COMPUTER NETWORKS

1.Evolution of Networking:
ARPANET:
The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was the foundation of the Internet.

Internet:

A network of networks.

Interspace: Interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate
online with real-time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.

Switching Techniques:

It is a way to send a message from sender to receiver.

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Sends data in small blocks, called packets.
Requires point to point connections during
Packets reassembled in proper sequence at the
calls.
receiver end.

Required dedicated connection Not required dedicated connection

Circuit-switched networks were used for packet-switched networks handled data

phone calls

Packet Switching

2. Data Communication Terminologies:

Channel: A channel is a separate path through which signals can flow.

A channel has a certain capacity for transmitting information, often measured by its bandwidth in
Hz or its data rate in bits per second.
 Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the amount of information that can be transmitted over a network in
a given amount of time, usually expressed in bits per second or bps.

Data Transfer Rate:

Larger units are Kbps, Mbps and Gbps, KBps, MBps,GBps

bps means bit per second.

Bps means Byte per second

1 kilobit per second (Kbps) = 1000 bits per second (bps).

1 megabit per second (Mbps) = 1000 Kbps or 10002 bps.

1 gigabit per second (Gbps) = 1000 Mbps

1 Terabit per second (Tbps) = 1000 Gbps

3. Transmission Medium:

A medium which is used to connect the devices and transfers the data from one device to another
device.

Medium

Wired (Guided) Wireless (Unguided)

Twisted Pair CableCo-axial Cable Optical Fiber

Radio wave Micro wave Satellite Comm.
Wi-Fi, infrared, Bluetooth

Wired (guided) Medium:

• Twisted pair cable: It consists of two identical 1 mm thick copper wires insulated and twisted together.
The twisted pair cables are twisted in order to reduce cross talk .
• It is least expensive and supports low bandwidth.

• Co-axial: It consists of a solid wire core surrounded by one or more wire shields, each separated from the
other by some kind of plastic insulator. It is mostly used in the cable wires.
• It is expensive and supports moderate bandwidth. Used to cover a metropolitan area.
++++
• Optical fiber: An optical fiber consists of thin glass fibers that can carry information in the form of
visible light.
• It is most expensive and supports high bandwidth. Used for long distance communications

Wireless (Unguided) Medium:

• Infrared: It is used for short range communication ranging from a few centimeters to several meters.
• This requires a line of sight for communication. It can’t penetrate a solid object.
• It is inexpensive mode of communication.
• It is used in TV remotes, Wireless Mouse etc.

• Radio Waves: Used for long range communication. It can penetrate solid objects and travel in all
directions, hence line of sight is not required.
• It is economical way of communications (compared to installing cables).
• Its uses includes AM/ FM broadcasts.

• Micro waves: It uses higher frequencies than radio waves and used for long distance communications.
• It can’t penetrate solid objects.
• High towers are installed on sending and receiving side of signals.
• It is quite expensive way of communication.
•

• Satellite Link: It is used for very long distance communications.

• It is very expensive to install a satellite.
• Satellite is used to communicate anywhere in the world.

4. Network Devices:
1. Modem:
 The full form of modem is Modulator and demodulator.
 A modem is a device that enables a computer to transmit data over telephone or cable
lines.
 A modem converts analog signal to digital signal and vice- versa.
 Modem connects computer to internet.
 There are two types of modem:
a. Internal Modem
b. External Modem

Telephone pole

Modem

Fig. : Working of Modem

2. RJ45 Connector: It is used for connecting computers onto Ethernet-based local area networks (LAN).
RJ stands for Registered Jack. It is a standardize networking interface. 45 is the number of the interface
standard. It has 8-pins.

3. NIC (Network Interface Card): NIC card has a physical address of a system; this physical
address known as MAC address.

A MAC address is a 6- byte address with each byte separated by a colon. First 3-bytes have
Manufacturer id and last 3-bytes represent Card id.

10:BE:05:56:3F:CB

Manufacturer id Card id
Router:
A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks.
A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs.
A router acts as a dispatcher, choosing the best path for information to travel so it’s received
quickly.

4. Hub:
 A network device that contains multiple ports.
 When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of
the LAN can see all packets.
 Two types of hub :
 a. Active Hub
b. Passive Hub

Fig: Hub Fig. : Active and Passive Hub

5. Switch:
 A switch is called smart hub.
 Provides multiple connections
 A device that filters and forwards packets between LAN segments.

Fig: Switch

HUB SWITCH
Passes the frame to a specific port, because it
Hub passes the frame to every port. keeps a record of MAC address.

Creates lot of traffic on network Less traffic

Hub shares its bandwidth with each and
Switch allocates full bandwidth to each of
every port, so bandwidth divided among all the its port. So user always access maximum
nodes, which will degrade performance. amount of bandwidth.
Slow speed Fast speed

6. Gateway:
 A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network.
  Used to connect two dissimilar networks.

WAN LAN
Wi-Fi Card

Wi-Fi Card or Local Area Network (LAN) Cards are network cards that allow computers to connect to
wireless networks.
Bluetooth Card is a USB-based wireless card that allows computers to receive Bluetooth signals wirelessly to
connect various devices or sensors.

5.Network Topologies and types:

The term Topology refers to the way/layout in which the various nodes or computers of a network are
linked together.
The following factors are considered while selecting a topology:

1. Cost
2. Reliability
3. Bandwidth capacity
4. Ease of installation
5. Ease of troubleshooting

Types of Topologies

Bus Topology
It consists of one continuous length of cable that is shared by all the nodes in the network and a
terminating resistor (terminator) at each end.
 Data communication message travels along the bus in both directions until it is picked up by a
workstation or server NIC.
Bus Network Topology requires a multipoint connection.

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Easy to install and the use for small 1. If the main cable fails the entire network
networks. collapses.
2. Requires less cable 2. Difficult to reconfigure, due to more
connections.

3. Failure of one node does not affect the 3. Difficult to troubleshoot

network functioning.
4. Slow, due to traffic on single cable
4. Cost is less 5. Only one device transmits at a time, other
5. New node can be easily added devices wait for their turn.

Star Topology
The physical star Topology uses a central controlling hub – like points of a star.
Each network device has a dedicated point-to-point link to the central hub.
There is no direct link between these computers and the computers can communicate via central
controller only.

Advantages Disadvanta
ges

1. Easier to add new node or modify any 1. Central node dependency..

existing node without disturbing network.
2. Cabling cost is more
2. Fast Speed
3. Difficult to install
3. If any local computer or link fails, the entire
system does not collapse 4. If the central controller or hub fails, entire
system collapses
 4. Easy fault detection and isolation

1. Tree Topology
This topology has Hierarchical structure.
This topology connects the node via hubs.
Hub, which is present at top level, is called root hub or active hub. Another hub is called secondary
hub or passive hub.

Advantages Disadvantages

1. New node can be added easily. 1. If the backbone line breaks, the entire
2. Signal can travel for long distance. segment goes down.
3. Isolate and prioritize communication. 2. More difficult to configure
3. Higher cabling cost

Types of Network:

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)
1. LAN:
*Use in small local area, like in an institute or an organization.
* Devices are connected via physical medium.
* Limited distance, up to 150 Meter.
* Example – Intranet
2. MAN:

* Larger than LAN.

* Used in Metropolitan cities.
 * Range up to 50 KM.
3. WAN:

* Large network
* Public
* Example – Internet
4. PAN:
* For very small distance
* Private Communication
* Example: Bluetooth

6. Network Protocol:

1. TCP/IP : Transmission Control Protocol /Internet Protocol

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a suite of

communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet.

TCP manages how a message is assembled into smaller packets before they send transmitted
over the internet and reassembled in the right order at the destination address.

IP defines how to address and route each packet to make sure it reaches the right destination.
Each gateway computer on the network checks this IP address to determine where to forward
the message.

IP: Internet Protocol

Each computer has unique address over internet, is called IP address.

An IP address is an identifier for a computer or device on a TCP/IP network.

 Two types:

I. IPv4 (32-bits or 4-bytes) : IPv4 addresses are canonically represented in dot- decimal
notation, which consists of four decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by
dots, e.g., 192.168.1.1.
II. IPv6 (128-bits or 16-bytes)

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

o used for transmitting the files from one host to another.
o It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the computer that acts as a

server for other computers on the internet.

o It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.

3. PPP (Point to Point Protocol)

 Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) is a communication protocol of the data link layer that is used to transmit
multiprotocol data between two directly connected (point-to-point) computers.
 It is a byte - oriented protocol that is widely used in broadband communications having heavy loads and
high speeds.

HTTP HyperText Transfer Protocol.

o It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
o The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text, hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
o HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to another host. But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as
HTTP uses only one connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer the files.

4. Telnet (TELecommunication NETwork) : A network protocol that allows a user on one computer to
log into another computer(remote) that is part of the same network or on the internet.

Electronic Mail Protocol :

 E-Mail is a method to send the messages in digital form. E-mail is a message that may contain text,
files, images, or other attachments sent through a network to a specified individual or group of individuals.

gmail server yahoo server

SMTP

POP3/IMAP

abc@gmail.com (Sender) xyz@yahoo.com (Receiver)

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a protocol which is used to transfer the e-mail from
sender side. This protocol is known as push protocol.

POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3): is the most commonly used protocol for receiving email
over the internet.

Protocols for Chat and Video Conferencing:

VoIP : VoIP (voice over IP) is the transmission of voice and multimedia content over

Internet Protocol (IP) networks.

This protocol is used for chat and video conferencing over internet.

Wi-Fi : Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is the name of a popular wireless networking

technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections.

WiMax
WiMax stands for Worldwide Inter-operability for Microwave Access.
It is used to provide higher data rates with increased coverage.
It is based on MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) technology.
Its range is upto 50 Km. It may provide speed upto 70 Mbps
This technology is fast, convenient and cost effective.
9. Introduction to web services:
WW: World Wide Web is an information system where websites and WebPages are interconnected and
accessible through URL. It is also known as Web.

HTML: HTML is the standard markup language for creating Web pages.

 HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language

 HTML describes the structure and design of Web pages
 HTML elements are represented by tags
 Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them to render the content of the page
 The current version of HTML is HTML 5.0

A simple HTML Code: OUTPUT

<html>
<head>
<title>My first web
page</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1> My First Heading
</h1>
<p> My first paragraph </p>
</body>
</html>
XML :

 XML stands for EXtensible Markup Language

 XML is a markup language much like HTML
 XML was designed to store and transport data
 XML was designed to be self-descriptive
 XML is a W3C Recommendation ( consortium)

S.
HTML XML
No.
1 HyperText Markup Language. eXtensible Markup Language.

XML was designed to transport and store

2 designed to display data with focus
data, with focus on what data is.
on how data looks.

3 HTML is case insensitive. XML is case sensitive.

5 HTML has its own predefined tags. Uses custom tags defined by the user.

6 HTML is not strict if the user does not XML makes it mandatory for the user the
use the closing tags. close each tag that has been used.
 7 HTML does not preserve white space. XML preserves white space.
8 HTML is about displaying data, hence static. XML is about carrying information hence
dynamic.

Domain Name:

Domain names are used to identify one or more IP addresses. Domain names are used in URLs to
identify particular web page.

For example, http://www.kvongcbrd.com/english-results.htm

URL http://www.kvongcbrd.com/english-results.htm
Domain kvongcbrd.com
Name
Web Page english-results.htm
Protocol http

Every domain name has a suffix that indicates which top level domain (TLD) it belongs to
. There are only a limited number of such domains. For example:
 gov - Government agencies
 edu - Educational institutions
 org - Organizations (nonprofit)
 mil - Military
 com - commercial business
 net - Network organizations
 in - India
 th – Thailand
Because the Internet is based on IP addresses, not domain names, every Web server require a
Domain Name System (DNS) server to translate domain names into IP addresses.

URL: Uniform Resource Locator. It is the global address of documents and other resources on the World
Wide Web.

Website: Collection of web pages which are interlinked to one another. These pages are hypertext pages
and link between pages is known as hyperlink.

Web browser: It is application software though which user can access internet. Example: internet explorer,
Google chrome, Mozilla Firefox, opera, UC browser

Web Server: A web server is a system that uses HTTP to accept request and serve the web pages as
response to users. Every web server has IP address.

Example: Apache web server, Microsoft's Internet Information Server (IIS) and nginx
(pronounced engine X) from NGNIX.
Web Hosting: Web hosting is a service that allows organizations and individuals to post a website on to
the Internet.
A web host, or web hosting service provider, is a business that provides the technologies and services
needed for the website or webpage to be viewed in the Internet. Websites are hosted, or stored, on special
computers called servers.