individual, so that by considering the needs and feelings of
others, one protects oneself. Harmony and the interdependence of group members are stressed
and valued. Group members are relatively close psychologically and emotionally, but distant
toward non-group members. Collectivist characteristics are often associated with women and
people in rural settings.
 Asian countries are known to be collective in nature.
The Social Construction of the Self in Western Thought
 Self has been an area of interest by French and English philosophers, and evident in the ideas of
Greek philosophers like Socrates and Plato.
 Descartes in 17th century emphasized the self in his dictum “I think therefore I am” which claims
that cognitive basis of the person’s thoughts is proof for the existence of the self.
 Kant believed that the self is capable of actions that entitles it to have rights as an autonomous
agent.
 Here are some qualities imparted to the Western subjective self. It sketches some features on
subjectivity and ways of thinking of western persons. This provides an impressionistic profile
through the use of a few strokes characterizing some ways of being and thinking of many western
persons.
o Western self as analytic. Since analytic and inductive modes of thinking were
prominent for person in western cultures, to see objects as divisible combinations of
yet smaller objects. Real things are not only visualized but immaterial things like
thoughts, ideas and memories would be given emphasis.
o Western self as monotheistic. Monotheism can be known as the rigid consequence of
the doctrine of normal human being. It is like forcing the concentration of
supernatural capabilities.

o Western self as individualistic. The emphasis on individualism has direct and indirect
effects on both the presentation of self (in public ways) and the experience of the self
(in private awareness).
o Western Self as materialistic and rationalistic. The western accentuation of rational,
scientific approach to reality has tended to define spiritual and immaterial phenomena
as potentially superstitious and dangerous. In any society, belief system is stratified
and composed of a hierarchy of interrelated, causal-explanatory models.
The Self as Embedded in Relationships and through Spiritual Development in Confucian Thought
 Confucius was born in the period of the Zhou Dynasty in 551
BCE in the state of Lu. He grew up poor although he was
descended from scholarly family.
 Confucius philosophy is known as humanistic social philosophy
which focusses on human beings and the society in general.
 Confucianism is centered on ren which can be manifested
through the li (propriety), xiao (filiality), and yi (rightness). For
Confucius, ren reflects the person’s own understanding of
humanity. It is found within each person and can be realized in
one’s personal life and relationship. Ren guides human actions that
makes life worth living which can be realized through li, xiao, and
yi:
o Li the propriety. Rules of propriety should be followed to guide

Image Source: https://www.oshonews.com/ human actions. These rules are the customs, ceremonies, and
traditions that forms the basis of li. According to Confucius, “to
master oneself and return to propriety is humanity” (Koller, 2007). Self mastery
involves self development. Self mastery is characterized by self-control and the will
to redirect impulses to change these to socially accepted expression of human nature.
Li conforms to the norms of humanity, thus one must fulfill their duties and
responsibilities in this five (5) relationships: father and son, ruler and subject, older
and younger brothers, husband and wife, friend and friend.
o Xiao the filiality. This is the virtue of reverence and respect for the family. Parents
should be revered for the life they and given. Children show respect to their parents
by exerting efforts to take care of themselves. Reverence for parents and family is
further demonstrated by bringing honor to the family, making something of himself
and to earn respect of other. If, however, the person is having difficulty giving his
family the honor that they deserved, he should just do this best to not disgrace the
family. Relationship that exist in the family reflect hoe the person relates to others in
the community. The family is the reflection of the person. How the person interacts
socially and the values they emulate can all be traced back to their family
environment. This forms the bases of the person’s moral and social virtues (Koller,
2007).
o Yi the rightness. The right way of behaving which is unconditional and absolute.
Right is right, and what is not right is wrong. Actions must be performed and carried
out because they are right actions. Confucius emphasized that actions should be
performed because they are right and not for selfish benefits that they provide.
WEEK 6: SEXUAL SELF
THE SEXUAL SELF: BODY IMAGE AND SELF ESTEEM
This section tackles one of the most crucial aspects of human development, the sexual self. It
highlights biological and environmental factors that shape sexual
development. Being a complex and amazing structure, the human body is a
source of strength, beauty, and wonder. Like a well-designed machine, a
healthy body has parts whose parts function smoothly together. Like a
harmonious orchestra that musicians play together, they produce beautiful
music, a healthy body that has parts whose operations are in harmony with
others.
Introduction
● Sexual selfhood is defined as how one thinks about himself or herself as a sexual individual.
Human sexuality is a topic that just like beauty is culturally diverse. This should be understood in
varied ways.
1. Historical.
● In Ancient Greece, it is the male that assumes the dominant

role. The male symbol, the penis, was viewed as the symbol
of fertility and how the male body was structured and was
greatly admired. Their wives were considered as objects to
be possessed just like property. Women, on the other hand,
were forbidden to own property and had no legal and only
function was to bear children. The Greek word for woman is
“gyne” means – bearer of children.
● In the Middle Ages (476-1450), bore witness to the strong influence of church particularly in
matters of sexuality. The church decreed that all sexual acts that do not lead to procreation were
considered evil. Women were labelled as either temptress (like Eve) or a woman of virtue (like
Virgin Mary).
● In the protestant reformation of the 16th century (1483-1546) Martin Luther, John Calvin and
other Protestant leaders initiated a movement against the Roman Catholic Church. Protestantism
believed that sexuality is a natural part of life and that priests should be able to marry and have
families. Martin Luther King and John Calvin believed that the reason for sexual intimacy was to
strengthen the physical and emotional bond between husbands and wives and not just procreation.
● By the 17th and 18th century, the Puritans, a group of people who were discontented with the
Church of England rallied for religious, moral and societal reformation. They had positive view
on marital sex and did not tolerate sex outside marriage. Premarital sex, therefore, was considered
immoral.

● In the Victorian Era (1837-1901), homosexuality and prostitution were rampant and considered to
be threats to social order. People in this era were not comfortable in discussing breast or buttocks,
they used other terms instead.
● Through the years and in the 20th century, interest in sexuality became more evident and accepted
in society. The separation of church and state reduced the influence the church had over sexual
mores. Also, the rise of feminism allowed for changes in employment, home life, and sexual
standards for women. Over time, cultural diversity and social norms offered varied views on what
today may be considered as sexually normal.
2. Biological.
● Knowing the structures and functions of the reproductive system is essential to the understanding
of sexuality. In the nervous system, it is the brain that initiates and organizes sexual behavior.
Through the process of sexual reproduction, the next generation of human beings are created by
the fusion of the egg cell and sperm cell. This will be discussed further in the next pages.
3. Sociobiological/Evolutionary.
● This perspective studies how evolutionary

forces affect sexual behavior. According to
sociobiological theory, natural selection is a process by
which organisms that are best suited to their environment
are most likely to survive. Traits that lead to reproductive
advantage tend to be passed on, whereas maladaptive
traits are lost. On the basis of human sexual behavior, it
all begins with physical attraction.
● Beauty is more than just cultural standard. It is

primarily an evolutionary standard for attracting the best
male or female in the lot to ensure that one’s genetic
characteristics will be passed on to the next generation.
● Although survival is the goal of the evolutionary perspective, physical attraction which ends in
sex does not mean that the attraction will be lasting. For what is really important in human sexual
relationships is the love, care, and responsibility each gender has for the other.
4. Psychological
● Rosenthal (2013) also explained that sexuality is not a mere physical response. Rather, it also
involves emotions, thoughts and beliefs.
● Sigmund Freud was one of the most prominent people to explain sexuality, through his theories.
According to him, human beings are faces with two forces – sex instinct and libido (pleasure) and
death or aggressive instinct (harm toward oneself or towards others).

● Sex instinct does not only pertain to the sexual act rather it could also mean anything that could
give pleasure to the person. Thus, human behavior is geared towards satisfying the sex instinct
and/or death instinct. A person’s libido or sexual energy is located in an area of the body at
different psychosexual stages. These areas of pleasure are called erogenous zones. These will be
discussed further in the following pages.
● Freud also regarded personality as composed of three structures: the id, the Ego and the
Superego. The id is the part which always seeks for pleasure and aggression. It follows the
pleasure principle because it wants the person to attain gratification immediately. It is
unconsciously saying “I want it now!”. The Superego is the person’s sense of morality; it follows
the moral principle whose role is to restrict demands of the id. It is developed when children are
taught the difference between right and wrong. The ego follows the analytical principle. It
analyses the need of the id and its consequences as dictated by the superego and thinks of ways to
satisfy the need in an acceptable manner.
5. Religious
● Judaism holds a positive and natural outlook toward marital sex which they consider as blessed
by God and pleasurable for both men and women. Sexual connection provides an opportunity for
spirituality and transcendence.
● In Islam, family is considered of utmost importance, and celibacy within marriage is prohibited.
Muslim men are allowed to have up to four wives but Muslim women can only have one
husband. Sex is permitted only within marriage and extramarital sex is penalized.
● According to Taoism, which originated in China, sex is not only natural and healthy, but a sacred
union necessary to people’s physical, mental, and spiritual being. The sexual union is a way to
balance male and female energy.
● In Hinduism, sexuality is seen as spiritual force, and the act of ritual lovemaking is a means of
both celebrating and transcending the physical
● For the Roman Catholic Church, marriage is purely for intercourse and procreation. Pope John
Paul II confirmed the idea that married couples should engage in intercourse only for the purpose
of procreation. They further believed that homosexual orientation, in itself is not sinful, but
homosexual acts are immoral and sinful. The use of birth control is strongly opposed but they
agree to natural family planning and prohibit abortion.
Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics and Reproductive System
● This part is understanding the sexual self in Biological manner.
● From a purely physical standpoint, our bodies are made mainly of water. We are also made of
many minerals, including calcium, phosphorous, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine,
magnesium, and iron. In order of size, the elements of the body are organized into cells,
tissues, and organs. Related organs are combined into systems, including the musculoskeletal,
cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory, gastrointestinal, endocrine, and reproductive systems

● There are two kinds of reproduction: asexual and sexual. Many biochemical events
must occur before an organism can reproduce either way.
1. Asexual reproduction
The simplest form of reproduction that literally means without sex. A single celled
animal grows to a certain stage or size and divides into two identical organisms. Multi-celled
asexual organisms have developed several unique reproductive strategies. For example, the
jellyfish reproduces by budding, a process where a new individual begins to grow (bud) from
the original organism and is eventually released as a small, free swimming organism.
2. Sexual reproduction
In organisms that reproduce sexually, there are males and females and reproduction
occurs when partners come together. This also involves reproductive cells, including a female
ovum (egg) and a male’s sperm.
● Network of organs and signaling molecules happened in the process of the human
reproductive system. In which, interaction and communication make it possible to the human
ability to produce and bear live offspring. It is distinguished from all other organ systems of
the human body by the fact that it is composed of two anatomically different organ plans, one
for the female and one for the male. It is also a slow-developing system, with the
reproductive organs obtaining full maturity at some point during adolescence, the transitional
phase of growth and development between childhood and adulthood.
● In both male and female embryos, the tissues that will form the structures of the internal
genitalia that are destined to develop in only one way, either as structures in the female
reproductive system or structures in the male reproductive system, but not both.
● Provided all organs are present, normally constructed, and functioning properly, the seven
essential features of human reproduction are:
o (1) liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific time in the reproductive cycle;

o (2) internal fertilization of the ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells;
o (3) transport of the fertilized ovum to the uterus, or womb;
o (4) implantation of the blastocyst, the early embryo developed from the fertilized
ovum, in the wall of the uterus;
o (5) formation of a placenta and maintenance of the unborn child during the entire
period of gestation;
o (6) birth of the child and expulsion of the placenta; and
o (7) suckling and care of the child, with an eventual return of the maternal organs to
virtually their original state.
● The male reproductive system essential parts are as follows:
1. Penis – a male sexual organ consisting of the internal root and external shaft and glans.
2. Root – the portion of the penis that extends internally into the pelvic cavity.
3. Shaft – the length of the penis between the glans and the body.
4. Glans – the head of the penis; richly endowed with nerve endings.
5. Cavernous bodies – the structures in the shaft of the penis that engorge with blood during sexual
arousal.
6. Foreskin – a covering of skin over the penile glans.

7. Corona – the rim of the penile glans.
8. Frenulum – a highly sensitive, thin strip of skin that connects the glans to the shaft on the
underside of the penis.
● The female reproductive system essential parts are as follows:
1. Vulva – encompasses all female external genital structures – the hairs, fold of skin, and the
urinary and vaginal openings.
a. Mons Veneris – a triangular mound over the pubic bone above the vulva.
b. Labia majora – the outer lips of the vulva.
c. Labia minora – the inner lips of the vulva, one on each side of the vaginal opening.
d. Prepuce – the foreskin or fold of skin over the clitoris.
e. Clitoris – a highly sensitive structure of the female external genitals, the only function of
which is sexual pleasure.
f. Shaft – the length of the clitoris between the glans and the body.
g. Glans – the head of the clitoris; richly endowed with nerve endings.
h. Cruca – the innermost tips of the cavernous bodies that connect to the pubic bones.
i. Vestibule – the area of the vulva inside the labia minora.
j. Urethra – the tube through which urine passes from the bladder to outside the body.
2. Internal Structure
a. Vagina – a stretchable canal in the female that opens at the vulva and extends about four
inches into the pelvis.
b. Rugae – the folds of tissue in the vagina.
c. Cervix – the small end of the uterus, located at the back of the vagina.
d. Uterus – a pear shaped organ inside the female pelvis, within which the fetus develops.
e. Fallopian tubes – two tubes in which the egg and sperm travel, extending from the sides of
the uterus.
f. Ovaries – female gonads that produce ova and sex hormones.
● These are the parts of the reproductive organs that are considered to be important. The
primary and secondary characteristics refer to specific physical differentiate males and
females in sexually dimorphic species – species having two forms that are determined by
their sex; that is, species in which males and females look different from each other. Primary
characteristics are there from birth (for example, penises and vaginas). Secondary sexual
characteristics emerge at puberty (such as low voices and beards in men, and high voices and
no facial hair in women). Samples includes:
● These secondary sexual characteristics are not used in reproduction, but are apparent in most
dimorphic species. Hormones secreted through the hypothalamus initiate the development of
classically male or female secondary sexual traits.

● These secondary sex characteristics can
also be known as some of the first changes in a
boy are the growth of his and growth of pubic
hair. Later, the chest becomes larger, hair grows
in the armpits, muscles grow in the arms and legs
and shoulders become larger and stronger.
● In some males, hair also grows on the

chest, but generally, Asian men are less hairy and
less muscular than Caucasian men, and those
from Africa have coarser body hair. Facial hair,
which usually grows first above the lips and later
grows on the cheeks, may grow into a mustache
and beard unless the boy shaves
regularly. The larynx (voice box) becomes
larger as well,
resulting in a deeper voice. In girls, pubic hair begins to grow, followed by underarm
hair; breasts develop, with the areola around the nipple becoming darker. Fat deposits around
the hips and buttocks also contribute to the female's more rounded appearance.
● With girls, the menstrual cycle begins, it may be irregular, with some monthly cycles
occurring without ovulation. Since 1840, menstruation has been beginning a few months
earlier every decade, possibly due to better nutrition or to the consumption of meat that
contains hormones. In general, girls gain less height and weight than boys do during their
teenage years.
● The list below shows some of these characteristic differences between human males and
females.
For boys, these include For girls, these include

● More pronounced body hair ● Less pronounced body hair
characteristics (beard, chest, etc.) characteristics (mostly in pubic
and usually more coarse region, hair all over is usually finer)
● Heavier musculature ● Lighter musculature
● Angular features (i.e. square jaw, ● Rounded features (i.e. softer facial
triangular mid region) features, hourglass mid-region)
● Narrow hips ● Wider hips (for child bearing)
● Muscular pectorals (chest) ● More pronounced breasts with more
● Less fat tissue overall fatty tissue
● Deeper voice ● More fat tissue overall
● Higher voice
● Puberty is the stage of physical maturation in which an individual becomes physiologically

capable of sexual reproduction. The biological changes include: (1) neurosecretory factors and/or
hormones, (2) modulation of somatic growth, and (3) initiation of the development of the sex
glands. The physiology of puberty includes also the activation of the hypothalamic pituitary-

gonadal axis which induces and enhances the
progressive ovarian and testicular sex hormone
secretion.
● It is also responsible for the profound biological,

morphological, and psychological changes to
which adolescent is subjected. In addition, there
are sex steroid production which appearance and
Source: https://goo.gl/8NsTKd
maintenance of sexual characteristics are
included as well as the person’s capacity for
reproduction.
● Puberty proceeds through five stages from

childhood to full maturity as described by
Marshall and Tanner (2006). In both sexes, these
stages reflect the progressive modifications of
the external genitalia and of sexual hair.
Secondary
sex characteristics appear at a mean age of 10.5 years in girls and 11.5 to 12 years in boys.
● Puberty Stages (Female )

P1 Pre-pubertal
P2 Early development of sub-areolar breast bud
+/- small amounts of pubic hair and axillary hair
P3 Increase in size of palpable breast tissue and areolar
Increase amount of dark pubic hair and axillary hair
P4 Further increase in breast size and areolae that protrude above breast
level Adult Pubic hair
P5 Adult Stage
Pubic hair with extension to upper thigh
● The prepubertal uterus is tear-drop shaped, with the neck and isthmus accounting for up to two-
thirds of the uterine volume; then, with the production of estrogens, it becomes pear shaped, with
the uterine body increasing in length and thickness proportionately more than the cervix.
● The rising levels of plasma gonadotropins stimulate the ovary to produce increasing amounts of
estradiol. Estradiol is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics, that is,
growth and development of the breasts and reproductive organs, fat redistribution (hips, breasts),
and bone maturation. The maturation of the ovary at adolescence correlates well with estradiol
secretion and the stages of puberty.
● During puberty, plasma estradiol levels fluctuate widely, probably reflecting successive waves of
follicular development that fail to reach the ovulatory stage. The uterine endometrium is affected
by these changes and undergoes cycles of proliferation and regression, until a point is reached
when substantial growth occurs so that withdrawal of estrogen results in the first menstruation
(menarche). Female secondary sexual characteristics include breast development, pubic and/or
axillary hair, and menses occur earlier than normal variations from the mean, the terms
premature.

Puberty Stages (Males)
P1 Prepubertal
Testicular length less than 2.5 cm
P2 Early increase in testicular size, scrotum

slightly pigmented
Few long and dark pubic hair
P3 Testicular length 3.3-4 cm

Lengthening of the penis, increase of
pubic hair
P4 Testicular length 4.1-4.5 cm, increase in

Source:
https://goo.gl/d314zv
length and thickening of the penis
Adult amount of pubic hair
● Secondary sexual development in boys includes growth kinetics are enhanced from early puberty
on, this is on maximal velocity of attaining it only around 14 to 15 years of age. Testis increases
in size, mainly at the expense of the seminiferous tubules. Also the interstitial (leydig) cells
develop and ensure synthesis and secretion of testosterone. A testicular volume of 4ml or a
longitudinal diameter greater than or equal to 2.5 cm and a slight progressive increase in scrotal
folds and pigmentation constitute the first signs of puberty. The increase in testicular size
observed during pre puberty and puberty results essentially from the development of the
seminiferous tubules.
● The testicular volume increases throughout puberty up to Tanner stage P4 when a longitudinal
diameter of 5.0 + 0.5 cm or a volume of 17.6 + 4.0 ml is reached. A significant increase of plasma
testosterone is found only between Tanner pubertal stages P3 and P4. Dihydrotestosterone shows
a pattern similar to that of testosterone, and the proportion of dihydrotestosterone to testosterone
decreases gradually until adulthood, when dihydrotestosterone levels are approximately 10% of
those of testosterone.
● Remember, that at the start of puberty, changes that happen in the bodies of young males and
females are both secondary and primary sexual changes. Whereas, secondary sexual changes are
physical changes that distinguish males from females.
Discussing Erogenous Zones
● This part could be understanding the sexual self in a Psychological manner.
● Erogenous zones can be understood in a certain way we understand our body. These are areas of
the human body that have heightened sensitivity. The stimulation of these areas may result in the
foundation and production of sexual fantasies, sexual arousal, and orgasm. These are areas that
are more sensitive than others all over the body.
● Varieties of sexual excitement may be provoked that will classify the erogenous zones.
Erogenous zones vary from culture to culture and over time. Essentially, these parts have high
concentration of nerve endings, that the result is they are particularly sensitive to touch, pressure,
or vibration.

● In psychology, the five stages of Freud’s psychosexual theory of development:
1. Oral stage, the child erogenous zone is the mouth which receives gratification through
eating and sucking.
2. Anal stage, the erogenous zone is the anus in which sexual gratification is derived from
defecation
3. Phallic stage, erogenous zone is the genitals. Here the child experiences sexual attraction
towards the opposite sex parent. Oedipus complex (sexual attraction of the body child
toward the mother) and Electra complex (sexual attraction of the girl child towards the
father)
4. Latency stage, sexual impulses lie dormant as the child is occupied by social activities
such as going to school and playing.
5. Genital stage, where the erogenous zone is again the genitals. At this time, the sexual
attraction is directed towards others, usually one of opposite sex.
● According to his theory, each stage of psychosexual development must be met successfully for
proper development; if we lack proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we may become
stuck in, or fixated on, that stage. Freud’s psychosexual theory has been seriously criticized for
the past few decades and is
now considered largely
outdated. However, the
erogenous zones were
discussed in each of the
stages of psychosexual
development, that if not
outgrown will have
fixations for that certain
stage.
● Erogenous zones is
different from sexual
fetishes. According to
Freud, a fetish is an
inappropriate object (a
shoe for example) that is
substituted for a woman
and used for sexual
gratification. An
erogenous zone is a body
part (a foot, for instance)
that arouses sexual
curiosity and draws a
man's attention to the
whole female body.
Fetishism is an individual
personality disorder, while
erogenous zones are
sexual preferences shared
by most men at a given
time or place. Fetishes
belong to
the science of psychopathology while erogenous zones belong to the social world of costume
and fashion.
● The phrase erogenous zones was coined near the end of the nineteenth century and used in the
early twentieth century by some psychologists to describe how simple pressure to these parts of
the body could arouse complete orgasm in what were defined as hysterical persons (generally
understood to be women).
● The second general meaning of the phrase, to be dealt with at some length here, refers to a visual
phenomenon associated with clothing and body adornment. For cultural anthropologists,
erogenous zones are those areas of the female body which men find sexually arousing and which
women alter or adorn to attract the male eye.
● Because of this understanding, it can be noted that culture determines their unique fixation for
erogenous zones. Examples are Asian men prize the nape of the neck while Europeans are fixated
with waist. In defiance of common sense, the genitals rarely become erogenous zones.
● Human increases their likeness through body paint, cosmetics, mutilation or other procedures like
Western women paint their lips red, enhancing resemblance to the labia; Aristocratic Chinese
women bound their feet so it would be tiny, curled feet more closely resembled the vulva. More
societies alter their erogenous zones to make them more beautiful or prominent.
Understanding Human Sexual Response
● One of the great qualities of a human being is its ability to be modified by experiences. This
process is known as learning and conditioning, which most of the aspects of human behavior,
even sexual behavior appear to be a product of it. Like the preferences people have of type of
individual as partners – tall, short, younger, or varieties of partners like heterosexual/homosexual.
The classification of behavior as normal or away from normal represents culture based rather than
scientifically explained.
● As part of the transition from childhood to adulthood, all adolescents experience sexual feelings.
Some act upon these feelings by having sexual intercourse; others don’t have intercourse but
engage in behaviors stopping short of penile/vaginal intercourse; some engage in anal intercourse
or oral sex (Remez, 2000); and others deny their sexual feelings by focusing intensely on non-
sexual pursuits.
● Other adolescents are able to have socially acceptable intercourse through early, sometimes pre-
arranged, marriages. Sexual behavior among adolescents is not new – what is new is the delay in
marriage that attends increasing educational attainment, and non-agricultural and increasingly
technological free market societies.
● Individuals become erotically aroused when they observe other individuals engaging in sexual
activity. The human sexual response can be understood through a cycle. This is also called the
sexual response cycle. It refers to the sequence of physical and emotional changes that occur as a
person becomes sexually aroused and participates in sexually stimulating activities.
● Advantages can be known if a person would know how their bodies respond during each cycle.
Men and women experience sexual arousal very differently, not only physiologically but
psychologically. For many women, the excitement phase has much more of an emotional

component. Women are motivated to have sexual responses by a need for emotional intimacy. It
is this motivation that causes them to react to sexual stimuli and thus enter the excitement phase.
● Master and Johnson categorized the human sexual response into four stages which they called the
Human Sexual Response Cycle (HSRC);
Stage Description
Excitement This is the body’s initial response to sexual arousal.
It is characterized by an increase in heart rate and blood pressure as

well as heightened muscle tone.
Plateau This is the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm
It is characterized by intensification of the changes begun during the

excitement phase.
Orgasm This is characterized by waves of intense pleasure (climax), often
associated with vaginal contractions in females and ejaculation in
males.
Resolution In this phase the body returns to its non-excited stage.
● Sexual response varies from person to person and sexual fulfillment can occur without the
completion of all phases described by Master and Johnson. Rosenthal (2013) has included the
stage of desire prior to excitement which is a drive or motivation to seek out sexual objects or to
engage in sexual activities.

WEEK 7&8 SEXUAL SELF: THE SEXUAL SELF: UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL
BEHAVIOR, STIS AND CONTRACEPTION.
This section will provide understanding on the developing a sexual self-concept that
is an important developmental task of adolescence; however, little empirical
evidence describes this development, nor how these changes are related to
development in sexual behavior. Highlight of this part is the understanding of the
chemistry of love, lust and attachment; The Psychological aspect; the sexually
diverse behavior; Sexually Transmitted Disease (STIs) and Contraception.
Understanding the Chemistry of Lust, Love, and Attachment
● According to anthropologist Helen Fisher (2016) there are three stages of falling in love.
In each stage, a different set of brain chemicals run the show. These stages are lust,
attraction, and love.
1. Lust
● When people are in the

stage of lust, they feel Source: https://goo.gl/rKRP9d
physically attracted and
drawn to their object of
affection. There are
elements of mystery that
make things exciting.
● Lust is driven by the desire

for sexual gratification. The
evolutionary basis for this
is from people’s need to
reproduce, a need shared
among all living things.
● Through reproduction,
organisms pass on their
genes, and contribute to
the perpetuation of their
species. The hypothalamus
of the brain plays a big role
in this, stimulating the production of the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen from the
testes and ovaries.
● While these chemicals are often stereotyped as being male and female, respectively, both play
a role in men and women. As it turns out, testosterone increases libido in just about everyone.
The effects are less pronounced with estrogen, but some women report being more sexually
motivated around the time they ovulate, when estrogen levels are highest.

2. Attraction
● Attraction is characteristic that causes pleasure or interest by appealing to a person’s desires

or tastes, and causes one to be drawn to the other.
● In this stage, a person may begin to be obsessed about their object of affection and crave for
his presence. A person may don’t feel like sleeping or eating. People can certainly lust for
someone they are attracted to, and vice versa, one can happen without the other.
● .Attraction has brain pathways that controls “reward” behavior, which explains the first few
months of a relationship. Dopamine is the main player in the brain’s reward pathway. When it
is released, people feel good. In this case, these things spending time with loved ones with
high levels of dopamine and related hormones (norepinephrine) are released.
● These chemicals make

people energetic, and
euphoric that can lead to
decreased appetite and
insomnia – which actually
means a person is so “in love”
that this person cannot eat or
cannot sleep. In addition,
norepinephrine plays a large
role in the fight or flight
response, which has a say
when people are stressed and
kept them alert.
● Brain scans of people in love have actually shown that the primary “reward” centers of the
brain. Finally, attraction seems to lead to a reduction in serotonin, a hormone that is involved
in appetite and mood. In the end, everyone is capable of defining love for themselves. And,
for better or for worse, if it’s all hormones, maybe each of us can have “chemistry” with just
about anyone.
3. Attachment
● This stage involves wanting to make a more lasting commitment to your loved one. All the
goals are dedicated to the object of affection being a part of a person’s life. dopamine
decreases and attraction goes down.
● If things are going well, it gets replaced by the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin, which
create the desire to bond, affiliate with, and nurture your partner. You want to cuddle and be
close and share your deepest secrets with her. You plan and dream together.
● Understanding the science of lust, attraction, and attachment can help a person develop more realistic
expectations of their relationships.
● Most romantic relationships begin with two individuals falling into love with each other. The singer
Robert Palmer compares love with an addiction. This was verified in a study in which 17 participants
who were madly in love were asked to go to the lab and bring a picture of their loved one.
Participants were placed in a brain scanner (fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging) which
measures the

neural activity of the brain. Their
brain activity was recorded that
when participants gazed at a photo of
their beloved, regions in the brain
were activated. Those parts are
closely associated with the
anticipation of reward and with
focused attention. This is the
dopamine system in the brain which
is the same system involved in
pleasure and addiction. Fisher, et al
(2006) concluded that, rather than
defining love as an emotion, “being
in love” can be considered a strong
motivation – an addictive craving to
be with the other person (Hewstone
et al, 2015).
● Thus, early passionate love is not an emotion in and if itself. Rather, it is best characterized as a
“motivation or goal oriented state that leads to various specific emotions, such as euphoria aor
anxiety”. Unlike many emotions, love is not associated with any specific facial expression, and I am
focused on a single reward. The emotions associated with love – elation, anxiety, joy, fear – may
come and go. But motivation to be with the beloved – remains.
● Love can be characterized by concern for other’s well-being, a desire for physical presence and
emotional support. In a study of Tennov in 1979, though sex is an important component of romantic
love, 95% of women and 91% of male respondents did not agree with the statement that “the best
thing about love is sex”.
● John Lee’s Love Styles:
1. Eros (EH-ros). Love is based on a strong sexual and emotional component. This type of love
creates initial excitement of a new relationship. A romantic and passionate love which
emphasizes physical attraction and sexual desire. The Eros lover dreams of the ideal
characteristics of a partner and usually experiences love at first sight. The relationship, however,
seldom lasts forever because they tend to be quick to fall in and out of love.
2. Agape (AH-gah-pay). This is altruistic and selfless love. The person shows his love without
expecting to receive the same in return. He considers the wishes of his partner as more important

than his own. He may not have a
perfect partner but he will always
be there to support and offer his
love.
3. Storge (Store-gay). This is

love- related friendship and based
on nonsexual affection. The
person experiences love as a
gradual and slow process. When
love is storge, love takes time.
Storgic lovers do not suddenly fall
in love with an idealized lover.
Commitment, stability and
comfort are their goals.
4. Ludus. For ludic lovers, love is

just a game, something for fun or
entertainment. They do not experience jealousy. They do not value commitment or intimacy. They
manipulate their partners by lying, cheating and deceiving.
5. Mania. This is characterized by an intense feeling which may lead to obsessive and possessive
love towards the loved one. Manic lovers always check the partner’s whereabouts. They easily
get jealous and their experience of love is out of control. They are easily taken advantage of by
ludic lovers.
6. Pragma. This is a practical and business-like love. Pragmatic lovers may plan the best time to get
married, have children, and other future plans. Love is based on what is appropriate. It is not
intense nor out of control.
● The Triangular Theory of Love by Robert Sternberg, According to him, love is made up of three
components:
1. Intimacy. This includes the desire to give and receive emotional closeness, support, caring and
sharing.
2. Passion. This is the hot component of love which can be described as intensely romantic or
sexual desire for another person usually accompanied by physical attraction and physiological
arousal.
3. Commitment. This is the cold component of love. It is the decision to maintain the relationship
through good times and bad times.
● Sternberg also described several types of love based on the above components.

1. Liking (Intimacy). This only
involves emotional intimacy and
has no passionate intention for long-
term commitment. It is just a
friendly relationship.
2. Infatuation (Passion). This is

associated with a high degree of
physiological arousal. There is only
passion without intimacy or
commitment. It is usually called
“love at first sight” and may fade
quickly.
3. Empty love (Commitment). This

involves only commitment. A
relationship. With no intimacy and
passion. Couples only stay together
for their children or other important
reasons.
4. Romantic love (Passion and Intimacy). It is a

combination of both passion and intimacy which
may be present during the first phase of a
relationship. This is characterized by emotional
intensity and sexual excitement. The experience of
passionate love may be positive and negative.
5. Companionate love (Intimacy and

Commitment). The components are both intimacy
and commitment which is experienced in long
deeply committed friendship or marriage where
passion has faded. It is more durable than romantic
love and may grow over time.
6. Fatuous love (Passion and Commitment). A

combination of passion and commitment
experienced by a couple who spent a short time in
courtship and suddenly decided to get married.
7. Consummate love (Passion, Intimacy, and

Commitment). There exists a healthy balance of
passion, intimacy, and commitment shared by couples considered to be ideal for each other.
● The psychology of love shows that there are psychological theories that would explain why people
fall in love.
1. Behavioral Reinforcement Theory. When someone received a reward such as free ride or other
favors from another, a positive feeling may be experienced. The better the feeling associated
with the behavior of a person, the more likely it is for the behavior to be repeated.

2. Physiological Arousal Theory. This explains the most acceptable theories about emotions: the
bodies experience a physiological change first, then people assign an emotion to that physical
sensation. It is based on the interpretation of the brain. For instance, when a big spider falls in
front of an individual, the stress reaction would be: the person might gasp, the heart would
pound faster, and breathing would quicken. The brain would interpret an emotion associated
with this experience as the feeling of FEAR. In another situation, a girl who happens to see her
crush walking by will have the same experience as the person who encounters the spider (a
person might gasp, the heart and respiratory rate would elevate): the brain would have different
interpretation in the second case, a feeling of LOVE.
3. Evolutionary Theories. This explains that love arose due to some sociobiological need. Males
tend to look for young, healthy females mates to carry their offspring. Females prefer males who
have the resources to support them and their offspring.
● Based on social psychological data from Rosenthal (2013), the factors that would determine
with whom people fall in love are:
o Physical attractiveness (though beauty is in the eye of the beholder)
o Reciprocity (people tend to like an individual who also like them)
o Proximity (being around anytime physically or virtually)
o Similarities (same age, religion, education, race, physical attractiveness, intelligence,
and socio-economic class)
The diversity of sexual behavior: solitary, heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual and transsexual
● Human sexual behavior is any activity, solitary,

by pair or by group which includes sexual arousal.
● Human sexual behavior may conveniently be

classified according to the number and gender of the
participants.
● Not all sexual arousal can lead to sexual activity.

Humans are constantly exposed to sexual stimuli when
seeing attractive persons or seeing advertisement with
sexual themes through mass media.
● There is solitary behavior involving only one

individual, and there is sociosexual behavior involving
more than one person.
● Sociosexual behavior is generally divided into

heterosexual behavior (male with female) and
homosexual behavior (male with male or female with
female). If three or more individuals are involved it is,
of course, possible to have heterosexual and
homosexual activity simultaneously.
● In both solitary and sociosexual behavior there

may be activities that are sufficiently unusual to warrant

the label deviant behavior. The term deviant should not be used as a moral judgment but
simply as indicating that such activity is not common in a particular society. Since human
societies differ in their sexual practices, what is deviant in one society may be normal in
another.
● Solitary behavior – A behavior with the intention of stimulating self that caused arousal
usually done in private. This behavior is more common to males. There is great individual
variation in frequency. Solitary behavior provides pleasure for self with emotional content
with sole control to the degree of pleasure.
● One of the necessary tasks of growing up is learning to cope with one’s sexual arousal and to
achieve some balance between suppression, which can be injurious, and free expression,
which can lead to social difficulties. There is great variation among individuals in the strength
of sex drive and responsiveness, so this necessary exercise of restraint is correspondingly
difficult or easy.
● On the other hand, Rosenthal (2013) defined sexual orientation as a person’s predisposition
or inclination regarding sexual behavior, emotional attachment or physical attraction to one or
both sexes.
● The phrase “sexual orientation” is preferred over “sexual preference” which implies a
conscious or deliberate choice of a sexual partner. The following are types of sexual
orientations:
1. Heterosexuality – it is the attraction to members of opposite sex.
2. Homosexuality – refers to a person whose sexual orientation is toward another of the

same sex. It is the attraction to members of the same sex.
a. Lesbian – is the term used to describe a woman whose sexual and romantic attraction
toward women.
b. Gay - is a man whose sexual and romantic attraction is towards other men.
3. Bisexual – is a person who may be sexually oriented to both men and women
4. Transsexual – these are people experience a gender identity that is inconsistent with, or
not culturally associated with, their assigned sex, and desire to permanently transition to
the gender with which they identify, usually seeking medical assistance.
o According to DSM V (2013), refers to the broad spectrum of individuals who

transiently or persistently identify with a gender different from their natal gender.
o Transsexual denotes an individual who seeks, or has undergone, a social transition
from male to female or female to male, which in many, but not all, cases also involve
a somatic transition by cross-sex hormone and genital surgery (sex reassignment
surgery).
o In clinical viewpoint, a person is suffering from gender dysphoria if there is distress
that may accompany the incongruence between one’s expressed gender or gender
identity and one’s assigned gender.
o Although not all individuals will experience distress as a result of incongruence,
many are distressed if desired physical interventions by means of hormones and/or
surgery are not available.

5. Pansexual – is a new sexual orientation of persons who are sexually attracted to people
regardless of their sex or gender identity. The word “pan” is a Greek word for “all r
every”. Thus, they may also be called “gender blind” for they believe that gender and sex
are not determining factors for getting sexually attracted to both males and females
whereas pansexual is more fluid. Aside from men and women they may also be attracted
to transgender, transsexual, androgynous and other gender categories.
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD)
● Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) are also known as Sexually Transmitted Infections
(STI), together with venereal disease, these are infections that are commonly spread by sexual
intercourse. These are infections that are passed from one person to another through sexual
contact, blood transfusion, breastfeeding, and a certain amount of saliva.
● Most STD’s affect both

men and women, but in many
cases the health problems they
cause can be more severe for
women. If a pregnant woman
has an STD, it can cause serious
health problems for the baby.
Antibiotics can treat STDs
caused by bacteria, yeast, or
parasites. There is no cure for
STDs caused by a virus, but
medicines can often help with
the symptoms and keep the
disease under control.
● Some causes of STDs

are: bacteria, parasites, yeast,
and viruses. These STDs can be
dangerous, although in today’s
generation it can be treated in
different ways, but if not it can
lead to Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
or even Acquired immune
deficiency syndrome or acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS).
● The following are some

examples of STIs:
1. HIV/AIDS. HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus with AIDS stands for
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Thus, HIV is a virus while AIDS is a condition
or syndrome. HIV can lead to infections that attack and destroy the CD4 (Tcells) of
the

immune system which is the body’s natural defense against such illness as tuberculosis,
pneumonia, and cancer.
o HIV without treatment

can lead to AIDS but not all
cases of HIV develop AIDS.
Only untreated HIV may lead to
AIDS. Presently, there is no
effective cure for HIV. But the
condition can be controlled with
proper medical care.
o The antiretroviral
therapy (ART) is a combination
of medications that are used to
prevent HIV from replicating to
protect the body against the virus
and infection. However, ART is
not a cure. It helps those with
HIV positive to live longer and
happier and lowers the risk of
advancing the condition into
AIDS.
o In the statistics of Philippine Department of Health (DOH), in 2008), there is one (1)
newly diagnosed HIV case per day. In 2010, it increased to four (4) cases per day. In
2012, it became nine (9) per day. In 2014, it has blown to seventeen (17) cases per
day and in 2016, there are twenty-sex (26) reported daily cases of newly diagnosed
HIV.
2. Genital Herpes. This is a sexually transmitted infection caused by a large family of

viruses of different strains. These strains produce other non-sexually transmitted diseases
such as chicken pox and mononucleosis.
o Most individuals have no or only minimal signs or symptoms. When signs do occur,
they typically appear as one or more blisters on or around the genitals or rectum. The
blisters break, leaving tender sores that may take two to four weeks to heal the first
time they occur. Typically, another outbreak can appear weeks or months after the
first, but it almost always is less severe and shorter.
o The virus remains in the body for life and the lesions may recur from time to time.
Severe or frequently recurrent genital herpes is treated with one of several antiviral
drugs that are available by prescription. These drugs help control the symptoms, but
do not eliminate the herpes virus from the body.
3. Genital Warts. Genital warts (also called venereal warts or Condylomata Acuminata) are
caused by the human papillomavirus, a virus related to the one that causes common skin
warts. Certain high-risk types of HPV can cause cervical cancer and other genital
cancers, but these are different from the types that cause genital warts.

o Genital warts usually first appear as small, hard painless bumps in the vaginal area or
around the anus. If untreated, they may grow and develop a fleshy, cauliflower-like
appearance.
4. Gonorrhea. This a sexually transmitted infection caused by bacterium Neisseria

gonorrheoeae which thrives in the moist mucous membranes linings of the mouth,
throuat, vagina, cervix, urethra, and the anal tract.
o Most women who are infected have no symptoms. Even when a woman has
symptoms, they can be so non-specific as to be mistaken for a bladder or vaginal
infection. The most common symptoms of gonorrhea are a vaginal discharge or
vaginal bleeding between periods. Untreated cases can lead to serious complications,
including PID, ectopic pregnancy and infertility.
o Symptoms for males are discharge from the penis and burning sensations during
urination.
5. Syphilis. This is a sexually transmitted infection caused by bacterium Treponema

palligum, a spirochete. If left untreated, syphilis may progress through four phases:
Primay (chancre sores appear), Secondary (general skin rashes occur), latent (a period
that can last for several years with no overt symptoms), and tertiary (cardiovascular
disease, blindness, paralysis, skin ulcers, liver damage, mental problem and even death
may occur).
6. Chlamydia. This is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections, named for
Chlamydia trachomatis, an organism that spreads through sexual contact and infects the
genital organs of both sexes.
o Many people with chlamydial infection, however, have few or no symptoms of

infection; it often goes undiagnosed and untreated. Once diagnosed with chlamydial
infection, a person can be treated with an antibiotic.
Methods of Contraception (Artificial and Natural)
● There are a lot of reasons why people use contraceptives. Some purposes of birth control are
to prevent pregnancy, many women choose to use contraception because of certain health
advantages. For example, some hormonal birth control methods may help regulate your
period, reduce acne, and/or lower endometriosis-related pain.
● In general, with the exception of male and female sterilization, all methods that are
appropriate for healthy adults are also potentially appropriate for healthy, post-pubertal
adolescents. Once

puberty has been achieved,
methods that are physiologically
safe for adults are also
physiologically safe for
adolescents.
● In reality, contraceptive use

entails consideration of more
than just medical safety. Before
discussing contraceptive options,
a person must be given the
opportunity to express their
needs and to decide freely
whether they want to protect
against pregnancy or need to
protect against STI/HIV.
● Once a decision is made for protection, sexually active individual should be presented with
options that, if used consistently and correctly, will prevent pregnancy and, depending upon
an individual’s circumstances, prevent sexually transmissible diseases. When selecting a
method, a person should consider the nature of their sexual relationship, sexual behaviors
engaged in, frequency of intercourse, risk of Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) or even
HIV, ability to comply with the use, ability to tolerate side effects, cost, convenience,
religious beliefs and other personal factors that may affect their decisions.
● Some of the methods of contraception:
1. Hormonal method of contraception (prevents the release of an egg or ovulation)
a. Oral Contraceptives (Pills) – These are daily oral contraceptives. Some contain estrogen and
progesterone; others are progestin only and are over 99% effective if used according to
instruction. Often reduces bleeding and period pain, and may help with premenstrual
symptoms. Missing pills, vomiting or severe diarrhea can make it less effective.
b. The Patch – It is a small patch you stick on the skin that releases estrogen and progestogen. It
stops ovulation. It can make
bleeds regular, lighter, and less
painful, however, may be seen
and can cause skin irritation.
c. The ring – The contraceptive

vaginal ring is a small plastic ring
a woman inserts into her vagina
every month and releases
hormones to stop ovulation. One
ring stays in for three weeks –
you don’t have to think about
contraception every day and must
be comfortable with inserting and
removing it.

d. Implants - A small, flexible rod put under the skin of the upper arm releases progestogen.
Works for 3 years but can be taken out sooner. It requires a small procedure to fit and remove
it.
e. Injectable - An injection of progestogen. Works for 8 or 13 weeks – you don’t have to think
about contraception during this time. Can’t be removed from the body so side effects may
continue while it works and for some time afterwards.
2. Barrier methods (methods that physically or chemically block the sperm from reaching an egg
and provide a barrier between direct skin to skin contacts)
a. Diaphragm - A flexible latex (rubber) or silicone device, used with spermicide, is put into the
vagina to cover the cervix. Can be put in any time before sex.
b. Cervical Caps – These are similar to the diaphragm, though they are generally always made
of silicone. They are put into the vagina to cover the cervix and are 92 to 96 percent effective
when used correctly.
c. Male and Female Condoms or spermicides - For Males: A very thin latex (rubber)
polyurethane (plastic) or synthetic sheath, put over the erect penis. For Females: Soft, thin
polyurethane sheath that loosely lines the vagina and covers the area just outside. Condoms
are the best way to help protect yourself from sexually transmitted infections
3. Behavioral Methods
a. Rhythm or Calendar Method – It is a way to determine a woman’s most fertile and interfile
times by charting the menstrual cycle. It is also known as natural family planning or fertility
awareness.
b. Abstinence or celibacy – It refers to the avoidance of sexual intercourse.
c. Outercourse – It is a sexual activity that does not include the insertion of the penis into the
vagina.

d. Withdrawal – it happens when a man removes his penis from vagina and ejaculate outside of
the woman’s body.
4. Sterilization (procedures that make an individual permanently incapable of conceiving or

fertilizing a partner)
a. Tubal Ligation /Sterilization – It is a surgery for

women in which fallopian tubes are tied to prevent
eggs from travelling to the uterus so a woman cannot
get pregnant.
b. Vasectomy – It is an operation in which the

surgeon makes a small cut in the upper part of the
scrotum then ties or blocks the vas deferens. Men
can still have orgasm or ejaculation after the
operation.
5. Intrauterine Device (IUD) – It is a small device

that is placed in the uterus by a doctor to prevent
pregnancy.
6. Emergency Contraception - It is a measure that protects against pregnancy after unprotected sex
has already occurred. It could be through IUD or higher dosage of pills.

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1

GED 101 Understanding the Self

Bersoto, M.A., Arcega, A.M., & Cullar, D. S.

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Introduction to Self Understanding

Understanding oneself is essential to understand behaviors and beliefs

 Environmental Factors of Personality. The surroundings of an individual compose the

 Biological Factors of Personality. This further includes:

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

 Cultural Factors. Culture is traditionally considered as the major determinants of an individual’s

The Five-Factor Model of Personality

Table 1. Descriptions of Personality Traits

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

In definition, self-concept is generally thought of as our individual perceptions of our behavior,

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Philosophy is defined as the study of knowledge or wisdom from its Latin

 A philosopher from Athens, Greece and said to have the

clarify their ideas and resolve logical inconsistencies (Price,

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

 A student of Socrates, who introduced the idea of a

responsibility of the reason to organize, control, and

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

essence of self is being a thinking thing.

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

 The self, according to Locke is consciousness. In his

the same thing in different times and different places.

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

It is the self that is aggressive, destructive, unrealistic and

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

 Additionally, the self is the product of reason, a

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Paul and Patricia Churchland

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

 Phenomenology provides a direct description of

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Sociology and Anthropology

Sociology and Anthropology are two interrelated disciplines that

George Herbert Mead and the Social Self

 Mead is an American philosopher, sociologist, and

experience their self.

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

 Simmel was a German sociologist, philosopher, and

The Self and Person in the Contemporary Anthropology

 The four subfields of anthropology – Archeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics, and

The Self Embedded in the Culture

Image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Geertz

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Psychology is a scientific study of mental processes and human

William James and the Me-Self and I-Self

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Real and Ideal Self

Multiple versus Unified Self

GED 101 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

True versus False Self

 Donald Winnicott was a pediatrician in London who