Ethics - Revised2021-1 093112

Republic of the Philippines
Mountain Province State Polytechnic College

Bontoc, Mountain Province
Preface
The Covid19 pandemic changed the way education is delivered. In the

Philippines, face to face classes were suspended for a year. Instruction was
delivered in a synchronous and asynchronous manner. Flexible learning was
adopted by higher education institutions hence, both faculty members and
students had to go through a difficult phase of adjusting to a totally different
system of teaching and learning. In the Mountain Province State Polytechnic
College, we used a modular offline mode of delivering instruction due to the very
limited internet connectivity. We resorted to using short message service (SMS),
phone call, and FB messenger. We created group chats for purposes of inquiring
and staying updated with the requirements of the courses. We wrote modules
and worked overtime to finish them so they could be released to the students on
the deadline of distribution. Admittedly, we were not fully satisfied with the
modules we made but they were the best we could make at that time.
In this second year of the pandemic, some programs are allowed to go on

a limited face-to-face classes. General education subjects, however, are still to
be delivered via flexible learning mode. Thus, we will not be meeting in school
but you will be working on this printed module.
This module is a collaborative work of eight faculty members from the

Social Studies group. It is an enhanced version of the 2020 edition. The topics
are the same but the activities are enriched and revised in response to the
observations on the performance of the students who completed the 2020
edition. We also modified the numbering of the assessment activities to ensure
better tracking of missing requirements and outputs.
This module for Ethics is divided into five sub-modules. The name/s of the
author/s is/are written in the cover page of the module. The author is not the
same as the facilitator. The course facilitator is the one currently handling the
subject, so you communicate with them for your concerns. It may happen,
however, that the author is your course facilitator, too.
Please observe ethics in communication and respect our time. Communicate

with us on weekdays, between 8:00 in the morning to 5:00 in the afternoon. Any
communications after 5:00 in the afternoon will be entertained the following day.
If you communicate with us after 5:00 on a Friday, we will respond the following
Monday. Understand that we, too, have to attend to ourselves and our family.
When you communicate via SMS, please start with a greeting, then identify
yourself (name, section, subject), and state your concern.
Do not post any part of this module in your social media account. Do not
share with anyone. Respect our intellectual property rights.
Have a nice time learning and doing the activities. Submit only the activity
sheets and keep the lecture notes for future reference.
The authors.
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Table of Contents
Preface ...................................................................................... 1
Module 1 Ethics and Mores ........................................................ 4

Introduction .................................................................... 5
Activity 1 Pre-test ............................................................. 5
Lesson 1 Ethics and Mores .............................................. 7
Activity 2 .................................................................... 11
Activity 3 .................................................................... 13
Lesson 2 Moral Dilemmas ............................................... 15
Activity 4 ................................................................... 17
Activity 5 .................................................................... 18
Lesson 3 Freedom as a Foundation of Moral Acts ............. 21
Activity 6 ................................................................... 25
Activity 7 ................................................................... 26
Activity 8 Post Assessment ......................................... 28
References ................................................................. 29
Module 2 The Moral Agent ....................................................... 30

Introduction .................................................................. 31
Activity 9 Pre-test ...................................................... 31
Lesson 1 The Moral Agent and Moral Character .............. 32
Activity 10 ................................................................. 36
Activity 11 ................................................................. 37
Lesson 2 Culture Shapes Moral Behavior ........................ 38
Activity 12 ................................................................. 42
Activity 13 Post Assessment ....................................... 44
References ................................................................. 45
Module 3 The Moral Act ........................................................... 46

Introduction .................................................................. 47
Activity 14 Pre-test ..................................................... 47
Lesson 1 Definition of Human Act .................................. 48
Activity 15 ................................................................. 48
Activity 16 ................................................................. 49
Activity 17 ................................................................. 51
Lesson 2: Emotions and Will in Decision-Making ............. 53
Activity 18 ..................................................................... 55
Lesson 3 Reason and Impartiality as Minimum
Requirements for Morality ................................... 56
Activity 19 ................................................................. 58
Lesson 4 The 7 Steps in Moral Reasoning ....................... 59
Activity 20 ................................................................. 63
Activity 21 ................................................................. 63
References ..................................................................... 66
Module 4 Moral Theories and Principles ................................... 67

Introduction .................................................................. 68
Lesson 1 The Golden Rule .............................................. 69
Activity 24 ................................................................. 72
Activity 25 .................................................................. 73
Lesson 2 Virtue Ethics of Aristotle ................................... 74
Activity 26 ................................................................. 76
Activity 27 ................................................................. 77
Lesson 3 Virtue Ethics of Kant ....................................... 78
Activity 28 ................................................................. 80
Activity 29 ................................................................. 81
Activity 30 ................................................................. 82
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Lesson 4 Virtue Ethics of Aquinas .................................. 83
Activity 31 ................................................................. 86
Activity 32 ................................................................. 87
Lesson 5 Utilitarian Ethics ............................................. 88
Activity 33 ................................................................. 90
Activity 34 ................................................................. 91
References ................................................................. 94
Module 5 Moral Challenges of Globalization .............................. 95

Introduction .................................................................. 96
Lesson 1 Globalization and Its Ethical Challenges ........... 96
Activity 37 ................................................................. 99
Lesson 2 Millennials and Filennials: Ethical
Challenges and Responses ................................ 101
Activity 38 ............................................................... 107
Activity 39 ............................................................... 108
References ............................................................... 108
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ETHICS AND MORES
Module 1 of 5
Ethics
Peggygail K. Puma-at
Mobile No. 09165055133
Teacher Education Department
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INTRODUCTION
This module aims to analyze the nature of mores and values in ethics. It
discusses the interplay between the individual as a free moral agent, and his/her society
or environment, as well as the process of value experience, including the difference
between values and moral values. In broad strokes, it gives a background on the nature
of morality and the mores which are the subject matter of ethics. It examines the nature
of mores, including the development of the notion of what is ‘right’ in our culture. The
module also examines the notion of freedom as it relates to morality, together with the
wide range of values and moral values, including the nature and basis of the choices
that we make.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. apply willingly ethical standards in your daily life;
2. decide confidently whether an act is ethical or unethical; and
3. recognize easily the philosophical assumptions that are embedded in
moral ideas and in philosophical works that define your moral
responsibility in contemporary society.
ACTIVITY 1: PRE-TEST
Name: ________________________ Score: ___________
Multiple Choice. Choose from the selections the correct answer and write the letter of
your answer on the line before the number. Use CAPITAL LETTERS.
_____ 1. Why do we need to study ethics?

a. In order to live in peace and harmony
b. In order to know how we ought to live our life
c. In order to be friend and please everybody else
d. In order to resolve individual differences and beliefs
_____2. Is it possible for human beings to live their lives without ethics or
consideration of morality?
a. No, because life is dependent on ethics and harmony is society can be attained
only through ethics
b. No, but there are times when man can live his life apart from it because there are
times when he needs it and there are times when he doesn’t
c. Yes, but it is difficult because no one will know how to live one’s life and how to
live others
d. Yes, because life is not dependent on ethics and harmonious relationship can be
attained at any standard of morality
_____3. Which among the following situation in public relations is considered

unethical?
a. Lying by omission or giving a misleading impression
b. Hiring an assassin to silence opponents
c. Protecting the privacy rights of clients for business interest
d. Safeguarding a client's confidential information
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_____4. Which among the following are principle concerns with ‘professional
ethics’?
a. To study ethical dilemmas in professions by application of moral theory
b. The study of unique moral obligations created by special social roles
c. The practice and consultancy of ethics by a trained professional ethicist
d. The ethical challenges of a professional lifestyle
_____5. Jenny is a director at a NWSU in California, she sits on the interview panel
that is scheduled to interview John who is her nephew, who has qualified the
written examination for a job at that NWSU. Which of the following ethical
issues apply to Jenny?
a. Embezzlement c. Corruption
b. Conflict of Interest d. Nepotism
_____6. Which of the following best relates to ethical issues when researching with
babies?
a. Asking for adults’ permission to research because babies are incapable of
showing a degree of consent
b. Babies don’t remember so if they are upset you don’t need to worry about
it
c. Getting babies to make a hand print to stand for a signature on a
consent form
c. Seeing consent and withdrawal of consent as an ongoing issue and
responding to the cues of the baby
_____7. Which of the following best relates to ethical issues when researching with a
cancer patient?
a. Asking for adults’ permission to conduct the research
b. Continuing the research to cancer patients without the consent
c. Proceed with the research despite the refusal of the cancer patients
d. Provide information or results to that would intentionally harm cancer patients
_____8. Which best defines morality?

a. defining what is right and wrong for an individual or a community
b. making the right decisions when there is a chance to do wrong
c. what is considered as correct within a society
d. where individuals have conscious choice to make a right and ethical
decision
_____9. Which of the following is an example of a value?

a. Happiness c. Partiality
b. Justice d. Security
_____10. Which of the following is the best way to describe how the term ethics is
viewed in the academic world?
a. Ethics is code of conduct for a particular profession and not related to personal
life.
b. Ethics is a branch of philosophy dealing with morality.
c. Ethics is a field of study that focuses on faith and religion.
d. Ethics is what we do when we know others are watching.
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LESSON 1: Ethics and Mores
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. define ethics, moral and non-moral standards;
2. differentiate ethics and morality;
3. analyze the importance of ethics; and
4. answer and give decisions based on a given situation/statement.
LET’S ENGAGE
What do you feel do when you do bad things and good things? What are the reactions
of the people around you when you do bad/good things? Reflect on your answer.
LET’S TALK ABOUT IT
If you reflect on your life can you say that there is a balance between the good
things and bad things that you did? These actions, right or wrong, falls is known as
ethics. Hence, for today’s lesson, we will be discussing ethics and its related concepts
such as morality, and moral and non-moral standards.
Ethics, according to Corpuz, Dela Cruz, Estoque, and Tabotabo (2007) is a
branch of philosophy that involves the systematizing, defending, and recommending the
concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term ethics derives from Ancient Greek word,
“ethikos”, which comes from the word “ethos” or “habit”, or “custom.” It seeks to resolve
questions of human morality, by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and
wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc. As a field of intellectual inquiry, ethics is
also related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory.
Other definitions of ethics, as mentioned in the book of Felix Montemayor (1994)
include:
Ethics is the practical science of morality of human actions. This definition implies
that ethics is a separate field of study that looks into the goodness and the madness,
and desirable or undesirable of actions. For instance, when we debate about the
morality of giving the death penalty to a criminal who committed a heinous crime, we
are not just looking at the actions of the criminal but also at the morality of those who
are pro-death penalty. Hence, the subject of ethics consists of the fundamental issues
of practical decision making, and its major concerns include the nature of ultimate value
and the standards by which human actions can be judged right or wrong.
Another definition of ethics, according to Socrates, is the investigation of life.
It deals with such questions at all levels. He believed that the only life worth living was
one that was rigorously examined. He looked for principles and actions that were worth
living by, creating an ethical base upon which decisions should be made. Socrates firmly
believed that knowledge and understanding of virtue, or "the good," was sufficient for
someone to be happy. To him, knowledge of the good was almost akin to an enlightened
state. He believed that no person could willingly choose to do something harmful or
negative if they were fully aware of the value of life.
Why is ethics important?
The importance of the study of ethics follows immediately from the importance of
ethics itself.
Ethics means right living and good moral character and it is in good moral
character that man finds his true worth and perfection. Have you ever wondered why
one requirement for enrolment in school or even employment is the good moral
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character? The reason for this is to show that you have lived in a respectable and
acceptable manner and did not harm or violate policies when you were with that school.
Another, education is the harmonious development of the whole man – of all
man’s faculties: moral, intellectual, and physical powers in man. Now the highest of
man’s power are his reason and will. This means that Knowledge is good, bodily health
and strength are good, but first and above all- good character. Hence, the primary
objective of education is the moral development of the will. Moreover, according
to Socrates, “the unexamined life is not worth living for man.” Ethics is every
investigation of life which is why Plato Plato considers ethics as the supreme science,
the science par excellence, as it is this science that deals with the Summum Bonum
and supreme purpose of a human being.
Ethics and Morality
The terms ‘ethics’ and ‘morality’ are not always used consistently and precisely
in everyday contexts, and their ordinary meanings do not always correspond with
philosophers’ use of the terms. Ethics is often used in connection with the activities of
organizations and with professional codes of conduct: for instance, medical and
business ethics, which are often formalized in terms of exhaustive sets of rules or
guidelines stating how employees are expected to behave in their workplaces (such as
in respect of a duty of care or confidentiality that health-care workers owe to their
patients; or the medical ethical principles of beneficence, non-maleficence, respect for
autonomy, and justice). Morality, on the other hand, is more often used in connection
with the ways in which individuals conduct their personal, private lives, often in relation
to personal financial probity, lawful conduct and acceptable standards of interpersonal
behavior (including truthfulness, honesty, and sexual propriety).
These ‘everyday’ uses of the terms ‘ethics’ and ‘morality’ are not so much incorrect
by philosophical standards, as too limited. The philosopher’s interest in the theoretical
study of ethics is with the idea of conduct that is right, fair and just, does not cause
harm, and that can be applied to a wide variety of cases. For our purposes, each of the
terms ‘ethics’ and ‘morality’ captures the essence of that idea sufficiently well. In what
follows, then, it is not really necessary to over-emphasize the distinction between ethics
and morality; here, those terms may be used interchangeably to refer to ideas about
how humans ought to act.
Morality and Human Acts
Morality is the quality of goodness or badness in a human act. In this case, we

base judgement on any human act based on its ethicality. The quality of an act may be
justified according to its gravity. An evil human act maybe considered “right” just as
long as it can be justified which lead us to its norm of morality. By that term, we mean
that the basis for determining its correctness is the standard of the judging party and
the reason why an act is morally wrong or right.
Human acts just like the word itself means actions of men that are done willfully
and willingly. Keep in mind that scenarios beyond human control are not human acts
such as rainfall, sunset, earthquake even the beating of the heart or blood circulation
are beyond human act for these are actions man cannot control. In the case of
assassinations where the culprit pulled the trigger, the gun is not to blame but the doer
of the action that caused taking the life of another man.
Moral and Non Moral Standards
Either these standards are not necessarily linked to

morality or by nature lack ethical sense.
- Basic examples of non-moral standards include
rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in
games, and various house rules.
- Technically, religious rules, some traditions, and
legal statutes (i.e. laws and ordinances) are non-
moral principles, though they can be ethically
relevant depending on some factors and contexts
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Moral Standards are those moral actions which are within the moral sphere and
are thus objects of moral judgements. Non-moral actions or standards are those actions
devoid of morality and thus excluded from the scope of moral judgement.
Jensen DG. Mañebog (2013) mentioned the following six (6) characteristics of
moral standards further differentiate them from non-moral standards:
a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
Moral standards deal with matters which can seriously impact, that is,
injure or benefit human beings. It is not the case with many non-moral
standards. For instance, following or violating some basketball rules may matter
in basketball games but does not necessarily affect one’s life or wellbeing
b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.
Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a

moral standard states that a person has the moral obligation to do something,
then he/she is supposed to do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral
standards, and even with self-interest.
Moral standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but they
take precedence over other considerations, including aesthetic, prudential, and
even legal ones. A person may be aesthetically justified in leaving behind his
family in order to devote his life to painting, but morally, all things considered,
he/she probably was not justified. It may be prudent to lie to save one’s dignity,
but it probably is morally wrong to do so. When a particular law becomes
seriously immoral, it may be people’s moral duty to exercise civil disobedience.
c. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.
Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative

bodies or persons such as nations’ legislative bodies. Ideally instead, these values
ought to be considered in the process of making laws. In principle therefore,
moral standards cannot be changed nor nullified by the decisions of particular
authoritative body. One thing about these standards, nonetheless, is that its
validity lies on the soundness or adequacy of the reasons that are considered to
support and justify them.
d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
This means that everyone should live up to moral standards. To be more

accurate, however, it entails that moral principles must apply to all who are in
the relevantly similar situation. If one judges that act A is morally right for a
certain person P, then it is morally right for anybody relevantly similar to P.
This characteristic is exemplified in the Gold Rule, “Do unto others what
you would them do unto you (if you were in their shoes)” and in the formal
Principle of Justice, “It cannot be right for A to treat B in a manner in which it
would be wrong for B to treat A, merely on the ground that they are two
different individuals, and without there being any difference between the
natures or circumstances of the two which can be stated as a reasonable
ground for difference of treatment.” Universalizability is an extension of the
principle of consistency, that is, one ought to be consistent about one’s value
judgments
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e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
Moral standard does not evaluate standards on the basis of the interests
of a certain person or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests to a
universal standpoint in which each person’s interests are impartially counted as
equal.
Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice.
Impartiality in morality requires that we give equal and/or adequate
consideration to the interests of all concerned parties.
f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.
Prescriptively indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral

standards. These moral standards are generally put forth as injunction or
imperatives (such as, ‘Do not kill,’ ‘Do no unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your
neighbor’). These principles are proposed for use, to advice, and to influence to
action. Retroactively, this feature is used to evaluate behavior, to assign praise
and blame, and to produce feelings of satisfaction or of guilt.
If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfil a special
purpose, it is not surprising if he/she starts feeling guilty or being ashamed of
his behavior afterwards. On the contrary, no much guilt is felt if one goes against
the current fashion trend (e.g. refusing to wear tattered jeans
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IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 2
Name: _________________________________________ Score: _________________
1. Define the following according to your understanding (do not copy from the module).
(3 points each)
1. Ethics - ____________________________________________________
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2. Moral Standards - ____________________________________________

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3. Non- Moral Standards - ____________________________________________

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II. Differentiate the following terms from each other. (5 points each)
a. Ethics and morality

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b. Moral and non-moral standards

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1. React on the following statements: (5 points each)
a. It is wrong to kill one person to save another
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b. Different societies have different moral codes
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c. There is no objective truth in ethics. Right and wrong are only

opinions, and opinions vary from culture to culture.
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Activity 3
Name: ___________________________________ Score: __________________
Write an essay consisting of 150-300 words (handwritten or encoded). You may use the
attached sheet to write your essay. The topic is “Ethics has a prominent importance
in my life.” Write legibly. (20 points)
“Ethics has a prominent importance in my life”
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LESSON 2: Moral Dilemmas
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to

1. recognize and recall a moral experience;
2. detect a moral dilemma;
3. define and identify the levels of moral dilemma; and
4. explain why only human beings can be ethical.
LET’S ENGAGE
What would you do if a person closes to you, terminally ill and in unbearable pain,
asked you to help her die? Regardless of what the law says, would you agree? What
would be the reasons behind the decisions? Would you say a life defined only by pain
is not worth living, or would you on the contrary think that even if the person is in
pain, her life is still valuable and her experiences meaningful?
Moral refers to our standards for judging right and wrong. A moral dilemma is a
situation where:
1. You are presented with two or more actions, all of which you have
the ability to perform.
2. There are moral reasons for you to choose each of the actions.
3. You cannot perform all the actions and have to choose which action
or actions when there are three or more choices to perform.
Since there are moral reasons for you to choose each action, and you
cannot choose them all, it follows that no matter what choice you make, you will be
failing to follow your morals. In other words, someone or something will suffer no matter
what choice you make.
For example, Gia will suffer if you tell the truth, and you will lose your friendship.
But if you don’t tell the truth, you will be a liar and possibly a lawbreaker, and Kayla
will get arrested for a crime she did not commit.
Example of a Moral Dilemma:
Imagine yourself
You are walking to a department store with your friend Maricar.
Maricar tells you that Beth, a student in your school, stole money from the
canteen and blame Maricar for it. As a result, Maricar was suspended by the
school head for one week and had to pay the money back.
As you and Maricar keep walking into the department store, you see
Beth. Maricar pushes Beth and drops a pair of gold earrings into Beth’s bag.
The alarm sounds once Beth tries to walk out of the department store. Beth
is pulled aside by the security guard for shoplifting and they call the police.
Beth tells them that she is innocent and that Maricar drops the earrings in
her bag. Maricar calls Beth a liar and asks you to back her up.
If you tell the truth, Maricar will get in trouble again, and will face
consequences from the laws and her parents. Beth will go unpunished for
originally stealing money from the canteen.
If you do not tell the truth, Beth will finally be punished from stealing and
Maricar will have her revenge. However, you may be committing a crime by
lying to a policeman, and Beth’s punishment will be more severe that it
would have been for stealing money in the canteen.
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The police arrive and ask you for your version of the story.
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
The three levels of moral dilemma are individual, organizational, and systematic.
1. An individual moral dilemma is experienced by individuals who have a hard time to

choose the right action from two or more actions. No matter what choice, the
individual has someone or something will suffer no matter choice the individual
makes.
Example:
You are an inmate in Muntinlupa Bilibid Prison. A jail is about to hang
your son (also a prisoner) who tried to escape, and wants you to pull the chair
underneath him. He says that if you don’t, he will not only kill your son but some
other innocent inmates as well. You don’t have any doubt that he means what he
says. What should you do?
2. In an organizational moral dilemma, administrative decisions are characterized as

having routines and challenges. In business organizations, there are always dilemma
encountered by the administrator and the employees. It is very hard to pin down the
necessary morals to benefit the company. Guiding institutionalization and nurturing
conflict are both viewed as useful in moral leadership within organizations.
Example of an organizational dilemma: “Company Policy”
You have a job as an administrator in a big mall in your place. The mall
also employs your best friend’s husband. One day, your best friend’s husband
sends you a text message asking you to release an email from quarantine. This
requires you to open the email, at which point you discover that it is a
correspondence between this guy and his secret lover. After releasing the email,
you find yourself in a pickle. Your instinct is to tell your best friend about the
husband’s infidelities but divulging the contents of the company emails is against
company policy and you could not lose your job. Once it becomes plain that your
best friend found out about his cheating husband through a company email, all
trails will inevitably lead to you as the leak.
Do you tell him about the indiscretion?

(Source: Adapted from Psycho Pixi with modification)
3. Systematic types of dilemma occur in the conditions of life. Why do dilemmas occur
in our ordinary everyday life? Some, however may not seem to be dilemmas at all
but an ordinary ethical problem. Also while it is common in a modern ethics to
address dilemma merely to propose theories to resolve, it must be remembered that
systematic dilemmas may betray a structure to ethics that means they cannot be
resolved.
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IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 4
Name: ____________________________________________ Score: ________________
I. Define the following terms according to your understanding: (Do not copy from the
module). (5 points each)
1. Moral Dilemma
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2. Moral Reasoning
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II. Differentiate from each other the following terms. (5 points each)
a. Moral Dilemma and Morality
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b. Organizational Moral Dilemma and Individual Moral Dilemma
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c. Individual Moral Dilemma and Systematic types of Moral Dilemma
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Activity 5
Name: __________________________________ Score: ______________________
I. Analyze the following situations then write your actions/decisions. Limit your answer
to at most five sentence. Be guided by the rubric after Roman numeral II. (10 points
each)
a. “Your Best Friend’s Wedding” (Adapted from List Verse)

You are at your best friend’s wedding just an hour before the ceremony is
to start. Earlier that day, you came across a definite proof that your best friend’s
spouse-to-be is having an affair with the best man/maid of honor., and you
catch them sneaking out of the room together looking disheveled. If you tell your
friend about the affair, their day will be ruined, but you also don’t want him/her
to marry a cheater. What will you do?
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b. “Robin Hood Style” (Adapted from List Verse)

You are an eyewitness to a crime: A man has robbed a bank, but instead
of keeping the money from himself, he donates it to a poor orphanage that can
now afford to feed, clothe, and care for his children. You know who committed
the crime. If you go the authorities with the information, there is a good chance
that the money will be returned to the bank, leaving a lot of kids in need. What
will you do?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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c. “A Doctor’s Dilemma” (Source: List Verse)

You are a doctor at a hospital. You have gravely six ill patients, five of
whom are in urgent need of organ transplants. You can’t help them, though
because here are no available organs that can be used to save their lives. The
sixth patient, however, will die without a particular medicine. If she/he dies,
you will be able to save the other five patients by using the organs of patient 6,
who is an organ donor. What do you do?
______________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
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II. Give a situation where you experienced a moral dilemma. Answer your own moral
dilemmas. You may follow the guide below to answer this activity. Limit your answer to
at most ten sentences. (20 points)
a. Start by describing the moral dilemma you have experienced.
b. What are the options/decisions/actions did you consider to do/solve this
dilemma?
c. Who might be affected or possible result of each decision?
d. Did you choose to solve this problem?
e. What factors that led you to finally choose this decision/action?
f. What is the result of your decision?
g. Where you satisfied with your decision? Why or why not?
h. If given the chance, would you do the same decision again or no? Explain.
______________________________________________________________________________
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Rubric for Ethical Dilemma
(modified from San Francisco State University)
TRAIT Poor (1) Fair (2) Good (3)

Identifies Dilemma States a specific Identifies the ethical Describes the ethical
ethical dilemma dilemma, including dilemma in detail
exists, but fails to pertinent facts, and having gathered all
discuss potential states what course of available pertinent
decisions action must be facts. Identifies and
decided prioritizes key
decisions to be made.
Analyzes Alternatives Begins to appraise Clarifies at least two Clarifies a number of
and Consequences the relevant facts and alternatives and alternatives and
assumptions and predicts their evaluates each on the
identifies some associated basis of whether or
alternatives. consequences in not there is interest
detail. and concern over the
welfare of all
stakeholders
Has difficulty Formulates an Formulates an
Chooses an Action identifying and implementation plan implementation plan
appropriate course of that delineates the that delineates the
action from among execution of the execution of the
alternatives decision decision and that
evidences a
thoughtful reflection
on the benefits and
risks of action
20
LESSON 3: Freedom as a Foundation of Moral Acts
1. explain why only humans can be ethical;

2. define voluntary and human act;
3. determine the different types of voluntary acts;
4. give examples of an act with moral principle having two effects; and
5. analyze a scenario portraying human act.
LET’S ENGAGE
What is your own idea of free will? Why do you think God gave us freewill?
Morality, it must be noted, is present only in humanity. Meaning, man can only
be moral if he is fully aware of his actions. Brutes have no morality for they are not
guided by reason; hence, they are not responsible for their actions and are not classified
as human acts.
Let us be guided by these principles:
1. Man is the only Moral Being – due to three things: a) man is capable of
action, b) man has intellect and c) man has free will. Being capable of
action man can employ his bodily activities to perform actions. With man’s
intellect he can discern the good or evilness of his actions and at the same
time equate the repercussions of his actions once asked to justify them.
Free will is present and inherent in men unless they are idiots and with
that they have the freedom of choice whether to perform or not the action
at hand.
2. Man is the highest form of animal – endowed with intellect, man can decide
what’s best for him although their desires are the same with brutes such
as hunger, thirst, pain and sensual needs; man moves based on reason
while their lower counterparts have only instinct. Sentient beings like
animals rely on instinct which are natural biological drives, while men can
decide whether an act is moral or not.
3. Man is a rational animal – Ratio is the Latin term for reason that means
man has the power to discern things based on his previous knowledge of
things. Unlike brutes, man has the power of abstraction – this is his ability
to correlate ideas previously based on his mind as well as his
understanding of the situation at hand, thereby giving him a logical or
correct decision.
4. The intellect and the will – they are correlative with each other because the
intellect is the agent of knowing while the will is the agent of choice. From
intellect – knowledge is stored this will then guide the will to decide which
is basically “good”. They co-exist and from their partnership “virtue” is
born.
Voluntariness of Human Acts
A voluntary act is under the control of the intellect and the will and must be
answerable for their actions. Only human acts are valid in ethics and at the same time
possess moral significance. There are four types of voluntary acts and they are:
21
1. Perfect voluntariness – when a person acts with full knowledge and
complete freedom – we are fully aware of what we are doing
2. Imperfect voluntariness – when a person acts when there is no full

understanding nor consent, or when either or both of the knowledge or
consent is partial
3. Direct Voluntary (also called as voluntary in se) when the act is

intended for its own sake, either as a means or as an end.
Example:
He who intends to go to a party in order to drink with friend’s
wills both the going to the party and the drinking with friends.
Both acts, therefore, are directly voluntary.
4. Indirect Voluntary Act (also called voluntary in causa) is an act which

is not intended for its own sake but which merely follows as a
regrettable consequence of an action directly willed.
 It refers to an act which is desired not as an end in itself but as a foreseen

effect or consequences of an act.
 It refers to an act which is the foreseen consequence of another act directly
intended.
Example:
1. Throwing precious cargoes from a sinking boat to save lives of

passengers. Here the throwing and losing of the cargoes is not desired
or intended. It comes as a consequence of saving lives of passengers.
2. Going to a party to enjoy with friends but making trouble when drunk.
The making of trouble may have been foreseen and foreknown but it
may have been intended; in which case, the act of making trouble is
only indirectly voluntary.
3. Surrendering and giving your money and valuables to a hold upper who
gravely threatened to kill you if you don’t.
Why is an indirect voluntary act still voluntary when it is not intended and
follows only as a regrettable side issue?
 It is when we will to do an act, we will the whole act including its

consequences; and since we place the cause, we also indirectly will
the effect, although this is in itself regrettable. We are, therefore,
responsible for the consequences of our actions even if these are not
intended.
The Moral Principle involved in Actions having Two Effects
A difficult question sometimes arises as to whether it would be morally right to

do certain actions from which good as well as bad effects follow. For example:
 Should a man be restrained from saving his honour because the reputation of a
high government official will be destroyed from disclosures so he has to make in
his defense?
22
 Was it morally right to drop the atomic bomb which would shorten the war, but
which would destroy thousands and thousands of innocent lives?
 Is it morally right to do an act which entails bad as well as good consequences?
The answer to these questions is YES but under the following conditions:
a. The act itself should be good, or at least morally indifferent;
This condition requires the act to be good in itself. The reason for this is
that the act itself is bad, then we would be doing evil that good may come from
it.
But, the end does not justify the means. We should not employ bad means
even, in order to attain a good end. We may not do evil that good may result. The
reason behind this principle is that: the morality of an act primarily depends on
the nature of the act itself and not on the intention of the agent, nor on the
consequences of the act.
The principle, “the end does not justify the means,” is important in ethics
and finds many practical applications:
 One may not tell a lie even for the purpose of saving one’s honor, or in
order to win a case, etc., without incurring moral guilt, because while the
end is good the means employed (lying) is bad.
 It is not morally justified to shorten the life of one dying even with the
intention of saving him from the prolonged and useless pain and suffering.
 It is not morally justified to shorten the life of one dying even with the
intention of saving him from the prolonged and useless pain and suffering.
 It is immoral to practice intentional abortion for any reason whatsoever.
 To correct the mistake of others is good but if it is done intentionally in
such a manner that the person corrected is embarrassed, the whole action
is bad.
b. The evil effect should not be directly intended, but morally allowed to happen as a
regrettable side issue;
This condition requires that the evil effect be not intended. The reason
behind this is that if the evil be directly intended, the act would be done for the
sake of evil, and this is forbidden directly by the moral law.
c. There should be a reason sufficiently grave in doing the act; and
The reason behind the third condition is that the act entails bad effects
and we should not trifle with evil effects.
d. That the evil effect should not outweigh the good effect.
The reason behind the fourth is that if the evil effect be greater, then the
intention and motive in doing the act would be more for evil than for good, and
this is against the moral law.
Factors that Lessen Accountability
Since responsibility depends on the voluntariness present in an act, we must inquire

into the factors which affect voluntariness in an action. These are
1. Ignorance is the absence of intellectual knowledge. It is distinguished into:
a. Invincible ignorance excuses and relieves the agent responsibility. Acts done
in ignorance are therefore, not voluntary and the agent is not held responsible
for them.
Example:
23
A Negrito who had been living all his life in the mountains, and who happened
to come to Manila for the first time, and violated traffic laws, could not be held
responsible for violating the law.
b. Vincible Ignorance does not destroy or remove voluntariness nor

responsibility. Acts done in vincible ignorance are still voluntary and the agent
is still responsible for them.
Example:
A Manila resident who violated traffic laws, not knowing of such laws before,
would still be responsible for his act, because his ignorance is vincible.
* When we speak if ignorance, we usually mean vincible ignorance.

That is why we say, “ignorance of the law excuses no one,”
because every citizen of age must and should know the law.
c. Affected ignorance. It is the doer’s attempt to escape responsibility such as a

suspect denying his complicity in a crime he has done.
2. Passions – Psychic responses that may adhere or abhor them to either desirable
or undesirable tendencies. Positive emotions such as love, desire or hope are
manifestations of the first while hatred, horror and despair are example of
negative emotions. There are also two passions such as antecedent and
consequent passions wherein the former are passions that occur before the
stimulus such as accidentally meeting a special someone; while the other came
after a stimulus we ourselves caused. An example is meeting a special someone
whose arrival we are already aware of.
3. Fear – it is the disturbance of the mind when confronted by danger to himself or

a loved one. Actions, whether done in fear or out of fear, may affect one’s action.
Acts done with fear are voluntary while acts done out of fear are two different
things. If one moves with fear this means he has to decide and yet is afraid he
might err. An example is an amateur singer performing in front of a large crowd
or driving a vehicle with limited know-how in driving. Actions out of fear are
situations that need immediate decisions such as jumping out of a plane about
to crash or land or running away from a violent situation.
4. Violence – it is physical force given to a free person to coerce him to do or not to

do something. Physical threats such as torture, starvation or mutilation are
examples of violence but was free will impaired? No, the free will is still there for
they can still resist making their moral integrity intact. In short, there is still a
choice.
5. Habits – readiness to perform habitual acts. Habits are done mechanically that
thinking is no longer necessary. It may either be good or bad. It is second-nature
to the doer and doing it is instinctual.
24
IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 6
Name: _____________________________________ Score: __________________________
I. Define the following terms according to your understanding (do not copy from the
module.) (3 points each)
1. Human Act - _______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. Voluntary Act - _____________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. Ignorance - _________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
II. Essay. Answer briefly the following:
1. Give two examples of an act having two effects, one good and one bad. (2 points each)
a. _______________________________________________________________________
b. _______________________________________________________________________
2. Is it morally allowed to do an act from which two effects, good and bad, follow? If so,
under what conditions? Limit your answer to at most five sentences. (5 points)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. In the light of your answer to question number two, is euthanasia morally justifiable?
Explain your answer in 3-5 sentences. (5 points)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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Activity 7
Name: ___________________________________________ Score: __________________
Analyze and answer the situation/scenario presented below. Limit your answer to at
most ten sentences. Be guided by the rubric. (20 points)
Scenario:
If one intentionally shoots to kill another, who was later found to have
been already dead before, did the former incur any moral guilt? Is he
legally guilty? Justify your answer.
Note: Moral guilt is different from legal guilt so you have to answer both
question and justify your answer.
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Rubric
Criteria & Points Below Expectations Meets Expectations Excellent Work

Assigned
1 2 3
Relevance of answer to Answer is incomplete. Answer is brief with Answer is complete;
the question Excessive discussion insufficient detail. sufficient detail
of unrelated issues Unrelated issues were provided to support
and/or significant introduced and/or assertions; answer
errors in content. minor errors in focuses only on issues
content. related to the
question; factually
correct.
Thoroughness of Serious gaps in the Most of the basic Deals fully with the
answer basic details needed. details are included entire question.
but some are missing.
Organization and logic Weak organization; Minor problems of Clear and logical
of answer sentences rambling; organization or logic; presentation; good
ideas are repeated. Needs work on development of an
creating transitions argument; Transitions
between ideas are made clearly and
smoothly
Mechanics of writing Major problems with Frequent problems Clear, readable, prose.
(spelling, punctuation, mechanics of with mechanics of Good use of
grammar, clarity of language; Awkward language; Occasional transitions; no
prose) sentence construction; awkward sentences problems with
Poor or absent and poor transitions; spelling, punctuation,
transitions; reduce readability or grammar.
Frequently difficult to
understand.
27
Activity 8 POST ASSESSMENT
Name: ___________________________________ Score: _____________________
Multiple Choice. Choose from the selections the correct answer to the question. Write
the letter of your answer on the line before the number. Use CAPITAL LETTERS.
_____1. It is an impulse from without tending to force the agent to act against his will.
a. Concupiscence c. Fear
b. Habit d. Violence
_____2. When we act because of ______, our will is dragged along, so to say, and so its
freedom is restricted and our responsibility is diminished correspondingly.
a. Concupiscence c. Fear
b. Habit d. Violence
_____3. It cannot be overcome by any amount of diligence or effort because under the
circumstances it is impossible for one not to know.
a. Accountability c. Invincible Ignorance
b. Concupiscence d. Vincible Ignorance
_____4. It is the quality of right and wrong.
a. Good Character c. Moral being

b. Human acts d. Morality
_____5. When we act because of ______, our will is dragged along, so to say, and so its
freedom is restricted and our responsibility is diminished correspondingly.
a. Concupiscence
b. Habit
c. Fear
d. Violence
_____6. You are an EMT on the scene of a car crash that involves your spouse
and your lover you didn’t know he/she had. They are both gravely injured,
your spouse injuries the worst of them. You can tell it’s unlikely he/she will pull
through. Meanwhile, his/her lover has a neck wound that will prove fatal if
pressure isn’t applied soon. Whom do you choose to work on?
a. My spouse because she/he is still my wife/husband despite the
discovery of the affair.
b. My spouse because I love him/her and our children needs a
mother/father. Moreover, I do not personally know who the lover is so
I do not have an obligation to save him/her.
c. My spouse’s lover because I am an EMT. I have an obligation to help in
saving the life of a person in danger and also get the opportunity to file
a case of adultery in case he/she gets better.
d. My spouse’s lover because as an EMT, I have an obligation to help in
saving the life of a person in danger.
_____7. It is a moral dilemma conducted within business organizations.
a. Individual moral dilemma

b. Organizational moral dilemma
c. Systematic moral dilemma
d. Organizational and systematize moral dilemma
28
_____8. It is an agency of the state that promotes the well-being of the people.
a. Church c. Material-Culture
b. Government d. School
_____9. It is a situation where you cannot perform all of the actions and have to choose
which action, or actions where there are three or more choices to perform.
a. Moral Dilemma c. Moral choices
b. Moral behavior d. Moral Actions
_____10. These are actions which are within the moral sphere and thus objects of
moral judgement.
a. Moral Standards b. Moral and Non-moral standards
b. Non-moral standards
a. Morality
REFERENCES
Agapay, R. (1991). Ethics and the Filipinos. National Book Store Inc.
Ariola, M. (2018). Ethics. Unlimited Books Library Services and Publishing Inc.
Babor, E. (2006). Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action. Rex Book Store
Corpuz, R., Dela Cruz, R., Estoque, R., and Tabotabo, C. (2007). Ethics:
standards of human conduct. Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Montemayor, F. (1994). Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. National Book Store.
29
THE MORAL AGENT
Module 2 of 5 modules
Ethics
Beatriz L. Felix
09487050870/09662807482
Crystal S. Malao
09302574101
30
INTRODUCTION
This module introduces the concepts of moral agent, and moral character and its
development. The first lesson is anchored on the theory of Lawrence Kohlberg on Moral
Development. This theory has six identifiable developmental stages which were grouped
into three levels: Pre-Conventional, Conventional and Post-Conventional Morality. The
next lesson discusses how culture shapes moral behavior and the concept of cultural
relativism.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. identify easily and appropriately decisions according to the stages of
moral development, cultural relativism and other social factors; and
2. demonstrate proficiency in differentiating morally right or wrong acts.
ACTIVITY 9: PRE-TEST
Name: ____________________________________ Score: ______________
_____1. During adolescence, individuals begin to think differently and are able to solve
more complex problems. As this is happening, _____, or the way that people
make judgments about what's right and wrong, also changes.
a. decision stage c. moral development
b. intelligence d. social development
_____2. What do you call the evaluation of an individual’s stable moral qualities?
a. Attitude c. Character
b. Behavior d. Personality
_____3. When developing his theory of moral development, psychologist Lawrence

Kohlberg was most interested in which of the following?
a. How individuals approach a moral dilemma
b. The developmental stage of the person faced with a complex moral problem
c. What is right versus wrong when making a decision
d. Why people make the wrong decisions
_____4. What do you call the dilemma that Kohlberg used in his study of moral
development?
a. Attitude Dilemma c. Kohlberg Dilemma
b. Heinz Dilemma d. Piaget Dilemma
_____5. What is the final level of Kohlberg's model of moral development?

a. Conventional Level c. Post-conventional Level
b. Heteronomous Level d. Pre-conventional Level
_____6. In which stage that a person make decisions based on what actions will please
others especially authority figures and other individuals with high status like
teachers or popular peers?
a. Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation c. Social Contract
b. Law and Order d. Universal Principle
_____7. What stage adheres to the “you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours” point of
view?
a. Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation c. Law and Order
b. Individualism and Exchange d. Universal Principle
31
_____8. In which stage do people recognize that rules represent agreements among
many individuals about appropriate behavior?
a. Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation c. Social Contract
_____9. In which stage do people know that rules are necessary for keeping society
running smoothly and believe it is their duty to obey them?
a. Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation c. Law and Order
_____10. Which of the following refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of
what is right or wrong instead understanding other’s culture in their own
context?
a. Cultural Bias c. Moral Agent
b. Cultural Relativism d. Moral Behavior
LESSON 1: The Moral Agent and Moral Character
Objectives:

1. create a table showing the nature of moral reasoning on the different
stages of moral development by Kohlberg;
2. identify moral reasoning to the Heinz Dilemma and other scenario
according to the stages of moral development; and
3. assess the criticisms against the theory of Kohlberg in which you agree
or disagree.
LET’S ENGAGE
Activity 10
Name: _______________________________ Score: _________
Read the following case and answer the questions below. Those who will give a
sensible and reasonable answer will get an extra score of 10 points added to the total
score for this module. Limit your answer to a maximum of three sentences.
“Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new
drug might save her. The drug has been discovered by a local chemist, and Heinz tried
desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it costs
to make the drug, and this was much more than Heinz could afford.
Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends.
He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the
drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.
The chemist refused, saying that he discovered the drug and was going to make
money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he
broke into the chemist’s laboratory and stole the drug.”
 Does Heinz have the right to steal drug?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
 Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
32
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
 What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference to the
action of Heinz?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
 Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
The activity is called the Heinz Dilemma which is what Lawrence Kohlberg used
to study moral development. In this lesson, we will discuss first what moral agent is and
then moral character. After that, we will tackle the stages of moral development
identified by Kohlberg and we’ll analyze the good and bad points of the theory according
to various psychologists.
By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions,
Kohlberg hoped to discover how moral reasoning changed as people grew older. The
sample comprised of 72 Chicago boys aged 10-16 years, 58 of whom were followed up
at three-yearly intervals for 20 years (Ariola, 2018).
According to Ariola (2018), what Kohlberg was mainly interested in was not
whether the boys judged the action right or wrong, but the reasons given for the
decision. He found out that these reasons tended to change as the children got older.
Who is a moral agent?
A moral agent is a being who is capable of acting with references to right and
wrong. Some philosophers suggest that those with limited rationality, for example,
people who are mildly mentally disabled or infants, also have some basic moral
capabilities (Ariola, 2018).
Determinists argue that actions are the products of antecedent causes and some
believe that this is incompatible with free will and thus claim that we have no real control
over our actions. Immanuel Kant argued that whether or not our real self, the noumenal
self, can chose, we have no choice but to believe that we choose freely when we make a
choice. This does not mean that we can control the effects of our actions (Ariola, 2018).
Thus, being a moral agent is being considerate of every internal and external
factors before deciding what to do or what not to do. Example is when you choose to
finish this module or you decide to not to do it. I suggest you choose the former
considering that passing the subject is making your parents proud.
What is moral character?
The concept can imply a variety of attributes including the existence or lack of
virtues such as empathy, courage, fortitude, honesty and loyalty, or of good behaviors
or habits. Moral character primarily refers to the assemblage of qualities that
distinguish one individual from another – although on a cultural level, the set of moral
behaviors to which a group adheres can be said to unite and define it culturally as
distinct from others (Ariola, M., 2018).
In simpler words, moral character is related with our moral choices to a given
scenario in which we either agree or not. We all have our distinct moral characters which
make us unique from anybody else. According to Campbell and Bond (1982), as cited
by Ariola (2018), there are major sources in influencing character or moral development.
33
These sources include heredity, early childhood experience, modelling by important
adults and older youth, peer influence, the general physical and social environment, the
communications media, the teachings of schools and other institutions and specific
situations and roles that elicit corresponding behavior.
Lawrence Kohlberg has explained how moral characters were being developed
through his theory. Moral Development is a process through which children develop
proper attitudes and behaviors toward other people in society, based on social and
cultural norms, rules, and laws. Ariola (2018) stated that Kohlberg identified three
distinct levels of moral reasoning each with two sub-stages. People can only pass
through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical
of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.
The following are the Stages of Moral Development by Kohlberg as cited by Ariola,
M. (2018).
Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality

At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-old and younger, some over nine),
we don’t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the
standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation.

The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is
punished, they must have done wrong. Individuals under this stage focus on the direct
consequences that their actions will have for themselves.
For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong if the person who commits
it gets punished. The worse the punishment for the act is, the more 'bad' the act is
perceived to be.
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange.

At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view that is
handed down by the authorities. Stage two espouses what's in it for me position, right
behavior being defined by what is in one's own best interest. This means that a person
will satisfy your needs if their needs are also met.
Level 2 - Conventional morality

At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize
the moral standards of valued adult role models. Persons who reason in a conventional
way judge the morality of actions by comparing these actions to societal views and
expectations.
Stage 3. Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation

The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others.
Individuals are receptive of approval or disapproval from other people as it reflects
society's accordance with the perceived role. They try to be a good boy or good girl to
live up to these expectations, having learned that there is inherent value in doing so.
Stage 4. Law and Order

The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments
concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt. The child blindly
accepts rules and convention because of their importance in maintaining a functioning
society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what
one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important.
Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited
in stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an
obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of society remain
at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality

Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is
based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg, this level of moral
34
reasoning is as far as most people get. Realization that individuals are separate entities
from society now becomes salient. One's own perspective should be viewed before the
society.
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights.

The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the
good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of
particular individuals. Those that do not promote general social welfare should be
changed, when necessary, to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of life is more important than
breaking the law against stealing.
Stage 6. Universal Principles.

People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may
or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. Generally, the chosen principles
are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or
respect.
People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those
principles, they feel guilty. Example is human rights, justice, and equality. The person
will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest
of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or
imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.
However, the theory of Kohlberg has been subjected to criticism. The following
are some of the comments of various psychologists according to Ariola, M. (2018).
1. The dilemmas are artificial (i.e., they lack ecological validity)

Most of the dilemmas are unfamiliar to most people (Rosen, 1980). For example,
in the Heinz dilemma, asking whether Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife elicits
many reactions. Some react based on reason, and some based on emotion. There is no
objective way to validate their reactions.
However, Kohlberg’s subjects were aged between 10 and 16. They have never
been married, and never been placed in a situation remotely like the one in the story.
How should they know whether Heinz should steal the drug?
2. The sample is bias

According to Gilligan (1977) as cited by Ariola (2018), because Kohlberg’s theory
was based on an all-male sample, the stages reflect a male definition of morality (it’s
androcentric). Man’s' morality is based on abstract principles of law and justice, while
women’s' is based on principles of compassion and care.
Further, the gender bias issue raised by Gilligan is a reminded of the significant
gender debate still present in psychology, which when ignored, can have a large impact
on the results obtained through psychological research.
3. The dilemmas are hypothetical (i.e., they are not real)

In a real situation, the course of action a person takes will have real consequences
– and sometimes very unpleasant ones for themselves. Would subjects reason in the
same way if they were placed in a real situation? We just don’t know.
The fact that Kohlberg’s theory is heavily dependent on an individual’s response
to an artificial dilemma brings a question to the validity of the results obtained through
this research. People may respond very differently to real life situations that they find
themselves in than they do with an artificial dilemma presented to them in the comfort
of a research environment.
4. Poor research design

The way in which Kohlberg carried out his research when constructing this
theory may not have been the best way to test whether all children follow the same
sequence of stage progression. His research was cross-sectional, that is, he interviewed
children of different ages to see what level of moral development they were at. A better
way to see if all children follow the same order through the stages would have been to
carry out longitudinal research on the same children.
35
IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 10
Name: _______________________________________ Score: _________________
Go back to the situation of Heinz. According to the Theory of Moral Development by

Kohlberg, how will the person in each stage react or decide what to do? Write your
answer in the table below. The first column is the stage of moral development. Refer to
the discussion in this lesson. In the second column, write YES or NO. Write YES, if
Heinz should steal the drug and NO if he should not steal it. In the third column, write
the reason why he should or should not steal the drug. Limit your answer to a maximum
of three sentences. (5 points each per stage).
STAGE STEAL THE DRUG or NOT REASON

1
36
Activity 11
Name: _______________________________________ Score: _________________
Read the situation below and do the same thing you did in Activity 11. (5 points
each per stage).
“If your friend came up to you with a copy of this year’s Ethics examination,
would you take a peek?”
STAGE PEEK OR NOT PEEK REASON

1
37
Lesson 2: Culture Shapes Moral Behavior
Objectives:

1. discuss the providers of moral behavior in a culture;
2. list down institutions that contribute to the development of moral
behavior in the society;
3. discuss cultural relativism and its strength and weaknesses; and
4. display understanding of other’s cultural practices according to their
own point of view.
LET’S ENGAGE
Figure 1. Greetings
What do you observe in the picture? Do you greet people in the same way? If
not, how do you do it?
Culture is derived from the Latin word “cultus” which means care – a care and
attention provided to a human person as he grows into a mature person. According to
Allan G. Johnson, culture is the sum of all symbols, ideas, forms of experience, and
material products associated with a social system (Ariola, 2018).
Culture is a powerful force that affects or influences the lives and moral behavior
of members of the society. Culture shapes and guards the people’s perception of reality,
determines the food they eat, the music they listen, and the game they play. It shapes
their understanding of good and evil, love and hate, health and sickness, life and death.
In short, the individual’s culture become immediately evident by his clothing, food,
belief, mannerism, moral character, and personality. Culture tells what the individual
does and how he should do those things, and how he should relate to other people. It is
culture that makes man different from other species (Ariola, 2018).
What are the aspects of culture that influences a man’s moral behavior?
These are the following according to Ariola (2018): material-culture refers to the
concrete and tangible things that man creates and uses. This includes dwelling units,
told, weapons, clothing’s, books, machine, artifacts, relics, fossils, etc. On the other
38
hand, non-material-culture refers to things or intangible objects when the person uses,
follows professes, or strives to conform. It includes knowledge, laws, lifestyle, teachings,
ideas, customs, moral behavior, mores, values language, sanctions, etc.
Who are the providers of moral behavior in a culture?
The family, school, church, government, workplace are the basic social
institutions that play a role in shaping the moral behavior of the members of the society.
The following are based from Ariola (2018):
The Family. The family, being the smallest unit of society, plays a very important
role in the development of the personality and values formation of the children. The
family regulates the sexual behavior of every member. There are governing rules and
norms governing sexual relations. Children are taught to follow and observe the family
norms, values, beliefs and behavior that are appropriate for each member of society.
The family also maintains order and harmony without which everything is in disarray.
The School. The school helps preserve, perpetuate, modify and integrate the
conditions of human life by promoting teachings and learnings. Through education,
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values are acquired, shared and transmitted to other
members of society. The school does not only teach the basic skills. It also changes and
modifies basic attitudes and values in the individual so that he would become happy,
integrated, well-disciplined and morally upright member of the society.
The Church. The church also plays a very significant role in the lives of the
members. The church promotes interaction among its members in order to foster unity
and group solidarity. Through preaching, listening, and watching church activities, the
individual is able to understand the meaning of his existence. It also helps the individual
acquire self-confidence, moral, and identity that would influence his goals, values and
convictions.
The Government. The government exists for the benefit of the people. It promotes
economic and socio-cultural well-being of the people. It administers justice, fairness,
promotes progress and development, security and protection. It also defines and
punishes individuals for crimes committed. It also supports cultural transformation for
the people to attain quality of life.
The Workplace. In the contemporary world, high technology and computerization

in the workplace have important roles in the conduct of employees and workers in the
workplace. Advanced highly technical work has changed the life of the workers. It has
made their work increasingly easy and reliable. There were increase leisure time
activities, recreational facilities, and emphasis on personal fulfilment. However, with the
automation of office and business establishments, students spend more time at
computer terminals. Less time is spent on personal interaction in studies, performance
of action and projects. Generally, children and adolescents are more aggressive in their
behavior than before. Many do not attend classes and escape from their classes to attend
to their video games or computer games. In short, there are good and bad things that a
computer can do to a person’s behavior.
What is cultural relativism?
To avoid judging the cultural practice of groups that are different to yours, we
can use the cultural approach. Cultural relativism is the idea that a person’s beliefs,
values, and practices should be understood based on the persons own culture rather
than be judged against the criteria of another culture. Cultural relativism is not judging
a culture using our own standards of what is right or wrong, strange or normal. Instead,
we should try to understand cultural practices, values, and beliefs of other groups in
their own cultural context. In other words, what is practiced and valued as good in one
place may not be good in another place. For example, instead of thinking, “fried
grasshopper, ” one should instead ask “why do some cultures eat fried insects?” You
will know that fried grasshoppers are full of protein and in Cagayan valley, it is famous
39
regional cuisine and has been eaten for a hundreds of years as a healthy food source
(Ariola, 2018).
What are the strengths of cultural relativism?
According to Ariola (2018), cultural relativism promotes cooperation. For the

most part, humanity is strong because of the differences we all have. Every individual
has a different perspective that is based on his or her upbringing, experiences, and
personal thoughts. By embracing the many differences, we have, we create a strong
society. Each individual definition of success allows us to pursue stronger bonds with
one another and potentially achieve more because there are no limitations from a group
level.
It creates a society where equality is possible. In any society, people rise by
climbing on top of other people. It is socially acceptable way of creating discrimination.
We see this today in the wage gap that women face, the educational opportunities that
minority groups face, and the violence we see because of political oppression. Cultural
relativism allows the individual to define their moral code without defining the moral
code of others. Each person is separate in such society. That separation creates equality
because each person can set its own definition of success (Ariola, 2018).
People can pursue a genuine interest. In this modern society, people are funneled
toward certain career options because of their circumstances. If you cannot afford to go
to college, then you pursue a technical –vocational career such as enrolling in a TESDA
course. If you cannot afford to buy a house, then you can rent an apartment. In cultural
relativism, you get to pursue your own interest without restriction. You set the
definitions of what you can have and what you cannot have. When implemented
successfully, each person would focus on his or her strength instead of his weaknesses
(Ariola, 2018).
Respect is encouraged in a system of cultural relativism. People from different
cultures have different ideas. They pursue different definitions of success. Because such
a system promotes the individual’s definition instead of a group’s, a society can evolve
because there is a natural level of respect built into the process. Each person is naturally
given the right to pursue life through his own specific perspective and then learn from
his experience in a way that works best for him
(Ariola, 2018).
It preserves human cultures. Humanity is a very diverse set of thoughts, traditions,
ideas, and practices. Many times, the traditions of humanity are set aside so that a
group set of standard can be appeased. Natives and first Nations tribes in North America
did this by singing treaties which would help them to preserve some lands but limit their
rights by being subject to a new government authority. They were forced to trade of some
of their cultures. Under the theory of cultural relativism, such a trade would not be
necessary. It would not even be a consideration (Ariola, 2018).
Cultural relativism creates a society without judgment. People are also trained to
judge others in today’s world that they don’t even give it a second thought. Under the
theory of cultural relativism, judgment goes away. The only person that judges you is
yourself. People who might disagree with you are able to set their own codes and
standards of their own individualistic bubble. Instead of worrying about others, you only
worry about yourself (Ariola, 2018).
Moral relativism can be excluded from cultural relativism. Each culture can be
treated as an individual under the theory of cultural relativism. This means that the
moral codes of a culture can be defined and an expectation implemented so that people
follow it. Although other cultures may not set up many restrictions, people in such a
culture can do what makes the most sense for them. You are focusing on the customs
of a culture, not the morality that is imposed upon those customs (Ariola, 2018).
We can create personal moral codes based on societal standards with ease. To
determine if a decision is “right” or” wrong”, cultural relativism allows individual to
consult with the standards of their society or culture. It is simple test to determine the
course that a person should take in such a circumstances. By consulting with the moral
code of the culture, one question must be asked: does the action conform the cultural
moral code? If it does, then the action is permitted. Although this process can allow for
disturbing results, most cultures are based on inclusion instead of exclusion Ariola
(2018).
40
What are the weaknesses of cultural relativism?
It creates a system that is fueled by personal bias. Every society has a certain
natural bias to others. They tend to prefer to be with others who have similar thoughts
and feelings, so they generate themselves into neighborhoods, communities and social
groups that share specific perspectives. When people are given the chance to define their
own moral code, then they will do so based on their own personal bias. There is no
longer a group perspective. People follow their own code at the expense of others (Ariola,
2018).
It would create chaos. People who can follow their own moral code because there
is no “wrong” or “right” would be allowed to pursue any life they prefer under the theory
of cultural relativism. If you are upset with your neighbor, then you can kill that person
without consequence if your moral code allows the commission of murder. Instead of
working for something, you could steal it if you see stealing as “right” to do. There is no
real way to protect people in a society, so each person becomes responsible to protect
himself. It creates a system that is Darwinian, where only the strongest can survive-
and those unfit are eliminated (Ariola, 2018).
It is an idea that is based on the perfection of humanity. Many people strive to
do good every day. Most want to see everyone having the chance to pursue happiness
in some way. That is why the idea of cultural relativism often seems to be inviting. The
only problem is that people are not perfect. We can be forgetful. We can lie. We can
become aggressive when a driver cuts us off while driving and puts our family at risk.
Without a group of moral code in place to govern decisions, anything could happen when
we experience these moments of imperfections (Ariola, 2018).
It could promote a lack of diversity. Cultural relativism promotes an
individualistic point of view, although it seems to promote diversity, it actually removes
us from a society. Cultural relativism would allow slavery to return again, same sex
marriage, group sex and pornography; it would stop employers from paying someone a
fair- wage. The only standards that are in place are those which are set by the individual
involved, which means everyone is pursuing his own position of strength (Ariola, 2018).
It could limit moral progress. When we look at the idea of moral progress, we
think of becoming inclusionary instead of exclusionary. This inclusion is reflected in the
laws and customs of nature. The current debate on the transgender bathroom laws in
North Carolina and Texas is a good example of this. In cultural relativism, everyone
would be able to use their bathroom of choice or a culture could state that everyone
must use specific bathroom without exceptions and there would be complete agreement
in either choice. Within the society, either choice would be seen as moral progress, but
in reality, it could hold people back (Ariola, 2018).
41
IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 12
Name: _______________________________________ Score: _______________
1. List two institutions that contributed in the shaping of your moral behavior. Describe
how your sense of morality was shaped by each. Limit your answer to at most150 words.
Be guided by the rubric. (15 points each).
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2. If you are a Christian and you intend to marry a Muslim, are you willing to be
converted into Muslim? Consider cultural relativism in discussing your answer. Explain
in not more than 150 words.Be guided by the rubric. (30 Points)
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Rubric
Criteria No Needs Adequate Quality Exemplary

Answer Improvement 5 pts 10 pts 15 pts
0 pts 2 pts
Content Did not Answers are Answers are Answers are Answers are
answer partial or not accurate and comprehensive,
question. incomplete. comprehensive complete. Key accurate and
Key points are or completely points are complete. Key
not clear. stated. Key stated and ideas are
Question not points are supported. clearly stated,
adequately addressed, but explained, and
answered. not well well supported.
supported.
Organization Did not Organization Inadequate Organization Well organized,
answer and structure organization or is mostly clear and coherently
question. detract from development. easy to follow. developed, and
the answer. Structure of easy to follow.
the answer is
not easy to follow.
Writing Did not Displays over Displays three Displays one Displays no
Conventions answer five errors in to five errors in to three errors in errors in
question. spelling, spelling, spelling, spelling,
punctuation, punctuation, punctuation, punctuation,
grammar, and grammar, and grammar, and grammar, and
sentence sentence structure. sentence sentence structure.
structure. structure.
43
Name: _____________________________________________ Score: ____________
Multiple Choice. Read and understand the following questions. Write the letter of your
answer on the line before the number. Use CAPITAL LETTERS.
1. What is the final level of Kohlberg's model of moral development?

a. Conventional Level c. Pre-conventional Level
b. Heteronomous Level d. Post-conventional Level
2. Gilligan (1982, 1996) argued that Kohlberg's theory displays which bias?
a. Cultural bias c. Interpretation bias
b. Gender bias d. Socio-economic bias
3. Billy knows that when he goes out to dinner, he needs to follow certain rules
and mind his manners at the table. Such standards are an example of what
level?
a. Conventional Level c. Post-conventional Level
b. Heteronomous Level d. Pre-conventional Level
4. Beginning at the age of 3, children are able to discern between moral rules,
conventional rules, and personal rules. Which of the following is NOT an
example of these types of rules?
a. Bedtime is at 7:30
b. Chocolate is good
c. Elder women are addressed as Auntie
d. Stealing from others is wrong
5. Brandi is a six-year-old first grader. When you ask her about the rules in her
classroom, she lists several, including, "Listen to the teacher," "Be respectful
to others," and "Keep your hands to yourself." You then ask her why the rules
are important, and she responds, "Because teacher says so, and you don't want
to get a note sent home to Mom." Which level of moral development is Brandi
demonstrating?
a. Autonomous morality
b. Concrete, individualist orientation
c. Punishment and obedience orientation
d. Social-relational perspective
6. Angie decides to get a divorce. When two of her friends discuss her decision,
one of them says, "Although I don't personally agree with Angie's decision, it is
ultimately her choice and I will be there to support her." This response
demonstrates what level of morality?
a. Conventional c. Post-conventional
b. Law and Order d. Pre-conventional
44
7. According to Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development, which of the following is
NOT true regarding the post-conventional morality stage?
a. Although an individual may perform a good act, there may still be a need
for that individual to be punished.
b. Obeying society's rules takes precedence when making decisions about
morality.
c. Some individuals never reach this level of moral development.
d. The good/law of society must be balanced with understanding the rights of
individuals.
8. During adolescence, individuals begin to think differently and are able to solve
more complex problems. As this is happening, ____________, or the way that
people make judgments about what's right and wrong, also changes.
a. Decision stage c. Moral development
b. Intelligence d. Social development
9. When developing his theory of moral development, psychologist Lawrence

Kohlberg was most interested in which of the following?
a. How individuals approach a moral dilemma
b. The developmental stage of the person faced with a complex moral problem
c. What is right versus wrong when making a decision
d. Why people make the wrong decisions
10. Travis was very upset when Larry stole some candy, but did not care when
Mike put his elbows on the dinner table when he was told not to. What might
explain his different reactions?
a. Stealing is a conventional rule and putting elbows on the dinner table is a
personal rule
b. Stealing is a moral rule and putting elbows on the dinner table is a
conventional rule
c. Stealing is a moral rule and putting elbows on the dinner table is a personal
rule
d. Stealing is a personal rule and putting elbows on the dinner table is a
conventional rule
REFERENCES
Ariola, M. (2018). Ethics. Unlimited Books Library Services and Publishing INC
Crain, W. (1985). Kohlberg's stages of moral development.

https://www.cs.umb.edu/~hdeblois/285L/Kohlberg'sMoralStages.htm
Lumencandela (n.d.). Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-hostoschild
development/chapter/kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-development/
Reazon Systems Inc. (2020). Scoring rubric for essay questions.

https://www.rcampus.com/rubricshowc.cfm?code=F4A59A&sp=yes
45
THE MORAL ACT
Module 3 of 5 Modules
Ethics
Lotlot F. Maskay
09565595280
Adiyel Angyap F. Dawaton

09278471240
Febie Liza L. Lengwa

09501412988
Teacher Education Department and Office Administration Department
46
INTRODUCTION
This module will tackle moral act, its definition according to theories, the
determinants of moral acts, the factors that affect our decision-making and the steps as
a guide in decision-making. As people, we tend to act morally and follow societal
guidelines because if we do not, we are considered amoral or immoral (people who do
evil acts). In this module, you will learn what makes our acts morally acceptable or
unacceptable; these would help us in deciding prior to performing such act. As students,
you are expected to understand and reflect on the lesson.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. demonstrate proficiency in differentiating responses;
2. display critical thinking in analyzing your feelings about your personal
moral experiences.
Activity 14 PRE-TEST
Name: _____________________________________________ Score: _________________
_____1. This refers to the intention of the person in doing the act.
a. act c. interest
b. circumstance d. object
_____2. An act that is freely chosen and comes into existence through our exercise of
reason and will.
a. acceptable act c. moral act
b. immoral act d. reason
_____3. This theory says that moral acts are the ones that God said is moral.
a. Act Utilitarianism c. Devine Command Theory
b. Categorical Imperative d. Socialism
_____4. There is _______________________ if there is no discrimination.

a. acceptance c. impartiality
b. categorical discrimination d. partiality
_____5. This refers to our capability of choosing on our own opinion or preferences.
a. Impartiality c. Partiality
b. Justice d. Will
_____6. The first step in ethical decision-making is __________________________________.

a. checking the facts c. identifying the relevant factors
b. developing list of options d. stating the problem
_____7. This part in decision-making involves coming up with the various alternative
courses of action as part of creative thinking.
a. checking the facts c. identifying the relevant factors
b. developing list of options d. stating the problem
_____8. This refers to our inner sense of what is morally right.

a. Conscience c. Partiality
b. Impartiality d. Will
47
_____9. This theory says that a moral act is the one which would benefit most of the
people.
a. Act Utilitarianism c. Devine Command Theory
_____10. This refers to our choice of decision-making.

a. Conscience c. Partiality
b. Impartiality d. Will
LESSON 1: DEFINITION OF HUMAN ACT
Objectives:

1. differentiate act of man from human act;
2. determine moral act according to the different theories;
3. identify the determinants of moral act;
4. reflect on yourself if you have done morally accepted acts.
LET’S ENGAGE
Activity 15
Name: ________________________________________ Score: _______________
What makes you say an act is moral? List down 5 criteria. This is not a graded
activity, but your response will be considered when I compute your grade.
1.________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________
Every action has its end, means, and circumstances. The goodness and badness
of our actions are measured by the ends or objective or intention of such human act, by
the way we perform the action, the circumstances or the external considerations of time,
place, manner, or what answers the questions when, where and how or how much.
To start, let us discuss the differences between act of man and human act.
According to Fr. Coppens (2017) as cited by Corpuz (2020), “human acts are those of
which a man is a master, which he has the power of doing or not doing as he pleases.”
Observing prescribed diet, tutoring the slow learners and preparing for exams are
examples of human acts. In other words, human acts are the acts of the moral agent.
Hence, “actions committed by unconscious and insane persons, infants, or by those
who are physically forced to do something are not considered as human acts but acts
of man.” Likewise, “actions which merely happen in the body or through the body
without the awareness of the mind or the control of the will are not human acts but
merely acts of man. Examples of acts of man are breathing, blinking of eyes, dilation of
pupil of the eye, perspiring and jerking of the knee (Corpuz & Corpuz, 2020)
48
Activity 16
Name: _______________________________________ Score: ____________
Classify the items as either human act or act of man. Write 1 for human act and 2 for
act of man.
________1. breathing _______ 6. eating a meal
________2. morning exercising ________7. doing a make-up
________3. drinking alcohol ________8. sleepwalking
________4. Walking ________9. blinking if the eyes
________5. digestion ________10. day dreaming
To differentiate morally accepted act from merely human act, let us look into the
meaning of moral act according to Guy Thwaites (2017) as cited by Ariola (2018).
First is the Divine Command Theory. According to this theory a moral act is one
which God says is moral. The morality of an act is dependent upon God. It claims that
morality is ultimately based on the commands or character of God. If the act is
performed in violation of God’s law and human reason, then such act becomes morally
evil or morally bad.
When Jesus said: Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the
things that are God’s – therefore we should take the responsibility to pay our taxes to
the government and to give our tithes to the churches we belong to because that is
God’s. Also, when God has imposed the Ten Commandments, we ought to follow those
commandments otherwise, our actions are evil if they did not conform to the
commandments.
Next is the Categorical Imperative. According to this theory, a moral act is one which
would be universally beneficial if everyone did it. Act as you would want all other people
to act towards all other people. The mantra Honesty is the best policy - If everyone tells
the truth, the world would be a better place. Therefore, we should always tell the truth.
Another illustration of this theory is the famous line, Respect begets respect - a person
should respect another regardless of the age, gender, ethnicity, religion, political beliefs
and economic status. The relationship between people will be cordial if we respect
others.
And lastly, according to Act Utilitarianism, a moral act is one which does the best for
the most people. For instance, a suicide bomber in a restaurant was shot by a
policeman. It is better to take the life of only one person, the suicide bomber to save the
people inside the restaurant. Similar with the belief that dropping an atomic bomb on
Japan was a good idea since it potentially saved more people than it lost.
An act, to be morally good, must be good in all aspect. Any defect spoils it. This
explains the Scholastic dictum, Bonum ex integra causa, malum ex qoucumque defectu.
It means that a human act is considered good only if the end, means and circumstances
are good.
There are specific determinants of morality according to Gualdo (2000).
A. The Act and its Object – the object of the act refers to the very nature of the act
itself. What is the act itself? An act is a physical tendency towards a definite
objective or result. This objective is identified as the end of act.
For example, going to church during Sundays is a good act in itself. If one
goes to church to render service, then it is moral because the act (going to church)
and the object (render service) are good. But if one’s object in going to church is
to meet friends and make gossip, then the act is immoral.
A morally good act must agree with the norms of morality. The act must
be good in itself and the so is its objective.
49
B. End of the Agent– it refers to the wishes or intention to attain by an agent (person
performing the act). It motivates the agent to make the act. Glenn as cited by
Gualdo (2000) cited, a good human act may become evil by reason of the agent,
on the other hand, a human act that is evil cannot be made good by reason of
the end. This means that the goodness of the end cannot justify the evil means
to become good.
For example, a lady applies for a job. A rich man employs her with a high
salary but in exchange for sexual relationship. The act of employing is
good in itself but the intention of the agent (employer) is evil. The act
becomes evil because the intention is evil.
No matter how good the object of an act may be, if the end intended is bad,
the act is thereby spoiled or impaired. On the other hand, a good end cannot
justify a bad act; we are never allowed to do evil that good may result from there.
For example, when Robin Hood robbed the rich and distributed the money
to the poor. No matter how noble Robin Hood’s intention was for robbing the rich,
his act of robbing the rich is not morally acceptable. (Corpuz & Corpuz 2020)
C. Circumstances – refers to external considerations of time, place, person and

conditions surrounding the act.
If one eats excessively or runs great length despite a heart ailment, these
actions become evil. While the act of eating and running are good, the
circumstances (heart ailment) that accompany them are not good. Therefore,
these acts are evil.
50
IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 17
Name: _______________________________________ Score: __________________
A. Identify the applied theories of moral act in the following situations and justify
your answer. Write your answer in the box after the situation. Limit your
justification to at most three sentence. (5 points each).
1. Imagine there is a train full of people heading to a young boy in the middle of the
railway, and you have a button that would stop the train but could kill those
people inside. If you press the button, many people would die, but if you do
nothing, only one person would die.
Theory: __________________________________
Justification:
2. The whole class was caught cheating by their teacher but before this matter
reached the principal’s office, the students got rid of the possible pieces of
evidence. As a result, the teacher cannot prove her allegation to the class in as
much that no student would concede.
Theory: __________________________________
Justification:
3. It is enough to covet or lust after another’s wife to commit a violation of the Ten
Commandments.
Theory: __________________________________
Justification:
51
B. Identify and explain the determinants of morality that makes the acts evil and
immoral in the following situations. Limit your answer to at most five sentence.
(5 points each).
1. The village hero has a habit of stealing from the rich people in order to
give to the poor.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. During a fire, Anna volunteered to help victims carry out their belongings
but she pickpocketed some of the jewelry she found. (5pts)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
C. Write a reflection essay about your personal experience that appears to be

morally acceptable but evil in circumstance. Limit your essay to at most 20
sentences. Use short coupon bond with 1-inch margin on all sides and attach to
this activity sheet when you submit. Refer to the rubric below as your guide in
doing the activity. (20 pts)
Rubric
Criteria 3 2 1
Content Answers are complete and Answers are not Questions not
comprehensive. Key ideas completely stated. adequately
(10 points) are clearly stated, Key points are answered. (0 point)
explained and welladdressed but now
supported. (10 points) well supported. ( 5
points)
Organization Well organized, coherently Inadequate Organization
developed and easy to organization. The detracts from the
( 5 points) understand. (5 points) structure of the answer. (0 point)
answer is not easy
to understand. (2
points)
Writing Displays no error in Displays 3-5 errors Displays over 5
conventions spelling, grammar and in spelling, errors in spelling,
sentence structure. (5 grammar and grammar and
( 5 points) points) sentence structure. sentence structure.
(2 points) (0 point)
52
LESSON 2: Emotions and Will in Decision-Making
Objectives:

1. define terms according to your understanding;
2. explain the roles of emotions and conscience in decision-making;
3. listen to your conscience and will in real life situation
LET’S ENGAGE
You patiently line up at Starbucks when a lady cut you in. You felt so annoyed that
you elbowed her so she fell down. Is your action reasonable? Why? Why not? Reflect
on your answer.
Emotions have a great influence in our decision-making. Even philosophers have

debated whether subjective feelings matter when deciding right and wrong. Some say
that emotions are a crucial part of what gives life meaning, and plays as a guiding role
in morality. Some say absolutely not; rational thinking is the only proper way to make
a decision.
Are emotions responsible for our actions?
Feeling, in general, is an emotional state or reaction, experience of physical

sensation, like feeling of joy, feeling of warmth, love, affection, tenderness, etc. (Corpuz
& Corpuz, 2020).
How, then do our emotions affect our moral decision-making?
Several studies conclude that up to 90 percent of the decisions we made are
based on emotions. We use logic to justify our actions to ourselves and to others.
Researchers also show that “actual emotional states can influence the process of moral
reasoning and determine moral judgment.” (Corpuz & Corpuz 2020)
According to Ariola (2018), ethics is concerned with making sense of intuitions
about what is right and good. Even biologists verify that emotions are never truly apart
from decision-making, even when it is channeled aside by an effort of will. Also,
physicists confirm that seeing the world with complete objectivity is not possible
because our observations affect what we perceive.
Mary Midgley also wrote, as cited by Ariola (2018): “Sensitivity requires rationality
to complete it, and vice versa”. This means that a person should not be sensitive if there
is no good reason. That we rely on our reason to guard our feelings, and rely in feelings
to act morally to ensure that our reason is logical and humane.
Scientific evidence supports this approach to ethics. As children, we manifest
empathy before developing our rational or reasoning ability. Empathy is a unique form
of expressing intention in which we are directed towards other’s experience. This
involves feeling what others are feeling. It enables us to identify with others and may
generate a perception of other as a being who deserves concern and respect. Aid to
others in need will not be internalized as a duty without the fellow-feeling that drives
people to take an interest in one another.
When the landslide happened at Itogon, Benguet that took many lives, many
people have shown their empathy through donations and helped in
recovering the cadavers.
Another is conscience. Conscience is an inner sense of what is right and wrong

in one’s action or conduct or motives. It reflects our integration of moral sentiments and
principles. It is the knowledge of ourselves, or awareness of our principles we have
committed to, or assessment of ourselves (Giubilini, 2016).
Ara left her wallet on the table in a restaurant, a waiter next to her who has all
the chance to keep it, run after Ara to return the wallet. The role of conscience
53
in the waiter reflects his moral sentiments that keeping one’ belonging is the
same as stealing that is why he gave back the wallet.
Will also influences us to act morally or otherwise. The will is the faculty of the
mind that is associated with decision-making. It is the one that says yes or no. Free
will describes our capacity to make choices that are genuinely our own. With free will
comes moral responsibility – our ownership of our good and bad deeds. That if we make
choice that is good, we deserve resulting rewards. If in turn we make a choice that is
bad, we probably deserve those consequences as well. In the case of really bad choices,
such as committing murder, we have to accept severe punishment.
54
IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 18
Name: _____________________________________________ Score: ____________
A. Define the following words according to your understanding. (2 points each)
1. Emotion- _____________________________________________________________
2. Conscience - __________________________________________________________
3. Reason - ______________________________________________________________
4. Will- __________________________________________________________________
B. Essay. Read the following situations and answer the questions comprehensively.
Limit your answer to a maximum of five sentences. Refer to the rubric. (5 points
each)
1. Ann is held up in a dark place and is threatened to be killed if she shouts. She
happens to have a knife in her purse. She took it out secretly and stabbed the
thief. Do you think Ann is morally responsible? If not, how should she act?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. A doctor, out of love, gives a lethal dose of medicine to his own daughter who
suffers from incurable disease, in order to put an end to her suffering. Did he
act morally?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Rubric
Criteria
Content Answers are relative, Answers are Questions not
comprehensive and are somewhat relative, adequately
convincingly defended. comprehensive and answered. (1pt)
a little bit
(5pts) convincing. (3pts)
Organization Well organized, coherently Inadequate Organization
developed and easy to organization. The detracts from the
understand. (3pts) structure of the answer. (1pt)
answer is not easy
to understand
(2pts)
Writing Displays no error in Displays 3-5 errors Displays over 5
conventions spelling, grammar and in spelling, errors in spelling,
sentence structure. grammar and grammar and
sentence structure. sentence structure.
(2pts) (1pt) (0 pt.)
55
LESSON 3: Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for Morality
Objectives:

1. distinguish between impartiality and partiality;
2. identify real life situations where partiality and impartiality are applied;
and
3. reflect on circumstances that affect your partial and impartial decision-
making.
LET’S ENGAGE
An employer chooses an accountant over the various qualified applicants on the

basis of best friend’s recommendation. If you were the employer, were you fair in
choosing the applicant? Write your thoughts below. After reading the lesson, go back to
this part and reflect on what you have written. Is it still true to you or would you like to
change it?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
There are rules or standards that we follow in employment, government, society

or any formal organizations that we have to faithfully abide. Even in our relationship
with our family and friends, there are unwritten rules that we follow.
The minimum requirements of morality are reason and impartiality. “Moral

judgments must be backed up by good reason and impartiality. Morality requires
impartial consideration of each individual’s interests.” Moral judgements or resolving a
dilemma of moral judgments must be backed up by good reason (Corpuz, 2020).
Reason and impartiality refer to mental activity following the basic principle of
consistency, the lack of contradiction between one idea and another.
Impartiality can be described as the principle that decisions ought to be based
on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice or preferring to benefit
one person over another for improper reasons. It is the equal treatment of all rivals or
disputants.
Ariola (2018) said that when it comes to morality, people should be impartial.
While this should be the case, almost everyone thinks that it’s appropriate to treat
certain people (especially those who are close and dear to us) in a special way. Because
of this, Ariola (2018) identified two moral claims namely:
a. Impartiality: when it comes to morality, people should be impartial. In the event

that a situation involves morality, people should be reasonable in his actions. In
case of employing an applicant, the employer should choose a candidate
according to the set criteria. Same is through in identifying the winner of Miss
Universe, or similar events, judges should be objective, should base the merit
according to the criteria or standards.
b. Partiality: it is appropriate to treat certain people in a special sort of way. In
special events, it is just proper to treat a person or people over others. In case of
the parents, it is just right to give priority to their children over the children of
others. They have the obligation to satisfy and provide the needs of their children
over other children.
However, there seems to be tension between the two thoughts and to avoid it, we
must either (1) reject the claim that we must be impartial, (2) reject the claim that it is
OK to be partial to certain people or (3) come to understand impartiality in different way
(Ariola, 2018). Take the case of your married teachers with children, for instance. Many
56
of them do not assist their children in their lessons because they are checking your
papers and writing their modules for you. Does this make them partial towards you?
Yes, because instead of attending first to the needs of their children, they are attending
to theirs.
57
IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 19
Name: _______________________________________ Score: _________________
A. In a Venn diagram, differentiate between partiality and impartiality according to

definition and situations. (10 points)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
B. Reflection Writing. Recall events in your life in which you have been partial and
impartial in your moral decisions. Describe what made you partial and impartial in
decision-making. Use short coupon bond with 1-inch margin on all sides and attach it
to this activity sheet when you submit. Refer to the rubric below as a guide in doing this
activity. Limit your essay to at most 20 sentences. (20pts)
Rubric
Excellent (5pts) Good (4pts) Fair (3pts) Poor (1pt)

Content Answers are Answers are Answers are Answers are
comprehensive, accurate and completely incomplete. Key
accurate and complete. complete. Key stated. Key points are not clear
Key ideas are clearly points are stated points are Question not
stated, explained and and supported. addressed but adequately
well supported. not well- answered.
supported.
Depth of Writing demonstrates an Writing Writing Writing
Reflection in-depth reflection on demonstrates a demonstrates demonstrates lack
the selected topic, general reflection minimal of reflection on the
supporting details and on selected topic, reflection on the topic, with no
examples. supporting details topic, supporting details.
and examples. details and
examples.
Quality of Writing surpasses the Writing includes Writing includes Poor information
informatio required components of the required few components has little to do with
n the selected topic. components of the of selected topic. the topic..
selected topic.
organizatio Writing is clear, concise Writing is clear and Writing is Writing is unclear
n and well-organized. organized. unclear, and and unorganized.
Thoughts are expressed Thoughts are unorganized. Thoughts make
in a logical manner. expressed in a Thoughts are not little to no sense.
logical manner expressed
logically.
58
LESSON 4: The 7 Steps in Moral Reasoning Model
Objectives:

1. describe the importance of each step in decision-making; and
2. appreciate the essence of the steps in moral reasoning through
applying them in your ethical decision-making.
LET’S ENGAGE
On the last lesson, we discussed on impartiality as one area of the Moral Act.
Now, we move on to our next topic which is on The 7 steps in moral reasoning model.
But before we continue, let me ask you some questions regarding our next lesson which
might enlighten you on the contents of this lesson. I know each and every one of us have
made decisions in our lives. With the decisions you’ve made, did you reason out or did
you weigh it first before making conclusion? Or did you just decide right there and then
because that’s what you feel was the right thing to do?
In this lesson we are going to discuss the 7 steps in moral reasoning model which
will help you decide and do what is actually right. These steps will help you resolve
things without any bias.
Moral reasoning is sometimes affected by emotions which blind us from deciding

and seeing what acts are needed to do what is right from wrong. So, in order to decide
and do what is actually right, we must do the steps in order to fairly do an act and not
be biased about anything.
In this lesson, we will learn some guiding principles to help guide ethical decision-
making. These are a series of basic questions that should be asked when confronted
with ethical dilemmas. These are often complex situations with no clear-cut resolution,
and without a right or wrong answer. But these decision-making processes will go a long
way towards helping all of us make informed decisions that can justify our consequent
actions.
Ethical Reasoning Can Be Taught. Ethical reasoning is a way of thinking about
issues of right and wrong. Processes of reasoning can be taught, and the school is the
appropriate place to teach them. The reason is that, although parents and religious
schools may teach ethics, they don’t always teach ethical reasoning.
And, like learning to play baseball or play the violin, it is important to practice
early and often. So, let's get started.
Davis believes that students and professionals who rely on a guide tend to
demonstrate stronger “moral reasoning skills” than those who do not use a guide. A key
feature of Davis’ approach is his emphasis on identifying multiple (more than two)
options for responding to ethical challenges. Another is the series of tests presented in
Step 5.
Seven – step Guide to Ethical Decision-Making (Davis 1999)
1. State the problem. Identify the problem in the situation. What is it? Does it
merit your attention?
 For example, “There’s something about this decision that makes me
uncomfortable.” Or “Do I have a conflict of interest?”
2. Check the facts. Is your problem really a problem? Or is it just you turning
the situation into a problem? You better do a further digging into it by
checking the facts.
59
 Many problems disappear
upon closer examination of the
situation, while others change
radically. Why? Because there
are no facts to ground them.
For example, having basis
on/asking questions like: Who
are the persons involved? When
did the incident happen? Where
did it happen? How did it
happen? Why do you think
person A did that to person B?
Some moral dilemmas can be resolved just by clarifying facts of the case
in question. In examining a case, we want to know the available facts at hand, as
well as any facts presently not known but that need to be determined. We must
ask not only “What do we know?” in order to generate an intelligent, ethical
decision. (Sarong, 2020)
3. Identify relevant factors (internal or external)

The moral issues should be correctly stated in terms of competing interest.
It is these conflicting interests that practically make for a moral dilemma
(Sarong, 2020). For example, we resolve conflicts by applying our values and
rules of our “Ili” such as rules of succession in Barangay Mainit, Bontoc,
Mountain Province, Philippines. According to our indigenous law, any person
can donate or give their property to anyone whom they like. But due to the
rule of succession being applied, a person cannot just receive any property if
they are not part of the immediate family/blood line.
4. Develop a list of options

Be imaginative, try to avoid “dilemma”; not “yes” or no” but whom to
go, what to say.
For example, during your lunch break, a friend calls you to tell you
that she has heard that a mutual friend of yours is going to adopt a
baby. You know about it because the lawyer who is your boss is
handling this particular legal matter. Are you going to answer directly
and say yes because that person is also one of your closest friends or
how will you handle such a call?
Identifying the principles that has a bearing on the case. In any moral
dilemma, there are sure moral values or principles that are vital to the rival
positions being taken. It is very significant to recognize these principles, and
in some cases, to decide whether some principles are to be weighted more
heavily than others. (Sarong, 2020)
5. Test the options. Use some of the following tests:
(Sarong, 2020)
 harm test: Does this option do less harm than the alternative?
60
For example, if I cheat instead of answering on my own, will I be caught
and be given a failing grade? If I answer on my own, will I get a good
score and pass?
 publicity test: Would I want my choice of this option published in the
newspaper or any local magazine? How would I feel if my actions were
reported on the front page of my local newspaper? Would I want my
actions to be posted on Facebook?
For example, if I will not claim my order from an online shop
because I have known that the item is not good as I expected and it’s
a bit expensive, will I be posted on the social media as bogus buyer?
What would be my reputation? Will they sell for me again? If I claim
the item, will it be worth my money?
 defensibility test: Could I defend my choice of this option before a
congressional committee or committee of peers?
For example, I was late for work and when I logged in, I noticed that
the last time written was one hour earlier than the exact time. If I will
log the exact time I arrived, I will be recorded as under time and would
be paid lesser my daily wage. If I will not log the exact time and my
boss will notice it, could I defend my choice of action? Will I be able to
give enough reason that I wasn’t late?
 reversibility test: Would I still think this option was a good choice if I
were adversely affected by it?
For example, your classmate is asking you to lend her money for
her rent and promised you to pay next month. You have the amount
she is asking but you plan to buy yourself a new phone for your online
class. If you lend her the money, you will get absent on your classes.
If no, you can buy yourself phone and will be able to attend your online
class.
 colleague test: What do my colleagues say when I describe my problem
and suggest this option as my solution?
If I plan not to take it, will my friends and workmates agree to my
choice?
For example, you were a new employee who joins a team that
pressures you to fake your company travel expenses. You thought this
is wrong, but your colleagues don’t want you to submit lower average
totals, which might cause the management to question their previous
reports. If you submit the actual expenses, your colleagues might get
angry at you. If you submit the report of your travel expenses
according to what they suggest, you would probably have good
relations to your workmates but would violate your principle.
 professional test: What might my profession’s governing body for ethics
say about this option?
For example, you are offered a high salary paying job and it requires
you to report immediately. You longed for that job but you can’t easily
resign from your current job because you still have three months
remaining according to your contract. If you take the job, you would
be able to help your parents and siblings in their studies but would be
having a bad record on the company you will be leaving. If you refuse
the offer, you would not get the same opportunity again but would
have a good reputation as an employee in the company.
 organization test: What does my company’s ethics officer or legal
counsel say about this?
For example, you and your best friend’s husbands were colleagues.
One day, you received a message from your friend’s husband asking
you to relay an email. You came to know that this email is the
correspondence between this guy and his mistress. If you tell your best
friend about her husband’s infidelity, you will divulge the contents of
your company’s email that is against company policy. If you tell the
company, will they allow you to do it?
61
This part involves coming up with the various alternative courses of action
as part of the creative thinking included in resolving a moral dilemma. Though
there will be some alternatives which you will rule out without much thought, in
general, the more alternatives that are listed, the better the chance that your list
will include some high quality ones. Also, you may come up with some very
creative alternative that you had not considered before.
Then compare the alternatives with the principles. This step involves
eliminating alternatives according to the moral principles that have a bearing on
the case. In many cases, the case will be resolved at this point, since the
principles will remove all alternatives except one. The purpose of this comparison
is to determine which is not forthcoming, then the next step in the model should
be considered. Some of the alternatives, at the least, may be rejected by this step
of comparison. (Sarong, 2020)
6. Make a choice base on steps 1 – 5.
On this part you need to make a

decision. Since deliberation ought
not to go on forever, a decision must
be made at some point. It must be
realized that one common element
to moral dilemmas is that there are
no easy and painless solutions to
them. Normally, the decision that is
made is one that possesses the least
number of problems or negative
consequences, not one that is devoid
of them. (Sarong, 2020)
I am sure you experienced this.
When you made your decision to enrol despite the pandemic, t you listed
down consequences, like, learning on your own. And learning on your own is
not easy, especially if you have no background about the subject.
7. Review steps 1 – 6. How can you reduce the likelihood that you will need to
make a similar decision again?
 Are there any cautions you can take as an individual (and announce
your policy on question, job change, etc.)?
 Is there any way to have more support next time?
 Is there any way to change the organization (for example, suggest
policy change at next departmental meeting)?
In judging the appropriateness of any action, the individual person must

be able to answer YES to each of the questions.
Having made a decision based on the process above, are you now prepared to
ACT? Let’s try.
62
Activity 20
Name: _______________________________________________ Score: __________________
Share your experience by stating at least one event in your life where you applied the
step guide that you have learned a while ago. Use the space provided below in
showcasing your step guide. You can use diagrams, charts, or any form of illustration.
I will use my discretion in scoring this activity.
IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 21
Name: ______________________________________________ Score: _________________
Read the situation below. Apply the Seven – step Guide to Ethical Decision-
Making by Davis. Illustrate how you will arrive at a decision. Use a short coupon bond
with 1-inch margin on all sides and attach it to this activity sheet when you submit. (20
points).
A 22-year-old Hispanic male was brought to the ER of a hospital having suffered

abdominal injuries due to gunshot wounds obtained in gang violence. He had no medical
insurance & his stay in the hospital was somewhat shorter than expected due to his
good recovery. Physicians attending to him felt that he could complete his recovery at
home just as easily as in the hospital and he was released after only a few days in the
hospital. During his stay in the hospital, the patient admitted to his primary physician
that he was HIV positive, having contracted the virus that causes AIDS. This was
confirmed by a blood test administered while he was hospitalized. When he was
discharged from the hospital, the physician recommended that a professional nurse visit
him regularly at home in order to change the bandages on his still substantial wounds
and to ensure that an infection did not develop. Since he had no health insurance he
was dependent on MedicAid, a government program that pays for necessary medical
care for those who cannot afford it. However, MedicAid refused to pay for home nursing
care since there was someone already in the home who was capable of providing the
necessary care. That person was the patient's sister, who was willing to take care of her
brother until he was fully recovered. Their mother had died years ago and the sister was
accustomed to providing care for her younger siblings. The patient had no objection to
his sister providing this care, but he insisted that she not be told that he has tested HIV
63
positive. Though he had always had a good relationship with his sister, she did not know
that he was an active homosexual. His even greater fear was that his father would hear
of his homosexual orientation and lifestyle. (Homosexuality is generally looked upon
with extreme disfavor among Hispanics.)
Now, there lies the moral dilemma. The patient's doctor is bound by his code of
ethics that puts a very high priority on keeping confidentiality. This code mandates that
information about one's medical condition that he/she does not want known cannot be
revealed by the physician. Some would even argue that the obligation of confidentiality
is even greater with HIV/AIDS since revelation of somebody's homosexual orientation
usually carries devastating personal costs for the person who is forced "out of the closet".
On the other hand, the patient's sister, without knowing the truth, is putting
herself at risk by providing nursing care for him. Some would categorically argue that
she has the right to know the risks to which she is subjecting herself, especially since
she willingly volunteered to take care of her brother.
So if you were the physician, what would you do in this case? Would you
breach/break the rule of confidentiality to safeguard the patient's sister, or would you
come to him from his other family members, especially his father?
64
Activity 22 POST-ASSESSMENT
Name: _____________________________________ Score: ___________________
Multiple Choice. Read and understand the question, then write the letter of your answer
on the line before the number. Use CAPITAL LETTERS.
_____1. Jennilyn’s neighbor is singing out loud in the middle of the night. What makes
the action not good?
a. acts and its object c. object
b. circumstances d. will
_____2. Coveting your neighbors’ wife is enough to violate the theory of ____________.
a. Act Utilitarianism c. Devine Command
_____3. Dr. Roy is conducting his medical mission yearly which served those people
who cannot afford medical care. Because no one supports it and he lacks
finances, he made a desperate action; he stole some medical supplies from the
hospital he works in. What theory explains Dr. Roy’s action?
_____4. Gluttony is evil in itself. What determinant of morality makes it immoral?

a. the act itself c. the object
b. the intention d. the circumstance
_____5. Partiality is the claim that it is okay to favor one thing or person over the
other. Which among the sentences below involves partiality?
a. Abby was chosen as the best employee of his company according to the
set standards.
b. Bernadeth was selected as the Miss Intramural of the department based
from crowd’s choice.
c. Catherine levelled up on the singing competition base from judges’ friend’s
recommendation.
d. Derine won as the president according to the election.
_____5. The whole class was caught cheating by their teacher but before this matter
reached the principal’s office, the students got rid of the possible pieces of
evidence. As a result, the teacher cannot prove her allegation to the class in as
much that no student would concede. What theory explains this?
_____6. Story telling while the mass is going on inside the church is not morally
accepted. What makes it morally unacceptable?
a. act c. object
b. circumstance d. time
_____7. Which statement best describes the last step of moral reasoning according to
Davis (1999)?
65
a. Comparing the formulated alternatives which is more effective and has
lesser harm on the case.
b. Deciding the best solution of your problem or dilemma.
c. Formulating alternatives or possible solutions of the problem.
d. Reflect on the steps you have taken if you can use them on the next
similar situation.
_____8. Antonio is a Muslim and is working for a Christian boss. One day, he did a
very good job and his boss treated them to a barbeque party. He lives his life
according to the teachings embodied in the Koran. If he ate the barbeque, he
will violate the teachings of Koran. If he will not eat, he might disappoint his
boss and won’t be treated again but he will not be violating any of his religion
principles. What ethics test is being presented?
a. Colleague test c. Defensibility test
b. Professional test d. Reversibility test
_____9. Which among the following is on the step of identifying the problem of moral
reasoning?
a. Clarify facts of the problem.
b. Creatively determining the possible courses of action for your
dilemma.
c. Determine the competing interests that make you uncomfortable.
d. Eliminate alternatives as they are weighed by the moral principles
which have a bearing on the case.
REFERENCES
Ariola, M. (2018). Ethics. Unlimited Books and Library Services and Publishing, Inc.
Corpuz, R. & Corpuz, A. (2020). Ethics. LORIMAR Publishing Inc.
Gualdo, R. (2000). Ethics basic concepts and contemporary moral issues.

Mutya Publiching House
Mariano, M. (2018). Ethics. Unlimited Books Library Services and

Publishing INC
Montemayor, F. (1994). Ethics the philosophy of life. National Bookstore
Quito, E. (2008). Fundamentals of ethics. C&E Publishing Inc.

Teaching Geoethics. (2020). https://serc.carleton.edu/geoethics/Decision-Making .
Sarong, C. (2020). Blog: (1st paragraph explain part).

https://xiansarong.wordpress.com/2020/02/19/7-steps-in-the- moral-
reasoning-model/ retrieved on October 20, 2020 written on February 19, 2020.
66
MORAL THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES
Module 4 of 5 Modules
Ethics
Rhoda Basco-Galangco
Cellphone No.: 09305769409
67
INTRODUCTION
There are fundamental norms that we use to evaluate the rightfulness or

wrongfulness of our actions and those of others. These fundamental norms are called
principles which are backed up by theories. The principles that we believe in greatly
influence our thinking and feelings and are manifested in our behavior. When we justify
or explain our actions and those of others, we use certain theories. Theories are
explanations of how and why things are done. Thus, when we are looking at the actions
of another, most of the time we are using our principles as the basis for evaluating the
rightfulness or wrongfulness of their actions. Bust is it right to do so? That is what we
will talk about in this module.
I will present five lessons in this module beginning with the Golden Rule to Virtue
Ethics. As you read, reflect on your beliefs, values, and principles. Engage in self-
reflection so you can assimilate the lessons I am conveying. Learn on your own pace
and do not be in a hurry to answer the assessment activities. I designed the assessment
activities in such a way that you will be balancing your thoughts and feelings when
answering them. For some activities, use the rubric I prepared so that you will know
what standards to fulfill. The post test is not also the usual multiple choice or True-
False type. You will be synthesizing the lessons in this module thus, if there are unclear
concepts, be humble to ask for clarifications.
Before you begin reading, take a minute to pray to God for enlightenment and an
open mind, especially so that you will be working and learning on your own.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the module, you should be able to
1. assess objectively the acceptability and morality of your actions based

on ethical standards;
2. identify accurately the variants of ethical norms that govern human
behavior and relationships;
3. analyze critically the appropriateness of actions that can contribute to
the well-being of everyone; and,
4. differentiate accurately from each other the different views on virtue
ethics.
Activity 23 Pre-test
Name: _________________________________ Score: ___________________
TRUE or FALSE. If the statement is true, write T on the line before the number. If the
statement is false, write F.
_____1. I follow the Golden Rule if I say “I will be kind to you so that you will also be
kind to me.”
_____2. A person of virtue does good things without thought of getting any in return.
_____3. The morality of an action is determined by the reason it is done.
_____4. “The end justifies the means.” In this statement, the process determines the
morality of the action.
_____5. “The end does not justify the means.” In this statement, the intention
determines the morality of the action.
_____6. The standards of morality and ethical action are universal.
_____7. There are several versions of the Golden Rule.
_____8. The virtuous person is one who is consistent in practicing actions that are
accepted as good.
_____9. Philosophers agree on the standards of ethical behavior.
_____10. The ethical aspect of behavior is grounded on the reasons for doing them.
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LESSON 1: The Golden Rule
Objectives:

1. determine the best advice to give in a situation involving a moral
dilemma;
2. formulate negative and positive statements that illustrate the golden
rule; and
3. adhere to accepted norms of human behavior.
LET’S ENGAGE
Reflect on this scenario. You always tell your child to be good and kind to others.
Every day, you tell your child “If they throw you stones, you throw them bread.” One
day, your child came home with bruises in his arms and face. He confessed he is
being physically bullied. What will you tell your child to do? Engage in a dialogue with
yourself and be very honest with your thoughts.
Now, let us see what your justifications are for your answers to my questions
above. In this situation, either you will face a false moral dilemma or stick to your moral
principles. A false moral dilemma is a situation where you have to decide between a
right and a wrong act. You may say, “I will choose the right one.” In a situation where
you have no personal involvement, it is easy to choose the right one. But when you are
personally involved, would you still be choosing the right one? Ever heard of the Golden
Rule? Yes, of course. Now, let us talk about how golden that rule is, is indeed, it is
golden.
What is the golden rule?
The golden rule is a “moral principle which denotes that you should treat others
the way you want to be treated yourself. It is an important philosophical principle which
has been formulated in various ways by many different groups throughout history, and
which can be used to guide your actions in a variety of situations (Effectiviology, 2020).
You have always heard the expression “Do to others what you want others do to you,”
or “Do not do to others what you do not want others do to you.” You might even have
any of these posted in the walls of your classrooms in elementary or high school. Do you
really believe in this? If you do, do you practice it? If you do not, what is your basis for
treating people? Your answers would depend on the moral stance that you take.
According to Effectiviology (2020), the following are the main forms of the golden
rule:
Positive/directive form. “Do to others what you want others do to you.” For
instance, if you want your boyfriend or your girlfriend to be faithful to you, then be
faithful to her or him. If you want me to respect you, then respect me.
Negative/prohibitive form. “Do not do to others what you do not want others do
to you.”So, do not be unfaithful to your boyfriend or girlfriend so that he or she will be
faithful to you. If you do not want me to disrespect you, then do not disrespect me.
Emphatic/responsive form. This formulation of the golden rule states that when
you wish something upon others, you also wish it upon yourself. For example, if you
wish that your enemy will die, you are also wishing death for yourself. In other words,
what you want to happen to others, you want to happen to yourself.
The third form is not as popularly discussed as the other two but is an important
guide in our relationship with others. Remember the expression “Be careful of what you
wish for.” What you wish for the others is what you will get. So, which of these forms do
you subscribe to?
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What is the platinum rule?
Have you ever heard this rule? According to Anderson (2009), this is a level of
morality that is above the level of simple sacrifice. An example is “Love your enemies
and pray for those who persecute you” as found in the Matthew 5:43-45. Can you really
do this? This means that you have to sincerely practice mercy and forgiveness. And by
forgiveness I mean absolute forgiveness or unconditional forgiveness, not the one similar
to “I will forgive you but I will not forget what you did to me.” It is true that forgiving and
forgetting are two different actions, but can you separate one from the other? If your
boyfriend or girlfriend has deeply hurt you, would you still love him or her? If your
answer is yes, fine. But be prepared to hear people say you are stupid. If he or she hurts,
you again and again and again…. How many times will you forgive? I have my stand on
this, and you have yours. Our differences in opinions should not be a cause of
disagreement, but a source of reflection on our quality as a human being.
What are the variants of the golden rule?
Effectiviology (2020) and Anderson (2009) enumerate the following variations of

the golden rule, from famous personalities to religious groups.
“That character is best that doesn’t do to another what isn’t good for
itself.” - Zoroaster, Persia (circa 500 C).
“What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.” - Confucious,

China (Circa 500 BC).
“We should conduct ourselves toward others as we would have them act
toward us.”- Aristotle, Greece (Circa 350 BC)
“What you shun enduring yourself, attempt not to impose on others. “-

Epicetus, Greece (Circa 150 AD)
“To do as one would be done by, and to love one’s neighbor as oneself,
constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality.”- John Stuart Mill,
England (1861)
“Do unto others what you would have them do unto you.” - Christianity
“That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow.” That is the entire
Law; all the rest is commentary. – Judaism
“No one of you is a believer until he desires for his brother that which he
desires for himself.”- Islam
“Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful.”- Buddhism
“This is the sum of duty: do naught unto others which would cause you
pain if done to you.”- Hinduism
“Don’t do things you wouldn’t want to have done to you.” – The British
Humanist Society
“None of you [truly] believes until he wishes for his brother what he wishes
for himself.”- Islam
“A man should wander about treating all creatures as he himself would
be treated.”- Judaism
“You shall love your neighbor as yourself.”- Judaism
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No matter how the golden rule is stated, it points to one thing: how to behave
towards the other. Many are skeptical towards this golden rule, and maybe, you are one
of them, too, but skepticism does not rule out the fact that there should be a
fundamental guide to our relationship with others. On a pragmatic sense, the
statements of the golden are self-serving because your behavior towards the other is
guided by how you want to be treated. Thus, your point of reference is always yourself
– how you want to be treated. Read again the statement of Judaism: “You shall love your
neighbor as yourself.” You may ask, “Who among my neighbors?” Thus, as claimed by
Anderson (2009), the golden rule is not actually universal because if you analyze the
statements of the variants, the results are different. So again, what stance do you take
in this golden rule thing?
71
IT'S YOUR TURN
Activity 24
Name: ___________________________________________ Score: ___________
List down in the table below 5 pieces of advice you will give to your child. On the second
and third column, identify one consequence of the piece of advice. On the fourth column,
write which of these 5 you will give as the final advice. Then give your paper a score, the
highest of which is 15. Be objective in rating your work.
Piece of Positive Consequence Negative consequence Final advice

advice
1.
3.
4.
5.
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Activity 25
Name: ____________________________________________ Score: ____________
List down 10 statements each for the positive and negative forms of the golden rule. (2
pints each).
Example:
Positive form: If you want people to be kind to you, be kind to them.

Negative form: If you do not want people to be unkind to you, do not be unkind
to them.
Positive Statement Negative Statement

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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LESSON 2: Virtue Ethics of Aristotle
Objectives

1. assess your thoughts and feelings by reflecting on your actions;
2. identify acceptable moderate behavior;
3. determine the appropriate actions that can sustain your happiness;
and,
4. act ethically towards other people.
LET’S ENGAGE
In what ways have you hurt a person? Remember the last person you have hurt and
your reason for hurting that person. Keep this question in mind as you read the
contents of this lesson.
Athanassoulis (2000) defines virtue ethics as “a broad term for theories that
emphasize the role of character and virtue in moral philosophy rather than either doing
one’s duty or acting in order to bring about good consequences.” According to him, the
virtuous person does not only possess, but exhibits, the joint excellence of reason and
character. By excellence, he means virtues. Thus, the virtuous person does not only
what is the good thing to do, but is also emotionally attached to it. These virtues of
reason and character are intimately connected that we cannot dichotomize them.
In this lesson, I will present Aristotle’s virtue ethics. Merely reading will not make
you appreciate the contents of this lesson. Strive to assimilate and appreciate what you
are reading so you can discover if you are a virtuous person or not.
What is virtue?
Virtue is a settled disposition. It is also a purposive disposition (Athanassoullis,

2000). If you consider yourself a person of virtue, or a virtuous person, then you will not
be acting kindly by accident, unthinkingly, or doing what everyone else is doing. You
act kindly because it is the right way to behave and you do it in any situation. Take note
that you are acting kindly not because you are used to being kind, but you know that
kindness is the right thing to do. Difficult to do, right? We are human beings and we
have our limitations. That is why not everyone is a virtuous person. And following the
golden rule does not make you a virtuous person, too.
Athanassoulis (2000), says that “virtue “lies in a mean” because the right
response to each situation is neither too much nor too little. Virtue is the appropriate
response to different situations and different agents. The virtues are associated with
feelings.” This is actually Aristotle’s definition of virtue. For example, friendliness is
associated with feelings about social conduct, but there is also a right amount of
friendliness to be demonstrated. This is the mean. The mean amount is neither too
much nor too little and is sensitive to the requirements of the person and the situation
(Athanassoulis, 2000). For instance, if you (a woman) is friendly to men, use your
discretion in determining how to show your friendliness to men. If you become
excessively friendly, your actions might be mistaken as flirting. The question is, what is
the right amount of friendliness that you should show? Some virtue ethicists would say,
“that which is moderate.” And who determines what is moderate? Most of the time, it is
society. That is why we have norms. What we cannot control is the interpretation of
people on our behavior.
Athanassoulis (2000) reiterates Aristotle’s view that “virtue is determined by the
right reason. Virtue requires the right desire and the right reason. To act from the wrong
reason is to act viciously. On the other hand, the agent can try to act from the right
reason, but fail because he or she has the wrong desire. The virtuous agent acts
effortlessly, perceives the right reason, has the harmonious right desire, and has an
inner state of virtue that flows smoothly into action. The virtuous agent can act as an
exemplar of virtue to others.” Let us say you helped your neighbor fix their gate. You do
74
not really like your neighbor because he does not act on your complaint of his dogs
entering your yard and defecating there. When you saw him having difficulty fixing their
gate, you volunteered to help and even gave some materials for free. Question: do you
have the right reason and the right desire for helping your neighbor? Okay, take a break
and reflect on your answer before proceeding to the next topic.
What is Aristotle’s virtue ethics?
Virtue ethics is a philosophy developed by Aristotle and other ancient Greeks. It

is the quest to understand and live a life of moral character. This character-based
approach to morality assumes that we acquire virtue through practice. According to
Aristotle, by honing virtuous habits, people will likely make the right choice when faced
with ethical challenges (Ethics Unwrapped, 2020a).
In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defines virtue as the average, or “mean,”
between excess and deficiency (refer to the last paragraph before this topic). His idea of
virtue is “all things in moderation.” Do you remember the reminder after a liquor
advertisement? “Drink moderately.” This means that, to a certain extent, drinking liquor
benefits us. Drink in excess and it will be dangerous to us. Aristotle says that we should
enjoy living but not be selfish, that is, if material wealth is a source of enjoyment for us,
then we should acquire it so that we can enjoy life. But leave something for the others
to enjoy, too. I often hear this expression “Adi tako bukodan nan gawis,” an expression
of sharing and selflessness. We want to have the good things in life so that we will be
happy but we also have to remember that there are others who want the same things
that we want. So, if we have acquired enough, then let the rest be for the others so that
they, too, can be happy.
Hardy’s (2011) essay on Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics gives a substantial explanation
of Aristotle’s views. According to Hardy (2011), “The Nicomachean Ethics begins with
the argument that all actions must be ultimately directed towards a single end, lest we
invite infinite regress. This single end is eudaimonia (often translated as ‘happiness’ but
more literally, ‘prospering’). By contrast to all lower ends such as pleasure, honor, and
intelligence, eudaimonia is something to be pursued and that can be attained, it is not
a mere ‘end-goal,’ but is a dynamic status which accompanies good acts. It must be
developed over time and maintained, such that the status can be ascribed to a life as a
whole, as summed up by Aristotle’s famous aphorism: “one swallow does not make a
summer.” What Aristotle means is that our ultimate goal is happiness. We pursue
happiness and we can attain it, but our means of attaining it must be done in a
sustainable way that throughout our life, we experience happiness. This notion of
eudaimonia is an on-going process, it does not stop at point of our life and then continue
again. Our life should be filled with happiness until the day we die. It cannot be that
from December to February, we are happy, then the rest of the year we are not. So, what
does this imply? That for us to attain happiness, we have to persistently pursue it. And
in pursuing it, our actions must be accompanied by goodness.
Indeed, “one swallow does not make a summer.” Meaning, one day of happiness
does not make you entirely happy. Remember the pre-COVID19 times. When you
received your allowance, you were very happy and you probably spent it like there is no
tomorrow. But after 2 or 3 days, were you still happy when you just had a few pesos in
your pocket? For you to say that your life is full of happiness, every day you should be
happy. And the way to attain happiness is by being a virtuous person.
75
IT'S YOUR TURN
Activity 26
Name: ___________________________________________ Score: ___________
Reflect on what makes you happy and what you will do to sustain this happiness. Write
your answers in the table below. (3 points each)
What makes you happy What you will do to sustain the happiness
Example: Being with my children Keep the communication lines open and
see to it that I talk to them when I wake up
in the morning and before I sleep at night.
1.
2.
3.
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Activity 27
Name: ___________________________________________ Score: ___________
Reflect on the following actions, then write your reason for doing so. The right reason is
the desirable reason for doing such action. Real reason is your real purpose in doing the
action. Write your answers in the table below. (2 points each)
Action Right reason Real reason

Example: Drinking To conform to the social I like wine and I do not want to
wine on occasions requirements miss the opportunity of drinking
hosted by friends free wine
1. Posting your
pictures in your social
media
2. Playing online
games
3. Eating meat
4. Exercising
5. Sleeping
6. Accepting the
invitation of a friend to
hang out
7. Answering the
activities in this lesson
8. Texting or calling a
friend
9. Lending money to a
classmate
10. Obeying your

parents
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LESSON 3 Virtue Ethics of Kant
Objectives
1. evaluate the acceptability of your action in terms of the effects of such;

2. assess your worth as a person based on your accomplishments and
failures;
3. illustrate your maxim through a cartoon; and
4. respond positively to the requirements of this lesson.
LET’S ENGAGE
Think of an act that you did which you strongly believe to be right, but people
condemned or criticized you for it. Write it down so you will not forget. You will need
it after the lesson.
Kant’s views on ethics are as influential as Aristotle’s, though more rational while
Aristotle’s lean towards the emotional and actual. To Kant, our ability to do good things
and resist temptations are dependent on the strength of our mind to focus on the good
so that we can fulfill our moral duties. Kant’s view of man as an end defies the view of
human resources as means. When I say “man as an end,” I mean the virtuous man –
with worth and dignity. And by “worth,” I do not mean your material worth but your
total value as a human being. To Kant, the other should not be seen as a means to an
end, that is, not an object to be used for the purpose of attaining a goal. If someone says
to you, “Ginamit mo lang ako,” that person is feeling like an object, not a human being.
LETS’ TALK ABOUT IT
What is virtue according to Kant?
Immanuel Kant defines virtue as strength and resoluteness of will to resist and
surpass the obstacles that prevent us from fulfilling our moral duties. Man strives for
perfection by committing to do moral acts and resolving to stick to the reasons behind
these despite oppositions. What Kant is saying her is reflected in an expression that we
always hear: “Manindigan ka,” or “Panindigan mo ang prinsipyo mo.” Sticking to what
you believe is right is difficult if you do not have the mental fortitude and you are not
convinced of the rightness of your actions. And if you are young, the more it is difficult
to stand firm on your beliefs because the older ones will say “Marami ka pang bigas na
kakainin bago mo marating ang narating namin.” Literally, true. Figuratively, false. While
wisdom comes with age, not everyone who has aged was able to acquire wisdom.
What are the highlights of Kant’s virtue ethics?
I will be using Mintz’ (2017) essay to answer this question.
The morality of an action is determined based on the reasons for our actions. Kant
applied a “categorical imperative (CI) to determine the moral validity for a particular
action: Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it
should become a universal law.” The “maxim” of our acts can be thought of as the
intention behind our acts. The maxim answers the question: What am I doing and why?”
(Mintz, 2017). For example, if your maxim is “I will be kind to the children so that they
will grow up extending the kindness to other people.” Why do you adopt this as your
maxim? Because from childhood to early adulthood, you were bullied. And you do not
want other people to experience what you went through. Thus, by being kind to the
children, you expect that kindness will be a part of their virtue and they will practice
this in their everyday life to everyone they meet. Does this make sense to you? Now,
what about that CI of Kant? The CI is an unconditional law. For instance, our 1987
78
Constitution imposes penalty on anyone who kills a person. For us Christians, this
provision is supported by one of the 10 Commandments, that is, for us not to kill. Thus,
the unconditional law or CI here is “Do not kill.” Even if you want to kill someone and
you have the opportunity to do it, you may not.
Humanity must always be treated as an end, not merely a means. To treat
someone as a mere means to an end is to use that person to advance your own interest.
Most of the time, we use people to achieve our ends. That is why there are “sipsip”
(socially insecure persons seeking instant promotion) who will step on people just so
they will get what they want. Kant emphasizes that each human being is a person with
dignity and worth. Thus, we have to respect each other’s worth and dignity. Has
someone ever said to you, “Wala kang kwenta.” In the eyes of that person, you are
worthless – you have no value. I believe this statements, if you reflected on it, would
have made you question your worth as a person. And how did it affect you? Your
perceived worth is tied up to your dignity. So, if you consider yourself worthless, and
others look at you the same, what, then, is your dignity as a person walking around in
your community? A related expression is this, “Saktan moang damdamin ko, huwag mo
lang laiitin ang pagkatao ko.” This statement shows the importance of one’s “pagkatao”
which speaks of his or her dignity. Because if we strip the person of his or her dignity,
what is left for her or him to hang on?
To be fully virtuous is to have a good will that is firmly resolved and fully ready to
overcome temptations to immorality. Although we can never achieve it, we have a duty to
strive for it. We are human beings prone to committing mistakes, thus, we cannot
achieve perfection. And we should not use our humanity as an excuse not to strive to
be perfect although we know we can never be. If we will (or resolve) to attain perfection,
our actions will be directed towards it. There will be many obstacles and temptations,
but if our mind is strong enough to resist these, then we will overcome them and be able
to attain what we want. For example, in this modular learning scheme that we are using,
it is easy to cheat. You can always ask someone to answer for you, or pass around your
answers. But if you are a person who wants to accomplish things the acceptable and
ethical way, then you will resist the temptation of cheating in answering your modules.
(I hope you are not guilty of cheating!)
There are criticisms on Kant’s views, like any other philosophers. You, too, may
not agree with some of his points. But the thing is, his views on virtue ethics provide us
an alternative way of behaving towards others and rationalizing our actions.
Time to stretch! Stand and stretch your arms and legs, close and open your eyes
eight times, then have a cup of tea or coffee. Then accomplish the following activities.
79
IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 28
Name: ___________________________________________ Score: ___________
Go back to question in the introductory part of this lesson. Did you write down your
answer? Read and think again if that is really your answer. Then fill out the table below.
Complete the table and you will get a score of 15.
My criticized/condemned Criticisms against my My reason for doing the

action action action
The result of my action on the other
The result of my action on myself
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Activity 29
Name: ___________________________________________ Score: ___________
I. I want you to reflect on your life for 15 minutes – your accomplishments and your
failures. In the table below, list down in the first column three of your accomplishments
that contributed to your worth as a person. In the second column, write the next step
that you should do to increase your worth and ensure your happiness. Use the second
table to write down three of your failures. In the second column, write what you are
doing or have done to redeem yourself from that failure and thus, gain happiness. (5
points each)
My accomplishments What I will do to increase my worth as a

person
Example: All by myself, I sent my children I will give my children all the support they
to a school which gave them good need to finish their formal education and
education. obtain a stable job.
1.
2.
3.
My failures What I am doing to redeem myself from

this failure
Example:
I failed to be a good wife. I am being a good mother to my children.
1.
2.
3.
81
Activity 30
Name: ___________________________________________ Score: ___________
Illustrate your maxim through a cartoon. Put it in a short coupon bond with 1-inch
margin on all sides and attach the coupon bond to this activity sheet. Your maxim will
be the title of your cartoon. Be guided by the following rubric. (25 points)
Area/Criteria 1 (poor) 2 (good)3 3 (excellent)

1. Presence of the The requirements Only 1 requirement The 2 requirements
requirements of a of a maxim are of a maxim is of a maxim are
maxim absent. present. present.
( 5 points) ( 0 point) ( 3 points ) ( 5 points )
2. Appropriateness The illustrationThe illustration The images and
of the illustration of does not depict the depicts the maxim texts of the
the maxim maxim. but some images illustration are
( 5 points ) ( 0 point ) and texts are out of appropriate for the
context. maxim.
( 10 points ) ( 15 points )
3. Aesthetic appeal The cartoon is not The cartoon is The cartoon is
of the cartoon. aesthetically somewhat aesthetically
( 5 points ) appealing – it looks aesthetically appealing – the
disorganized and appealing – the texts and images
dirty. texts and images are very clear, and
( 1 point ) are clear enough the illustration is
and looks clean. neatly done.
( 3 points ) ( 5 points )
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LESSON 4 Virtue Ethics of Aquinas
Objectives

1. assess your actions in the context of willingness and freedom;
2. determine the virtues that you practiced in certain situations; and
3. adhere to your virtues regardless of the situation you are facing.
LET’S ENGAGE
Think of actions you did that you voluntarily controlled. I mean, those actions you
did which no one told you to do, those actions which you really wanted to do and
thus, made you happy. For 5 minutes, reflect and write down those actions. We will
visit your answer after this lesson.
Finnis (2017) states that “Aquinas accepts the Platonic-Aristotelian thesis that
there are four virtues which are cardinal, that is on which the moral and all other virtues
hinge or depend: prudential, justice, courage, and temperanta. Each is a strategic
element in one’s integrating of the good or practical reasonableness into one’s
deliberations, choices, and execution of choices (prudential), in one’s dealings with
others (justice), in integrating and governing one’s desires by genuine reasons
(temperantia), and enabling one to face down intimidating obstacles (courage, fortitude).
Thus, when you evaluate the morality of your actions, look for the presence of these four
virtues. In the absence of one, question your actions.
Ready for another reflection? Continue reading and have a glimpse of the brilliant
mind of Aquinas.
What is virtue according to Aquinas?
Aquinas accepts Aristotle’s notion that every virtue is a mean between too much
and too little (Finns, 2017). Determining what is too much or too little is settled by
reason – the principles and rules that a person understands.
Aquinas further states that our goodness depends on doing acts that are in
consonance with our human nature. If I extend kindness to another, that is because I
am naturally kind. If I help another, it is because I am naturally helpful. But why am I
being kind? Why am I being helpful? What are my reasons for doing these acts? To
answer these, we refer to Aquinas’ two powers of reasons: the cognitive and appetitive.
The cognitive power is the intellect which enables us to know and understand. It
also enables us to apprehend the goodness a thing has. The appetitive power of reason
is called the will – the native desire for the understood good (Floyd, n.d.). Thus, I am
being kind and helpful because I know that doing so result to something good in the
other and to me. Doing these acts bring me happiness (cognitive power). And because
they bring me happiness, I will push myself (appetitive power) to be kind and helpful.
What are the four cardinal virtues of Aquinas?
Prudence. Aquinas says that prudence “is a kind of intellectual aptitude that
enables us to make judgements that are consonant with (and indeed ordered to) our
proper end. It illuminates us for the course of action deemed most appropriate for
achieving our end” (Floyd, n.d.). So, if your goal is to finish your course in four years,
you have to decide on the best strategies by which you could achieve this goal. Consider
that education is expensive so you need money to finance your daily needs, rent, clothes,
school materials, and others. Therefore, when you receive your allowance, or money
from other sources, budget it so that it will be enough to sustain you until you graduate.
That is being prudent in spending. Floyd (n.d.) mentions that there are three acts
associated with prudence. One is counsel whereby we ask about the available means of
achieving our purpose. Like, “How will I graduate in four years’ time?” Ask advice from
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your parents, relatives, teachers, friends or acquaintances who graduated from college.
They will give you valuable information which you can use. Do not ask a school drop
out because he or she has no experience on that matter. Two, judgment whereby we
determine the appropriate means of achieving our end. From the pieces of advice, you
received from people, analyze them and choose which of those you are capable of doing
and will ensure that you will graduate on time. Maybe you will consider the advice that
you should “buy only what you need,” “focus on your studies,” “be with people who have
the same goal,” “be diligent in doing your academic work,” etc. And third, command
whereby we apply that judgment. The command does not come from another. It comes
from you. Command (or will) yourself to do the judgments. Punish yourself if you fail.
Reward yourself if you succeed. But, I warn you. Do these in moderation. Otherwise,
you will be burn out and lose your motivation. It happens to many of us. And it takes
time to bounce back. You have had your sunny says and rainy days so you know what
I am saying.
Temperance. In explaining Aquinas’ temperance, Floyd (n.d.) differentiates
between temperance in the general sense and temperance in the restricted sense. In its
general sense, temperance denotes a kind of moderation common to every moral value.
For instance, humility is the temperance of arrogance. If arrogance is excessive
confidence in one’s own worth and ability, this excessiveness is tempered by humility.
In its more restricted sense, temperance concerns the moderation of physical pleasures,
especially those associated with eating, drinking, and sex. As human beings, we have
this tendency to sacrifice our well-being for the gratification of these temporary
pleasures. Thus, Finnis (2017) says, “though one’s passions, that is one’s emotional
desires and aversions, support one’s reason in deliberation, choice, and action, they are
also always capable of deflecting one from reasonable and right choice. So the ready
disposition to keep these passions in their proper role is an essential element of a
virtuous character and life.” This means that if we let our emotions and desires take
over our sense of reason, then we will fall into the temptation of not living a virtuous
life. For example, eating fatty meat is not good for your health because, let us say, you
are prone to hypertension. However, pork adobo with lots of fats is delicious and
everyday it is served on your table. You will not just stare at it and smell it, will you? I
am sure you will say, “ngayon lang,” and tomorrow and the next days you will say the
same. Reason says you should not eat that food, but your desire is stronger than your
reason thus, you will not make the right choice. Therefore, we need some virtue that will
restrain what Aquinas calls “concupiscible passion”- the appetite whereby we desire
what is pleasing and avoid what is harmful. Temperance is that virtue, as it denotes a
restrained desire for physical gratification (Finnis, 2017).
Courage. Floyd (n.d.) quotes “those with courage will have a considerable degree
of endurance. For one to be able to stand immovable in the midst of dangers, especially
those dangers that bring bodily harm and death. Lack of endurance will no doubt
undermine one’s ability to bear life’s travails.” Note that courage is different from
bravery. While both pertains to the ability to confront dangers, the involvement of fear
makes the difference. A brave person faces danger without fear, while a courageous
person faces danger despite all fears. Thus, the element of endurance accompanies
courage. As stated, you need courage if you want to remain “immovable in the midst of
dangers” and you can only be immovable if you have the endurance. Some brave people
will retreat after some time if they cannot stand the situation anymore. But a courageous
person will remain firm and resolute in his or her stand not to back off even if he or she
knows that pain and suffering accompany his or her decision. Take you, for example.
You decided to enrol despite the absence of face to face interaction. You did not know
(and still do not know) what lies ahead. You get your modules and….surprise! A lot of
assessment activities! You will be doing more than what you usually did in the
classroom. Worse, without a teacher guiding you and clarifying your questions. Now,
you doubt your decision. You are afraid to fail and not to learn substantially. Despite
your fears, you decided to continue and finish the semester. You will suffer from the
stress of not knowing if what you are doing is right or wrong, from having a lot of
questions unanswered, from sleepless nights of thinking of the requirements, and other
things. But if you have the courage, you will endure these academic sufferings.
Justice. Floyd (n.d.) expounds Kant’s virtue of justice that is “governs our
relationships with others. Specifically, it denotes a sustained or constant willingness to
extend to each person what he or she deserves.” Finnis (2017) added, “justice is the
84
steady and lasting willingness to give to others what they are entitled to.” In this sense,
if we want our actions towards others to be just, we need to know what the other
deserves so we know what he or she is entitled to receive. Let us use one scholarship
requirement as an example: “poor but deserving.” Being poor, the student deserves
financial assistance for his or her education. But, to be entitled to that financial
assistance, he or she must be deserving. Deserving means he or she has the intellectual
capability so that he or she could accomplish well the school’s academic requirements.
If the poor student who is not deserving gets the scholarship and fails in his or her
subjects, then justice is not rendered to those who are also poor but deserving but did
not get the scholarship. So, reflect on your situation. Your tuition is free. It is paid by
the government out of tax payers’ money. Is there justice here? Yes, there is. If you claim
you are poor, then you deserve this financial assistance (your entitlement). Otherwise,
you should be in a private school paying expensive tuition and miscellaneous fees. But,
do you deserve this entitlement? The results of your actions will answer this question.
Students in private schools say there is no justice at all in the “free tuition in state
universities and colleges” because they are struggling to pass their subjects for fear of
failing and paying again, yet many students in state universities and colleges are taking
their education for granted because they do not have to pay even if they repeat the same
subject. Are you one of them? You should be ashamed of yourself if you are.
Okay, stop reading for a while and go outside to appreciate the beauty of the first
thing that you see.
Now that your eyes have seen something beautiful outside, let it read something
beautiful together with your mind. Work on the next activities. Enjoy answering so you
will not be stressed and lose the virtues you discovered you possess.
85
IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 31
Name: ___________________________________________ Score: ___________
Go back to the question before the start of this lesson. Reflect on your answers. If you
want to change, do so. When you have decided on your final answer, fill out the table
below. (3 points each)
Actions that I voluntarily What I think of it What I feel about it

did
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
In what way did your action conform to Aquinas’ virtue ethics?
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Activity 32
Name: ___________________________________________ Score: ___________
Write specific situations where you practiced each of the cardinal virtues of Aquinas.
Limit your answer to at most 5 sentences. Be guided by the following questions and the
rubric: (10 points each)
What is the situation all about?
In what way did you practice the virtue?
1. Prudence
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. Temperance
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. Courage
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Justice
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Rubric
Area/Criteria1 1 (Poor) 2 (Good) 3 (Excellent)

1. Clarity of the The situation was not The situation was clear The situation was clear
situation clear but lacks details and the details were
( 4 points) ( 1 point) ( 2 points) complete
( 4 points)
2. Appropriateness of The identified virtue The identified virtue The identified virtues
the identified virtue to does not match the somewhat matches the match the situation
the situation situation situation but its and its practice was
( 4 points ) ( 0 point ) practice was not well-described.
described ( 2 points )
( 2 points )
3. Adherence to the More than 5 errors in 1-4 errors in spelling, No errors in spelling,
rules of grammar spelling, tense of verb, tense of verb, subject- tense of verb, subject-
( 2 points ) subject-verb verb agreement, verb agreement,
agreement, punctuation, and use punctuation, and use
punctuation, and use of words of words
of words
( 0 point )
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LESSON 5: Utilitarianism Ethics
Objectives

1. assess objectively the consequences of your actions;
2. determine the consequences of your actions;
3. identify actions that contribute to your happiness and to another’s; and
4. act ethically in all situations.
LET’S ENGAGE
“The means does not justify the end.”

“The end justifies the means.”
What is your stand?
I am sure you have heard about Robin Hood, the classic tale of a benevolent thief.
He stole from the rich and gave to the poor what he has stolen. The opposite of Robin
Hood are the unscrupulous politicians we have today who steal from the poor and keep
for themselves what they have stolen. In both cases, the means is stealing but the
intentions are different.in this lesson on utilitarianism, I hope to add clarity to your
understanding of people’s actions considering their means and their ends
(intentions/purposes). If you are still confused at the end of this lesson, text me and we
will engage in a philosophical conversation.
By the way, my main reference in this lesson is Frank Aragbonfoh Abumere’s
book chapter which you can access at https://press.rebus.community/intro-to-phil-
ethics/chapter/utilitarianism/
What is utilitarianism?
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that distinguishes right from wrong through

the consequences or results. It states that “the most ethical choice is the one that will
produce the greatest good for the greatest number. It is the only moral framework that
can be used to justify the use of military force or war” (Ethics Unwrapped, 2020b).
Nathanson (n.d.) further states “whatever is being evaluated, we ought to choose the
one that will produce the best overall results. In the language of utilitarians, we should
choose the option that “maximizes utility,” that is, that action or policy that produces
the largest amount of good.”
Utilitarianism looks not at the morality of the means or actions, but at the good
results or benefits (end) that the majority will enjoy. Let us look at President Duterte’s
War on Drugs. The President has been criticized nationally and internationally for the
violent means that he has ordered the Philippine National Police to employ, resulting to
the death of thousands of suspected drug users, drug pushers, and drug lords. But
what is the ultimate aim of President Duterte? To lessen, if not eliminate the threat of
drugs in the country so that everyone will be safe, which is a good intention because it
benefits the majority. The question lies on the process (means) because, for some, it is
unchristian and unconstitutional. The more liberal thinkers go for his methods, though.
What about you?
What are the types of utilitarianism?
Actual consequence utilitarian. Abumere (n.d.) says that in this type of

utilitarianism, the bases for the evaluation of the moral rightness and moral wrongness
of action are the actual consequences of actions. Fr instance, I assign the class a reading
to react on. When I received the papers, the contents were all the same, except the name.
In my eyes, the class cheated. Before this, you and your classmates agreed that the
class will be passing an assignment with the same contents. This assignment would be
88
done by Juan. Part of your agreement is to keep quiet and not reveal the author of the
assignment, no matter what happens. But then, I told the class that if you will not tell
me the author of the assignment, I will give all of you a score of 0/50and 5 readings per
week to do. If you will tell me the author, he or she will get zero and the rest of the class
will get 50 plus no more readings as assignment. Consequently, you texted me that
Juan was the author of the assignment. You did this to spare the class from getting
0/50 and doing 5 readings per week. In other words, you sacrificed one person for the
sake of the majority. Do you think you did the right thing?
Foreseeable consequence utilitarian. Abumere (n.d.) describes this as the type of
utilitarianism that bases the evaluation of the moral rightness and moral wrongness of
actions on the foreseeable consequences of actions. For instance, when I was a faculty
member of one school of the university where I used to work, we had this absolute 70
policies – if your final grade is 74.99, that is rounded “down” to 70. As long as your
computed grade is not 75.00%, you are to be given a final grade of 70. Why did we
implement this harsh (inhuman, for some) policy? It is to ensure that the students will
take their studies seriously and therefore, pass the board examinations. If I give the
student whose final computed grade is 74.59% a passing grade of 75% then he failed in
the board examination, then I contributed to the failure of the university to make it in
the list of top performing schools. What I am saying is that the absolute 70 policy
(means) is a way to ensure that the school will have a 100% passing rate in the board
examination (end) which will add prestige to its name and therefore, the students will
have greater chances of being employed (end).
Act utilitarianism. According to Abumere (n.d.), we should apply he principle of
utility when we evaluate individual actions. Thus, the action that produces the most
utility would be the morally right action. What is this principle of utility? This principle
says that the action is good if it leads to or promotes the happiness of a person. In this
case, act utilitarianism is very subjective because what would make us happy may not
make the other happy. For example, if I say that I will give all of you a passing grade
regardless of the quality of your outputs, this will make me (and some of you) happy
because I do not have to spend time checking your outputs anymore. But many of you
will not also be happy with my actions, especially the serious and intellectually able
ones. So I have to think of another strategy whereby everyone will be happy. Any
suggestion?
Rule utilitarianism. This type of utilitarianism counters the problem posed by act
utilitarianism by “focusing on general types of actions and determining whether they
typically lead to good or bad results” (Abumere, n.d.). It focuses on the general
consequences of our actions. Thus, if cheating leads to your getting a failing grade, then
cheating is wrong. If you take for granted the assessment activities in this module and
your grade is compromised, then taking the assessment activities is wrong. Therefore,
be serious in answering.
Okay, so much for right and wrong actions. Fix yourself a cup of coffee or tea
and go somewhere else to sip it. Then return to your work station to do the following
activities.
89
IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 33
Name: ___________________________________________ Score: ___________
Fill out the table with the information asked. In the first column, write a recent act that
you did which was criticized by people. In the second column, write your intention. In
the third column, write the consequence of your act. Do the activity well. If I am satisfied,
I will give you additional points of 10. If I am not, I thank you for attempting to do this
activity.
Act Intention Consequence
If the opportunity arises, will you do the same again? Why?
90
Activity 34
Name: ___________________________________________ Score: ___________
1. Identify the positive and negative consequences of the act stated in the first column
on you. (4 points each)
Action Negative consequence to Positive consequence to

me me
1. Following school policies
2. Complying with health

protocols
3. Observing physical
distancing
4. Disrespecting your
teachers
5. Procrastinating
answering the
assessment activities
in the module
2. Write 5 actions that you have done in the context of actual consequence utilitarianism
and foreseeable consequence utilitarianism. The first column contains the act. In the
second column, write the actual consequence of the act and in the third, write the
foreseeable consequence. (4 points each)
My actions The actual consequence The foreseeable

consequence
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
91
3. List down 5 actions that you can do that will make you and another person happy.
In the second column, write why the action will make the person happy, and in the
third, write why it will make you happy. (4 points each)
My actions Why it makes another Why it makes me happy

happy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
92
Name: ___________________________________________ Score: ___________
1. Make a concept map of the golden rule and virtue ethics (from Aristotle to
Utilitarianism). Do this in a separate coupon bond with 1-inch margin on all sides and
attach it to this worksheet when you submit. (30 points)
Rubric
Area/Criteria 1 (Poor)2 2 (Good) 3 (Excellent)

1. Accuracy of Main and sub- Main and sub- All concepts are
illustration of main concepts are wrongly concepts are accurately
and sub-concepts. illustrated. illustrated but there illustrated.
( 5 points ) ( 1 point) are more than 1 error ( 5 points )
in the illustration.
( 3 points )
2. Clarity of the 4-5 concepts are not 1-3 concepts are not All concepts are
relationships of the clearly related to each clearly related to each clearly and correctly
concepts. other. other. related to each other.
( 15 points ) ( 5 points ) ( 10 points ) ( 15 points)
3. Completeness of 4-5 concepts are 1-2 concepts are All the concepts are
the concepts. missing. missing. present.
( 5 points ) ( 0 point ) ( 3 points ) ( 5 points )
4. Aesthetic appeal of The concept map is The concept map is The concept map is
the concept map. disorganized, with somewhat visually visually appealing
( 5 points ) several erasures, and appealing, with and organized.
visually unappealing. minimal erasures. ( 5 points)
( 1 point ) ( 3 points )
II. Illustrate the similarities and differences among the following through a Venn
diagram. Use short coupon bond with 1-inch margin on all sides and attach it to this
activity sheet when you submit. (10 points each).
1. Virtue ethics of Aristotle and virtue ethics of Kant

2. Virtue ethics of Aristotle and virtue ethics of Aquinas
3. Virtue ethics of Aristotle and Utilitarianism
4. Virtue ethics of Kant and virtue ethics of Aquinas
5. Virtue ethics of Aristotle, virtue ethics of Kant, and virtue ethics of Aquinas
6. Utilitarianism and the Golden rule
Rubric
Area/Criteria1 1 (Poor)2 2 (Good) 3 (Excellent)

1. Accuracy of No similarities and More than 1 All the similarities
similarities and differences were similarity and and differences
differences. identified. difference identified identified are correct.
( 7 points ) ( 0 point ) are wrong. ( 7 points)
( 4 points )
2. Neatness of The Venn diagram is The Venn diagram is The Venn diagram is
illustration. disorganized and has somewhat organized neat, organized, and
( 3 points ) many erasures. with few erasures. visually appealing.
( 1 point ) ( 2 points ) ( 3 points )
93
REFERENCES
Anderson, S. (2009). The golden rule. Not so golden anymore.

htttps://philosophynow.org/issues/74/The_Golden_Rule_Not_So_Golden_/Any
more
Athanassoulis, N. (2000). Virtue ethics.

https//iep.utm.edu/virtue/#:~text:=Aristotelian%20virtue%20is%20defined%2
0in,and%20for%20its%20own%20sake.
Effectiviology. (2020). The golden rule. Treat others the way you want to be treated.
https://effectiviology.com/golden-
rule/#:~:text=The%20positive%20formulation%20of%20the,Negative%2Fprohibi
tive%20form.
Ethics Unwrapped. (2020a). Virtue ethics.

https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/virtue-ethics#
Ethics Unwrapped. (2020a). Utilitarianism.

https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/utilitarianism#aquinas-moral-
political/
Finnis, J. (2017). Aquinas’ moral, political, and legal legacy.

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/
Floyd, S. (n.d.). Thomas Aquinas: Moral philosophy. https://iep.utm.edu/aq-

moral/#:~:text=But%20there%20are%20essentially%20four,)%20
Hardy, P.T.L. (2011). Aristotle’s virtue ethics.

https://vibrantbliss.wordpress.com/2011/12/18/aristotles-virtue-ethics/
Mintz, S. (2019). Ethics according to Immanuel Kant.

https://www.ethicssage.com/2017/05/ethics-according-to-Immanuel-
kant.html
Nathanson, S. (n.d.). Act and rule utilitarianism. https://iep.utm.edu/util-a-r/
94
MORAL CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION
Module 5 of 5 modules
Ethics
Crystal S. Malao
09302574101
Maryfe D. Toyokan
09070881502
95
INTRODUCTION
You have now reached the final module for this course, Ethics. I hope that this
module will not be the end of your learning journey in discovering and internalizing
ethical actions.
This module introduces what globalization is all about and how it affects your life
as a student. We will also identify important ethical dilemmas of globalization and the
different moral responses and qualities of the different generations.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. demonstrate satisfactory ability in identifying the moral challenges
brought by globalization; and
2. distinguish accurately the different generations according to their
moral responses and qualities.
Activity 36 PRE-TEST
Name: ________________________________________ Score: ________________
TRUE or FALSE. Read the following and identify whether the statement is True or False.
If the statement is true, write TRUE on the blank space provided before the number and
write FALSE if the statement is false.
_____________________ 1. Globalization has kept apart people from around the world.
_____________________ 2. The changes brought by globalization were beneficial to the
people.
_____________________ 3. One of the ethical dilemmas brought by globalization is the
Widening gap between the rich and poor.
_____________________ 4. There is equal bargaining power among countries that are
members of the World Trade Organization.
_____________________ 5. Anti-globalists claim that World Trade Organization is
undemocratic, and ignores environmental problems and
labor conditions.
_____________________ 6. Millennials have the tendency to not associate or group with
their fellow millennials.
_____________________ 7. Millennials are those individuals born in the 1970’s to 1990’s
_____________________ 8. Being a multitasker allows the millennials to finish their
tasks at a faster rate.
_____________________ 9. Technology allowed millennials to be well-informed and made
the older generations have higher expectations from
millennials.
____________________ 10. Gadgets are the top priority for millennials in saving money.
LESSON 1: Globalization and its Ethical Challenges
Objectives:
1. explain comprehensively what globalization is all about;

2. identify important moral challenges brought about by globalization;
and
3. recognize how globalization affected your lives during this Covid-19
pandemic.
96
LET’S ENGAGE
Kindly fill in the blanks with the needed information.

1. Brand of your phone: _____________________________
2. Favorite TV Show/Movie: ____________________________
3. Favorite Song: ____________________________________
4. Place you want to visit someday: ________________________
What have you noticed about your preference? Maybe some of them are found outside
the country. This only show that even if we live in a small village, we can still place
the whole world in our fingertips.
Our lesson will be on how the world appears smaller today than it actually is
through GLOBALIZATION. We will also discover important moral challenges brought
about by globalization.
We are all aware that the world seems to be connected with various means such
as technology and transportation. Ideologies of places from all around the world can be
known by a very tiny village and also communication from people all over the world
became real time. These are some results of globalization.
According to Coronacion and Calilung (2018), “the world has shrunk” which
describes our contemporary world. The shrinking of the world has taken place because
of the combination of human feats including modern transportation, information and
communication technology, medical advancement and technological innovations.
Another accepted definition is from Giddens (1990), as cited by Coronacion, et.al. (2018),
who defines it as “the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant
localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many
miles away and vice versa.”
Globalization represents the process by which the geographical distance becomes
a less important factor in the establishment and the development of transborder
relations of economic, political and cultural origin. However, there are issues and
problems brought by globalization and they are threating humanity.
According to Ehrenfeld (2012), the following are the ethical dilemmas of

globalization:
Anti-globalist movement has grown.
The opposite pole of anti-globalists is much more radical in their thinking. They
oppose the World Trade Organization claim that it is undemocratic, and ignores
environmental problems and labor conditions such as child labor and workplace safety.
Finally, they claim that globalization increases inequality and further impoverishes the
poor.
The anti-globalist movement has grown in passion and strength. They have
staged numerous protests. The one in Seattle involved some violence, but mostly they
are peaceful. The one recently in Hong Kong however was not peaceful. The pro-
globalists claim that free trade creates wealth, and this increase trickles down and
improves the condition of the poor (Ehrenfeld, 2012).
It is indeed true that due to having smaller world, activists may increase since
they have more means of spreading their ideologies. Let us now discuss how
globalization results to inequality among countries.
There is unequal bargaining power among countries.
A charge against the WTO is that their decisions are usually made by consensus.
Rule by consensus can also be called rule by veto. It takes the opposition only a single
member to stop an overwhelming majority from making changes. Developing countries
97
make up the majority of members of WTO. But not every country has the same
bargaining power. In practice, the agenda is set in informal meeting of the major trading
powers: the US, the European Union, Japan, and Canada. Once these powers have
reached agreement these are presented at a formal meeting usually as a fair accompli.
Not in the least democratic. Finally, dispute panels are not selected democratically. Even
if WTO decisions were taken by the majority of states that are members it would not be
really democratic since for example India, representing a billion people would have the
same number of votes-one- as Iceland which has 275,000 (Ehrenfeld, 2012).
This ethical dilemma prevails mostly during conferences among countries in
international organizations.
Gap between the rich and the poor is becoming wider.
The UN reports that gaps in income between the poorest and richest countries
have continued to widen. In 1960 the 20% of the world’s people in the richest countries
had 30 times the income of the poorest 20%. In 1997, the gap has more than doubled–
it is now 74%. This widening of the gap is happening at a faster pace. The gap in income
within countries has also widened. In the US, according to the US Census Bureau, the
top and bottom tiers are growing and the middle shrinking. The top 20 percent held 85
percent of the country’s wealth. A recent UN study also shows that global trade increases
wealth but the trade benefits are uneven (Ehrenfeld, 2012).
It can be concluded that despite the benefits we get from globalization, we still
face various challenges affecting moral, environmental and social aspects. Through this
globalization, huge gap between the rich and the poor is established; the environment
is being compromised due to the many advancement of technology, improving the
standard of living of the people. And people tend not to socialize because of gadgets.
98
IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 37
Name: _______________________________________________ Score: ____________
1. Describe 3 situations or scenarios in which globalization is correlated to Covid-19

Pandemic. Limit your answer to a maximum of five sentence. (15 Points)
1.
2.
3.
2. Create a concept map enumerating 5 ethical challenges brought by globalization. Use

the space after the rubric. (15 Points)
Needs
Criteria Adequate Quality Exemplary
Improvement
Shows noShows 1-2 Shows 3-4 Shows 5 identified
identified identified identified challenges brought by
challenges challenge challenges globalization
brought bybrought by brought by
Concepts
globalization globalization globalization

(0) (3) (5)
(1)
Fails to use Makes many Identifies Identifies all the
Knowledge of the
any incorrect important important concepts

among Concepts
appropriate connections concepts but and shows an

Relationships
understanding of the
concepts or makes some
relationships
appropriate incorrect among them
connections connections
(0) (1) (3) (5)
99
Produces a Places only a few Places almost all Constructs an
Ability to Communicate
final product concepts in an concepts in an appropriate and

that is not a appropriate appropriate complete concept map
through Concept Maps
hierarchy or uses hierarchy and and includes

concept map
only a few linking assigns linking examples; places
words; words to most concepts in an
produces a connections; appropriate hierarchy
concept map that produces a and places linking
is difficult to concept map that words to connect;
produces a concept
interpret is easy to interpret
map that is easy to
interpret
(0) (1) (3) (5)
100
LESSON 2: Millennials and Filennials: Ethical Challenges and Responses
Objectives:
1. define who is a Millennial and who is a Filennial; and

2. discuss the qualities of Millennials and Filennials.
LET’S ENGAGE
Figure 1 A baby boomer, using a megaphone, shouts at a millennial whose attention is

on her phone. Source: https://en.ppt-online.org/276955
In these past months of being under quarantine, have you experienced being
shouted at or being scolded by your parents for always being on the phone? Did they
tell you that you will destroy your eyes for spending long hours on the phone but still,
you do it anyway? You feel like your day is incomplete if you did not check your
facebook, instagram, twitter, or tiktok accounts. You feel the need to be updated with
the latest songs, memes, clothes, etc. through the online social media platforms
available. Then, probably, you are also a Millennial.
Who are Millennials?
According to Ariola (2018), Millennials are those persons born between the years
1980 and 2000. They are also referred to as Generation Y following Generation X. You
may wonder why some people who are born before the year 2000, for example 1998, do
not consider themselves as Millennials but rather call themselves as part of Generation
Z. The reason behind is: there are no precise dates for when the Millennials’ generation
starts or ends but demographers and researchers typically use the early 1980’s as the
starting birth years and the mid 1990’s to early 2000’s as ending birth years.
Sometimes, Millennials are also called “echo boomers” because of two reasons: (1) there
was a major surge in birth rates in the 1980s and 1990s, and (2) Millennials are often
the children of the baby boomers. However, the trend toward smaller families in
developed countries in the 20th century continued so the impact of the “baby boom echo”
was less pronounced than the post-World War II baby boom.
Locally, here in our own country (Philippines), one third of the total population is
composed of Millennials. These are usually “youth” marketers, business leaders,
employers, and some politicians who try to provide for their business endeavors. When
Millennials enter their prime years, they do not just define their community and
workplace. Their nature shows that they are starting to take care of a new generation
as the “hope of the fatherland”.
Millennial characteristics do vary by regions, depending on social and economic
conditions, but it is commonly known that the Generation Y population is marked by
an increased use and familiarity with communications, media, and digital technologies.
Around the world, most Millennials’ upbringing is marked by an increase in a liberal
approach to politics and economics.
Economically, the Great Recession had a major impact on this generation
because it has caused historically high levels of unemployment among young people
101
and has led to speculation about possible long-term economic and social damage to this
generation.
What are the traits/qualities of Millennials?
Regardless of where you came from, whether you are an American, Asian,
European, etc., you share a set of traits with other Millennials.
Whether you are a balanced Generation X or an open-minded Generation
Y/Millennial, the fact remains that this generation is a force to be reckoned with.
Meaning, this generation “youth” holds more power than ever before yet are so different
to any other generations.
Sadly, many marketers underestimate or avoid this group or generation because
they believe that Millennials lack understanding of other aspects of life.
Currently, about 85% of the workforce are made up of Millennials. This
percentage implies that these individuals or Millennials make and influence the buying
decisions even in industry. They are generally considered good marketers of business
and industrial products.
In general, the following are the traits/qualities that this generation possess
(Ariola, 2018):
1. Confidently independent.
Undoubtedly, a high level of expectation is expected from Millennials by the older

generations. This is because Millennials are a generation of highly educated individuals
who grew up with internet. The internet allowed this generation to have the latest
information whenever they want. With easy access to information, Millennials make
informed decisions on their own. Marketers are also able to use content marketing to
easily influence this generation through the correct digital mediums. Right now, a lot of
marketing schemes are employed to catch our attention towards a particular product
online.
This group needs feedback and recognition from their employer as they thrive
with leaders, not bosses. And so, they need to be cared for, recognized, and empowered.
Most Millennials quit their job when they do not sense recognition, fulfillment, and care
from their company or employer. Most individuals in this generation does not have to
consult others on what job should they take or if they should quit their job, they can
easily move in and out of a job on their own decisions. Reflect on yourself – do you have
these characteristics?
2. Comfort in the rock.
Millennials believe in strength in numbers. They look for a collective voice and
acceptance. Millennials socialize in groups online or offline. The boom of social media
and the frequent social gatherings whether in concerts or simple social gatherings are
just a few examples. The voice of the group determines how they will accept or deal with
their environment. Millennials believe that their groups are able to override political
change. They are unafraid to call out or criticize the faults or problems that they see in
the system.
Marketers, who set trends can, find success in their business through this group
because they have Millennial groups which they can influence. Employers can also
benefit from making use of teams with similar personal traits to work on specific tasks
for marketing their business. This is because these groups with similar personal traits
will probably agree to one decision saving them less time from picking out one of many
102
choices and arguing because of their differences. Do you possess these characteristics
too?
3. Simplicity
Millennials do not tolerate things that do not work and they inform others about
it too. Hence, this generation will easily source an alternative if the product does not
suit their needs, perfectly. For example, a friend of yours ordered a wireless mouse from
Lazada and it does not suit him or her because she wants a mouse that does not make
a sound when she or he clicks on it. She tells you not to buy it because it is too noisy,
and she will probably buy alternative product from other stores that sell the perfect
mouse for her in Lazada.
Millennials go over lots of information daily to find what suits them best. Hence,
if you are a business leader who cannot communicate to this generation in a simple but
catchy manner, they will probably skip your product or service and you will lose them
to other competitors. Marketers, who identify information gaps and push content on to
this group, find success in these strategies. It is actually very obvious that a company
or a business has Millennial marketers because the advertisements or posts they make
on social media appeal to the slang, jokes, or wordings of the Millennials. Sometimes,
the marketers or producers of these products and services are not Millennials, but they
will surely consult or seek the popular opinion from Millennials because they are the
ones who usually can make things trending.
Employers who also can give tasks and monitor tasks simplistically will gather
great results from their Millennial staff. It is not that they cannot handle complicated
tasks but the simpler the instructions given to them, the faster they get the job done
and the expectation will easily be met because if it is not simple, then there could be
many ways of getting the job done and it could not be to the expectation of the employer.
I am sure, you, too, do not like complicated instruction. You would rather follow one simple
and definite instruction than five or more.
4. Want to experience engagement in business.
Any product or service can be engaging to this generation. Especially when such
product or service provides an experience. Millennials can be easily engaged. This is
why this generation is also sometimes called “Generation Me”. Millennials are constantly
looking for something new, exotic, and adventurous. Valuing Millennials’ experience,
marketers and employees create the impression that they are special and leave them a
memorable experience. With this generation, it is important to tap into their EQ
(Emotional Quotient). Do you have a high EQ by the way? Because if your EQ is low, you
are lost in your generation.
5. Creative achievers
Millennials have hundreds of thousands of creative influences at their disposal

through the internet. With this huge influence, a new era of creativity is born.
Combining their attention seeking traits and their need to achieve, they can produce
outstanding creativity. Employers who nurture and support their creativity, will gain
from their innovative ideas which allow them to be set apart. Marketers who involve the
creativity of Millennials will stay on top of creative trends and will easily be accepted by
the public.
Look at the social media handlers of businesses today. Most of them are
Millennials who can easily relate and know what other Millennials and the general
public want to see and enjoy. That’s why your parents are lost!
6. Unique
If you are not speaking the same language Millennials are speaking this year, you
may consider yourself not accepted by their crowd. Some of the unique words and
abbreviation they use over the time on a daily basis are lol, Ikr, Btw, Otw, Atm.
Millennials are very creative at taking a common thing or event and make it their own.
For example, the ice bucket challenge that became trending globally which then
103
disappeared and was replaced to a no make-up selfie, to various challenges online make
this generation unique. With this trait of constantly making things trending by
Millennials but then not any longer the next months or year, marketers and employers
need to catch on these trends to make their brands relevant and acceptable to the
public. Otherwise, this generation and the public will treat them as “laos” or no longer
trending and popular. The ‘jejemon’ language was bashed by parents and teachers just
because they cannot relate. Their generation prefers “speaking in complete sentence.”
7. No brand boundaries
If there is something this generation wants, it is to be heard and to influence.

Just look at the number of friends and followers you have on facebook, twitter,
instagram, etc. You have thousands of friends, whom you have not even met or knew in
real life. But you like receiving likes, hearts, etc. and comments from them so you try
as much to post and update your social media accounts.
Milllennials do not really care about brands as long as such brands understand
their common beliefs and it is beneficial for them. If a brand does not give importance
to their belief or say, then such brand will not appeal to this generation. Lately,
Millennials have been campaigning for supporting local and eco-friendly products, thus,
bamboo and metal spoons, forks, chopsticks, bottles, straws, etc. have been made and
sold by various brands. Would you believe that because of the campaign to save sea
turtles from getting injured or killed by straws, one by one, companies as big as
Starbucks, McDonald’s, KFC, etc. began to withdraw straws from their stores. People,
especially the Millennials, started to applaud and give credits to these stores and
companies who gave a “no straw policy” on their social media accounts which resulted
to more people preferring these brands over others. That’s how influential we Millennials
are in the business world!
8. Multitaskers.
A comment you will often hear from parents and the older generations is that
Millennials are great at multitasking. They can do many responsibilities at once. Right
now, you can watch the TV or a movie in your phone while working on your modules.
You may even eat while watching or studying. But the downside is, Millennials also get
easily distracted and find social media and texting irresistible. Thus, sometimes, you
are labeled as SPED, or children with specials needs.
Note: The ones mentioned above are just some of the qualities Millennials have.
Seven Qualities of Millennials That Make Them Excellent Employees
Deloitte Consultancy (2015), through its Chairman and CEO Jim Moffatt, stated
that it is not true that Millennials are demanding, difficult to manage, and are less
qualified. Hence, the said Consultancy enumerated the traits that Millennials have
which make them excellent in improving a business. These are the following:
1. They think of innovation as a science.

In a 2014 survey by Deloitte, the results showed that 80% of Millennials claim
that innovation can be learned and repeated, rather than being spontaneous and
random. This only shows that Millennials like to innovate, and they see their innovative
works and ideas as a part of science.
2. They believe in the profit motive.

Millennials see businesses to make profit from innovations that benefit society
acceptable, most especially when it is done ethically and has a positive impact on the
community and society. A good example on this is Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg.
Zuckerberg did not start Facebook to build a company. He was just some Millennial
dude trying to help connect people at colleges and a few schools which he thought was
a basic need at the time. He said in an article by Clifford (2018), “I looked around at the
internet and there were services for a lot of things that you wanted. You could find
music; you could find news; you could find information, but you couldn’t find and
connect with the people that you cared about, which as people is actually the most
104
important thing. So that seemed like a pretty big hole that needed to get filled.” So you
see, it is not just about improving life or making more profit. It is also about looking at
how people may be benefitted by making a business.
3. They could build a business.

In a Reason magazine survey (Ekins, 2014), 55% of Millennials stated that they
would like to have their own business one day and 61%
believe that hardwork is the key to a successful
business. Another survey showed that about 70% of
Millennials see themselves working independently at
some point, rather than the usual employment in a
traditional organizational structure. In this time of
pandemic, we can see a lot of Millennials growing and
promoting their own businesses such as baking,
cooking, selling clothes and items online, etc. You
probably have seen comments or received one yourself of
the phrase “pm sent!”.
4. They are motivated to accomplish something.

This generation receive a lot of education opportunities unlike other generations
and sometimes, a lot of debt also. The Pew Research Center (2014) claims that
Millennials have higher levels of student loan debt, poverty, and unemployment, and
lower levels of wealth and personal income than the generation Xers and baby boomers
at this stage in their lifespans. But as a new group, they are generally motivated as a
generation team that will work very hard. Take for example Millennial vloggers and
youtubers who work hard on putting out content and entertainment out there, they are
receiving compensation after some time that they earn a lot of followers and views. At
first, no one will notice their videos, or it is hard for them to continue on shooting when
no one is watching but later on after some years and after gaining connections, their
motivation and hard work will pay off.
5. They hate bureaucracy more than you do.

CEOs usually want to build a culture of innovation and risk-taking to get rid of
bureaucracy within the company. Millennials also hate bureaucracy more than the
employers and business leaders do. From a survey, it shows that the biggest barriers to
innovation are management attitude and operational structures and procedures.
6. They will put some muscle into your corporate culture building.
Every company owner/employer wants a more authentic and stronger marketing
sales. To achieve that, they will hire more Millennials. One of the top motivations for
Millennials to stay with their current job or position is their belief in the company’s
philosophy, vision, mission, and objectives – a belief that rests on outcomes achieved,
not just on promises made. Thus, when a Millennial agrees to his or her workplace’s
philosophy, vision, mission, and objectives, he or she will help the company achieve it
as long as the company also achieves it and does not just make promises.
7. They want to lead, and we all need more leaders.

One in four Millennials want to have a chance to show their leadership skills.
Also, 50% believe that organizations could do more to develop future leaders. There is
no organization anywhere that would not want to build a stronger line of leaders, ready
to take on new challenges in this contemporary world.
Filipino Millennials are called Filennials. In an online survey conducted by

Rappler in 2016 among Filipinos aged 18-35, Filennials are seen to be confident and
driven (Garcia, 2016). The survey also showed Filennials’ outlook on their goals, career,
financing, and advocacies.
“Confident”, “driven”, “self-centered”, “ambitious”, and “passionate” are the five
top words being used to describe Filipino Millennials in terms of attitude. Other
answers, such as “optimistic”, “independent,” “idealistic” or “positive,” appeared in a
lesser frequency but had similar meanings to the top responses mentioned earlier. This
survey conducted in our locality (Philippines) agreed with the results of a larger global
105
survey conducted by World Economic Forum (WEF) (2016). In the survey by WEF, 70%
of respondents said they see the world as full of opportunities, and 50% said they can
actively contribute to decision-making in their countries.
In the local survey, Filennials link their personal dreams with their careers. When
asked to describe their goals, most respondents used the words “ambitious,” followed
by “success,” “high,” “financial stability/money,” and “career.”
When asked to describe their priorities in one word, the top response was “career”
followed by “self,” “family,” and “studies.” Suprisingly, “confused” was the fifth most-
used word to describe priorities. How about you? Do you know your priorities in life or
are you just going with the flow and have the “come what may” attitude?
When asked to choose a word that best defines “success” for them, most of the
respondents chose “following passion” over “financial independence”. However, those
who were in their late 30s, most of them chose financial independence as indicator of
success following passion.
How about you? Would you rather follow your passion than be financially stable?
A lot of people today truly have the wealth and financial stability, but it was not easy.
Some of them had to give up their passions and dreams to go after careers that would
feed their mouths and later on find that they are unhappy because they still look back
and feel regrets in not pursuing their passion.
It is interesting also to note that those who typed out their responses define
success and fulfillment as a combination of 2 or all of the choices. Others chose to define
success as “contentment, living in the moment,” or “achieving personal goals.”
When asked if they would work abroad if given the chance, majority of them
answered yes. Ask yourself, “Can I leave home to seek greener pastures?”
A recent, worldwide survey by Deloitte (2020), focused on Millennials’ outlook on
career and ambition, yielded a similar result that Millennials prioritized fulfillment in
the workforce. In the survey, most Millennials are willing to leave their current jobs
within the next two years if they feel that the company’s goals are not aligned with their
own. They are also more protective of their personal ambitions in their career.
Having career and finances as top goal and priority do not dissuade Filennials
from marrying or having children. In the survey, Millennials prefer to be married (62.4%)
more than to be single (37.4%) in the future. Above 80% of respondents still also prefer
to have kids in the future.
When asked what they are saving their money for, travel is their top priority,
which is followed by business. The two least priorities are luxury goods and gadgets. Do
you agree? Do you also like to travel more than to have the latest gadgets and luxuries?
That is the end of Lesson 2. Was it interesting to know about Millennials

and Filennials? I hope you enjoyed reading.
106
IT’S YOUR TURN
Activity 38
Name: __________________________________________ Score: ____________
I. In the table below, list down 5 characteristics of Millenials and 5 characteristics of

Filennials. (2 points each)
Millennials Filennials
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
II. In the table below, list down 5 characteristics each of an innovative and a creative
person. (5 points each)
Innovative Creative
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
III. Answer the following questions with a YES or NO.

1. Do baby boomers compose the generation before millennials? ___________
2. Are the 2016 survey results of Filipino millennials similar to the 2016
survey results worldwide by WEF? ________
3. Is it beneficial for an employer or a company to hire a millennial? _____
4. Is it true that multitasking has no downsides? ______
5. Did Deloitte Consultancy claim that millennials are demanding, difficult
to manage, and are less qualified? ________
107
Name: _____________________________________ Score: _____________
TRUE or FALSE. Read the following and identify whether the statement is True or False.
If the statement is true, write TRUE on the blank space provided before the number and
write FALSE if the statement is false.
_________________ 1. To describe Filennials, in terms of attitude, there are words being

used such as driven, empowered and passionate.
_________________ 2. One in 100 millennials asks for a chance to showcase their
leadership skills.
_________________ 3. Millennials prefer financial stability over fulfillment or following
their passion.
_________________ 4. Filennials are dissuaded to get married and have kids because
their career and financial stability are their priority.
_________________ 5. Millenials are willing to leave their job or position when the
company’s goals are not in line with his or her personal goals.
_________________ 6. One of the ethical dilemmas brought by globalization is having a
wider gap among the rich and poor.
_________________ 7. There is equal bargaining power among countries that are
members of the World Trade Organization.
_________________ 8. There have been many changes brought by globalization and
these were all beneficial to the people.
_________________ 9. Globalization has kept the people from around the world to be
apart.
_________________ 10. Anti-globalists claim that World Trade Organization is
undemocratic, and ignores environmental problems.
Job well done! You are done with the last module! �
REFERENCES
Ariola, M. (2018). Ethics. Unlimited Books Library Services and Publishing INC
Clifford, C. (2018). How Mark Zuckerberg came up with the idea for Facebook.
https://www.cnbc.com/2018/01/17/why-mark
-zuckerberg-started-facebook.html
Deloitte. (2020). The Deloitte Global Millennial Survey 2020: Millennials and
Gen Zs hold the key to creating a “better normal”.
https://www2.deloitte.com/global/en/pages/about-
deloitte/articles/millennialsurvey.html
Deloitte (2014). Big demands and high expectations: The Deloitte Millennial
Survey. https://www2.deloitte.com/content/
dam/Deloitte/global/Documents/About-Deloitte/gx-dttl-2014-
millennial-survey-report.pdf
Ehrenfeld, S. (2012). Ethical dilemmas of globalization.

https://ethicalfocus.org/ethical-dilemmas-of-globalization/
108
Ekins, E. (2014). 10 Fun facts about the Millennial generation.
https://reason.com/2014/07/10/10-fun-facts-about-the-millennial-
genera/
Garcia, K. (2016). Filipino Millennials are ‘confident, driven’ – survey.

https://amp.rappler.com/move-ph/awards/980-2016/149854
-filipino-millennials-survey-attitude-priorities
Moffatt, J. (2015). The 7 positive qualities of Millennials that can

help you improve your business.
https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/242155
Pew Research Center. (2014). Millennials in adulthood: detached from

institutions, networked with friends.
https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2014/03/07/millennials-in-
adulthood/
PPT Online (n.d.). Youth problems and worries. https://en.ppt-

online.org/276955
World Economic Forum. (2016). Global shapers community annual report

2016-2017.
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GSC_Annual_Report_2017.pdf
109

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Republic of the Philippines

Mountain Province State Polytechnic College

The Covid19 pandemic changed the way education is delivered. In the

In this second year of the pandemic, some programs are allowed to go on

This module is a collaborative work of eight faculty members from the

Please observe ethics in communication and respect our time. Communicate

Module 1 Ethics and Mores ........................................................ 4

Module 2 The Moral Agent ....................................................... 30

Module 3 The Moral Act ........................................................... 46

Module 4 Moral Theories and Principles ................................... 67

Module 5 Moral Challenges of Globalization .............................. 95

Teacher Education Department

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

_____ 1. Why do we need to study ethics?

_____3. Which among the following situation in public relations is considered

_____8. Which best defines morality?

_____9. Which of the following is an example of a value?

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

LET’S TALK ABOUT IT

Why is ethics important?

Ethics and Morality

Morality and Human Acts

Morality is the quality of goodness or badness in a human act. In this case, we

Moral and Non Moral Standards

Either these standards are not necessarily linked to

a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.

b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.

Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a

c. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.

Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative

d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.

This means that everyone should live up to moral standards. To be more

f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Prescriptively indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral

Name: _________________________________________ Score: _________________

2. Moral Standards - ____________________________________________

3. Non- Moral Standards - ____________________________________________

a. Ethics and morality

b. Moral and non-moral standards

1. React on the following statements: (5 points each)

a. It is wrong to kill one person to save another

b. Different societies have different moral codes

c. There is no objective truth in ethics. Right and wrong are only

Name: ___________________________________ Score: __________________

“Ethics has a prominent importance in my life”

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to

LET’S TALK ABOUT IT

Example of a Moral Dilemma:

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

1. An individual moral dilemma is experienced by individuals who have a hard time to

2. In an organizational moral dilemma, administrative decisions are characterized as

Example of an organizational dilemma: “Company Policy”

Do you tell him about the indiscretion?

Name: ____________________________________________ Score: ________________

a. Moral Dilemma and Morality

b. Organizational Moral Dilemma and Individual Moral Dilemma

c. Individual Moral Dilemma and Systematic types of Moral Dilemma

a. “Your Best Friend’s Wedding” (Adapted from List Verse)

Name: _________________________ Score: _

Name: _________________ Score:

Name: ____________________________ Score:

Name: ___________ Score:

Name: _________________________ Score:

Name: _______________ Score: _

Name: ______________________ Score:

Name: _______________________ Score: _

Name: _______________________ Score: _

Name: _______________________ Score: _