SS symmetry

Review
Green IoT: A Review and Future Research Directions
Mohammed H. Alsharif 1, * , Abu Jahid 2, * , Anabi Hilary Kelechi 3 and Raju Kannadasan 4

1 Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Electronics and Information Engineering, Sejong University,
209 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05006, Republic of Korea
2 School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Ottawa, 25 Templeton St.,
Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
3 Department of Computer Science, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO 65409, USA
4 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering,
Sriperumbudur, Chennai 602117, India
* Correspondence: malsharif@sejong.ac.kr (M.H.A.); ajahi011@uottawa.ca (A.J.)

Abstract: The internet of things (IoT) has a significant economic and environmental impact owing to
the billions or trillions of interconnected devices that use various types of sensors to communicate
through the internet. It is well recognized that each sensor requires a small amount of energy to
function; but, with billions of sensors, energy consumption can be significant. Therefore, it is crucial
to focus on developing energy-efficient IoT technology and sustainable solutions. The contribution
of this article is to support the implementation of eco-friendly IoT solutions by presenting a thor-
ough examination of energy-efficient practices and strategies for IoT to assist in the advancement
of sustainable and energy-efficient IoT technologies in the future. Four framework principles for
achieving this are discussed, including (i) energy-efficient machine-to-machine (M2M) communica-
tions, (ii) energy-efficient and eco-sustainable wireless sensor networks (WSN), (iii) energy-efficient
radio-frequency identification (RFID), and (iv) energy-efficient microcontroller units and integrated
circuits (IC). This review aims to contribute to the next-generation implementation of eco-sustainable
and energy-efficient IoT technologies.

Keywords: internet of things; green IoT; energy-efficient; energy harvesting; wireless charging; green
6G; green communications; eco-sustainable WSN; RFID; M2M

Citation: Alsharif, M.H.; Jahid, A.;

Kelechi, A.H.; Kannadasan, R. Green
1. Introduction
IoT: A Review and Future Research
Directions. Symmetry 2023, 15, 757. 1.1. Background and Motivations
https://doi.org/10.3390/ The internet of things (IoT) is a revolutionary technology driving telecommunications
sym15030757 advancements and improving people’s quality of life worldwide. The IoT also has the
Academic Editor: Guangdong Tian
potential to boost the global economy significantly. It is anticipated that the global economic
impact of the IoT will be between USD 2.7 trillion and 6.2 trillion by 2025 [1] due to IoT
Received: 12 February 2023 devices that are a critical component of emerging applications and play a central role in the
Revised: 15 March 2023 widespread adoption of machine type communications, as shown in Figure 1 [2]. According
Accepted: 17 March 2023 to experts, the IoT has the potential to revolutionize different smart zones including modern
Published: 19 March 2023
healthcare applications, smart homes and smart cities [3]. In particular, the healthcare
industry is expected to see annual global economic growth of between USD 1.1 trillion and
2.5 trillion by 2025 [4] due to IoT technology.
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
As the IoT continues to expand, telecom operators should strive to enable the technol-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. ogy with fewer challenges. Currently, there are more internet-enabled objects than people
This article is an open access article on Earth, and this number is envisioned to continue growing in the near future [5]. It is
distributed under the terms and reported that 45% of all internet traffic will be machine-to-machine (M2M) traffic by 2024,
conditions of the Creative Commons thanks to the IoT’s ability to allow physical objects to communicate among themselves
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and perform tasks with zero human intervention. This is achieved through the use of
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ various types of smart sensors, such as RFID and actuators, which work together in order
4.0/). to transmit information collected from their surroundings to the internet using sensing

Symmetry 2023, 15, 757. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym15030757 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/symmetry

Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 2 of 37

2 of 38
technology [1]. The IoT enables the network objects to perform tasks by coordinating
decisions and sharing information through these sensors.

Figure 1. Top 10 IoT application areas

Figure 1. Top inapplication
10 IoT 2020. areas in 2020.

According to [6], each active RF identification device requires a small quantity of

As the IoT continues to expand,
electrical telecomHowever,
power to function. operators whenshould
billionsstrive
of suchtonetwork
enable devices
the tech- are con-
nology with fewer challenges.
nected that are Currently, there on
consuming energy are more
a daily internet-enabled
basis, and a significant numberobjects than
of data points
people on Earth, and this number is envisioned to continue growing in the near future [5]. to
transmitted by sensors need to be processed by large data centers, it becomes necessary
It is reported that 45%have significant processing and analytics capabilities [7,8], which can be energy-intensive.
of all internet traffic will be machine-to-machine (M2M) traffic by
Therefore, the energy consumption in large-scale IoT systems should be carefully consid-
2024, thanks to the IoT’s
ered. ability
To address to these
allow physical
energy concerns,objects
a new to communicate
field of research known among them-
as “green IoT” has
selves and perform tasks withThis
emerged. zero human
initiative intervention.
aims to elevate energy Thisefficiency
is achieved through
and reduce the use for
CO2 emissions
IoT technology
of various types of smart sensors,[9]. It isas
such clear nowand
RFID that the IoT will have
actuators, which a considerable
work together economic in and
environmental impact in the forthcoming years. As a result, there is a pressing need to
order to transmit information collected from their surroundings to the internet using sens-
research and develop advanced techniques and strategies to address the energy needs of
ing technology [1]. The IoT enables
billions of devices.the network energy
As traditional objects to perform
sources tasks and
become scarce by energy
coordinating
consumption
decisions and sharing information through these sensors.
continues to increase, the idea of green IoT (GIoT) has gained significance for researchers
According to [6],and vendors alike. The concept of green IoT is crucial for finding new ways to downsize
each active RF identification device requires a small quantity of
energy consumption and increase eco-sustainability.
electrical power to function. However,
The objective when
of the billions isoftosuch
GIoT initiative enhance network devices throughout
energy efficiency are con- IoT
nected that are consuming
systems. energy
It aimsonto a daily
make basis,
every and
aspect ofathe
significant number of data
IoT more energy-efficient, frompoints
the design
transmitted by sensors need to be processed by large data centers, it becomes necessary to
phase to implementation [10]. This has sparked research in both academia and industry
come up with various methods to escalate energy efficiency in IoT. As a result, the research
to have significant processing and analytics capabilities [7,8], which can be energy-inten-
in the context of green IoT encompasses a wide range of challenges and mitigation tech-
sive. Therefore, the energy consumption
niques. However, research in large-scale
on GIoT techniques IoT
cansystems
be dividedshould be carefully
into two main categories [11]:
considered. To address these energy
(i) software, concerns,
which aims to reduceaenergy
new waste
field through
of research known
more efficient as “green
resource utilization,
and (ii) hardware, which envisions improving energy
IoT” has emerged. This initiative aims to elevate energy efficiency and reduce CO2 emis- efficiency in IoT devices. This latter
category is the focus of our study.
sions for IoT technology [9]. It is clear now that the IoT will have a considerable economic
and environmental impact in the forthcoming years. As a result, there is a pressing need
to research and develop advanced techniques and strategies to address the energy needs
of billions of devices. As traditional energy sources become scarce and energy consump-
tion continues to increase, the idea of green IoT (GIoT) has gained significance for re-
searchers and vendors alike. The concept of green IoT is crucial for finding new ways to
downsize energy consumption and increase eco-sustainability.
The objective of the GIoT initiative is to enhance energy efficiency throughout IoT
systems. It aims to make every aspect of the IoT more energy-efficient, from the design
phase to implementation [10]. This has sparked research in both academia and industry
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 3 of 37

1.2. Related Works and Contributions

There has been an increase in the number of survey papers on green IoT that have
garnered attention in recent times [2,10,12–15]. Reference [12] conducted an analysis of
different approaches for achieving green IoT; however, they did not consider the use of
specific green IoT models in their analysis. Reference [13] examined energy consumption
under several cloud deployment scenarios, but their models did not take into account
Quality of Service (QoS) metrics in some certain scenarios. Reference [14] conducted a
thorough analysis of energy harvesting in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) using distinc-
tive environmental sources. However, using a different storage medium for the harvested
energy than the device itself may incur an energy loss, which would require additional
effort to address. Reference [15] suggested that implementing energy-efficient measures
in heating, air conditioning and ventilating systems would result in a significant amount
of energy savings. Despite significant research in the field of GIoT, energy conservation
schemes have yet to be thoroughly investigated. Reference [2] conducted a comprehensive
analysis of green IoT techniques and proposed five principles for the GIoT. Additionally,
the authors emphasized the use of case studies, specifically citing smart phones as an
example, as a valuable tool for understanding IoT. However, the aforementioned studies
were somewhat lacking in their depth of explanation. In the rapidly evolving field of green
IoT, it is important to highlight new developments and provide clear insights to researchers
in order to enable them to settle on the best solutions that promote eco-sustainability with
attention to green IoT.
This review paper differs from other reviews on green IoT in its goal to provide an
extensive overview of the recent state-of-the-art energy-saving strategies and practices in
the context of green IoT, specifically focusing on the energy efficiency of green hardware
IoT devices. In order to achieve that goal, this study attempted to cover as many relevant
topics as possible within the scope of the paper. However, due to size limitations, the focus
was on in-depth analysis of particularly controversial or important sub-areas within the
larger domain of green IoT in order to arrive at precise, concrete, and concise conclusions.
This study covers the following sub-domains within the field of green IoT: (i) energy-
efficient M2M communications, (ii) energy-efficient and eco-sustainable WSN, (iii) energy-
efficient RFID, and (iv) energy-efficient integrated circuits and microcontroller units. M2M
communication is a foundational aspect of IoT and sensor networking and serves as a
crucial element in current systems, along with RFID technology. However, both the sensor
networking and RFID technology will undergo thorough examination in this study, because
they are considered key components in the field of green IoT. The main contributions of
this paper are outlined as follows:
• A review of current research on the green IoT ecosystem, including recent industry de-
velopments and embedded systems, key areas of application, deployment, challenges,
and key players focusing on RFID, WSN, processors, MCUs, and ICs.
• A discussion of key design choices and features for RFID and WSNs that are considered
to be among the highest priorities within green IoT networks.
• An exploration of the limitations and challenges that need to be overcome to fully
realize the potential of a green IoT, including issues related to interoperability, secu-
rity, and privacy, and recommendations for future research to support the efforts in
developing hardware for green IoT that promotes eco-sustainability.
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 4 of 37

1.3. Paper Organization

The structure of this study is as follows: Section 2 presents the research methodology
of the article. Section 3 provides an overview of the four (4) green hardware IoT frame-
works that are considered in this study. In Section 4, energy-efficient solutions for M2M
communication are discussed. Section 5 presents a detailed analysis of energy-efficient
and eco-sustainable WSNs. Section 6 discusses energy-efficient RFID. The topic of energy-
efficient MCUs, ICs, and processors is covered in Section 7. Potential future research
directions are outlined in Section 8. Finally, Section 9 concludes the paper, summarizing
key insights.

2. Methodology
To write this literature review on energy-efficient and eco-sustainable strategies for
future massive green IoT networks, a systematic process was used to gather information.
The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)
method was used to formulate the research questions (RQ) that guided the study.
• RQ1: What are the energy-efficient techniques that can be used to implement massive
green IoT networks?
This question aims to identify the various energy-efficient techniques mentioned in the
literature, evaluate their advantages, and examine their trends to aid the implementation
of massive green IoT networks.
• RQ2: How can energy consumption be reduced in IoT devices without compromising
performance and functionality?
The objective of this question is to explore the integration of various software and
hardware techniques and approaches to minimize energy wastage caused by inefficient
resource utilization.
• RQ3: What are the key challenges in designing and implementing green IoT networks?
This question aims to investigate the symmetry between energy efficiency and key
performance indicators, such as coverage and signal strength, in IoT networks.
After identifying the research questions, the following keywords were established to
create the research string (RS): “Green IoT”, “Energy efficiency”, “Green communications”,
“Energy harvesting”, and “Low-power design”. The research string (RS) is indicated as:

RS = (Green communications OR Green IoT) AND (GIoT OR Energy harvesting OR Energy efficiency OR IoT)
AND (Low-power design OR low-power devices)

After constructing the RS, we started with the document search phase. The databases
that were consulted for this study included Science Direct, IEEE, Scopus, Springer, Web
of Science, Wiley Online Library, Association of Computing Machinery (ACM) and MDPI.
These databases were chosen due to their wide range of publications and previous research.
An effort was made to include all databases that have been used by authors in prior studies.
Notably, no additional techniques were applied to expand the results, as the number of
articles obtained from the aforementioned databases was sufficient. We implemented a
three-stage process, as demonstrated in Figure 2.
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 5 of 38
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 5 of 37

Figure 2. 2.
Figure Research
Researchmethodology
methodology of the
the article.
article.

3. Green Hardware IoT Framework

This section represents a brief overview of the four (4) green hardware IoT frame-
works and includes a summary of proposed energy-saving technology classifications in
Figure 3. The following sections cover more detailed information on these topics.
• Machine-to-Machine (M2M): M2M technology refers to the ability of smart devices
to communicate with each other and exchange data without the need for human in-
tervention. It forms the basis of IoT and allows for the creation of smart systems that
can operate and make decisions independently [16]. One of the key applications of
M2M technology is in the field of smart cities [11], where it can be used to optimize
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 6 of 37

3. Green Hardware IoT Framework

This section represents a brief overview of the four (4) green hardware IoT frameworks
and includes a summary of proposed energy-saving technology classifications in Figure 3.
The following sections cover more detailed information on these topics.
• Machine-to-Machine (M2M): M2M technology refers to the ability of smart devices
to communicate with each other and exchange data without the need for human
intervention. It forms the basis of IoT and allows for the creation of smart systems that
can operate and make decisions independently [16]. One of the key applications of
M2M technology is in the field of smart cities [11], where it can be used to optimize
the performance of infrastructure such as traffic systems, public transportation, and
utilities. M2M communication can also be utilized in industrial settings to improve
efficiency and productivity, as well as in healthcare to enable remote monitoring
and treatment of patients. In order to achieve energy efficiency in M2M systems,
various strategies can be employed (as shown in Figure 3). These may include the
use of low-power communication protocols, the implementation of energy-efficient
protocols for data transmission, and energy-harvesting techniques to power M2M
devices. Overall, M2M technology plays a crucial role in the advancement of the IoT
and has the potential to substantially improve the efficiency and sustainability of a
wide range of systems.
• Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs): WSNs are networks of small, energy–efficient
devices equipped with sensors that are capable of wirelessly communicating with
each other and with a central hub. WSNs can be used to monitor and collect data from
various environments and are commonly deployed in a broad range of applications,
including industrial monitoring, healthcare, and environmental monitoring. In order
to make WSNs more energy-efficient, various strategies can be employed. These may
include the use of energy-efficient communication protocols, the implementation of
energy-harvesting techniques to power the sensors, and the use of energy-efficient
storage and data processing methods (as depicted in Figure 3). One promising research
context in the field of WSNs is the use of machine learning algorithms to improve
energy efficiency. These algorithms can be applied to streamline data transmission
and lower the overall network energy usage. Overall, WSNs have the potential to
greatly boost efficiency and sustainability and will likely continue to be an important
area of research in the field of IoT [17].
• Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID): RFID is a wireless technology that identifies
and tracks objects using radio waves. It consists of a small chip, known as an RFID tag,
which is associated with an object and a reader that is able to detect and communicate
with the tag. RFID technology has a wide range of applications, including inventory
tracking, supply chain management, and asset management. The technologies for
improving energy efficiency may include the use of low-power communication proto-
cols, the implementation of energy-efficient data processing techniques, and the use of
energy-harvesting methods to power RFID devices. One promising area of research in
the field of RFID is the development of passive RFID tags, which do not require an
energy source and can operate indefinitely as long as they are within range of an RFID
reader [18].
• Microcontroller Units (MCUs) and Integrated Circuits (ICs): MCUs and ICs are key
components of many electronic devices, including those used in the IoT. MCUs are
small computers that are used to control and monitor the operation of a device, while
ICs are electronic circuits that are used to process and transmit information. The
strategies for enhancing the energy efficiency of MCUs and ICs may include the use of
low-power design techniques, the implementation of energy-efficient data processing
algorithms, and the incorporation of energy-harvesting methods to power the devices.
One promising area of research in the field of MCUs and ICs is the use of ML algorithms
to optimize their performance and reduce energy consumption [19]. Another area of
 Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 7 of 37

Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 7 of 38

focus is the emergence of more energy-efficient materials and intelligent manufacturing
processes for these devices.

Figure 3. The proposed framework and energy-efficient technologies for IoT in this study.
Figure 3. The proposed framework and energy-efficient technologies for IoT in this study.

4. Energy-Efficient M2M
4. Energy-Efficient M2MCommunications
Communications
M2M M2M communicationinvolves
communication involves the
the exchange
exchange ofofdata
databetween
between devices or sensors
devices with-
or sensors with-
out the need for human intervention [16], and these devices often have
out the need for human intervention [16], and these devices often have limited energy limited energy
resources due to their small size and/or reliance on batteries [11]. Techniques that can
resources due to their small size and/or reliance on batteries [11]. Techniques that can help
help M2M communication systems use less energy are, therefore, inevitable. As a result,
M2M communication systems use less energy are, therefore, inevitable. As a result, tech-
techniques that can reduce the energy consumption of M2M communication systems are of
niques that can
significant reduceThe
interest. theproposed
energy consumption of M2M the
methods for enhancing communication
energy efficiencysystems
of M2M are of
significant
in the IoTinterest. The proposed
environment methods
are outlined for enhancing
in Figure 4. The amountthe energy efficiency
of energy saved for ofeach
M2M in
the approach/technique
IoT environment are outlined
relies in Figure
on a number 4. The
of key amount
factors, of energy
including savedtechnique
the specific for each ap-
proach/technique
being used, the relies
type ofon a number
M2M of key factors,
communication system, including
the devicethe specificand
hardware technique
software,being
and
used, thetype
the operating
of M2Menvironment. Thus, itsystem,
communication is difficult todevice
the accurately quantifyand
hardware the amount
software,of and
the energy
operatingthat environment.
can be saved through
Thus, the
it isuse of various
difficult techniques quantify
to accurately for energy-efficient
the amount M2M of en-
communication. A detailed discussion of the potential approaches to improving the EE of
ergy that can be saved through the use of various techniques for energy-efficient M2M
M2M is given in the following subsections.
communication. A detailed discussion of the potential approaches to improving the EE of
M2M is given in the following subsections.
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 8 of 378 of 38

Figure 4. Classification of energy-efficient techniques for M2M communications.

Figure 4. Classification of energy-efficient techniques for M2M communications.
4.1. Energy-Efficient Data Transmission
4.1. Energy-Efficient Data Transmission
The approaches to improving the energy efficiency of M2M data transmission that
The approaches to improving the energy efficiency of M2M data transmission that are
are listed in the literature can be summarized as follows:
listed in the literature can be summarized as follows:
(i) Data compression: Compressing data before transmission can reduce the amount of
(i)Data compression:
energyCompressing
used to transmit datait.before transmission
Data compression can reduce
techniques thestraightforward
that are amount of to
energy used to transmit it. Data compression techniques that are straightforward
use and have low computational requirements often use less energy [20]. However,
to use and have low computational
the balance between the amountrequirements often
of data that use less energy
is compressed [20].
and the How-
energy needed
ever, the balance between the amount of data that is compressed and the energyenergy
can be complex, as techniques that compress data more may require more
needed can be [21]. Table 1 provides
complex, a summary
as techniques that of data compression
compress data more techniques, highlighting
may require more their
respective advantages and disadvantages. Based on information
energy [21]. Table 1 provides a summary of data compression techniques, highlighting from existing re-
views or research in the field [22–24], these factors were
their respective advantages and disadvantages. Based on information from existing determined by the authors
of this article.
reviews or research in the field [22–24], these factors were determined by the authors
of this article.
Table 1. Data compression techniques.
(ii) Cooperation between devices: M2M devices can collaborate in the transmission of data
Technique and shareDescription
resources such as power, bandwidth, Advantages Disadvantages
and processing capabilities to lower
energy consumption and enhance system performance [25–30]. o Not suitable for highly
(iii) MLLossless
algorithms: correlated data.
dataML algorithms can be used to minimize data redundancy
compression and optimize
the rate of data transmission o Simple
in to
multicellimplement.
networks. The type oalgorithm
of Not suitable
depends for stream-
on
algorithm that encodes
the specific needs of the M2M o An adaptive
application, algorithm
including the ing
amount data.
and complexity of
Huffman coding data using a variable-
available data and the o Good
required compression
accuracy. Testingratios.
different o
algorithms Requires
and additional
evaluating
length prefix code based
o Lossless compression. space to store the prefix code.
their
onperformance can help
character frequencies. determine the most suitable one for a specific M2M
o Slow (not suitable for
application [31–34].
real-time applications).
(iv) Power control: By carefully adjusting the transmission power of M2M devices, it
o Limited to text and other
is possible to reduce
Encodes data by identify- o Highrequired
the energy compression for ratio.
data transmission. There are several
Lempel-Ziv-Welch non-random data.
techniques that canrepeated
ing and replacing o Suitable to
be implemented forcontrol power
both lossless andand improve energy efficiency
lossy
(LZW) algorithm o High computational power
patterns with
performance in references.
M2M datacompression.
transmission, such as power-aware routing, adaptive
for some implementations.
modulation and coding, and duty cycling [35].
(v) Energy-efficient protocols: There are numerous communication protocols that have
been designed specifically to improve the EE of data transmission in a green M2M
network. However, each of these protocols has its own unique set of advantages and
disadvantages, and the most suitable protocol can be chosen based on the specific
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 9 of 37

requirements of the M2M application. Details of the transmission protocols and

technologies are discussed in the following sections.

Table 1. Data compression techniques.

Technique Description Advantages Disadvantages

# Not suitable for highly
Lossless data compression # Simple to implement. correlated data.
algorithm that encodes data # An adaptive algorithm # Not suitable for streaming data.
Huffman coding using a variable-length # Good compression ratios. # Requires additional space to store
prefix code based on # Lossless compression. the prefix code.
character frequencies. # Slow (not suitable for real-time
applications).
# Limited to text and other
Encodes data by identifying # High compression ratio. non-random data.
Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) # Suitable for both lossless and
and replacing repeated # High computational power for
algorithm lossy compression.
patterns with references. some implementations.
# Not suitable for streaming data.
A technique that reduces # Efficient for repetitive data.
data size by replacing # Low computational complexity. # Not efficient for
Run-length encoding (RLE) repeated characters with a # Low memory requirements. non-repetitive data.
single character and a count # Suitable for both lossless and # Limited in compression ratio
of their occurrences. lossy compression.
Encodes data by # High compression ratio for time
representing the difference series data and numerical data. # May not retain all original
Delta encoding between successive values # Low computational complexity. information.
rather than the values # Suitable for both lossless and # May not be suitable for
themselves. lossy compression. sensitive data.

# High compression ratio for time

A technique that predicts # May not retain all original
series and other correlated data.
values and encodes the information.
Predictive coding # Low computational complexity.
difference between the # May not be suitable for
# Suitable for both lossless and
prediction and actual value. sensitive data.
lossy compression.
Uses a mathematical # High compression ratio for certain # May not be suitable for
transformation to convert types of data (e.g., images, audio). streaming data.
Transform coding the data into a different # Can be used for feature extraction. # High computational complexity.
domain, where it can be # Suitable for both lossless and # May not retain all original
more efficiently encoded. lossy compression. information.

4.2. Power-Aware Scheduling

Power-aware scheduling is an important aspect of energy-efficient data transmission
in M2M communications. By carefully managing the energy consumption of M2M devices,
it is possible to extend the longevity of battery life of these devices and improve their overall
performance and reliability. There are several approaches to power-aware scheduling in
M2M communications, which can be summarized into two points: (i) downsize the energy
consumption of M2M devices while still satisfying the required performance objectives.
These algorithms can consider various factors, such as the remaining battery life of the
M2M device, the importance of the data being transmitted, and the energy efficiency of
the transmission technology [36]; (ii) use power-saving modes in M2M devices to reduce
energy consumption during periods of low activity. These modes can include sleep modes,
in which the device shuts down non-essential components to save power, and idle modes,
in which the device reduces its operating frequency to conserve energy.

4.3. Offloading Computation/Task Offloading

Offloading computation refers to the process of transferring computation-intensive
tasks from M2M devices to external resources in order to reduce energy consumption. This
can be achieved through the use of edge, fog, or cloud computing, which allows M2M
devices to access the resources of a remote server or a nearby edge device to perform
complex tasks. There are several benefits to offloading computation for energy-efficient
data transmission in M2M communications. One significant advantage is that lessening the
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 10 of 37

workload on the M2M device’s processor can lower the device’s energy consumption [37].
Another benefit is that offloading computation can allow M2M devices to perform tasks
that they would not be capable of performing on their own, due to limited resources such
as processing power or memory [38]. This can enable M2M devices to perform more
complex tasks, such as data analysis and machine learning, which can improve the overall
functionality of the M2M system. There are several ways in which offloading computation
for energy-efficient data transmission in M2M communications can be classified.
One way is based on the location of the resources or computing used for offloading [39]
(as shown in Figure 5):
(i) Edge-based offloading: In this type of offloading, computation-intensive tasks are trans-
ferred to a nearby edge device, such as a gateway or a fog node. This can be done
over a local area network (LAN) or a wireless network.
(ii) Fog-based offloading: A decentralized computing paradigm that gathers computing and
data storage closer to the devices and users that need them, enabling more efficient
and effective use of resources.
(iii) Cloud-based offloading: In this type of offloading, computation-intensive tasks are
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757
transferred to a remote server or cloud computing infrastructure. This can be11done of 38

over the internet or a wide area network (WAN).

Figure 5. Architecture of computing layers.

Figure 5. Architecture of computing layers.

Anotherway
Another waytotoclassify
classifyoffloading
offloading is based
is based on on
thethe types
types of tasks
of tasks that that are offloaded
are offloaded [39]:
[39]:
(i) Data-intensive offloading: In this type of offloading, tasks that involve large amounts of
(i) Data-intensive offloading:
data, such as data Inand
analysis thismachine
type of learning,
offloading,
aretasks that involve
transferred largeresources.
to external amounts
(ii) of data, such as data offloading:
Computation-intensive analysis and machine
In this type oflearning, aretasks
offloading, transferred to external
that require re-
significant
sources.
processing power, such as image processing and video encoding, are transferred to
(ii) Computation-intensive
external resources. offloading: In this type of offloading, tasks that require signifi-
cant processing power, such as image processing and video encoding, are transferred
to external resources.

4.4. Energy-Efficient Hardware

Energy-efficient hardware is important in M2M communication, where the IoT de-
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 11 of 37

4.4. Energy-Efficient Hardware

Energy-efficient hardware is important in M2M communication, where the IoT devices
may require operating for long duration on a small battery or other limited power sources.
Several hardware components are used to boost the energy efficiency of green M2M
networks. Some of these components include:
(i) Energy-efficient sensors (Green WSNs): Some sensors including, temperature and hu-
midity sensors, are known to be very power-hungry devices. Therefore, using energy-
efficient sensors is the best way to reduce the power consumption in M2M systems.
Details are given in Section 5.
(ii) Energy-efficient radios (Green RFID): Radio transceivers are a major source of power
consumption in M2M devices. Thus, using an energy-efficient radio can improve the
power consumption in M2M networks. Details are given in Section 5.
(iii) Low-power microprocessors (Green MCUs and ICs): By using a low-power microprocessor,
the overall power expenditure of an M2M device can be considerably reduced. Details
are presented in Section 6.
M2M technology primarily involves the use of sensors and RFID to collect data
and transmit information over the network channel. These two components, RFID and
sensor networking, are essential to the functioning of M2M systems. Accordingly, the
following sections deal with discussing the role and importance of these two pillars in
M2M technology.

5. Energy-Efficient and Eco-Sustainable Wireless Sensor Networks

Wireless sensors are small, inexpensive devices that run on batteries and are able
to detect specific events or send regular updates about their surroundings. They are an
important component of smart applications that utilize IoT technology. The deployment of
a group of interconnected wireless sensors is referred to as a WSN. A typical WSN consists
of multiple source nodes (wireless sensors) connected to a base station (sink node). In WSN
topology, one of the sensor nodes acts as the network coordinator and assumes the role of
the base station (BS) or head node (HN). The HN performs important network functions
such as scheduling, resource allocation, interference management, and routing, and acts as
a gateway to the larger network [40]. A summary of low-power wireless communication
technologies for sensors can be found in [41]. In addition, Table 2 compares various wireless
technologies using key parameters such as standard, energy consumption, frequency band,
data rate, transmission range, and cost. Table 3 shows how well these technologies are
suited for IoT applications.

Table 2. Summary comparison of the use of different wireless technologies for IoT applications.

Mobile
Parameters LoRa Bluetooth LR-WPAN WiMAX WiFi
Communication
2G-GSM, CDMA
IEEE 802.15.4 3G-UMTS, IEEE 802.11
Standard LoRaWAN R1.0 IEEE 802.15.1 IEEE 802.16
(ZigBee) CDMA2000 a/c/b/d/g/n
4G-LTE-A
Bluetooth:
Energy
Very Low Medium; BLE: Low Medium Medium High
consumption
Very Low
Frequency 868/915 MHz, 865 MHz–
868/900 MHz 2.4 GHz 2–66 GHz 5–60 GHz
band 2.4 GHz 2.6 GHz
1 Mb/s–1 Gb/s
(Fixed)
Data rate 0.3–50 Kb/s 1–24 Mb/s 40–250 Kb/s 200 kb/s–1 Gb/s 1 Mb/s–6.75 Gb/s
50–100 Mb/s
(mobile)
Transmission Entire cellular
<30 Km 8–10 m 10–20 m <50 Km 20–100 m
range area
Cost High Low Low Medium High High
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 12 of 37

Table 3. The suitability of various wireless technologies for IoT applications [42,43].

Wireless Technology Healthcare Smart Cities Smart Building Automotive Industry Local Network (M2M)
Bluetooth (BLE) very high low low very low very high medium
LR-WPAN medium high low very low low high
LoRa low high high high high high
WiFi low high medium medium low high
WiMAX low very high high high very high high
Mobile communication low high high high medium very low

Wireless sensors are used to regularly and autonomously send data over a long period
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 13 of 3
of time, especially in critical applications such as weather forecasting, traffic reporting,
water quality monitoring, healthcare, and embedded systems. Wireless sensors are powered
by batteries, but the cost of replacing or maintaining exhausted batteries can be prohibitive,
prohibitive,
especially in remote especially
locations that in
haveremote locations
difficult thatmaking
terrain, have difficult
accessterrain,
to thesemaking
sites access t
these sites challenging [44]. Due to geographical constraints,
challenging [44]. Due to geographical constraints, battery replacement may prove to be battery replacement ma
prove to be challenging in certain situations. Therefore, it is essential
challenging in certain situations. Therefore, it is essential to develop energy-efficient to develop energy
efficient solutions in order to extend battery life and reduce replacement costs for the su
solutions in order to extend battery life and reduce replacement costs for the sustainability
tainability of WSN. There have been numerous efforts to propose energy-efficient solu
of WSN. There have been numerous efforts to propose energy-efficient solutions for WSN.
tions for WSN. The major existing energy-saving mechanisms for green WSN are summa
The major existing energy-saving mechanisms for green WSN are summarized in Figure 6.
rized in Figure 6. Below, a detailed discussion of the current energy-saving mechanism
Below, a detailed discussion of the current energy-saving mechanisms will be presented
will be presented with the goal of creating a more environmentally friendly WSN.
with the goal of creating a more environmentally friendly WSN.

Figure 6. Classification of energy-efficient techniques for WSNs.

Figure 6. Classification of energy-efficient techniques for WSNs.
5.1. Radio Optimization Techniques
5.1. Radio Optimization Techniques
The radio unit is the main reason for the battery drain on sensor nodes. The energy
consumption of theThe radio
radio unitunit
canisbe
theattributed
main reason for the
to two battery
factors: (i) drain
power onrequired
sensor nodes.
for theThe energ
circuit itself to function and (ii) power needed to transmit the signal. It is well-knownrequired
consumption of the radio unit can be attributed to two factors: (i) power that for th
circuit itself to function and (ii) power needed to transmit the signal. It is well-known tha
for shorter distances, the power required for the circuit itself to function is greater than the
for shorter distances, the power required for the circuit itself to function is greater tha
power needed to transmit the signal. However, for longer distances, the power required for
the power needed to transmit the signal. However, for longer distances, the power re
the transmitted signal becomes the dominant factor in energy consumption. There have
quired for the transmitted signal becomes the dominant factor in energy consumption
been several studies that have explored ways to improve energy efficiency by dynamically
There have been several studies that have explored ways to improve energy efficiency b
adjusting the transmission power level [45,46]. The authors in [47] proposed an energy-
dynamically adjusting the transmission power level [45,46]. The authors in [47] propose
an energy-saving cooperative topology that allows nodes with higher remaining energ
to increase their transmission power, which allows other nodes to decrease their transmi
sion power. This can reduce interference and improve connectivity, but may also poten
tially increase the delay as more hops may be needed to forward a packet. Cooperativ
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 13 of 37

saving cooperative topology that allows nodes with higher remaining energy to increase
their transmission power, which allows other nodes to decrease their transmission power.
This can reduce interference and improve connectivity, but may also potentially increase
the delay as more hops may be needed to forward a packet. Cooperative communications
among neighboring sensor nodes can address the delay problem by creating a virtual
multiple-antenna environment, providing spatial diversity and enabling retransmission
of data. Cooperative communications among neighboring sensor nodes can improve the
quality of the received signal by reducing the effects of multi-path fading and shadowing,
extending the communication range among sensor nodes, and providing better energy
savings and smaller end-to-end delays over certain transmission range distances. This has
been reported in studies such as Cui et al. [48] and Jayaweera [49], who have compared the
energy consumption of single input single output and virtual multiple-antenna (multiple
input and multiple output) systems and found that the virtual multiple-antenna system
offers better energy savings and smaller end-to-end delays under certain conditions. On
the other hand, Cui et al. [50] have studied the relationship between energy consumption,
transmission time, and bit error rate. The results showed that optimizing the transmission
time can minimize the energy consumption needed to meet a given bit error rate and delay
requirement. In addition, the authors in [51] conducted a comparison of the energy effi-
ciency of three different modulation schemes to determine the optimal modulation scheme
that achieves the lowest energy consumption at various distances between sensor nodes.

5.2. Sleep/Wake-Up Techniques

Turning off (entering sleep mode) unused wireless resources and devices has become
a widely used method for reducing power consumption in the field of information and
communications technology because it can save a significant amount of energy. To de-
termine the system’s average power consumption, we need to use Equation (1), which
involves multiplying the sleep power by the percentage of time the system is in sleep
mode, multiplying the active power by the percentage of time the system is active, and
then adding the two products together before dividing the result by 100.

( Psleep × %time asleep) + ( Pactive × %time active)

Pavg = (1)
100
The idea behind the proposed approach is to take advantage of the dense deployment
of sensor nodes in a small coverage area, to make sensor nodes more energy efficient with
extended battery life by turning sensor nodes on and off. When a system has a large sleep
power compared to its active power, in this case, the system can be saving a large amount
of energy. However, in some cases, the active power may be much larger than the sleep
power, either because the power per event is high or because active power events occur
frequently. However, in all cases, it is important to consider coverage in this approach, and
ensure that it is still sufficient by the remaining active nodes. Misra et al. [52] proposed a
solution that aims to minimize the energy consumption of the network while maintaining
network coverage by activating only a subset of nodes with minimal overlap in their
coverage areas. Karasabun et al. [53] modeled the issue of energy efficiency as a subset
selection problem for collecting correlated data payload from active connected sensors.
This approach takes advantage of spatial correlation to gather sensor information from
non-active nodes through active nodes, making it a useful strategy.
Duty cycle-based protocols are generally considered to be very energy-efficient [54,
55]. The duty cycle approach, which switches a sensor node on and off depending on
network activity, can be categorized into three types: (i) on-demand, (ii) asynchronous,
and (iii) scheduled rendezvous. However, it is important to keep in mind that while a
low-duty cycle can save a significant amount of energy, it may also result in lengthy
communication delays. To minimize delays, protocol parameters can be adjusted before
deployment for simplicity, although this approach may lead to reduced flexibility, or they
can be dynamically altered to reflect current traffic conditions. Moreover, to optimize power
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 14 of 37

consumption, the active period of nodes may depend on various factors such as traffic load,
buffer overflows, delay requirements, or harvested energy, as discussed in [56].

5.3. Energy Harvesting, Batteries, and Wireless Charging Techniques

5.3.1. Energy Harvesting Sources
Advances in renewable energy technology can help to achieve the key features of wire-
less sensor energy sources, such as sustainability, reliability and reduction of greenhouse
gas emissions [57]. In addition, the utilization of renewable energy technology holds great
potential for enhancing the energy efficiency of wireless sensor networks situated in rural
and remote regions where battery replacement may be problematic due to geographical
barriers, such as challenging terrain that restricts access to these areas [58]. Solar cells are
known for their high reliability and low maintenance requirements, and they can last for up
to 20–30 years. Moreover, novel technologies have been introduced that enable sensors to
collect energy from their environment, including wind and kinetic energy [59], and convert
it into electrical energy that can be used directly or stored for later use. The characteristics
and performance of renewable energy sources can vary significantly depending on the
environment in which they are used. For example, outdoor renewable energy sources
differ from those used indoors in industrial and commercial settings. A summary of indoor
and outdoor energy sources and their properties is presented in Table 4. Nevertheless,
it is essential to acknowledge that sensor nodes may exhibit an unequal distribution of
remaining energy owing to variations in the amount of energy collected, and this must be
taken into account when creating protocols [60].

Table 4. Summary of the indoor and outdoor energy harvesting sources and their characteristics.

Power Harvester
Environment Solar Panel Wind Generator Thermoelectric Electromagnetic
Power density of the
100 µW/cm2 35 µW/cm2 @ wind speed < 1 m/s 100 µW/cm2 @ 5 ◦ C 4 µW/cm3 @ human
indoor environment
motion (Hz) 800 µW/cm3
Power density of the
10 mW/cm2 3.5 mW/cm2 @ wind speed ≤ 8.4 m/s 3.5 mW/cm2 @ 30 ◦ C @ machine (kHz)
outdoor environment

It is difficult to determine whether a specific IoT device would be a good candidate

for energy harvesting without knowing more about its intended application and how
it will operate in the system. However, there are certain categories of devices that are
generally more or less suitable for energy harvesting, based on technical considerations, if
not necessarily cost-effectiveness.
Overall, to efficiently manage the available power, renewable energy technology often
relies on energy prediction schemes. However, to achieve high reliability, energy-saving
mechanisms, in addition to renewable energy technology, may still be necessary. Sensors
need to estimate the evolution of energy in order to adjust their behavior dynamically and
survive until the next recharge cycle. As a result, they can optimize key parameters such as
sampling rate, transmit power, and duty cycling to adapt their power consumption to the
periodicity and magnitude of the harvestable energy source.

5.3.2. Battery Technologies for IoT/Sensor Devices

There are many different types of batteries that can be used in IoT devices, each with
its own advantages and disadvantages. It is important to consider the specific requirements
of the IoT device when selecting a battery, such as power consumption, size, and operating
temperature. Other factors to consider include safety, cost, and the ability to replace or
recharge the battery. Figure 7 summarizes some of the most common batteries used in
IoT devices.
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 16 of 38
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 15 of 37

Figure
Figure7.7.AAselection
selectionofofbattery
batterytypes
typescommonly
commonlyused
usedininIoT/sensor
IoT/sensordevices.
devices.

The battery are

Researchers life cycle capacity on
still working candeveloping
be calculated to determine
protocols if itsinto
that take totalaccount
storage capacity
the de-
over a specific
terioration number
of battery of charge/discharge
performance cycles,
over time (such asat a specific
leakage anddepth
storage ofloss),
discharge
as this(DoD),
will
is sufficient
impact for the task.of
the performance The
thelife cycle capacity is calculated as follows:
WSN.
Li f e cycle capacity = Rated battery capacity × Rated charge_ discharge cycle li f e × DoD (2)
5.3.3. Wireless Charging Techniques
Researchers
Wireless power arecharging
still working on developing
technology allows forprotocols that take
more controlled into account
recharging the
of net-
deterioration
work elements,ofresulting
battery performance over time (such
in increased sustainability asreliability
and leakage and storage loss),
in wireless sensorasnet-
this
will impact the performance of the WSN.
works (WSNs). This concept has been implemented in various applications, including
medical sensors, implantable devices, wireless sensor replenishment in concrete, and
5.3.3. Wireless Charging Techniques
powering a ground sensor from an unmanned aerial vehicle. Energy transfer methods can
Wireless power charging technology allows for more controlled recharging of network
be divided into two main categories: non-radiative coupling-based charging, such as mag-
elements, resulting in increased sustainability and reliability in wireless sensor networks
netic inductive coupling, magnetic resonance coupling, and capacitive coupling; and ra-
(WSNs). This concept has been implemented in various applications, including medical
diative RF-based charging, which encompasses directive RF power beamforming and
sensors, implantable devices, wireless sensor replenishment in concrete, and powering
non-directive RF power transfer. Capacitive coupling is limited by the available area of
a ground sensor from an unmanned aerial vehicle. Energy transfer methods can be di-
the device, making it difficult to generate enough power density for charging, which poses
vided into two main categories: non-radiative coupling-based charging, such as magnetic
a design challenge. Similarly, directive RF power beamforming requires knowledge of the
inductive coupling, magnetic resonance coupling, and capacitive coupling; and radiative
energy receiver’s exact location, which can be a limitation. Therefore, wireless charging is
RF-based charging, which encompasses directive RF power beamforming and non-directive
often achieved through alternative techniques such as magnetic inductive coupling, mag-
RF power transfer. Capacitive coupling is limited by the available area of the device, making
netic resonance coupling and non-directive RF radiation, which are less restrictive [61].
it difficult to generate enough power density for charging, which poses a design challenge.
Similarly, directive RF power beamforming requires knowledge of the energy receiver’s
exact location, which can be a limitation. Therefore, wireless charging is often achieved
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 17 of 38

• The non-directive RF radiation technique uses electromagnetic radiation in the radio

Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 frequency range between 300 GHz and 3 kHz to transmit electric energy. This
16 of 37
method is well suited for far-field communication; however, it has low efficiency in
converting RF energy to DC energy when the harvested RF power is low. For further
details on
through this technique
alternative andsuch
techniques other RF powerinductive
as magnetic transfercoupling,
methods,magnetic
readersresonance
can refer to
[62,63]. and non-directive RF radiation, which are less restrictive [61].
coupling
• •Magnetic inductive coupling
The non-directive involves
RF radiation generating
technique electrical energy
uses electromagnetic between
radiation in thetwo
radiocoils
that frequency
are tunedrange
to resonate
between at300
theGHz
same frequency
and throughelectric
3 kHz to transmit magnetic coupling
energy. [64]. The
This method
magnetic field is used to transfer the required electric power. An illustration
is well suited for far-field communication; however, it has low efficiency in converting of the
operating concept
RF energy to DCisenergy
depicted in the
when Figure 8.
harvested RF power is low. For further details on
• this technique
Magnetic resonance andcoupling
other RF involves
power transfer methods, readers
the utilization can refer to field
of an evanescent [62,63].
that gen-
•erates
Magnetic inductive coupling involves generating electrical energy between
and transmits electrical energy between two resonators [65]. To create this two coilstype
that are tuned to resonate at the same frequency through magnetic coupling [64]. The
of resonator, a capacitance is inserted between an induction coil. An illustration of
magnetic field is used to transfer the required electric power. An illustration of the
the operating concept is depicted in Figure 8.
operating concept is depicted in Figure 8.

Figure
Figure The operating
8. operating
8. The concept
concept of wireless
of wireless charging
charging by by both
both magnetic
magnetic inductiveand
inductive andmagnetic
magneticres-
resonance
onance coupling.
coupling.
• Magnetic resonance coupling involves the utilization of an evanescent field that
The generates
inductiveand coupling andelectrical
transmits magnetic resonance
energy between coupling techniques
two resonators both
[65]. To fallthis
create under
the category
typeof ofshort-range communications,
resonator, a capacitance also
is inserted knownanasinduction
between near-field wireless
coil. communi-
An illustration
cations (NFC). For more information on these,
of the operating concept is depicted in Figure 8.readers can refer to [66]. The high power
conversion Theefficiency
inductiveof near-field
coupling and wireless
magnetic transmission
resonance couplingis well-known,
techniques and both it is under
fall strongly
influenced by the coupling coefficient and distance between the two
the category of short-range communications, also known as near-field wireless communi- coils/resonators.
Nonetheless, the operational
cations (NFC). range (i.e., on
For more information thethese,
distance between
readers theto
can refer transmitter
[66]. The highandpower
receiver)
posesconversion
a significant challenge
efficiency for near-field
of near-field wirelesswireless transmission
transmission sinceand
is well-known, theitpower dimin-
is strongly
ishesinfluenced
rapidly asby thethe coupling
distance coefficient
between theand distance
devices between
increases theTable
[67]. two coils/resonators.
5 provides a sum-
maryNonetheless, the operational
of the advantages, range (i.e., the
disadvantages, anddistance between
effective the transmitter
charging distanceand receiver)
of three tech-
poses a significant challenge for near-field wireless transmission since the
niques: the non-directive RF radiation technique, magnetic inductive coupling, and mag- power diminishes
rapidly as the distance between the devices increases [67]. Table 5 provides a summary of
netic resonance coupling. Based on information in existing reviews or research in the field
the advantages, disadvantages, and effective charging distance of three techniques: the
[68,69], these factors were determined by the authors of this article.
non-directive RF radiation technique, magnetic inductive coupling, and magnetic reso-
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 17 of 37

nance coupling. Based on information in existing reviews or research in the field [68,69],
these factors were determined by the authors of this article.

Table 5. A summary of the advantages, disadvantages, and effective charging distance of the energy
transfer techniques.

Technique Advantages Disadvantages Charging Distance

# Short charging distance.
Magnetic inductive # Simple implementation. # Needs tight alignment between
# Safe for humans. Near-field.
coupling chargers and charging devices.
# Heating effect.
# Loose alignment.
# Charging without the need for a
direct line of sight. # Limited charging distance.
Magnetic resonance
# Ability to charge multiple devices # Complex implementation. Near-field.
coupling
simultaneously with different
power levels.
# High charging efficiency.
# Requires a direct line of sight for
# Long-range charging, suited for charging.
Non-directive RF
far-field communication. # Low charging efficiency. Far-field.
radiation
# Not safe when there is high
exposure to RF density.

Several studies have examined the method of delivering energy wirelessly to sensor
nodes that have been deployed in the field [70–72]. However, new challenges are introduced
such as energy cooperation, as nodes can now share energy with their neighbors. In
future wireless networks, nodes are expected to be able to both gather energy from their
environment and transfer energy to other nodes, making the network self-sufficient [73].
Recent studies have shown that multi-hop energy transfer is possible [63], which presents
new opportunities for designing wireless charging protocols, cooperative energy systems,
and energy-efficient routing.

5.4. Energy-Efficient WSN Architecture and Routing Protocols

Cluster architecture is an effective method for increasing the energy efficiency of WSNs
and ensuring scalability by maintaining a hierarchical structure. This approach involves
grouping sensor nodes into clusters, with each cluster being led by a chosen node known as
the cluster head. The cluster head is responsible for managing the activities of the members
and communicating with other cluster heads or the base station [74,75]. This method of
organization is illustrated in Figure 9.
Cluster architecture can improve energy saving in WSN in several ways:
• It decreases the communication distance within the cluster, which reduces the need
for high transmission power.
• It reduces the number of transmissions by leveraging data fusion at the cluster head.
• It cuts down energy-consuming activities such as coordination and data aggregation
by distributing them to the cluster head.
• It allows for some nodes to be powered off within the cluster, as the cluster head
assumes forwarding responsibilities.
• It distributes energy consumption evenly among nodes by rotating the cluster head position.
Symmetry 2023,15,
Symmetry2023, 15,757
757 18 of
19 of 37
38

Figure 9. Cluster network architecture.

Figure 9. Cluster network architecture.

Cluster architecture
Unfortunately, uneven can improve energy
distribution saving
of sensor nodes incan
WSN in several
result ways:of energy in
in depletion
•
certainIt areas
decreases the communication
or create energy “holes”. distance
However,within
this can thebecluster,
mitigatedwhichby reduces
properlythe need
placing
the nodes
for highthrough optimalpower.
transmission distribution or by adding a few relay nodes with increased
•
capabilities.
It reducesThistheimproves
number energy balance among
of transmissions the nodes,
by leveraging dataavoids
fusionsensor
at thehotspots, and
cluster head.
•
ensures coverage
It cuts and connectivity. Many
down energy-consuming studies
activities suchhave been conducted
as coordination and dataon aggregation
finding the
minimum number ofthem
by distributing relaytonodes or placing
the cluster head.them in the most efficient way to extend the
•
network lifetime
It allows for[76–78].
some nodes to be powered off within the cluster, as the cluster head
In general,forwarding
assumes single-pathresponsibilities.
routing protocols are more straightforward compared to mul-
•
tipath routing protocols, However,
It distributes energy consumption theyevenly
can quickly
amongdeplete
nodes by therotating
energy theof nodes
clusterinhead
the
chosen path. Additionally, when a node runs out of power, a new route must be recal-
position.
culated in single-path routing. On the other hand, multipath routing distributes energy
Unfortunately, uneven distribution of sensor nodes can result in depletion of energy
among nodes by alternating forwarding nodes and also improves network reliability by
in certain areas or create energy “holes”. However, this can be mitigated by properly plac-
providing alternative routes and allowing the network to recover quickly in case of failure.
ing the nodes through optimal distribution or by adding a few relay nodes with increased
For more detailed information on multipath routing protocols for WSN, a comprehensive
capabilities. This improves energy balance among the nodes, avoids sensor hotspots, and
survey can be found in [79]. One energy-efficient multipath routing protocol for WSN is
ensures coverage and connectivity. Many studies have been conducted on finding the
the energy-efficient multipath routing protocol (EEMRP), which is described in [80]. This
minimum number of relay nodes or placing them in the most efficient way to extend the
protocol discovers multiple paths that do not share nodes by using a cost function based
network lifetime [76–78].
on the energy levels and hop distances of the nodes. and then, it allocates traffic to each of
In general, single-path routing protocols are more straightforward compared to mul-
the selected paths. Additionally, the energy-efficient and collision aware (EECA) protocol,
tipath routing protocols, However, they can quickly deplete the energy of nodes in the
described in [81], puts forward two routes between a source and a sink that are not only
chosen path. Additionally,
node-disjoint when
but also free from a node runs
collisions. Liu out
et al.of[82]
power, a newtwo
proposed routenewmust be recalcu-
energy-aware
cost functions to enhance the energy balancing capability of the routing protocol by energy
lated in single-path routing. On the other hand, multipath routing distributes factor-
among
ing nodes
in high by alternating
energy consumption forwarding nodes in
rates of nodes and also improves
hotspots: (i) The network
exponentialreliability
and sineby
providing alternative routes and allowing the network to recover
cost function based route (ESCFR) function, which amplifies small changes in remaining quickly in case of fail-
ure. For
nodal moreinto
energy detailed information
large changes in theon multipath
cost functionrouting
value. By protocols for WSN, to
giving preference a compre-
sensors
hensive survey can be found in [79]. One energy-efficient multipath routing protocol for
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 19 of 37

with higher remaining energy during route selection, the ESCFR function promotes energy
balance. (ii) The double cost function based route (DCFR) protocol factors in not only the
remaining energy of nodes but also their energy consumption rate, which improve the
energy-balancing performance of the routing protocol, even in networks with obstacles.
Overall, the research results showed that multipath routing protocols were more energy-
efficient than single-path routing protocols. Additionally, energy efficiency and the lifetime
of the WSN can be further improved if the routing algorithms not only consider the shortest
paths but also choose the next hop based on its remaining energy.

5.5. Aggregation and Reduction of the Data

Efficiently managing the amount of data transmitted to the sink nodes by reducing
and aggregating it has been proposed as a method to enhance energy efficiency during the
transmission process [44]. Data aggregation schemes [83] involve a node re-transmitting
only the average or the minimum of the received data, which can reduce latency by
decreasing traffic. An example of this would be, in a surveillance application, low-power
acoustic detectors that can be utilized to detect intrusions, and when an event is detected,
power-consuming cameras can be activated to obtain more detailed information [54].
Additionally, spatial correlation can be employed to decrease the sampling rate in areas
where there is little variation in the sensed data. For recognizing human activities, Yan
et al. [84] suggested that the data collection frequency should be adjusted to the user
activity, as it is not necessary to sample at the same rate when the user is sitting or running.
However, these techniques can also decrease the accuracy of the collected data, as the
original data may not be recoverable by the sink, leading to a loss of information precision,
depending on the aggregation function used [85]. Thus, it is not recommended to use
these methods in applications requiring high accuracy. An alternative is adaptive sampling,
which adjusts the sampling rate at each sensor while ensuring that application needs are
met in terms of coverage or information precision.
On the other hand, network coding is used to decrease traffic in broadcast scenarios
by sending a linear combination of multiple packets instead of a copy of each packet.
Network coding makes use of the trade-off between computation and communication since
communication is relatively slow and power-intensive compared to computation. Wang
et al. [86] combined network coding with connected dominating sets to further reduce
energy consumption in broadcast scenarios. AdapCode is a data dissemination protocol,
where a node sends one message for every N messages received, thereby saving up to
(N − 1)/N fraction of the bandwidth compared to naive flooding [87]. The receiver node
can recover the original packets by using Gaussian elimination after successfully receiving
N coded packets. In addition, AdapCode adapts the N value to the node density for
improving reliability; as the density decreases, it becomes more difficult to recover enough
packets to decode the data. To enhance the reliability further, it allows the nodes that
received less than N packets to send a negative acknowledgement to retrieve missing data.
Ultimately, the choice of the most effective energy-efficient technique for green WSNs
depends on several factors such as network topology, energy requirements, and application.
It is crucial to assess the different techniques based on these factors and choose the most
suitable one for the specific application. Nevertheless, Table 6 presents a summary of the
energy-saving estimates of various green WSN techniques discussed in the literature.
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 20 of 37

Table 6. A summary of energy-saving estimates for different green WSNs techniques.

Energy-Efficient Technique Energy Savings Advantages Disadvantages

- Reducing energy
consumption and - Increasing complexity and
prolonging network overhead of network
lifetime. protocols.
Transmission power control: - Improving network - Potentially increasing
Up to 50% compared end-to-end latency and
Dynamic adjustment of scalability and coverage
to a constant reducing throughput.
transmission power to - Improving network
transmission power - Depending on the specific
minimize energy reliability by reducing
approach. algorithm used, it may
consumption [46,88,89]. interference and
packet loss require additional
- Adapting to changes in hardware or
network topology and computational resources.
environmental conditions
- Depending on the specific
algorithm used, it may
Radio Optimization Techniques

Cooperation between wireless - Reducing redundancy and require additional

sensors: Collaborative data Up to 80% compared improving data accuracy. hardware or
processing, routing, and to independent sensor - Enhancing security and computational resources.
sharing among neighboring operation. fault tolerance. - Depending on the
sensors [89,90]. application, it may require
additional communication
overhead or latency.
Spatial diversity: Involves using
multiple antennas to transmit - Increased energy - Requires additional
the same signal from different efficiency and network hardware to implement.
locations, which can reduce lifetime. - Can increase network
the transmission power 20–50% - Improved network complexity.
required to achieve the same coverage and reliability. - May lead to higher
level of communication - Reduced interference and deployment costs.
performance, leading to signal fading.
energy savings [91,92].
Modulation optimization:
Adjusts the modulation
scheme based on the channel - Complex algorithm
conditions and distance - Increased energy design.
between nodes to reduce the efficiency. - Requires sophisticated
Up to 60%
energy consumption of - Improved data hardware.
transmissions while transmission rates. - Susceptible to
maintaining acceptable levels interference.
of communication
performance [50,93].
Topology control: Adjusting the
transmission range; nodes can - Increased complexity and
avoid unnecessary - Extends network lifetime.
overhead.
Sleep/Wake-up Techniques

15–60% - Balances energy usage.

communication and - May impact network
reduce energy - Reduces congestion.
performance.
consumption [90,94,95].
Duty cycling: In which a sensor
node is put into sleep mode
for a certain period of time,
known as the “duty cycle”. - Reduced network
During this sleep period, the throughput.
- Easy to implement.
node does not transmit or 30–50% - Increased latency.
- Longer network lifetime.
receive data, and its radio is - Reduced network
turned off. When the sleep coverage.
period ends, the node wakes
up and resumes its normal
operations [92,96,97].
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 21 of 37

Table 6. Cont.

Energy-Efficient Technique Energy Savings Advantages Disadvantages

- Renewable source
- Dependent on weather
of energy.
conditions (sunlight).
Energy Harvesting Techniques [92,98,99].

Solar 70–90% - Widely available.

- High initial cost of
- Can be used in
equipment.
remote areas.
- Renewable source - Dependent on
Wind 10–20% of energy. wind speed.
- Can be used in - High initial cost of
remote areas. equipment.
- Can be integrated with
Kinetic 20–40% human activity. - Limited availability of
- Low initial cost of kinetic energy sources.
equipment.
- Low energy conversion
Thermoelectric 5–10% - Low-maintenance. efficiency.
- No moving parts. - Limited availability of
heat sources.
- Can harvest energy from - Limited availability of
Electromagnetic 5–10% various sources. electromagnetic energy
- Low-maintenance. sources.
Cluster architecture 20–40% - Reduces energy - Decrease network
consumption of nodes. scalability.
and Routing
Architecture

[100–102].
Protocols

Multipath routing 20–30% - Increases network lifetime - Requires extra resources

and reliability. and overhead.
- Extends network coverage - Increases network
Relay node placement 30–50% and reduces energy complexity and
consumption. maintenance costs.
- Reduces communication
Aggregation 20–80% - Increases data latency and
traffic and energy
Techniques [92,103,104].

processing overhead.
consumption.
Data Reduction

- Reduces unnecessary data

Adaptive sampling 30–60% - Requires extra resources
transmission and energy
and overhead.
consumption.

Compression 50–90% - Reduces data size and - Requires extra resources

energy consumption. and processing overhead.
- Increases data reliability
Network coding 30–70% and reduces energy - Increase computational
consumption. complexity.

6. Energy-Efficient Radio-Frequency Identification

An RFID setup includes unique identification tags (EPC), a reader, and middleware
communication (Figure 10). RFID tags, which are made of a microchip and an antenna, are
affixed to objects that need to be tracked. The RFID reader does not need to have a line
of sight (LoS) to the tag, so the tag can be embedded within the object. The microchip on
the RFID tag holds the electronic product code (EPC) and any other necessary information
for tracking. These data can be tracked and read by RFID readers from any location. An
RFID reader is a device, either stationary or portable, that is connected to a network and
has an antenna. It transmits power, data, and commands to the RFID tags. The RFID reader
serves as a gateway for objects tagged with RFID, allowing the data stored on the tags to
be accessible to business systems. RFID systems have a limited transmission distance (a
few meters) and operate on various frequencies, ranging from the low frequency band of
124–135 kHz to ultra-high frequencies of 860–960 MHz [105].
There are several different classifications of RFID tags, as given in Figure 11. However,
we will focus in this study on the classifications in terms of energy.
 Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 23 of 38

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757 22 of
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38

Figure 10. Operating principle of RFID system.

There are several different classifications of RFID tags, as given in Figure 11. How-
ever, we will focus in this study on the classifications in terms of energy.
Figure10.
Figure 10.Operating
Operatingprinciple
principleof
ofRFID
RFIDsystem.
system.

There are several different classifications of RFID tags, as given in Figure 11. How-
ever, we will focus in this study on the classifications in terms of energy.

Figure 11. Classifications

Figure 11.ofClassifications
RFID tags. of RFID tags.

RFID tags can RFID be separated

tags can bebased on their
separated input
based power
on their supply:
input powerActive
supply:RFIDActivetags
RFID tags
have an internalhavepower source, typically a battery, and can transmit a signal
an internal power source, typically a battery, and can transmit a signalover a long
over a long
distance. Passive RFIDPassive
distance. tags do nottags
RFID havedo anot
power
have asource and rely
power source andonrelyenergy
on energy from
fromthethe RFID
RFID reader’s signal to signal
reader’s powertothe tag’s
power themicrochip. These
tag’s microchip. tagstags
These have a shorter
have transmission
a shorter transmission range.
range.
Figure However, However, ofa RFID
semi-passive
a semi-passive
11. Classifications RFID tag
tags. RFID
hastag has a power
a power sourcesource but only
but only usesuses
it to itpower
to powerthe the mi-
crochip, not for transmitting
microchip, not for transmitting a signal [106]. a signal [106].
RFID tags can be separated based on their input power supply: Active RFID tags
6.1. Passive RFID 6.1. Passive RFID Systems
Systems
have an internal power source, typically a battery, and can transmit a signal over a long
RFID Passive
passive RFID RFID passive
systems systems
that use tags that are powered externally by electromagnetic energy
distance. tagsuse
dotags
not have are powered
a power externally
source byon
and rely electromagnetic
energy from the energy
RFID
from an RFID from an RFID reader rather than having an internal power source. Passive RFID tags are
reader’s signalreader
to power
commonly
rather
the than
usedtag’s having an internal
in a microchip.
wide range of These power
tags have
applications
source. Passive
a shorter
such
RFID tags
transmission
as inventory
are
range.
tracking, access control,
commonly
However, used in a wide range
a semi-passive RFID of
tag applications
has aand
power such as inventory
source tracking, access control,
timing events, smart labels, supply chain but only uses
management. it toare
They power
also athe mi-
cost-effective
timing events, smart
crochip, not forsolution labels,
transmitting and
a supply
signal chain
[106]. management. They are also a cost-effective
for many industries, as they have a lower cost per tag. Figure 12 illustrates the
solution for many basicindustries,
operation ofasathey
passivehave
RFIDa lower
system.cost per tag. Figure 12 illustrates the
basic operation of a passive
6.1. Passive RFID Systems RFID system.
RFID passive systems use tags that are powered externally by electromagnetic energy
from an RFID reader rather than having an internal power source. Passive RFID tags are
commonly used in a wide range of applications such as inventory tracking, access control,
timing events, smart labels, and supply chain management. They are also a cost-effective
solution for many industries, as they have a lower cost per tag. Figure 12 illustrates the
basic operation of a passive RFID system.
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 23 of 37
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 24 of 38

Figure 12.Passive
Figure12. PassiveRFID
RFIDsystem.
system.

As
Asdiscussed
discussedin inSection
Section5.3.3,
5.3.3, there
there are
are three
three main
main techniques
techniques for for transferring
transferring electro-
electro-
magnetic energy in RFID systems: the RF energy harvesting scheme,
magnetic energy in RFID systems: the RF energy harvesting scheme, magnetic resonance magnetic resonance
coupling,
coupling,and andinductive
inductive coupling,
coupling, which
whichareare
presented
presented in (Table 5). NFC
in (Table is commonly
5). NFC is commonlyused
in passive RFID systems, and it can be either backscatter or inductive
used in passive RFID systems, and it can be either backscatter or inductive coupling. The coupling. The RFID
reader sends out
RFID reader sendsa signal
out ainsignal
the formin theof sinusoidal wave, which
form of sinusoidal wave, the tag antenna
which the tag receives
antenna
and
receives and converts into power using a rectifier circuit. The internal IC of is
converts into power using a rectifier circuit. The internal IC of the tag thepowered
tag is pow-by
this
eredenergy,
by thisand it modulates
energy, the signalthe
and it modulates received and delivers
signal received and it back toitthe
delivers backreader.
to theThe tag
reader.
solely modulates the signal that the reader sends it, not producing
The tag solely modulates the signal that the reader sends it, not producing any signals of any signals of its own
throughout this process. Detailed information on the backscattering fundamentals can be
its own throughout this process. Detailed information on the backscattering fundamentals
found in [107].
can be found in [107].
Passive RFID tags have low power consumption and are well-suited for wireless
Passive RFID tags have low power consumption and are well-suited for wireless
sensing applications. Notably, their operating range is limited, with the finest passive tags
sensing applications. Notably, their operating range is limited, with the finest passive tags
able to function at a distance of 7–15 m. This is mainly due to the weak electromagnetic
able to function at a distance of 7–15 m. This is mainly due to the weak electromagnetic
induction-based communication principle. Additionally, path loss, which is a significant
induction-based communication principle. Additionally, path loss, which is a significant
parameter in any wireless communication, also plays a pivotal role in limiting the operating
parameter in any wireless communication, also plays a pivotal role in limiting the operat-
range of RFID transmission in passive tags. Path loss is caused by a variety of factors
ing range of RFID transmission in passive tags. Path loss is caused by a variety of factors
such as refraction, free-space loss, diffraction, scattering, antenna height and location,
such as refraction, free-space loss, diffraction, scattering, antenna height and location, re-
reflection, weather conditions and surrounding environment. On the other hand, the
flection, weather conditions and surrounding environment. On the other hand, the inter-
inter-site distance between the transmitter and receiver and the height and position of
site distance
antennas alsobetween
play a vitalthe transmitter
role in pathand lossreceiver and the height
[108]. Therefore, andan
selecting position of antennas
appropriate path
also play a vital role in path loss [108]. Therefore, selecting an appropriate
loss calculation model is crucial. In [109], the author extensively compared various channel path loss cal-
culation
path loss model is crucial.
prediction models,In for
[109], the author
example, Hata,extensively
Friis, CCIR, compared
etc., under various channel
different path
scenarios
loss prediction models, for example, Hata, Friis, CCIR, etc.,
in various environments. However, such models are highly dependent on the system’s under different scenarios in
various environments. However,
operating frequency and application. such models are highly dependent on the system’s op-
erating frequency
According to Baandetapplication.
al. [110], RFID readers and WISP-Motes, passive RFID wake-up
According
radios, are the main to Bacomponents
et al. [110], RFIDof thereaders
network. andThe WISP-Motes, passive RFID
energy generated by thewake-up
reader
radios, are wakes
transmitter the main components
up these passive of RFIDthe wake-up
network.radios,
The energy
allowing generated
them toby wakethe upreader
the
transmitter
node. wakes
However, up theseall
equipping passive
sensors RFID
withwake-up
RFID readers radios, allowing
is not practicalthem dueto to
wake
theirup the
high
node. However, equipping all sensors with RFID readers is not
power consumption, which limits their use to single-hop environments. Simulation results practical due to their high
power consumption,
revealed that WISP-Motes which canlimits
save atheir use to single-hop
considerable amount ofenvironments.
energy, but thisSimulation
comes at the re-
sults revealed that WISP-Motes can save a considerable amount
cost of additional hardware and slower data transmission by increasing latency in data of energy, but this comes
at the cost
delivery. Theofadvantages
additional hardware
of this strategyand slower
have beendataillustrated
transmission by the byauthors
increasingin thelatency
context in
data
of delivery.
a sparse The advantages
delay-tolerant network of this
withstrategy
mobile have
elements beenthat
illustrated
includeby the readers.
RFID authors in the
context of a sparse delay-tolerant network with mobile elements that include RFID read-
6.2.
ers.Active RFID Systems
Battery-powered RFID tags that continuously broadcast their own signal are used in
6.2.active
an ActiveRFID
RFIDsystem.
SystemsThese tags, known as “beacons”, are frequently used to precisely
track Battery-powered
the location of assets
RFIDin real-time or in high-speed
tags that continuously environments
broadcast such
their own as tolling.
signal They
are used in
are more expensive than passive tags but have a considerably larger scan range.
an active RFID system. These tags, known as “beacons”, are frequently used to preciselyFigure 13
summarizes the characteristics
track the location of assets in of the active
real-time or RFID system. environments such as tolling.
in high-speed
They are more expensive than passive tags but have a considerably larger scan range.
Figure 13 summarizes the characteristics of the active RFID system.
 Symmetry 2023,15,
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757 24 of
25 of 37
38

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Active RFID system.
system.

Symmetry 2023, 15, 757

The
The energy
energystorage
storagesystem
systemisisthe
theprimary
primaryfactor
factortoto
take
takeinto account
into when
account whenconsidering
consider-
26 of 38
an active RFID system. The two most common options are batteries and capacitors.
ing an active RFID system. The two most common options are batteries and capacitors. Details
are given
Details ingiven
are the subsequent paragraphs
in the subsequent and summarized
paragraphs in Figurein14.
and summarized Figure 14.
• Batteries: Batteries have been a popular power source for various devices since their
invention and are still widely used today. However, they have a short lifespan and
must be replaced after a certain period. Even rechargeable batteries lose their energy-
retaining capabilities over time. Another important factor to consider when choosing
a storage device is the form factor, which refers to the shape and size of the device.
However, the relationship between form factor and capacity is often conflicting, as a
larger capacity often means a larger device size [111]. As a result, batteries may not
be the best option for RFID environments, where a small and flexible device is needed.
Research has been conducted to find ways to develop compact energy storage de-
vices that offer more flexibility while maintaining a high capacity. The emergence of
thin film technology has made it possible for batteries to have the form factor needed
for RFID applications [112]. This technology allows for the creation of electronic de-
vices that are paper-thin and recognized as well-matched for thermo-electric micro-
systems. Studies have shown that thin-film batteries are an ideal choice for applica-
tions where a thermal difference is present, such as the human body [113]. Overall,
thin-film technology offers versatility and is a promising option for RFID tags.
• Capacitors: Capacitors are highly energy-efficient storage devices and do not dimin-
ish their capacity quickly, making them an ideal component for certain applications.
However, the capacity of a capacitor is largely dependent on its size, and so capaci-
tors often sacrifice form factors for a longer lifespan. Additionally, capacitors are un-
reliable to some extent because they are extremely susceptible to changes in current
Figure and
14.
Figure 14. voltage.
Comparison
Comparison However,
ofofenergy
energy recent
storageadvancements
storage options: in capacitor
batteries
options: batteries storage technology have led
versuscapacitors.
versus capacitors.
to the development of ultra-capacitors and super-capacitors, which can store large
amounts of
• In Batteries: energy and combine the reliability and performance
variousof rechargeable bat-
summary,Batteries
batteries have
are been
more a popular
suitable power source
for long-term, forsteady devices
power since their
supply, while
teries withand
invention theare
longevity of regular
still widely capacitors
used today. [114].they
However, These haveultra-capacitors
a short lifespan areand
se-
capacitors are better for high-power, short-term usage. The precise requirements of the
lectedbebyreplaced
must designers because
after they
a certain have high
period. Evenenergy densities
rechargeable that are
batteries many
lose theirorders
energy- of
RFID application will determine which option is best between the two.
magnitude
retaining higher than
capabilities those
over of conventional
time. Another important capacitors.
factorSome designswhen
to consider deploy a com-
choosing
Onabination
the other
storage of hand,
device
storage isreferences
the
devices, [6,10,117,118]
form creating
factor, which
a hybrid focused
refers to the
system on the
shape
that transmission
and size
combines theof power
the
best issue.
device.
features
Reference [10] proposes
However,
of different thedevices. theThese
relationship usebetween
of a sleep
models form
havemodebeentechnique
factor and capacity
investigated to downscale
is
and often energy
conflicting,
tested using asusage
solar- a
when the reader
larger
powered is
capacity not
wireless interrogating.
often meanswith
sensors Reference
a larger [6]
device results
promising proposes
size [111]. AsThe
[115]. a protocol
a result, with
batteries may
“Prometheus” the necessary
not for
model, be
algorithm
the in
best
example, order
option
usesto afor
avoid RFID overheating
dual-stage storage and
environments, model save
wherein energy
a small when
conjunction and with theareader
flexible deviceisisnot
super-capacitor interro-
needed. in
gating. Research
A
theprotocol hasand
first stage beenmethod
and conducted
a lithiumare ion
suggested
to find waysintoref.
rechargeable [93,94]compact
develop
battery tothe
in prevent tagstage
energy
second collisions
storage during
devices
[116]. This
that
system offer
data transmission. is more
regardedflexibility
While ref.
as whilefor
[40,41]
a buffer maintaining
proposed a Berkeley
high capacity.
poweringdynamically The
adjusting
Telos mote emergence of thina
the transmission
extracted from
film
power level technology
PV solar in order has made
to saveand
panel system, it possible
energy, for batteries
this method
experimental resultsishaveto have
lessshown the
effective form
thatthanfactor
it canusingneeded
run forthe upfor
sleep
to
RFID applications
43 years at the
mode. Reducing a 1%size [112].
loadofand This
RFID up totechnology
1 year
tags allows
at a 100%
should for
be taken the creation of electronic
load.into consideration to lessen the devices
amountthat are paper-thin and
of non-degradable recognized
material as well-matched
required for thermo-electric
in their fabrication micro-systems.
since environmental and
Studies have shown that thin-film batteries are an ideal choice for applications where
energy concerns are the primary drivers behind green technologies such as printable, bi-
a thermal difference is present, such as the human body [113]. Overall, thin-film
odegradable and paper-based RFID tags [106].
technology offers versatility and is a promising option for RFID tags.

7. Energy-Efficient Microcontroller Units and Integrated Circuits

A microcontroller unit (MCU) is an energy-efficient and cost-effective solution for
embedded computing applications. It has programmable input/output peripherals,
memory, and one or more processors, all integrated into a single circuit. This makes it
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 25 of 37

• Capacitors: Capacitors are highly energy-efficient storage devices and do not diminish
their capacity quickly, making them an ideal component for certain applications.
However, the capacity of a capacitor is largely dependent on its size, and so capacitors
often sacrifice form factors for a longer lifespan. Additionally, capacitors are unreliable
to some extent because they are extremely susceptible to changes in current and
voltage. However, recent advancements in capacitor storage technology have led
to the development of ultra-capacitors and super-capacitors, which can store large
amounts of energy and combine the reliability and performance of rechargeable
batteries with the longevity of regular capacitors [114]. These ultra-capacitors are
selected by designers because they have high energy densities that are many orders
of magnitude higher than those of conventional capacitors. Some designs deploy
a combination of storage devices, creating a hybrid system that combines the best
features of different devices. These models have been investigated and tested using
solar-powered wireless sensors with promising results [115]. The “Prometheus” model,
for example, uses a dual-stage storage model in conjunction with a super-capacitor in
the first stage and a lithium ion rechargeable battery in the second stage [116]. This
system is regarded as a buffer for powering a Berkeley Telos mote extracted from a
PV solar panel system, and experimental results have shown that it can run for up to
43 years at a 1% load and up to 1 year at a 100% load.
In summary, batteries are more suitable for long-term, steady power supply, while
capacitors are better for high-power, short-term usage. The precise requirements of the
RFID application will determine which option is best between the two.
On the other hand, references [6,10,117,118] focused on the transmission power issue.
Reference [10] proposes the use of a sleep mode technique to downscale energy usage
when the reader is not interrogating. Reference [6] proposes a protocol with the necessary
algorithm in order to avoid overheating and save energy when the reader is not interrogat-
ing. A protocol and method are suggested in ref. [93,94] to prevent tag collisions during
data transmission. While ref. [40,41] proposed dynamically adjusting the transmission
power level in order to save energy, this method is less effective than using the sleep mode.
Reducing the size of RFID tags should be taken into consideration to lessen the amount of
non-degradable material required in their fabrication since environmental and energy con-
cerns are the primary drivers behind green technologies such as printable, biodegradable
and paper-based RFID tags [106].

7. Energy-Efficient Microcontroller Units and Integrated Circuits

A microcontroller unit (MCU) is an energy-efficient and cost-effective solution for em-
bedded computing applications. It has programmable input/output peripherals, memory,
and one or more processors, all integrated into a single circuit. This makes it ideal for use
in IoT technology, particularly in devices powered by batteries or solar energy [119]. To
improve energy efficiency, the data processing component should only be active for brief
periods during which it reads, processes, and transmits information. The rest of the time, it
remains inactive, a process known as duty cycling. The microcontroller unit normally waits
for a sensor event or internal timer to wake it up, while it is in a deep sleep state for the
majority of the time. Upon waking, the device restores power and clock functions, retrieves
new data, processes it, and then returns to sleep after saving its state [108]. The power
consumption pattern of a microcontroller commonly used in IoT applications is illustrated
in Figure 15. Figure 16 provides an overview of key features for several MCUs frequently
employed in ultra-low-power applications.
Symmetry
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26 of 27 of

Figure 15.ofDemonstration
Demonstration typicalpower ofconsumption
typical powerscenario
powerconsumption consumption scenario of a microcontroller
generic for gene
Figure15.
Figure 15.Demonstration of typical scenario ofof a microcontroller
a microcontroller forfor
generic
IoT applications.
IoT
IoTapplications.
applications.

Figure 16. A summary of the key characteristics of MCUs commonly employed in ultra-low pow
applications.
Figure
Figure16.
16.A summary of the
A summary of key
the characteristics of MCUs
key characteristics commonly
of MCUs employed
commonly in ultra-low
employed power
in ultra-low
applications.
power applications. However, many commercially available low-power microcontrollers are not able
cater to the performance needs of certain applications within the limitations of small co
However,
However,many many commercially
commercially
batteries available
availablelow-power
and energy-harvesting low-power microcontrollers
devices [120]. microcontrollers
The latest CMOS arearenot
ICs able
not able
have totocapability
the
cater
catertotothe
theperformance
performance needs
needs of certain
of certain applications
applications within
within thethelimitations
limitations
significantly enhance energy efficiency by delivering the required functionality wh of small
of smallcoin
coin
batteries
batteriesand andenergy-harvesting
energy-harvesting
maintaining a compact devices [120].
devicessize[120].
andThe
Thelatest
latestCMOS
extremely CMOS ICsICs
low voltage. have
have the
This capability
the
cancapability toto
result in a remarka
significantly
significantly enhance
enhance energy efficiency
efficiency byby delivering
delivering thethe required
required functionality
functionality
reduction in overall system size and a lifespan increased by as much as ten times [121,12 whilewhile
main-
maintaining
taining a compacta compact
Thesize sizeextremely
and
strategy and
is toextremely low
low voltage.
decrease voltage.
This can
the voltage This canto
result
supplied inresult in a to
a remarkable
the chips remarkable
areduction
value just above t
reduction in overall
in overall system system
size and
threshold size and
a lifespan
voltage. a lifespan
increased
Extensive increased
by has
research by
as much as much as
as ten times
been conducted ten times [121,122].
on [121,122].
aggressive The voltage scali
The strategy
strategy is toisdecrease
toincluding
decrease the
the its
voltage voltage supplied
supplied
limitations and to theto the [123].
chips
drawbacks chips
to Atomajor
a value ajust
value abovejustthe
challenge above the
threshold
with operating at l
threshold voltage.
voltage. Extensive Extensive
research
voltage levels research
hasis been has been
conducted
a decrease conducted
on aggressive
in performance, on aggressive
whichvoltage voltage
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[123]. A major
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circuits
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and power consumption ranging from a few to hundreds of microWatts, digital processing
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 27 of 37

systems are capable of meeting the performance requirements of applications even at

extremely low operating voltage by using specialized circuits. These specialized systems,
which are developed as system-in-package (SiP) or system-on-chip (SoC) devices, combine
analog signal processing, analog front end, digital signal processing, and power supply
circuits (batteries, harvester, or both), resulting in highly compact designs [124]. The tradi-
tional fields of ultra-low power device applications, such as wearable or implanted sensors
for health monitoring, have made extensive use of this dedicated ASIC approach [125–127].
While these devices greatly reduce power consumption, they lack flexibility because their
functionality is limited to the specific service. Additionally, their performance cannot be
adjusted, as they are created with a particular use case in mind. However, these restrictions
can be lessened by introducing some runtime reconfigurability to the integrated circuits and
by extending the working range through voltage and frequency scaling when the intended
algorithms are more general and can be employed for numerous applications. There are
numerous examples of this type of device, including vision sensors, where fundamental
operations executed with specialized processors or dedicated accelerators can be shared
among various applications [128,129]. However, it is crucial to note that sequential instruc-
tion execution and low operating frequencies may result in performance that is insufficient
for the requirements of applications when operating at low voltage. The utilization of
software parallelism is a key component to enhance the performance of ultra-low power
processors while preserving a high level of flexibility. As it has been demonstrated that
under some circumstances parallel processing at low voltage can be more energy-efficient
than sequential computation at a higher voltage, using multicore platforms can benefit
high application workloads [130]. High-end embedded applications, where multi-core
architecture has become the standard, have made full use of this concept. Table 7 summa-
rizes recent processors that are energy-efficient in terms of different features. Additionally,
Figure 17 compares the power efficiency of multi-core processors vs. single-core processors
at various operating points. Each operating point is dependent on the workload as well as
the frequency and voltage required to achieve the performance shown. At low operating
points (workload), single-core processors (blue line) are more power-efficient than multi-
core processors (red line). This is because single-core processors can enter low-power states
more easily than multi-core processors. When idle, single-core processors can enter sleep
states, which significantly reduces power consumption, whereas multi-core processors
often have to keep at least one core activity to manage system tasks [131]. However, as
the operating point increases, multi-core processors become more power-efficient. This
is because the clock frequency of single-core processors increases linearly with the oper-
ating point, while the power consumption increases quadratically. In contrast, the clock
frequency of multi-core processors increases less steeply with the operating point, and
power consumption increases at a slower rate [132]. In conclusion, the power efficiency of
multi-core processors vs. single-core processors at various operating points is a complex
topic that depends on several factors. At low operating points, single-core processors are
more power-efficient, but as the operating point increases, multi-core processors become
more power-efficient. The number of cores, cache size, workload, and power management
techniques all play significant roles in the power efficiency of multi-core processors.

Table 7. Overview of recent processors that are both energy-efficient and ultra-low-power.

Processor
MSP430 ReiSC TMS320C64x FRISBEE ARM CortexM3 OpenRISC
Feature
Number of cores 1 1 1 1 64 4
Data format 16-bit 32-bit 32-bit VLIW 32-bit VLIW 32-bit 32-bit
Technology CMOS CMOS CMOS FD-SOI CMOS FD-SOI
VDD range (V) 0.4 (1.0) (0.4–1.2) 0.6–1.0 0.4–1.3 0.65–1.15 0.32–1.2
Max freq. (MHz) 25 82.5 331 2600 80 825
Power dens. (µW/MHz) 7.7 10.2 409 62 317 20.7
Best Perf. (MOPS) 25 57.5 662 2600 1600 3300
Energy eff. (MOPS/ mW) 64.5 68.6 4.5 16 3.9 193
 Max freq. (MHz) 25 82.5 331 2600 80 825
Max freq. (MHz) 25 82.5 331 2600 80 825
Power dens. (µ W/MHz) 7.7 10.2 409 62 317 20.7
Power dens. (µ W/MHz) 7.7 10.2 409 62 317 20.7
Best2023,
Symmetry Perf.
15,(MOPS)
757 25 57.5 662 2600 1600 3300
28 of 37
Best Perf. (MOPS) 25 57.5 662 2600 1600 3300
Energy eff. (MOPS/ mW) 64.5 68.6 4.5 16 3.9 193
Energy eff. (MOPS/ mW) 64.5 68.6 4.5 16 3.9 193

Figure 17. Comparison of the power efficiency of single-core vs. multi-core processors.
Figure 17.
Figure 17. Comparison
Comparison of
of the
the power
power efficiency
efficiency of
of single-core
single-corevs.
vs. multi-core
multi-coreprocessors.
processors.

8. Potential
8. Future Directions
Directions
8. Potential
Potential Future
Future Directions
We have
We have identified several
several aspects forfor future research
research areas extracted
extracted from our
our study
We haveidentified
identified several aspects
aspects for future
future research areas
areas extracted from
from our study
study
that are
that areoutlined
outlinedininFigure
Figure18.18.These
These research
research directions
directions areare further
further discussed
discussed and and elabo-
elaborated
that are outlined in Figure 18. These research directions are further discussed and elabo-
rated
on on in
in the the following
following paragraphs.
paragraphs.
rated on in the following paragraphs.

green IoT.
Figure 18. Potential future directions for green IoT.
Figure 18. Potential future directions for green IoT.
(i)
(i) Zero energy
Zero energy
(i) Zero energy
Designing IoT devices to be powered by self-sustaining power sources such as solar,
wind, or kinetic energy is an important area of research, as it enables the deployment of
autonomous and sustainable IoT networks. The use of self-sustaining power sources can
alleviate the challenge of battery replacement or recharging, which is a significant concern
in IoT systems. One important consideration in designing IoT devices that can leverage
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 29 of 37

self-sustaining power sources is the selection of appropriate energy-harvesting technologies.

These technologies must be capable of harvesting energy from the surrounding environ-
ment and converting it into electrical energy that can be used to power the IoT device.
Examples of such technologies include photovoltaic cells for solar energy harvesting, piezo-
electric materials for kinetic energy harvesting, and small wind turbines for wind energy
harvesting. In addition to energy harvesting technologies, the design of IoT devices that can
leverage self-sustaining power sources must also take into account the power consumption
of the device itself. IoT devices are typically designed to be energy-efficient to maximize
battery life. However, when self-sustaining power sources are used, power consumption
becomes less of a concern. As such, IoT devices designed for self-sustaining power sources
may be designed to consume more power, enabling them to perform more computationally
intensive tasks or transmit data more frequently. Another important consideration when
designing IoT devices to be powered by self-sustaining power sources is the placement
of the device in relation to the energy source. For example, solar-powered IoT devices
must be placed in locations with sufficient exposure to sunlight to ensure adequate energy
harvesting. Similarly, kinetic energy harvesting devices must be placed in locations where
they can effectively capture kinetic energy.
On the other hand, exploring the implications of energy storage solutions, such as bat-
teries or supercapacitors, to enable IoT devices to operate without a constant power source
is an important area of research, as it can help to address the challenges of limited battery
life and the need for constant charging or replacement. Batteries and supercapacitors are
two types of energy storage solutions that can be used to power IoT devices. Batteries store
energy chemically and are a common choice for many IoT devices due to their availability,
low cost, and high energy density. Supercapacitors, on the other hand, store energy elec-
trostatically and have a lower energy density than batteries but are capable of providing
higher power densities and faster charge and discharge rates. One important considera-
tion when exploring the use of energy storage solutions for IoT devices is the selection of
an appropriate energy storage technology. The choice of energy storage technology will
depend on factors such as the power requirements of the device, the expected operating
conditions, and the desired lifetime of the device. For example, a device that requires high
power output for short periods may be better suited to a supercapacitor, while a device that
requires a more steady power supply may be better suited to a battery. Another important
consideration when exploring the implications of energy storage solutions for IoT devices
is the impact on device design. Energy storage solutions may require additional space and
may add weight to the device, which can be a concern for devices that need to be small
and lightweight. Additionally, the selection of an appropriate energy storage technology
may impact the overall cost of the device, as well as the complexity of the device design.
Despite these considerations, the use of energy storage solutions can provide numerous
benefits for IoT devices. For example, the use of batteries or supercapacitors can enable
IoT devices to operate without a constant power source, reducing the need for frequent
charging or replacement. Additionally, energy storage solutions can improve the reliability
and performance of IoT devices, providing a more stable power supply and improving
overall device longevity.
(ii) Routing schemes
The development of “smart” routing schemes that can dynamically adjust routes
based on network conditions, traffic patterns, and energy availability is an important area
of research for the future of IoT networks. Traditional routing schemes in IoT networks
are typically static and do not adapt to changing network conditions or energy availability,
which can lead to inefficient use of network resources and increased energy consumption.
“Smart” routing schemes aim to address these challenges by utilizing real-time data and
algorithms to dynamically adjust network routes based on network conditions, traffic
patterns, and energy availability. These schemes can be implemented at various levels
of the network, from the sensor nodes to the edge devices and gateways. At the sensor
node level, “smart” routing schemes can be used to optimize the energy consumption of
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 30 of 37

individual nodes by dynamically adjusting their transmission power and frequency based
on the energy availability and network conditions. For example, nodes with low energy
levels can reduce their transmission power and frequency to conserve energy, while nodes
with high energy levels can increase their transmission power and frequency to improve
network coverage. At the edge device and gateway level, “smart” routing schemes can be
used to optimize the routing of data packets based on the network conditions and traffic
patterns. For example, packets can be routed through nodes that have higher energy levels
or better connectivity to reduce packet loss and improve network efficiency. One example of
a “smart” routing scheme is the energy-aware routing protocol (EARP), which is designed
for IoT networks with energy harvesting capabilities. EARP utilizes a decentralized ap-
proach to dynamically adjust network routes based on the energy availability and network
conditions of individual nodes. The protocol uses a combination of metrics, including
residual energy levels and link quality, to determine the optimal routing path for data
packets. Another example of a “smart” routing scheme is the traffic-aware energy-efficient
routing (TEER) protocol, which is designed for IoT networks with limited energy resources.
TEER utilizes a centralized approach to dynamically adjust network routes based on traffic
patterns and energy availability. The protocol uses a combination of metrics, including
traffic density and residual energy levels, to determine the optimal routing path for data
packets. Overall, the development of “smart” routing schemes that can dynamically adjust
routes based on network conditions, traffic patterns, and energy availability is an important
area of research for the future of IoT networks. These schemes can help to improve network
efficiency, reduce energy consumption, and increase the longevity of IoT devices.
(iii) Adaptive AI and ML
The development of AI-based energy management systems and machine learning
algorithms for IoT devices is a rapidly evolving field that can significantly improve the
energy efficiency and sustainability of IoT networks. These systems and algorithms can
dynamically adjust and optimize power usage based on usage patterns, network conditions,
and energy availability. AI-based energy management systems use machine learning algo-
rithms to analyze data from IoT devices, such as usage patterns and energy consumption,
to identify opportunities for energy optimization. These systems can also incorporate data
from external sources, such as weather conditions or energy prices, to further optimize
energy usage. The algorithms can learn from historical data and make predictions about
future energy usage to adjust power usage in real-time. One application of AI-based energy
management systems is in the optimization of energy usage in smart homes. These systems
can analyze data from sensors, smart appliances, and energy storage systems to optimize
energy usage in real-time. For example, these systems can adjust the temperature in a room
based on occupancy patterns, weather conditions, and energy availability. They can also
optimize the charging of energy storage systems to take advantage of lower energy prices or
higher renewable energy availability. Another application of AI-based energy management
systems is in the optimization of energy usage in smart cities. These systems can analyze
data from sensors, traffic patterns, and energy consumption to optimize energy usage in
real-time. For example, they can adjust the timing of traffic lights based on traffic patterns
to reduce energy consumption and improve traffic flow. They can also optimize the use
of energy storage systems to take advantage of renewable energy availability. Machine
learning algorithms can also be used to optimize power usage in individual IoT devices.
These algorithms can learn usage patterns and adjust power usage to minimize energy
consumption while still meeting the device’s operational requirements. For example, a
machine learning algorithm can learn the usage patterns of a smart thermostat and adjust
the temperature settings to minimize energy consumption while still maintaining com-
fort levels. In summary, the development of AI-based energy management systems and
machine learning algorithms for IoT devices is an important area of research that can sig-
nificantly improve the energy efficiency and sustainability of IoT networks. These systems
and algorithms can dynamically adjust and optimize power usage based on usage patterns,
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 31 of 37

network conditions, and energy availability, leading to reduced energy consumption, lower
costs and increased longevity of IoT devices.
(iv) Intelligent sleep modes
The development of intelligent sleep mode algorithms for IoT devices is an important
area of research that can significantly improve the energy efficiency of these devices. Sleep
mode is a power-saving state in which a device uses less power but remains operational.
By developing intelligent sleep mode algorithms, IoT devices can dynamically adjust
power usage based on usage patterns, network conditions, and energy available to achieve
the optimal balance between power consumption and performance. Intelligent sleep
mode algorithms use machine learning techniques to analyze data from the device and
predict usage patterns. For example, the algorithm can learn when the device is typically
used and when it is idle. Based on these data, the algorithm can adjust the device’s
power usage accordingly. If the device is likely to be idle for an extended period, the
algorithm can switch the device to a deeper sleep mode to conserve more power. Another
important aspect of intelligent sleep mode algorithms is their ability to adapt to changing
network conditions. For example, if the device is experiencing poor network connectivity,
the algorithm can reduce power consumption by reducing the frequency of network
communications. Conversely, if the network conditions improve, the algorithm can increase
the frequency of communications to improve performance. Energy availability is another
important factor that intelligent sleep mode algorithms can take into account. For example,
if the device is running low on battery power, the algorithm can adjust power usage to
conserve energy. This might include reducing the brightness of the display or turning
off non-essential features. Overall, the development of intelligent sleep mode algorithms
is an important area of research that can significantly improve the energy efficiency of
IoT devices. By dynamically adjusting power usage based on usage patterns, network
conditions, and energy availability, these algorithms can help to achieve the optimal balance
between power consumption and performance, leading to longer battery life and improved
sustainability.
(v) Wireless charging
The development of more efficient wireless charging technologies is an important
area of research that can significantly improve the energy efficiency of charging electronic
devices, leading to a reduction in environmental impact. Wireless charging is becoming
increasingly popular, as it allows users to charge their devices without the need for cables
or connectors. However, traditional wireless charging technologies have some limitations,
including their energy efficiency. Research is ongoing to improve the efficiency of wireless
charging, which can downscale the required energy to charge devices and decrease the
environmental impact. One approach to improving the efficiency of wireless charging is
to optimize the power transfer between the charger and the device being charged. This
can be achieved through the use of advanced circuitry and control algorithms that monitor
and adjust the power transfer to ensure that the charging process is as efficient as possible.
Another approach to improving the efficiency of wireless charging is to increase the distance
over which charging can occur. This can be achieved through the use of resonant wireless
charging technologies that use magnetic resonance to transfer power over a greater distance.
This technology can be used to charge multiple devices simultaneously, making it ideal
for charging in public spaces such as airports and coffee shops. In addition to improving
the efficiency of wireless charging, research is also ongoing to develop more sustainable
wireless charging technologies. For example, some researchers are investigating the use of
solar-powered wireless charging systems, which use photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight
into electrical energy. These systems can be used to charge devices even in remote or
off-grid locations, making them ideal for outdoor and wilderness environments.
Symmetry 2023, 15, 757 32 of 37

9. Conclusions
Undoubtedly, the IoT will transform the whole ICT sector, alter the trajectory of
technological development globally, and have a substantial effect on the economy in
the years to come. This study provided a vision for eco-friendly and sustainable IoT
and presents four (4) principles/frameworks to achieve that vision by tackle the energy
efficiency issues related to hardware such as machine-to-machine communication, radio-
frequency identification, microcontroller units, wireless sensor networks, integrated circuits,
embedded systems, and processors. Finally, this study concludes with suggestions for
potential future research directions to continue the pursuit of a vision for eco-friendly and
sustainable IoT in the future.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.H.A.; methodology, A.J. and M.H.A.; resources, A.H.K.
and R.K.; writing—original draft preparation, M.H.A. and A.J.; writing—review and editing, R.K.
and A.H.K.; visualization, A.H.K.; project administration, R.K. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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