sustainability

Review
Lane-Level Road Network Generation Techniques for
Lane-Level Maps of Autonomous Vehicles: A Survey
Ling Zheng 1,2 , Bijun Li 1,2, * , Bo Yang 1 , Huashan Song 3 and Zhi Lu 1
1 State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping, and Remote Sensing,
Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China
2 Engineering Research Center for Spatio-Temporal Data Smart Acquisition and Application,
Ministry of Education of China, Beijing 100816, China
3 Three Gorges Geotechnical Consultants Co., Ltd. Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
* Correspondence: lee@whu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-27-6877-9785




Received: 9 July 2019; Accepted: 16 August 2019; Published: 20 August 2019


Abstract: Autonomous driving is experiencing rapid development. A lane-level map is essential for
autonomous driving, and a lane-level road network is a fundamental part of a lane-level map. A large
amount of research has been performed on lane-level road network generation based on various
on-board systems. However, there is a lack of analysis and summaries with regards to previous work.
This paper presents an overview of lane-level road network generation techniques for the lane-level
maps of autonomous vehicles with on-board systems, including the representation and generation of
lane-level road networks. First, sensors for lane-level road network data collection are discussed.
Then, an overview of the lane-level road geometry extraction methods and mathematical modeling of
a lane-level road network is presented. The methodologies, advantages, limitations, and summaries
of the two parts are analyzed individually. Next, the classic logic formats of a lane-level road network
are discussed. Finally, the survey summarizes the results of the review.

Keywords: lane-level map; lane-level road network; autonomous driving; road geometry
extraction; intersection

1. Introduction
An autonomous vehicle that is equipped with sensors, controllers, and other devices can drive by
itself efficiently and safely. In recent years, the technology and theory of autonomous driving have
made significant progress [1], although there are still substantial challenges to achieve autonomous
driving [2].
An autonomous driving system includes three basic modules: sensing and perception, planning,
and control [3]. Maps are crucially important for these modules [4–8]. For example, a map can not
only provide information out of the range of sensing, which reduces the complexity of sensing [9–11],
but also help an autonomous vehicle to obtain a highly accurate position [12–14]. In addition, a map
can offer global paths and planning based on previously stored information [15–17]. Accordingly, the
map is one of the key elements of autonomous driving [18].
Navigation electrical maps and road-level maps have been widely used in the automotive field.
These maps are insufficient for both the context of lane information and the accuracy of the lane
and segment geometry. Therefore, various types of maps have been developed for autonomous
driving [19–22]. In [23], maps were classified into two categories: planar and point-cloud maps. Planar
maps describe the geographic world with layers or planes on Geographic Information System (GIS)
software, such as high-definition (HD) maps [24] or lane-level maps [25]. Lane-level maps are enhanced
with lane-level details of the environment for autonomous driving compared with road-level maps.

Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511; doi:10.3390/su11164511 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 2 of 19

Point-cloud maps are formed by a set of point-cloud data. For instance, the commercial companies of
TomTom, Google, and Here have developed this type of map to perform in real road conditions and
road surface situations. Furthermore, point-cloud maps or feature maps have been proposed with
obstacle features or environment features [26,27]. Since lane-level maps support autonomous driving
safety and flexibility, a critical review of the lane-level road network of a lane-level map is presented in
this paper.
A lane-level map includes a lane-level road network, lane-level attribution in detail, and lane
geometry lines with high accuracy, from the 10 cm level to the decimeter level modeling the real
world. A road network describes the road system of the real world and a lane-level road network
is a fundamental part of a lane-level map. Figure 1 shows examples of the road-level road network
and lane-level road network representing the real world. There are various research studies on
lane-level road networks in the literature, including different approaches to automatic lane-level road
network generation, lane-level intersection extraction, and lane-level road network graph construction.
However, there is a lack of summary and comparison of these works. This paper presents an overview
of the sensors and the techniques for the generation of a land-level road network. First, we introduce
the sensors for lane-level road network collection. Second, we discuss the lane-level road geometry
extraction methods of a lane-level road network for autonomous driving. Third, we present the
mathematical modeling and the logic representation of a lane-level road network. Finally, we provide
a discussion and conclusions of this work.

Figure 1. Examples of the road-level and lane-level road network: (a) the real world; (b) the road-level
road network; and, (c) the lane-level road network [28].

2. Sensors
There are different kinds of on-board systems for lane-level road network collection, the sensors
of which can be classified into two main categories: position sensors and perception sensors. The
former includes the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), Inertial Navigation System (INS), and
Position and Orientation System (POS), and the latter includes lasers and cameras. The following
sections describe these sensors in detail.

2.1. Position Sensors

There are various modifications for an on-board collection system. The Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS) usually utilizes Differential GPS (DGPS) technology for lane-level road network
acquisition [29], which improves the position accuracy with real-time differential error data. GPS is a
typical type of GNSS. Moreover, a crowdsourcing trajectory is sourced from crowd-sourced vehicles
equipped with GPS and from GPS. In this approach, the sample frequency of the GPS is 5−120 s, and
the average sample frequency is 5−60 s. Accordingly, the accuracy for samples is meters to tens of
meters. For example, U-blox EVK-6T is low cost, and the position accuracy is 2.5 m [30]. In addition,
the Inertial Navigation System (INS) provides the positions of vehicles with Inertial Measurement
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 3 of 19

Units (IMU) with gyro and accelerometers. Furthermore, the Position and Orientation System (POS)
combines the GNSS, the INS, and the Distance Measurement Instrument (DMI) to provide position
and posture information, which can further enhance the performance of the INS by integration with
differential GPS. This system has been adopted by a probe vehicle, which was equipped with other
on-board sensors for lane-level road network collection. NovAtel SPAN-CPT (NovAtel Inc., Calgary,
Canada) series devices have been used in preliminary studies. The data update frequency of this
system is 100 Hz, and the position accuracy is at the centimeter level [31]. OXTS RT3000 (Oxford
Technical Solutions Ltd., Oxfordshire, United Kingdom) has the same data update frequency and
position accuracy [32]. In addition, the NovAtel SPAN FSAS, which can support the addition of a DMI
SICK DFS60B, was designed with 200 Hz for raw data updates, whose absolute accuracies are 0.02
m for the spatial position, 0.08◦ for the pitch angle, 0.023◦ for the yaw angle, and 0.008◦ for the roll
angle [28]. Figure 2 shows the sample images of OXTS RT3002 and NovAtel SPAN-CPT.

Figure 2. Two sample images: (a) the sample image of OXTS RT3003; (b) the sample image of
NovAtel SPAN-CPT.

2.2. Perception Sensors

In addition to extracting position data directly, other studies have used perception sensors that
combine position sensors for an on-board system. The perception sensors of an on-board system used
to extract a lane-level road network can be divided into two categories: laser scanners and cameras.
The subsequent sections describe these sensors in detail.

2.2.1. Laser Scanners

Laser scanners emit laser pulses to detect objects, which reflect signal light back to a laser pulse
and calculate the position and velocity of objects with a reflected signal light. A laser scanner consists
of the scanning system and ranging system, integrating charge-coupled device (CCD), the control
system and calibration system. Original observation data of a laser scanner include time, distance,
angle and reflected intensity, which further can calculate position and reflected intensity information.
Additionally, the surface reflectivity of a scanned object depends on the surface color and the surface
type such as smooth or rough, which could influence the ability of the laser scanner. The higher the
reflectivity of the scanned object, the more light signals the scanned object can reflect and the longer the
range of the laser scanner. Figure 3 shows an example of the reflected intensity image of a laser scanner.
In previous study [33], the classification of lasers based on measurement principles includes five
categories: time of flight (TOF) sensors, triangulation sensors, confocal sensor interferometric sensors,
fiber Bragg grating sensors, and laser Doppler velocimetry, where a specific and detailed report of these
categories have been described. Since most lasers used for the lane-level road network extraction of
existing studies use TOF sensors, we take the TOF sensor as an example. Figure 4 shows the schematic
diagram of a TOF. A TOF sensor emits and receives laser pulses, then it records the time interval
between a pulse emission and return to calculate the distance between a scanner and objects. In this
approach, the measuring distance range is several hundred meters, or even one kilometer. For example,
a Velodyne HDL-32E sensor, which has a 360◦ horizontal and a 40◦ vertical field of view, is designed for
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 4 of 19

less than 2 cm of measurement for distance accuracy and 70 m for distance. This sensor has been widely
used on a probe vehicle for lane-level road network extraction [34,35]. The scanning frequency of this
laser is 10 Hz, providing 700,000 points per second. In addition, the Velodyne HDL-64E is an improved
laser, with 120 m in measurement distance and 1.333 million survey points [36]. Moreover, a RIEGL
Vz-400 has been used for professional surveys such as the Mobile Mapping System (MMS) [37], which
has a 360◦ horizontal and 100◦ vertical field of view. The scanning distance of this laser reaches 600 m
for 90% reflectivity, and the accuracy is 3 mm. The emitting frequency is 1.2 million points per second.

Figure 3. An example of the reflected intensity image of a laser scanner.

Figure 4. The schematic diagram of a time of flight (TOF) sensor.

2.2.2. Cameras
A digital camera sensor provides digital images where image information such as color, intensity,
and texture can be used to detect objects in the scene. Since cameras are low-cost compared to other
sensors such as laser scanners, it has been a research hotspot for lane extraction [38,39]. Sensors for
vision-based studies include single cameras and stereo cameras [40]. Additionally, multi-cameras
are used as vision sensors [41]. Although the theory of a monocular camera has made considerable
progress in recent years, a monocular camera is limited in terms of the position and size extraction of
objects due to the lack of depth information. Accordingly, stereo camera sensors have been adopted to
recover depth information [42]. These camera sensors obtain spatial 3D information with two planar
images shot from different perspectives. Fan and Dahnoun [43] improved the detection rate of lanes
successfully using these sensors. Furthermore, multi-cameras consist of several cameras that provide
complementary information and verification of information between cameras [39].

2.3. Summary
A single-position sensor can collect the lane-level road network data directly, but the sensor is
expensive, while a multi GPS approach obtains lower accuracy for a lane-level road network but has a
cheaper cost. Besides, crowdsourcing trajectory data updates rapidly. A laser scanner is appropriate
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 5 of 19

for extracting the high precision of a lane-level road network, but it costs a large amount and it can be
affected by bad weather such as snow or fog. A camera is cheap but sensitive to weather and light.
Table 1 shows the results of the sensors comparison.

Table 1. Sensors comparison.

Type Sensor(s) Advantages Disadvantages

• Cheaper than the INS

• Low accuracy (meter or
Single GPS • Easy to be equipped on
tens of meters level)
Position crowd-sourced vehicles
Sensors

INS 1 • High accuracy • Expensive

• High precision of • Expensive

Laser scanner distance measurements • Sensitive to bad weather
• Not sensitive to light such as snow or fog

• Low cost • Sensitive to light

Single camera • Readily available • No depth information
Perception
Sensors

Stereo camera • Provides depth information • Limited field of view

• Provides
Multi-camera • Complex computation
supplementary information

1 Inertial Navigation System.

3. Lane-Level Road Geometry Extraction Methods

Lane-level road networks do not update in real time for lane-level maps of autonomous vehicles.
The generation results of a lane-level road network are consistent whether using perception sensors
or position sensors. Since perception sensors directly provide relative data, it is necessary to use
data preprocessing and data registration in order to obtain absolute data. More comprehensive and
detailed reports on the lane-level road network generation process from perception sensors can be
found in previous studies [44,45], although this is not the key concern in this study. We focus on
the road geometry extraction for a lane-level road network and divide lane-level road geometry
extraction methods into three categories: trajectory-based methods, 3D point cloud-based methods,
and vision-based methods. The following subsections address the methodology, advantages, and
limitations for each category.

3.1. Trajectory-Based Methods

The trajectory-based methods focus on lane centerline extraction. The single GPS trajectory-based
method regards the GPS trajectory as the lane centerline, and this trajectory is recorded by a probe
vehicle driving along the centerline of a lane. This method models lane geometry directly, so it is
widely used [28,46]. However, the accuracy of the lane geometry relies on the position accuracy of the
probe vehicle. Research studies have focused on improving the accuracy and reliability of the probe
vehicle position. In reference [7], the authors used GPS-combined Dead Reckoning (DR) to get a more
accurate vehicle position. Additionally, their inertial and GPS measurements fusion method used a
Bayesian filter, which improved the reliability of the probe vehicle position measurements [47,48].
Crowdsourced GPS trajectories are widely used for road-level information extraction [5,49–51],
such as road geometry and topology extraction [52–54]. With adequate mining, the crowdsourcing
trajectories have been another data source for lane-level road network extraction. Methods based
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 6 of 19

on the crowdsourcing trajectories analyze the shape feature and direction feature of trajectories to
mine the lane information in detail using massive GPS trajectories. In general, the extraction of lane
geometry contains three steps. First, the noise of the raw trajectories is filtered. For example, previous
studies have used a Kalman filter and a particle filter algorithm [55] or kernel density methods [49]
for preprocessing. Second, the lane number of the segment is inferred. Third, the lane geometry
is constructed using traffic rules. In previous study [56], the authors used nonparametric Kernel
Density Estimation (KDE) to estimate the number and the locations of the lane centerlines. Tang et
al. [57] proposed a naive Bayesian classification to extract the number and the rules of traffic lanes, and
they achieved no more than 84% precision on the lane number extraction. In addition, an optimized
constrained Gaussian mixture model was proposed in order to mine the number and locations of the
traffic lanes, and the precision of the lane number was 85% [29]. The results revealed that there was still
room to improve the accuracy and precision of the lane geometry [58], although the crowdsourcing
trajectories method was economical.

3.2. 3D Point Cloud-Based Methods

Perception-based methods usually extract lane markings to get the lane geometry (such as lane
lines and arrows), since lane markings reflect the high intensity values on the road surface. Accordingly,
the methods of previous studies have been mainly divided into two categories: point-cloud-based
methods and georeferenced feature (GRF) vision-based methods. A more detailed introduction to
perception-based methods can be found in previous study [44].

3.2.1. Point-Cloud-Based Methods

Point-cloud-based methods are the most commonly and directly adopted methods used to extract
lane markings. Since the characteristics of the high retro reflectivity and intensity of point clouds are
different from road surfaces, single-threshold methods have been developed to extract road markings,
for which a global threshold parameter has been implemented for all the point cloud scenes. In
previous study [59], the authors detected lane markings for a certain threshold successfully according
to their strength of reflection. The authors in previous study [32] used a simple single-intensity
threshold to extract points whose intensities were greater than a threshold. However, single-threshold
methods may achieve misleading extraction results because of the inconsistent point clouds in the real
world. Accordingly, multi-threshold methods have been studied to improve extraction of points with
inconsistent strength [60]. Otsu’s thresholding approach [61] was used to provide optimal threshold
parameters that adjusted different point distributions for several scenes of point clouds [62]. The
authors in previous study [63] adopted a gradient value as a multi-threshold to extract lane markings
successfully. In previous study [64], with the use of multi-threshold methods, the precision of the
lane marking points was 90.80%. With these methods, point clouds need to segment and block, with
sizes being uncertain. Moreover, threshold methods do not work well on a non-obvious intensity
contrast between lane markings and road-surface surroundings, which can easily lead to leakage
and fault extraction. In addition, many studies have used Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN)
to automatically classify road markings [65,66]. In previous study [65], a conditional generative
adversarial network (cGAN) was used for small-size road marking classification, and the precision
was no more than 96%. However, CNN methods require manual work on the class label of a training
set, which limits its wide use on a large region.

3.2.2. GRF Vision-Based Methods

Another approach to processing point clouds is to convert point clouds into a georeferenced feature
image and extract the schematic of the image. The studies on georeferenced vision-based methods have
included Hough Transforms, multiscale threshold segmentation, and multiscale tensor voting (MSTV)
methods. A Hough Transform is commonly used in line identification. In previous study [59], a Hough
Transform based on the strength of a reflection was applied in the generated GRF image. However,
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 7 of 19

the Hough Transform does not adapt well to complex conditions. Accordingly, multiscale threshold
segmentation methods were implemented to automate the extraction of various types of road markings
that combined both the distribution of the intensity values and the ranges of scanning [67]. For instance,
lane markings were successfully extracted by a trajectory-based multisegment thresholding method in
previous study [62]. In addition, the authors in [68] applied a range-dependent thresholding method
for extraction from surface point clouds, while the authors in [69] used a point-density-dependent
multi-threshold segmentation method to segment georeferenced images. Moreover, the road marking
precision was no more than 95% with the multisegment thresholding method used in previous
study [70]. In addition, an MSTV method was used in order to improve the extraction of a noisy
GRF image. For instance, the authors in previous study [71] used MSTV to extract the crack pixels
of a GRF image, which were segmented by a modified inverse distance-weighted method based on
point density.

3.3. Vision-Based Methods

The construction of a lane-level road network relies on vision-based methods, which generally
extract the lane lines of road geometry combined with GPS data. Vision-based methods for lane
extraction have become a hot topic [72–74] in recent decades because of the low cost of vision equipment.
These methods are mainly categorized into two types: feature-based and model-based methods [75].
Feature-based methods rely on several features of lane lines, such as color, gradient, line width, and
edges. A Sobel detector and a Canny detector are commonly applied in the edge detection of lane
lines. Using a gradient, the authors in previous study [76] made full use of directional and shape
features to extract lane lines. However, feature-based methods are sensitive to image noise and
environmental conditions such as shade or varying light, while model-based methods perform well in
these conditions. Model-based methods focus on the structure of a lane. To establish the mathematical
model of a structure, a Hough transform [77] was used in the pre-extraction before curve fitting. A
Hough transform and a shape-preserving spline fitted the lane smoothly [78]. In previous study [79],
the authors combined a Hough transform and a least-squares line-fitting model, while authors in
previous study [80] combined a Hough Transform and a Gaussian mixture model in the processing of
lane detection. Moreover, a Random Sample Consensus (RANSAC) [43,81,82] fitting method was used
to calculate the lane model parameters in preliminary studies. For example, the authors in [83] used
inverse perspective mapping (IPM) to transform image and RANSAC parabola fitting to detect lane
markings. However, model-based methods have not been adapted to various scenarios.
In order to improve the performance of lane extraction in complex conditions, CNN based on
deep learning was implemented. In previous study [84], the authors proposed a multi-task deep
convolutional method to detect lane markings and geometry. A you only look once (YOLO) v3
algorithm was applied to lane extraction in complex lane conditions [85]. A Vanishing Point Guided
Network (VPGNet) was studied to solve the extraction of lanes under complex weather conditions [83].
A Mask R-CNN reached 97.9% accuracy on TSD-Max datasets [86]. Time consumption is still a
challenge for CNN-based extraction.

3.4. Summary
Chapters in this section review lane-level road geometry extraction methods, and it is divided
into three parts based on different data sources for the methods. The trajectories-based methods
extract centerlines to generate lane-level road networks, while 3D point-cloud-based methods and
vision-based methods mainly extract the boundaries of lanes for lane-level road network generation.
In addition, 3D point-cloud-based methods are more accurate and costly compared to vision-based
methods. Moreover, each method category has advantages and disadvantages. Table 2 presents a
comparison of lane-level road geometry extraction methods.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 8 of 19

Table 2. Lane-level road geometry extraction methods.

Type Technique(s) Methodology and/or Advantages Disadvantages

• Accuracies rely on the

• Records the centerline of
Single GPS trajectories probe vehicle
a lane
[28,46] • Fails in the condition of bad
• Easy computation
position signals

Trajectories-based
• Analyzes the shape features
and direction features • Low accuracy (meter level)
Crowdsourced GPS of trajectories • Mining methods need to
trajectories [56,57] • Extracts both the topology be improved
and geometry information

• Fails to extract the inconsistent

• A global threshold parameter point clouds
3D point cloud,single for all point cloud scenes • Fails for non-obvious intensity
threshold [32,59] • Simple computation contrast between lane markings
and road surface surroundings

• Adjusts thresholds for • Difficult to

different scenes of optimize segmentation
3D point cloud, point clouds • Fails for non-obvious intensity
multi-threshold [62–64] • Useful for inconsistent contrast between lane markings
point clouds and road surface surroundings

• Uses deep learning

3D point cloud, CNN • Performs well in • Labels the training set manually
[65,66] complex environments • Time-consuming
• Higher detection rate
3D Point cloud-based

• Based on the strength of

GRF Images, Hough • Not well adapted for various
reflections of GRF images
Transform [59] road markings
• Computation efficiency

• Combines the intensity value

distribution and the ranges • Extracts various types of
GRF Images, multiscale of scanning road markings
threshold segmentation • Better efficiency for • Difficult extraction in complex
[68,69] inconsistent intensities of road environments
point clouds

• Uses intensity values and • Improves the extraction of the

GRF Images, MSTV [76] scanning ranges noisy GRF image
• Suppresses noises • Needs prior knowledge

• Relies on features of • Sensitive to image noise

Feature [75,76] lane lines • Fails in complex environments

• Focuses on the structure of

Model [78–80] the lane • Not adapted to various scenes
Vision-based • Robust to image noise

• Needs manually labeled

• Deep learning approach
CNN [84–86] training samples
• Higher detection rate
• Time-consuming

4. Mathematical Modeling of Lane-Level Road Network

When the geometry of a lane has been extracted, it is essential to model the lane-level road
network for direct use by autonomous driving applications. The mathematical modeling of a lane-level
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 9 of 19

road network includes lane mathematical modeling and intersection mathematical modeling. We will
discuss these types of modeling in this section, and the latter type of modeling is key content that will
be described in detail.

4.1. Lane Mathematical Modeling

Mathematical models of a lane-segment are consistent with mathematical models of a road-segment,
for which a large number of achievements and summaries have been produced in past studies [87–90].
For this paper, we do not discuss these mathematical models in detail. These mathematical models
include straight line, arc curves, Clothoid curves, several spline curves and polylines.

4.2. Intersection Mathematical Modeling

When the geometry of a lane has been extracted, it is easy to obtain an intersection and it is
essential to represent the intersection in detail. An intersection of a lane-level road network includes
not only the zone of the intersection but also the topological relationship with traffic rules. Virtual
lanes are widely used for autonomous driving navigation in an intersection [45]. Driving lines can
be used to abstractly represent virtual lanes with both the information of a path and regular turning
traffic [70]. There are several mathematical functions for modeling driving lines, including arc curves,
spine curves, and polylines. The subsequent sections describe these mathematical modeling functions
in detail. Figure 5 shows an example of the virtual lanes and driving lines of one turning direction in
an intersection.

Figure 5. An example of the virtual lanes and driving lines of one turning direction in an intersection.

4.2.1. Arc Curves

An arc curve is composed of arcs and line segments. It is uniquely defined by three different
points, and a smooth curve does not allow self-intersection. Curvature is a step function and the
tangent line unit vectors are equal at the breakpoints given by the two corresponding segments. Arc
curves have constant characteristics such as rotation, translation, and scaling. Since it is represented in
a closed form, the offset curve of a circular spline is actually a circular spline that provides accurate
offset and arc length calculations, as well as the calculated distance from the closest point to the
curve. It is especially simple to compute the distance from a point to a curve. In addition, the arc
curves are compatible with all established geometries and Computer-Aided Design (CAD) systems for
practical applications. Compared to Clothoids or polylines, arc splines can be represented in the form
of parameterless descriptions, and visualization calculations are much more efficient [17]. Authors in
previous studies [91,92] adopted an arc curve to generate the driving line of an intersection, and it
performed well in fitting, particularly at circular intersections (such as roundabouts).
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 10 of 19

4.2.2. Cubic Spline Curves

A B-spline is a spline composed of control points, node vectors, and primary functions. The shape
of a B-spline curve can be changed by modifying one or more of these control parameters. Given n + 1
points {b0 , b1 , . . . , bn } and m + 1 node vectors {t0 , t1 , . . . , tm }, the node vector is the polynomial with the
highest degree k and m = n + k + 1 and t0 ≤ t1 ≤ . . . ≤ tm ; the B spline can be expressed by Formula
(1), and N j,k (t) is the primary function.
 n
b j N j,k (t) (tk−1 < t < tn+1 )
P



 B(t) =


 j=0
 N (t) = (t−t j )N j,k−1 (t) + (t j+k+1 −t)N j+1,k−1 (t) (t


k−1 < t < tn+1 )


 j,k t j+k −t j t j+k+1 −t j+1 (1)
 
1 ( if t j < t < t j+1 )

 
 
N j,0 (t) = 




 0 (others)


B-spline representation of road geometry is widely used in road modeling [93,94]. In addition, a
B-spline curve has the advantages of a convex shape, local correction of control points, and numerical
stability, which are used to approximate the shape of the road. In previous study [90], the authors
proposed a progressive correction algorithm to reduce the number of control parameters in the B-spline
curve to accurately represent the lane geometry. Based on this research, the authors in previous
study [95] proposed an adaptive curve refinement method based on a dominant point that used a
B-spline mathematical curve model to describe the 3D road geometry information, which took into
account the road shape factors (the curvature, arc, etc.). This method reduced the number of nodes
and control points of the B-spline road model while ensuring the accuracy of the road network.
A cubic Hermite spline (CHS) is another type of cubic spline curve that is linearly
parameterized [96]. A CHS with two nodes is generally used. Given two nodes {λ0 , λ1 }, the
corresponding function values are {h00 , h01 } and the corresponding derivative values are {h10 , h11 }.
Then, the cubic Hermite polynomial between two points is as shown in Formula (3):

H (λ) 
= h00 α0 (λ) + h01 α1 (λ) + h10 β0 (λ) + h11 β1 (λ)




 (
    0 ( if i , j)
 αi λ j =

 


 
 1 ( if i = j) (i, j = 0, 1)



 

α 0 λ =0
 
(2)
 
i j
 
 
β λj = 0

 
i

 

 
 (
0 ( if i , j) (i, j = 0, 1)

   
β 0 λ =

 

 i j
 
1 ( if i = j)

 

A CHS has the following characteristics: First, there is a C1 continuity between the control
points in each CHS segment. Second, the CHS curve representation has global C2 continuity between
adjacent control points at the series point, since the point between the cascaded CHS segments, the
interconnection point, and the tangent are the same. Third, the parameters indicated by the CHS are the
position and the tangent of the control points, and a series of point features can be used to parameterize
any lane curve. These vertex attributes are compatible with the data structures of common GIS database
software. Fourth, the accuracy of the CHS lane representation can be manipulated by increasing or
decreasing the CHS control point (i.e., increasing or decreasing the vertices) so that the CHS can extract
the lane parameters through local control. A Catmull–Rom spline is a subclass of a CHS that has been
successfully used to model the transition driving lane [45].

4.2.3. Polylines
Piecewise polynomial functions can be used to represent polylines, which refer to dividing
continuous space into m + 1 segments with m segment points, where each of the segments can be
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 11 of 19

represented by a separate polynomial primary function. Itnis assumed o that the continuous definition
domain X is a one-dimensional vector, and segment points ε0 , ε1,..., εm divide the definition domain X
of x into continuous space with a primary function of I (x). Then the piecewise polynomial function
f (x) can be expressed by Formula (3):

x0 < x < εi ( if i = 0)
 
n  
X 
εi < x < εi+1 (others)
 
f (x) = Ii (x)  (3)
 
 
εi < x < εi+1 ( if i = m)

m=0  

Since it is convenient to use polynomials to calculate a derivative, important information such

as tangent angle and curvature can be extracted from a fitted spline curve by simple arithmetic
operations [97]. In order to intuitively describe and reduce computational complexity, a cubic
polynomial is usually segmented to fit a curve segment. However, due to the differences in intersections,
it is difficult to approximate intersections with a set of piecewise polynomials. This process usually
requires more segmentation polynomials and results in computational complexity. The authors in
previous study [32] proposed an effective curve approximation algorithm based on polylines that used
the smallest number of piecewise polynomials to represent the lane, including the intersection, and the
computational complexity was o(n). This algorithm solved the problem of the piecewise polynomial
fitting in a large-scale road network.

4.3. Summary
The mathematical model used to abstractly represent a drive line in an intersection corresponds to
the use for the representation of a lane or an abstracted segment of a road. In mathematical functions,
arc lines have been widely used for circle intersections because they require less computation compared
to other curves. Other curves exhibit flexibility in modeling irregular intersections, but they have the
problem of finding a proper control point or an optimal optimization.

5. Lane-Level Road Network Logic Representation of Classic Lane-Level Map Formats

In recent years, there have been several classic lane-level map formats that have been developed
with applications in autonomous driving applications. Classic lane-level road network representations
are consistent with respect to lane information, but different with respect to the logic representation.
Since a lane-level road network is an important part of a lane-level map, the logic formats of lane-level
road networks vary with the various formats of lane-level maps. Moreover, to meet the increasing
requirements of autonomous driving applications, the logic representations of lane-level road networks
have not formed uniform formats or regulations, and they develop and update rapidly with the
rapid development of autonomous driving technology. However, different lane-level road network
formats contain complete lane-detail information (such as lane width, curve, slope, etc.) and the logic
representations can create interconversion, although not all conversions of lane-level road network
formats have been published [98]. To summarize, a detailed description of the lane information is
added in a lane-level road network. Based on previous studies, we divided the formats into two
categories based on the models of the geometry and the topology of the lanes: The node-arc-based
model and the segment-based model. Figure 6 shows examples of the logic representation of a lane
based on different models.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 12 of 19

Figure 6. Examples of the lane logic representation: (a) a real-world lane; (b) a lane based on a node-arc
model; and, (c) a lane based on a segment model.

The node-arc model is the model which is generally used in road-level road networks, where
segments of roads are abstracted by road centerlines and further represented by nodes and arcs. In a
lane-level road network, lane centerline model lanes consist of nodes and arcs, and the properties of
the lane are described by the attributes of the arcs or nodes. Additionally, the topology relationships of
lanes are represented by the link relationships of node-to-node, node-to-arc, or arc-to-arc. A Route
Network Definition File (RNDF) was first proposed on the 2007 DARPA urban challenge [99]. For
the basic structure of an RNDF, segments are composed of one or more than one lane, while lanes
are composed of one or more than one waypoint. The Navigation Data Standard (NDS) released the
Open Lane Model (OLM) [100], which proposed a high accuracy of more than 1 cm for the topology
structure and geometry of a lane. The connection model of the complex intersection was made with
arcs and points. Since it is a commercial format, the detail of this model was not open to the public. In
previous study [101], the authors proposed a seven-layer lane-level map model based on a traditional
road-level navigation electronic map by adding a lane layer. In this model, a lane was abstracted by
the centerline of the lane. In summary, the key basic structure of a line in a node-arc model cannot
precisely represent the shape of a lane, which is usually the additional attribution; however, this is
very advantageous for route planning and route searching.
The segment-based model uses the segment of the lane to abstract the lane instead of the shape of
a line or arc. The segment consists of the zone covered by a lane and the left and right bound of a lane.
Nonetheless, the representation of a lane bound may be a point or a polyline. For example, OpenDrive
set the reference line of a road to define the basic geometry. Lanes were divided into lane sections
along the road based on the attribution changes of a road and they were numbered by the offset of the
line [102]. In this format, the lane bounds are consisted of points. In addition, Bender, Ziegler, and
Stiller [21] proposed lanelets. In this format, a lanelet is an atomic lane segment that is characterized
by the left and right lane bounds. Road segments are abstracted by lanelets and the adjacent lanelets
are used to represent the topological relationship between lanes. The lane boundary line of a lanelet is
abstracted by a polyline. Based on the lanelet, lanelet2 revised the map structure and developed a
software framework available for the public [103]. Additionally, the format of OpenDrive can convert
to the format of lanelet2 [98]. To summarize, the segment model describes the precise shape of a lane.
However, it cannot directly support global route planning before extra work is done. Figure 7 shows
examples of a lane representation by OpenDrive and lanelets.
Generally, the two types of lanes provide detailed and precise lane information such as lane
boundaries and curves, which is essential for autonomous driving. However, lane-level road networks
for autonomous driving are still in the early stages, and there are many challenges to overcome for the
testing and updating of a large lane-level road network.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 13 of 19

Figure 7. Examples of a lane representation: (a) a real-world lane; (b) a lane representation by
OpenDrive; and, (c) a lane representation by lanelets.

6. Discussion and Conclusions

6.1. Synthesis of Findings

Nowadays, autonomous driving is a hot topic and there have been several hundreds of autonomous
vehicles in China. A lane-level map is of fundamental importance to autonomous driving with regard
to sensing and perception, planning, and control. A road network describes the road system of the real
world and a lane-level road network is a fundamental part of a lane-level map. Such lane-level road
network data are used not only for intelligent driving, but also for cooperative vehicle infrastructure
systems and intelligent cities. In past years, maps have been developed for autonomous driving
and several sensors have been used to collect lane-level road network data. However, there is still
room for improvement in the data collection and the production of the lane-level road network. In
addition, lane-level maps have not reached a consensus state and neither have the formats of lane-level
road networks. The development of lane-level maps is rapidly evolving with the development of
autonomous driving. In a word, lane-level road networks for autonomous driving are still in the early
stages. Moreover, in order to sufficiently meet the demands of autonomous driving applications, a
lane-level road network must contain lane information in detail. However, there is not a sufficient
number of studies on evaluation index of the road network for lane-level maps of autonomous vehicles.
Further research must be carried out in this field.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4511 14 of 19

In this paper, we reviewed lane-level road network generation techniques for the lane-level maps of
autonomous vehicles with on-board systems based on the generation and the representation of lane-level
road networks. For the generation of lane-level road networks, the paper was structured in two sections:
sensors and lane-level road geometry extraction methods. Based on the studies, each category of
sensors had advantages and disadvantages for different on-board systems. They were all the available
data sources for lane-level road network collection. The extraction methods were further divided
into three categories: trajectory-based methods, 3D point-cloud-based methods, and vision-based
methods. Point-cloud-based methods were the highest accuracy approaches, vision-based methods
were the most economical, and trajectory-based methods were direct approaches for constructing
centerline lane-level road networks. For the representation of lane-level road networks, we introduced
mathematical modeling and logic formats. Based on the studies, the mathematical modeling of a
lane-level road network included lane mathematical modeling and intersection mathematical modeling.
For the analysis of the literature of driving line models of intersections, an arc curve was simplest and fit
well for the condition of a roundabout intersection, while other curves were more adaptive for irregular
intersections. Finally, although the classic formats varied in the structure of lane representation, all
formats included complete lane information.

6.2. Future Research Avenues

Since widespread applications of autonomous driving technology accelerate the development
and commercialization of the lane-level map, new requirements of data capacity, accurate degree, and
update frequency of the lane-level road network have been put forward. Moreover, the application of
artificial intelligence technology in lane-level road network extraction can change the processing of
the collection and production of the lane-level road network. In addition, based on the technology
of Internet of Things and fifth-generation wireless communication, edge computing provides a new
data-processing model for the lane-level road network based on crowdsourcing.

Author Contributions: This research was carried out by the co-authors. Conceptualization, B.L. and L.Z.; writing,
L.Z.; investigation, B.Y., H.S., and Z.L.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Numbers.
41671441, 41531177, and U1764262).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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