SS2023

Reading and Writing IV A

Literature Review

Enhancing Empathy through Reflection

Critical Reflection, Refined Self-Reflection, and Addressing Misconceptions in

Teacher Education and Novice Teachers

Maide Nur Gelengec

01604024
Table of Contents

Abstract 1

Introduction 2

1. Contrasting Interpretations of Reflection 3

2. Fostering Empathy through Reflective Social Practices 4

3. Self-Reflection Exemplified by Critical Reflection 5

4. Examining Self-Reflection with Suitable Tools 6

5. Addressing Challenges Faced by Novice Teachers: Misconceptions and

Proposed Measures 7

Conclusion 8

References 10

Annotated Bibliography 13

Abstract
The comprehension of specific definitions regarding "Reflection in Teaching and Learning"

presents a notable challenge for researchers, teacher educators, and scholars in the field.

However, due to its widespread discussion and inherent significance, an in-depth examination of

this topic is required. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive literature review that explores

the multifaceted nature of reflection, encompassing both some of its theoretical underpinnings

and practical applications in educational contexts.

By conducting an extensive review of relevant literature, this study seeks to identify potential

issues and propose effective reflection methods for implementing reflection in education. It is

worth noting that while there is a prevalent theoretical understanding of the importance of

reflection, its practical implementation often goes unnoticed, particularly in school settings.

Nonetheless, research data suggests that integrating reflection into classroom practices can foster

a deeper understanding of oneself and others.

Furthermore, the literature emphasizes the need to strike a balance between theoretical

exploration and practical engagement. Both aspects contribute significantly to the development

of self-reflective and critical thinking skills, benefiting both educators and learners. It is through

this harmonious integration of theory and practice that individuals can cultivate a thoughtful and

introspective approach to teaching and learning.

Keywords: reflection; teaching; learning; critical; social; practice

Introduction

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1. Contrasting Interpretations of Reflection
 Introducing the benefits of a reflective practice for novice teachers, approached from the

perspective of personal growth and development, necessitates a preliminary understanding of

reflection. However, defining reflection poses a significant challenge within the academic

discourse. This step of differentiating definitions of reflection is crucial in academic discussions

because reflection is a complex concept with many layers and perspectives. Consequently,

defining reflection precisely becomes a challenging task. In one sense, reflection is simply

‘thought’ (van Manen 1991), but definitions in the teacher education literature (e.g. Zeichner

1981; van Manen 1991; Mann and Walsh 2017; Fendler 2003) tend to be more specific,

involving a number of elements that often suggest a formative outcome. For these scholars,

reflection is conscious, experiential informed thought, at times involving aspects of evaluation,

criticality, and problem-solving, and leading to insight, increased awareness, and/or new

understanding. As such, reflection can then be contrasted with ‘impulsive’ or ‘routine’

decision-making that reinforces and also embeds current perceptions or practices on reflection

(Dewey 1933: 17). A Deweyan tradition draws on a relatively scientific approach to encourage

us to engage in ‘active, persistent, and careful consideration’ of our beliefs and knowledge

(Dewey ibid.: 9), and in contrast, a Schönian one (Schön 1983, 1987), involving more intuitive

reflection that rejects academic knowledge as ‘technical rationality’, and encourages us to draw

on our experiential knowledge as the primary source of learning (Anderson 2019). Consequently,

reflection proves to be a complex concept with various perspectives. In teacher education it

involves conscious, experiential informed thought that leads to insight and increased awareness.

It contrasts with impulsive decision-making and can be approached through a scientific or

intuitive perspective, however, again, emphasizing careful consideration or drawing on

thought, in order to foster the professional development of novice teachers.

Reflective Models of Teacher Education and the Impact of Reflection on Teacher

Effectiveness

Interest in reflective models of teacher education developed gradually through the 1980s,

entering language teacher education soon after. For example, Wallace (1991) proposed a

‘reflective model’ based on Schön’s, and contrasted it with a ‘craft model’ within which trainees

learn by imitating the techniques of experts (ibid.: 6), and an ‘applied science model’ within

which trainees are expected to implement the findings of scientific research (ibid.: 9). In his

reflective model, both ‘received knowledge’ and experience inform a continuing cycle of

practice and reflection that leads to professional competence (ibid.: 15). Since the 1990s, the

term ‘reflective practice’—borrowed from Schön—has become common in teacher education

programmes to refer to a relatively systematic use of reflection for professional development

(e.g. Farrell 2015).

Despite being widely promoted, the impact of reflection on teacher effectiveness has

sometimes been questioned. Akbari (2007: 192), for example, notes ‘there is no evidence to

show improved teacher or student performance resulting from reflective techniques’. It has,

though, been demonstrated both directly (e.g. Giovanelli 2003) and through more extensive

reviews of research. For example, Stronge (2007) finds reflection to be an important part of the
cognition of effective teachers, and Farrell’s (2016) review of reflection in TESOL reports a

generally positive impact of reflection on language teacher cognition and practice, including

greater understanding of self and awareness of own beliefs. There is very little research on

‘interactive reflection’ (

i.e. reflection that occurs while teaching) in TESOL, although Anderson’s (2019) study

draws on Schön’s notion of ‘reflection-in-action’ to explore real-time teacher reflection.

Finally, a number of frameworks for developing practitioner reflection have been

proposed since the 1980s. Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning cycle, involving four stages from

problem finding, to question asking, answer seeking and then active experimentation (ibid.: 33),

has been influential in a number of fields, including teacher education. In language teacher

education, Akbari, Behzadpoor, and Dadvand (2010) propose five elements to practitioner

reflection: practical (our use of tools to help us reflect), cognitive (reflecting on our professional

development), affective (reflecting on our learners and their progress), meta-cognitive (reflecting

on our beliefs, personality, and identity), and critical (consideration of wider sociopolitical

issues). Farrell’s (2015) framework suggests that we can develop through reflecting on our

philosophy of practice, the principles that guide our teaching, the theories we draw on to put

these principles into practice, what actually happens in our practice, and finally, going beyond

practice to reflect critically on moral issues impacting our work and identities. Anderson (2019)

proposes several tools for teachers to develop their interactive reflection literacy, particularly

concerning how they respond to specific affordances during the lesson. Hayden, Rundell, and

Smyntek-Gworek (2013) use the acronym SOAR to facilitate trainee reflection on teaching
practice in written form, beginning with a subjective retelling of lesson events, then considering

progress towards lesson objectives, and analysis of the lesson itself, leading to deeper reflection

on what they have learnt as a result (ELT Journal, doi:10.1093/elt/ccaa039

2. Fostering Empathy through Reflective Social Practice

In addition to the previously explored ideas and definitions, other theories gain

prominence when examining diverse literature about reflection. One recurring hypothesis

highlights reflection as a social practice that necessitates interaction between the individual

reflecting and those involved in the reflective context (Beauchamp, 2006). Despite some critics

questioning the social aspect of reflection or learning, it is evident that education inherently

involves at least two individuals, typically a teacher and a learner, thus making the assumption of

reflection having a social dimension entirely reasonable (Eraut, 2000). Even when a teacher

engages in self-reflection, it can be observed that the individual mind operates through social

practices to construct reality (Beauchamp, 2006), thereby enhancing teaching abilities and

promoting improved student learning. Consequently, self-reflection is inherently a form of social

practice.

Furthermore, when reflection is viewed as a social phenomenon, it can also contribute to

emotional learning, particularly in the development of empathy—a social skill essential for

fostering meaningful relationships between teachers and learners (Pekrun and

Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2014). Recent research on reflective projects in higher education supports

the notion that reflection is a higher-order cognitive capacity where individuals engage in

deliberate inquiry based on their unique experiences (Felix 2022). As a result, empathetic critical
thinking emerges, leading to creative problem-solving, a connection that both Dewey and Schön,

as highlighted by Beauchamp, associate with reflection in various ways.

3. Self-Reflection Exemplified by Critical Reflection

The concepts of critical reflection and self-reflection mentioned earlier are closely related

to the broader topic of reflection in teaching and learning, and they require a detailed

exploration. Shandomo suggests that critical reflection simplifies the process of introspective

learning, which involves reflecting on values, ideas, knowledge, and experiences that shape one's

perception of oneself, others, and the world (2010). According to the online dictionary from

Merriam Webster, the term "critical" originates from the Greek word "kritikós," meaning "to

discern, to be capable of judging." It is associated with the ability to separate, choose, decide,

and judge (Merriam Webster). Understanding this definition allows us to view the term "critical"

as encompassing both positive and negative aspects, which reinforces Shandomo's assertion.

After all, critical reflection involves the ongoing and comprehensive examination of

oneself as a teacher (Mustafa, 2005). Effective educators regularly engage in reflection to assess

and evaluate their professional skills, aiming to improve them (Shandomo, 2010). This process

includes analyzing teaching methods to distinguish between what works and what doesn't,

ultimately leading to informed decision-making.

4. Examining Self-Reflection with Suitable Tools

As previously explained, effective self-reflection results in increased awareness and

comprehension of one's own disposition. It is an ongoing metacognitive process akin to

argued to be transformative for teachers. However, Beauchamp (2015) discovered that in teacher

education, reflection and self-reflection have often been presented merely as tools, rather than

complex concepts requiring a deep understanding to effectively utilize the knowledge gained.

The author further points out the challenge of conveying reflective experiences to others, despite

individuals being introspective (2015). While there is truth in this assertion, Felix offers a

solution in an article that introduces reflective assignments to facilitate the comprehension and

acquisition of reflective competences. He presents the DIEP Model, an acronym for describe,

interpret, evaluate, and plan, which is a well-known framework for fostering reflection in

education. Students should be encouraged to thoughtfully examine their actions, intentions,

experiences, and so on, using these action verbs as guidance (2022). This leads to the conclusion

that practicing with suitable tools is crucial for developing any skill that is helpful for reflecting.

5. Addressing Challenges Faced by Novice Teachers: Misconceptions and Proposed

Measures

One additional obstacle arises when novice teachers mistakenly believe that completing

their teacher education programs equips them with all the necessary tools to effectively

implement what they have learned during their initial year of teaching (Farrell, 2016). Further

research corroborates this claim by Farrell and highlights the contrasting viewpoints held by

inexperienced teachers. Instead of prioritizing student learning and their own professional

growth, novice teachers often find themselves overwhelmed with survival and delivering lesson

plans (Helgevold et al., 2015).

shaping their professional identities, Beauchamp (2015) suggests emphasizing reflection that

focuses on future-oriented development. This supports Felix's proposal to implement the DIEP

Model (2022). Just as student teachers are guided to set learning goals for their students, teachers

themselves should adopt a similar approach. Goal-directed behavior, recognized as a

fundamental human activity, becomes the driving force for continuous improvement through

reflection (McAlpine et al., 2010).

Williams (2011) supports the idea of a reflective process and highlights three key

components that hold significance for both teachers and students. According to Williams,

teachers must consistently enhance their ability to assess where learners currently stand in their

learning, where they are heading, and how to facilitate their progress. These three integral

elements align with Schön's concepts of reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action, as well as

Killion's and others' notions of reflection-for-action in teaching and learning.

In contrast to Rushton et al. (2012) it is recommended that teachers should ensure their

teaching and learning strategies align with the individual needs, learning styles, and preferences

of their students, rather than expecting students to conform to predetermined approaches. This

approach not only benefits students but also supports teachers' professional growth. Another

suggestion put forth by Williams is the implementation of formative assessment, which enables

both learners and teachers to engage in various forms of reflection and gain continuous insights

into the learning process (2011). These findings therefore prove that addressing novice teachers’

misconceptions and implementing targeted strategies focused on reflection, goal-directed

behaviour, and student-centred approaches can lead to positive outcomes such as enhanced
professional growth, improved student learning, and the development of competent and effective

educators.

Conclusion

Ultimately, this review affirms Russell's assertion that the conventional method of

teaching theory first and then allowing practice assumes that learning is completed prior to

engaging in practice (2022). It underscores the importance of reflective practice, which involves

learning from real-life experiences and recognizes that merely acquiring theory and research

without personal practice is inadequate. However, the diverse examined literature also highlights

the relevance of exploring various concepts of reflection for comprehensive understanding, while

emphasizing the indispensability of practical application. Hence, there is a clear necessity for

additional literature that furnishes specific tools for implementing reflective practices among

both novice and experienced teachers, aiming to cultivate a conducive learning environment for

both students and educators.

To conclude, the literature review illustrates that reflection, comprising its extensive

conceptual knowledge and its practical embodiment in teaching and learning, is not a

unidirectional or stagnant process but rather a multifaceted and dynamic one. Its effectiveness is

realized when theory is actively adapted to real-life situations and applied in a legitimate manner,

enabling reflection to yield the utmost efficacy.

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