A-level Physics exemplar for required practical 1

Investigation into the variation of the frequency of stationary waves on a string with length,
tension and mass per unit length of the string.

Teacher and technician sheet

This worksheet gives full details of the experiment, primarily for use by teachers and technicians
who may be unfamiliar with the experiment. The worksheet would normally be adapted for student
use to provide opportunity for students to make procedural decisions.

Materials and equipment

• signal generator
• vibration generator
• stand
• 2 kg mass
• 1.5 m length of string (eg 1.5 mm thick)
• pulley which can be clamped to the bench
• wooden bridge slightly higher than the pulley
• 100 g masses on a holder
• metre ruler
• an electronic top pan balance with precision 0.1 g or better.

Technical information
• The signal generator should be operated for about 20 minutes in order for the frequency to
stabilise.
• The power output (eg 20 V peak-to-peak) should be used. The output level should be turned
up to a value which gives steady vibrations of the vibration generator.
• The string should be tied to the stand and passed through the hole in the vibration generator.
• The bridge should be at the same height as the hole.
• The 2 kg mass is used as a counterweight to ensure the stand does not topple over (an
alternative would be to clamp the stand to the bench using a G-clamp).

Photographs of an exemplar set-up of this practical can be found in our set-up guide, which is
available on our A-level Practicals page.

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Sample results
The table below shows sample readings for a hanger of mass m = 100 g and the formula 𝑣𝑣 = 2fl:

m = 100 g
l /m 𝒇𝒇 / Hz 𝒗𝒗 / m s–1
1.00 20.50 41.00
0.90 23.50 42.30
0.80 26.50 42.40
0.70 30.00 42.00
0.60 34.50 41.40
0.50 42.00 42.00

Using the formula 𝑣𝑣 = �𝑇𝑇/𝜇𝜇𝑇𝑇

𝑇𝑇 = 0.981 𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 = 0.91 𝑝𝑝 𝑙𝑙 = 1.5 𝑚𝑚
𝜇𝜇 = 𝑚𝑚/𝑙𝑙 𝜇𝜇 = 0.000607 kg m–1
–1
Then 𝑣𝑣 = 40.2 m s

Alternative practical
The AQA unit 3 EMPA (June 2013) will allow students to carry out an alternative practical without
requiring a vibration generator and/or signal generator.

If signal generators are available, the vibration generators can be replaced by wire and magnadur
magnets.
If the signal generator and the vibration generator are not available, AC power supply (𝑓𝑓 = 50 Hz)
can be used for the above arrangement and the task for the students could be to measure density
of wire using standing waves.

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Student sheet

Method
• Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

• Adjust the position of the bridge so that l is 1.000 m measured using the metre ruler.
• Increase the frequency of the signal generator from zero until the string resonates at its
fundamental frequency (as indicated in the diagram with a node at each end and a central
antinode).
• Read the frequency f, on the signal generator dial.
• Repeat the procedure with l = 0.900, 0.800, 0.700, 0.600 and 0.500 m.
• Obtain a second set of results by repeating the experiment and find the mean value of f for
each value of l.
• Plot a graph of mean 1/f against l.
• Draw the best straight line of fit though the points and find the gradient (the graph should be a
straight line through the origin).
• The speed of the travelling waves on the string is 𝑣𝑣 = fλ where λ is the wavelength. When the
string is vibrating in its fundamental mode, λ = 2l. Hence 𝑣𝑣 = 2fl. The gradient is 1/ fl so 𝑣𝑣 is
–1
given by 2/gradient in ms .
• The speed is also given by 𝑣𝑣 = √(T/𝜇𝜇) where T is the tension in the string in N and 𝜇𝜇 is the
–1
mass per unit length of the string in kg m .
• With a 100 g mass hanging from the string, T = 0.981 N, 𝜇𝜇 can be found by weighing the
1.5 m length of string on an electronic balance, converting this into kg, and dividing by 1.5.
These values can then be substituted into the above equation to find another value for 𝑣𝑣,
which can be compared to the value obtained from the graph.
• The experiment can be repeated with different masses hanging from the string, and different
thicknesses of string to investigate the effect of changing T and 𝜇𝜇.
• Doubling the fundamental frequency while keeping l, T and 𝜇𝜇 constant will cause the string to
resonate in its second harmonic (or first overtone, with nodes at either end, a central node,
and two antinodes). Tripling the frequency will give the third harmonic, and so on.

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A-level Physics exemplar for required practical 2
Investigation of the interference effects by Young’s slit and diffraction by a diffraction
grating.

Teacher and technician sheet

This worksheet gives full details of the experiment, primarily for use by teachers and technicians
who may be unfamiliar with the experiment. The worksheet would normally be adapted for student
use to provide opportunity for students to make procedural decisions.

Young’s slit experiment

Materials and equipment

• laser – class II optical laser with output 1 mW or less
• darkened slide with double slit ‘rulings’ (usually 1 mm slit separation)
• vernier callipers to measure slit separation
• adjustable single slit (might be unnecessary with the laser)
• white screen (wall covered with white paper may be suitable but paper must be matt finish or
non-reflective to reduce chances of reflected beams)
• metre ruler.

Technical information
Using a laser for this experiment makes it possible to produce visible interference fringes in a
partially darkened laboratory. Ensure lasers are used safely and set up so they are not pointed
directly into anyone’s eyes.
Photographs of an exemplar set-up of this practical can be found in our set-up guide, which is
available on our A-level Practicals page.

Sample results
The table below shows sample readings for the Young double slit experiment:

s = 0.1 mm
D/m w / mm λ / nm
1.50 9.42 628.00
1.30 8.21 631.50
1.00 6.27 627.00
0.90 5.66 628.90
0.70 4.44 634.30
0.50 3.11 622.00

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Student sheet

Method
• A partially darkened laboratory is required ensuring lasers are used safely.
• Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram, with the laser illuminating the double slit and
the screen a distance D of initially about 1 metre. (With the laser the single slit might not be
required, provided the laser beam is wide enough to illuminate across the double slit).

• Carefully adjust the position of the laser until the light spreads evenly over the two slits. An
interference pattern should be visible on the screen.
• The fringe width (or fringe spacing), w, can be measured by measuring across a large number
of visible fringes. (Take care when counting – counting from the first bright fringe to the tenth
bright fringe would represent nine fringe widths!).
• Use the metre ruler to measure D.
• A measurement of the slit separation, s, is required. The value could be measured with vernier
callipers or travelling microscope. If a travelling microscope is used it must only be used to
measure slit separation and not the fringe width. Alternatively the manufacturer may quote
the value on the slide.
ws
• Use the equation λ =
D
• Alternatively, the value of D could be changed from approximately 0.5 m to 1.5 m and the
fringe width, w, measured for each value of D.
• A graph of w on the y-axis against D should be a straight line through the origin, with gradient
= λ /s .

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Diffraction with a plane transmission diffraction grating at normal incidence.
Teacher and technician sheet
Materials and equipment
• laser – class II optical laser with output 1 mW or less
• plane transmission diffraction grating
• white screen (wall covered with white paper may be suitable but paper must be matt finish or
non-reflective to reduce chances of reflected beams)
• metre ruler.

Photographs of an exemplar set-up of this practical can be found in our set-up guide, which is
available on our A-level Practicals page.

Sample results

The table below shows sample readings for the diffraction grating experiment:

D = 1.09 m
n h / mm tan Ɵ λ / nm
1 68.20 0.06 624.50
2 138.40 0.13 629.80
3 208.60 0.19 626.60
4 282.40 0.26 627.00

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Student sheet

Method
• A partially darkened laboratory is required. Please ensure lasers are used safely.
• Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram, with the laser illuminating the diffraction grating
and the screen a distance D of initially about 1 metre.

• Carefully adjust the position of the diffraction grating so that the diffraction grating is
perpendicular to the beam of light from the laser. (A large set square might be useful).
• The diffraction pattern should be visible on the screen. The number of orders shown will
depend on the line spacing of the diffraction grating.
• The angles Ɵ1 and Ɵ2 can be determined by measuring the distances h1 , h2 and D. (This
gives the tangent of the angles, and hence the angles can be calculated).
• The formula nλ = d sinƟ can be used to determine the wavelength of the laser light.
n is the order of the diffraction pattern
d is the grating spacing = 1/number of lines per metre
λ is the wavelength of light
• The values of Ɵ for each order, both above and below the zero order, should be measured. A
mean value for λ can be calculated from the data.

Single slit diffraction

This arrangement can also be used to illustrate diffraction at a single slit. The diffraction grating is
replaced by an adjustable single slit. The effect of ‘slit width’ can easily be observed.

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A-level Physics exemplar for required practical 3
Determination of g by a free-fall method.

Teacher and technician sheet

This worksheet gives full details of the experiment, primarily for use by teachers and technicians
who may be unfamiliar with the experiment. The worksheet would normally be adapted for student
use to provide opportunity for students to make procedural decisions.

Materials and equipment

• stand and clamp
• electromagnet
• low voltage variable DC supply (to power the electromagnet)
• 2 kg mass
• steel ballbearing
• two light gates with bosses to attach them to the stand
• an electronic clock or data logger with precision 1 ms or better.
• a pad (eg of felt) to protect the bench when the ballbearing lands.
• metre ruler.

Technical information
• The electromagnet is a convenient way of releasing the ballbearing.
• The low voltage supply should be set at the voltage specified by the manufacturer for the
electromagnet.
• The supply is switched on and the ballbearing hung from the electromagnet. It will then be
released when the supply is switched off.
• Several trials and adjustments will be required to ensure the ballbearing falls directly through
the light gates. A plumb line can be used to make sure that the ball bearing will fall through
both light gates and hit the pad.
• A mechanical release mechanism could be used (eg holding the ballbearing in the clamp
which is opened to release the ball bearing, but this is not as quick to reset, and won’t give as
clean a release).
• The upper light gate should be connected to the clock or data logger to start the timing.
The lower gate should be connected to stop the timing.
• The 2 kg mass is used as a counterweight to ensure the stand does not topple over (an
alternative would be to clamp the stand to the bench using a G-clamp).

Photographs of an exemplar set-up of this practical can be found in our set-up guide, which is
available on our A-level Practicals page.

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Additional note
If students have no access to light gates, they can use the same method but with a slightly different
arrangement of apparatus:

Once the ball bearing is released, the stopclock starts measuring the time. When the ball bearing
hits the pad, it triggers the micro switch and stops the stopclock.

Sample results
The table below shows sample readings for ‘g’ by free fall:

h/m t/s g / m s–2

1.35 0.50 10.80
1.10 0.45 10.90
0.85 0.40 10.60
0.65 0.35 10.60

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Student sheet

Method
• Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

• The height between the starting position of the ballbearing and the upper light gate should be
kept constant, so that the velocity, u, with which the ballbearing reaches this light gate is also
constant.
• Adjust the position of the lower light gate so that h is 0.500 m measured using the metre ruler
(If a taller stand is available, h could be set at a higher starting value).
• Switch on the supply to the electromagnet, and hang the ballbearing from it (or fit the
ballbearing into the clamp if a mechanical release mechanism is being used).
• Reset the clock or data logger to zero and switch off the electromagnet (or open the clamp).
• Read the time on the clock or data logger once the ballbearing has passed through the light
gates.
• Take repeat readings to find the mean time, t.
• Reduce h by 0.050 m and repeat the procedure down to a value of 0.250 m (lower values than
this make it difficult to obtain accurate timings).
• Plot a graph of 2h/t against t.

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• Draw the best straight line of fit though the points and find the gradient (the graph should be a
straight line with intercept 2u).

h = ut + gt2/2
Re-arranging
2h/t = gt + 2u
Hence the gradient of the graph gives g in ms–2
The intercept will be 2u.

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A-level Physics exemplar for required practical 4
Determination of the Young Modulus by a simple method.

Teacher and technician sheet

This worksheet gives full details of the experiment, primarily for use by teachers and technicians
who may be unfamiliar with the experiment. The worksheet would normally be adapted for student
use to provide opportunity for students to make procedural decisions.

Materials and equipment

• ceiling beam or suitably strong fixing to attach loaded wires
• 2 × 1.5 m lengths of steel wire (eg 0.45 mm diameter mild steel wire)
• scale and vernier arrangement with integral clamps for the wires
• micrometer screw gauge
• metre ruler
• 2 × slotted kg mass holders
• selection of 0.5 kg and 1 kg slotted masses
• safety goggles (in case wire breaks)
• sand tray (to catch masses if wire breaks).

Technical information
• It is important that the steel wire used is completely free from kinks – otherwise any measured
‘extension’ will partly be due to the straightening out of the kinks. Scientific equipment
suppliers produce suitable wires for this experiment. They also supply suitable clamps to
attach the wires to the ceiling beam, vernier-scale arrangement and mass holder.
• A 1 kg mass will produce an extension of 0.47 mm for a 1.5 m steel wire of diameter 0.45 mm.
Consequently an accurate measurement of extension requires specialised apparatus. The mm
scale and vernier arrangement is one designed specifically for this experiment – the vernier is
attached to, and slides alongside the main scale. The main mm scale is usually clamped to the
comparison wire and the vernier section clamped to the test wire.
• The main safety consideration is the possibility of the wire breaking. Goggles should be worn
and a sand tray placed underneath the arrangement to catch the falling masses.
• The comparison wire compensates for sagging of the beam and thermal expansion effects,
and provides a reference point against which to measure the extension of the loaded test wire.

Photographs of an exemplar set-up of this practical can be found in our set-up guide, which is
available on our A-level Practicals page.

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Additional notes
• When stretching a wire horizontally, Tippex or a small dressmaker pin could be used as a
marker.
• For the horizontal version of the experiment, use 2 m of 32SWG copper wire (400 g mass
should produce an extension of about 1 mm).

Searle’s apparatus is very precise, but sometimes there is not enough room in the classroom to
install a full class set. Similar results could be achieved using a horizontal version and traveling
microscope, as shown below. If traveling microscopes are not available, high precision rulers could
be used (0.5 mm precision).

Sample results
The table below sample readings for a wire stretched horizontally across a bench using a traveling
microscope.

L = 2.4 m d = 0.274 mm
m / kg 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600
ΔL / mm 0.5 1.0 1.6 2.1 2.7 3.5 4.0 5.0
E / GPa 133.2 133.2 124.8 126.8 123.3 114.1 116.5 106.5

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Student sheet

Method
• Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Ensure all the wire clamps are fully tightened.
Details of wire clamps not shown on this diagram

• Measure the initial length of the test wire, l, with the metre ruler.
• A 1 kg mass hanger is initially attached to each wire, to ensure both wires are initially
stretched taught.

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• Take the initial scale reading, using the vernier scale to read to 0.1 mm.
• Add an additional 1 kg (or 0.5 kg) mass to the test wire and take the new scale reading using
the vernier. The extension of the wire can be calculated by subtracting the two scale readings.
• Repeat the process, adding an extra 1 kg mass (or 0.5 kg) mass each time, take the new
scale reading and calculate the corresponding extension. A total mass of up to 8 kg should be
adequate.
• With the wire full loaded remove a 1 kg mass and take the scale reading.
• Continue to unload the wire, 1 kg at a time, taking the scale reading each time.
• The extension of the wire for each mass during the unloading process can then be calculated.
If the extension during unloading is greater than during loading, the elastic limit for the wire
might have been exceeded. If the extension values are similar a mean extension for loading
/unloading can be calculated for each mass.
• Measure the diameter of the wire at several places using a micrometer screw gauge.
• Plot a graph of mean extension, e, on the y-axis against load, mg. (where g = 9.81 N/kg)
• The Young Modulus for the material of the wire (steel) can be calculated using the gradient of
the graph.
• Estimate the uncertainty in your values of l, A, e and m. Use the values to estimate the overall
uncertainty in the value obtained for Youngs Modulus.

tensile stress mg/A mgL L

Young modulus E = tensile strain = e/L
= Ae
= A × gradient

A = cross sectional area of wire

L = initial length of wire

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A-level Physics exemplar for required practical 5
Determination of resistivity of a wire using a micrometer, ammeter and voltmeter.

Teacher and technician sheet

This worksheet gives full details of the experiment, primarily for use by teachers and technicians
who may be unfamiliar with the experiment. The worksheet would normally be adapted for student
use to provide opportunity for students to make procedural decisions.

Materials and equipment

• 1 metre length of constantan wire of thickness 0.25 mm, for example
• low voltage variable DC supply (eg 0–6 V)
• ammeter (eg 0–1 A with 0.02 A precision or better)
• voltmeter (eg 0–5 V with 0.1 V precision or better)
• two crocodile clips
• five connecting leads
• metre ruler
• micrometer.

Technical information
• The constantan wire should be free from kinks and held as straight as possible when
measuring the length.
• The thickness of 0.25 mm has been suggested as this is sufficiently large to measure
accurately with the micrometer.
• A 10 cm length of it will have a resistance of around 1 Ω, which will allow a reasonably
accurate determination of its resistance.
• Mounting 2 × 4 mm terminals at both ends of the meter ruler will allow easier wire length
measurements.

Photographs of an exemplar set-up of this practical can be found in our set-up guide, which is
available on our A-level Practicals page.

Sample results
The table below shows sample readings for 22SWG constantan wire:
22SWG
V/V 1.48 1.77 1.87 2.25 2.42 2.51 2.63
I/A 5.87 4.80 3.68 3.55 3.34 2.96 2.78
l/m 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
–7 –7 –7 –7 –7 –7 –7
ρ / Ωm 4.85 × 10 4.73 × 10 4.89 × 10 4.88 × 10 4.64 × 10 4.66 × 10 4.55 × 10

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Student sheet

Method
• Measure the thickness of the constantan wire using the micrometer in at least 3 places and
find the mean diameter d. Convert this to metres.
• Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

• Attach the crocodile clips so that l = 0.100 m measured on the meter ruler.
• Set the voltage, V, to 0.5 V and measure the current, I in A.
• Calculate the resistance R = V/I in Ω
• Repeat the procedure for l = 0.200, 0.300, 0.400, 0.500, 0.600, 0.700 and 0.800 m, increasing
V by 0.5 V each time to maintain the current at about 0.5 A. (This will allow a reasonably
accurate measurement of the current, without it being so large that the wire is warmed, which
may change its resistance. Switching off the power supply between readings will also keep
any heating to a minimum)
• Obtain a second set of results by repeating the experiment and find the mean value of R for
each value of l.
• Plot a graph of the mean R against l.
• Draw the best straight line of fit though the points and find the gradient (the graph should be a
straight line through the origin).
• Calculate the cross-sectional area of the wire A = πd2/4 in m2.

The resistivity of constantan is then

RA
ρ=
l
The gradient of the graph gives R/l so
ρ = gradient × A in Ωm (the accepted value is 4.9 × 10–7 Ωm).

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A-level Physics exemplar for required practical 6
Investigation of the emf and internal resistance of electric cells and batteries.

Teacher and technician sheet

This worksheet gives full details of the experiment, primarily for use by teachers and technicians
who may be unfamiliar with the experiment. The worksheet would normally be adapted for student
use to provide opportunity for students to make procedural decisions.

Materials and equipment

• cell or battery whose internal emf and internal resistance is being investigated. Avoid using
rechargeable cells or batteries as these have a very low internal resistance, making it difficult
to measure and they can deliver high currents or short circuit
• Cell holder (or suitable connectors for cell/battery used)
• variable resistor (eg a large wire wound rheostat is suitable)
• digital voltmeter (eg 0–10 V)
• digital ammeter (eg 0–1 A)
• switch
• connecting leads.

Technical information
• Ideally the cells and/or batteries used should be fairly new. The emf and internal resistance of
older, ‘run down’, cells will vary during the experiment. It is advisable to switch off the circuit
between readings to avoid the cells/batteries running down.
• Ensure that the power rating of the variable resistor is adequate for the maximum current
used.

Photographs of an exemplar set-up of this practical can be found in our set-up guide, which is
available on our A-level Practicals page.

Sample results
The table below shows sample readings for a 1.5 V D-cell with rheostat set to minimum and
maximum resistance.

V/V I / mA

1.58 70.00

1.52 180.00

So EMF = 1.62 V and r = 0.54 Ω

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Student sheet

Method
• Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram. Set the variable resistor at its maximum value.

• With the switch open record the reading, V, on the voltmeter.

• Close the switch and take the readings of pd, V, on the voltmeter and current, I, on the
ammeter.
• Adjust the variable resistor to obtain pairs of readings of V and I, over the widest possible
range.
• Open the switch after each pair of readings. Only close it for sufficient time to take each pair of
readings.
• Plot a graph of V on the y-axis against I.

Using ε = I (R+r) and V=IR

Gives ε = V+I r
Rearranging V = ε–I r

A graph of V against I will have a gradient = - r and an intercept ε on the y-axis.

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