Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY

WHAT IS HYDROMETEOROLOGY? (4) Planning an integrated water resources development

master plan for a basin.
Hydrometeorology = Hydrology + Meteorology
(5) Trans-boundary river water allocation problems, and
Hydrology – study of the occurrence, movement,
(6) Delineation of probable flood levels to plan protection
distribution, and quality of water throughout the earth.
of settlements and projects from flooding or to promote
 Branch of physical geography which is concerned better zoning.
with the origin, distribution, and properties of the
waters of the earth. (Linsley et al., 1958) Domain of Hydrology
 A multidisciplinary subject that deals with the
1. Hydrometeorology – study of the transfer of water and
occurrence, circulation, and distribution of the
energy between land and water body surfaces and the
waters of the earth. In other words, hydrology is the
lower atmosphere.
study of the location and movement of inland
water, both frozen and liquid, above and below  Forecasting flood or drought, determining water
ground. (Chow et al, 1988) resources and safety of dams.
Meteorology – study the physical processes in the 2. Surface Hydrology – study of the hydrologic processes
atmosphere, specifically weather and climate. that operate at or near the Earth’s surface.
 Rivers, dams, lakes
 Water movement in the air.
 Issues on eroding soils and streams due to surface
 Atmospheric phenomenon.
flow.
Hydrometeorology – Meteorological approach to 3. Hydrogeology – “geohydrology”, study of the presence
hydrologic problem. and movement of water in aquifers and shallow porous
media.
Some Applications of Hydrometeorology
4. Watershed Management – drain basin management;
 Estimation of evapotranspiration is used in covers water storage and flood protection.
conceptual hydrologic model.
 Design and construction of water resources project 5. Water Quality – chemistry of water in rivers and lakes,
(e.g. dams, reservoirs) use rainfall data. both of pollutants and natural solutes.
 Estimation of highest floods from discharge records
in order to design spillways into dams, which will Other Branches of Hydrology
protects the dams during strong storms.
 Estimate of magnitude of inflow based or rainfall Chemical Hydrology – study of chemical characteristics of
forecasting for reservoirs to operate and water.
accommodate incoming floodwaters.  Includes studies on the mechanisms by which salts are transported
 Wind assessment over reservoirs to calculate water
by processes such as runoff, erosion, evaporation, and
waves heights which is needed for free board precipitation.
requirements.
Ecohydrology – Study of ecological processes in the
Importance of Hydrology hydrologic cycle.

(1) Estimating reservoir storage capacity  Main components; infiltration of precipitation into the soil,
 Ensure adequate water supplies for municipal, evapotranspiration, leakage of water into deeper portions of the
irrigation and hydropower needs. soil not accessible to plants, and runoff from ground surface.
(2) Planning water resources projects, the peak discharge
Hydroinformatics – Adaptation of information technology
and its volume of flood.
to hydrology and water resources applications.
 Design of irrigation, hydropower, and flood control
projects.  Common types of hydrological data collected; rate of flow of major
 Flood is too high: conservative and unnecessaryrivers and streams, precipitation, and water height in wells.
costly structures
Isotope Hydrology – study of the isotopic signatures of
 Low design flood: loss of the structure itself and
water.
devastating damage to downstream residence
and properties.  Utilizes isotopic dating to determine the origin and age of water
(3) Estimating the impact of watershed management onthroughout
the its movement in the hydrologic cycle.
quantity and quality of the surface and the groundwater
resources.
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Hydrologic Cycle – Continues chain of movement and Two Kinds of Runoff
interchange of water between oceans, atmosphere and
1. Surface Runoff – Precipitation runoff which travels
land surface and below the land surface.
over the soil surface to the nearest stream channel.

2. Subsurface Runoff – water getting infiltrate into

previous soil mass making it ways towards the rivers and
Four Basic Components lakes.
 Evaporation and
transpiration Streamflow – movement of water in a natural channel, such
 Precipitation as river.
 Groundwater 6. Infiltration – downward movement of water from the land
 Runoff surface into soil or porous rock.

 Transition from surface water to groundwater.

7. Percolation – downward movement of groundwater

through cracks, joints and pores in soil and rocks until it
reaches the water table where it becomes groundwater.

Seepage – lateral movement of groundwater.

8. Groundwater Discharge – movement of water out of the

ground.
Groundwater storage –
water existing for long
periods below the
Earth’s surface.

Water Table – level at

which water stands in a
1. Evaporation – water vapor is discharged to the shallow well.
atmosphere as a result of evaporation from the soil.
Basin Hydrologic Cycle
 The process that changes liquid water to gaseous
water (water vapor). Water moves from Earth’s  Used when studying rivers: open system.
surface to the atmosphere via evaporation.  Main input: precipitation, regulated by various
Evaporation occurs when energy (heat) forces the means of storage.
bonds that hold water molecules together to break.  Outputs: channel run off, evapotranspiration and
groundwater outflow.
2. Transpiration – release of water from plant leaves. Every  Groundwater zone:
day, an actively growing plant transpires 5 to 10 times as Zone of Saturation – water fills all the spaces in the
much water as it can hold at once. 10% of the moisture rock.
found in the atmosphere is released by plants. Zone of Aeration – water does not fully saturate the
pores.
3. Condensation – process by which water is changed from
vapor to liquid. Water Table – divides one zone from the other.

4. Precipitation – discharge of water, in liquid or solid state,

out of the atmosphere, generally upon a land or water
surface.

Condensation Nuclei – Tinier dust, salt, or smoke particles in

which water droplets must condense with for precipitation
to happen.

Interception – is precipitation trapped by vegetation

instead of falling directly onto the soil.

5. Runoff – when the rainfall is heavy and the soil saturated,

water flows over the land called Runoff.
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Aquifer – geologic formation which contains water and
transmits it at a rate sufficient to be economically
developed for pumping;
 Provides the
most
important
store of water
and regulate
hydrological
cycle.

Overland flow – occurs in two ways:

 When precipitation exceeds the infiltration rate The hydrologic budget equation
 When the soil is saturated
 Also known as “water budget equation”, states the
Throughflow – water flowing through the soil in natural pipes law f conservation of mass (continuity equation)
percolines (lines of concentrated water flow between which is given by [in consistent units].
horizons).
Inflow = outflow Eq.1
Baseflow – movement of water within the zone of aeration.
Inflow – outflow = ± change in storage Eq.2
Interflow – flow of water within the zone of saturation.
 Water budget equation describes the quantities of
water that goes through the different processes in
the hydrologic system (e.g., watershed, lake, and
reservoir) over a period of time.

Hydrologic System – structure or volume in space enclosed

by a boundary that accepts water and other inputs,
operates on them internally and produces them as output.

 In a hydrologic system, inflow pertains to

precipitation and other inflow waters (e.g., inflow
runoffs) and outflows are evaporation, transpiration
and other outflow waters (outflow runoffs, water
overflow) thus, the water budget equation is
expanded into [in consistent units].

±△S = P + (Rin-Rout) + (Gin-Gout) – ET Eq.3

±△S = P + △R +△G – ET Eq.4

Where:
△S – Change in storage Gin – Groundwater inflow
P – Precipitation Gout – Groundwater outflow
Rin – Runoff inflow ET - Evapotranspiration
Rout – Runoff outflow
Sample Problem 1

A lake had a water surface elevation of 103.2 m above

datum at the beginning of the month. At the same month,
lake received an average inflow of 6 cms (m 3/s) from
surface runoff sources. For the same period, the outflow
from the lake had an average value of 6.5 cms. Further, in
the same month the lake received rainfall of 145 mm and
.
losses due to evaporation of 6.1 cm. Assume the area of
the lake is 5000 ha and assume no contribution from ground
water storage. What is the water surface elevation of the
lake after the month?
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Given: Solution:
10 𝑚𝑚
Rin = 6 m3/s ET = 6.1 cm = 61 𝑚𝑚 1𝑚 10,000 𝑚 2
1 𝑐𝑚
a). 𝑃 = 10.2 𝑐𝑚 × 100 𝑐𝑚 × (400 ℎ𝑎 × ) = 408,000 𝑚3
Rout = 6.5 m3/s A = 5000 ha 1 ℎ𝑎

△G = 0 Elevinitial = 103.2 m
𝑚3 3600 𝑠
P = 145 mm 𝑅 = 1.4 × × 10 ℎ𝑟 = 50,400 𝑚3
𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟
Required: Elevationfinal
±∆𝑺 = 𝑷 − 𝑹
Solution:
6 𝑚3 3600 𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟 30 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 ±∆𝑆 = 408,000 − 50,400 = 𝟑𝟓𝟕, 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝟑
Rin = ( )( )( ) = 15,552,000 m3
𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
15,552,000 𝑚3 10,000 𝑚3 The amount of water not available for runoff is 357,600 m3
Rin = 10,000 𝑚𝑚 ( ) = 311.04 mm
5000 ℎ𝑎 ( ) 1 𝑚
1 ℎ𝑎 𝑹
b). 𝑪 = 𝑷
6 .5 𝑚3 3600 𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟 30 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
Rout = ( )( )( ) = 16,848,000 m3 50,400
𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝐶= = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟒
16,848,000 10,000 𝑚 3 408,000
Rout = 10,000 𝑚𝑚 ( ) = 336.96 mm
5000 ℎ𝑎 ( ) 1 𝑚
1 ℎ𝑎 The ration known as the runoff coefficient

±△S = P + (Rin-Rout) +△G – ET Sample Problem 3

±△S = 145 mm + (311.04 -336.96) + 0 – 61 mm A lake has an area of 10 km2. During a specific month the
lake evaporation was 90 mm. During the same month the
1𝑚
±△S = 58.08 mm ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟖 𝒎 inflow to the lake from a river was on average 1.1 m 3/s and
1000 𝑚𝑚
the outflow from the lake via another river was on average
Elevfinal = 103.2 m + 0.05808 m 1.2 m3/s. Also, for the same month a water level increase of
100 mm for the lake was observed. What is the precipitation
Elevfinal = 103.25808 m ≈ 103.258 m
during the month? Assume: no groundwater flow.

Sample Problem 2 Given:

A = 10 km2
A small catchment basin with area of 400 ha received a ET = 90 MM
rainfall of 10.2 cm in 100 minutes due to storm. At the outlet Rin = 1.1 m3/s
of the catchment, the stream draining the basin was dry Rout = 1.2 m3/s
before the storm and later experience a runoff lasting for ±△S = 100 mm
11 hrs with an average discharge of 1.4 cms when rainfall
occurs. The stream was then again dry after the runoff Required: P
event. a) Determine the amount of water which was not
available to runoff due to combined effect of infiltration, Solution:
evaporation, and transpiration, b) what is the ratio of runoff 𝑚3 3600 𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 30 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
to precipitation? Rin = 1.1 ( )( )( ) = 2,851,200 𝑚3
𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ

Given: Rin = 2,851,200 𝑚3 × (

1
)×(
1000 𝑚𝑚
) = 258.12 𝑚𝑚
1000 𝑚 2 1𝑚
Area of the basin = 400 ha 10 𝑘𝑚 2 (
1 𝑘𝑚2
)

Rainfall = 10.2 cm occurred for 100 mins

𝑚3 3600 𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 30 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
Streamflow @ outlet = dry or 0 before the occurrence of Rout = 1.2 ( )( )( ) = 3,110,400 𝑚3
𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
rainfall
Streamflow @ outlet = 1.4 cms for 11 hrs when rainfall occurs Rout = 3,110,400 𝑚3 × (
1
)×(
1000 𝑚𝑚
) = 311.04 𝑚𝑚
1000 𝑚 2
Streamflow @ outlet was again dry after the runoff event 10 𝑘𝑚 2 (
1 𝑘𝑚2
) 1𝑚

Required: 𝑃 = ± △ S − (Rin − Rout) + ET

a) Amount of water which was not available for runoff
b) Ratio of runoff to precipitation 𝑃 = 100 mm − (285.12 − 311.04) + 90 = 215.92 mm
Working Equation:

a. ±∆𝑺 = 𝑷−𝑹 The precipitation for that month is 215.92 mm

𝑹
b). 𝑪 = 𝑷
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY

Precipitation Precipitation – part of the atmospheric moisture that falls

back on the earth surface.
Six (6) Major Components of Hydrologic Cycle
 Primary input into the hydrologic cycle.
1. Precipitation  Evaporation from ocean surfaces is the chief source
2. Infiltration for precipitation.
3. Evaporation
Formation of Precipitation
4. Transpiration
 Condensation or sublimation of atmospheric
5. Surface Runoff
moisture.
6. Groundwater
Brought about by one or more of the following reasons:
1. Adiabatic Cooling
TOTAL PRECIPITATION
2. Mixing of air masses if varying temperatures
3. Radiation Cooling
4. Contact Cooling
PRECIPITATION EVAPO-
INFLITRATION
EXCESS TRANSPIRATION The more important of these cause are adiabatic cooling
and mixing of air masses of different temperatures.

3 Ways to Form Precipitation

SURFACE DEEP
INTERFLOW 1. Convection
RUNOFF PERCOLATION
2. Cyclonic
3. Orographic
GROUNDWATER
(BASE FLOW)

INTERFLOW

Condensation or Sublimation (Freezing) Nuclei – particles of

ocean salt, products of combustion and oxides of nitrogen
with 0.1 to 10 µm in diameter.

 Condensation nuclei used in aftificially induced

precipitation.
 CO2 (dry ice), AgI, clay minerals with average size
of 10 microns, water droplets and ice crystals weigh
so little that an upward air movement of less than
0.15 m/min is sufficient to keep them from falling into
the earth’s surface raindrops reaching the earth’s
surface are generally over 500 microns (0.5 mm Φ).
 It has been estimated that it will take about a day
for the condensation process alone to form a small
raindrop of about 3 mm Φ.
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY

Formation OF PRECIPITATION e. Hail – balls of ice produced in

convective clouds
Coalescence process – fusion of water droplets as a result  Hailstones – spheroidal, conical or
of their coming in contact through air movement and irregular in shape (specific gravity ≈
gravitational pull. 0.8)
f. Sleet – transparent, globular, solid grains
 Due to differences in size, wind draft and of ice formed by the freezing or raindrops
electrostatic attraction (0.5 to 4.0 mm Φ). or refreezing of melted ice crystals as it falls
 May also be result from electrostatic attraction of in a layer of subfreezing air near the
cloud elements of different electrical charges. surface.
Ice Crystals process – vapor pressure around water droplets Characteristics of Raindrops
is higher than that over ice crystals, resulting in the
condensation of moisture over ice crystals.  Rainfall directly affects soil erosion: the
characteristics of raindrops are of interest.
 This growth of the ice crystals also favors  Raindrops include water particles as large as 7 mm
coalescence with other ice crystals or water Φ.
droplets.  The size distribution in any storm covers a wide
range and varies with rainfall intensity.
Understanding the process of rain formation leads to the
 A higher-intensity storm has more large-diameter
possibility of artificially inducing precipitation focused on
raindrops, and also has a wider range of raindrop
the provision of condensation nuclei (usually silver iodine or
diameters.
dry ice) into rain bearing clouds mixed results.
 Velocity of fall depends on size; large drops fall
There were cases where precipitation was artificially more rapidly terminal velocity of drops varies from
induced and there were cases where rain is artificially about 5 m/s for a 1-mm drop to about 9 m/s for a 5-
induced in certain areas, it was found that there was a mm raindrop.
corresponding reduction of rainfall in neighboring areas,  Small raindrops (radius < 1 mm) are spherical; larger
thus raising far reaching environmental and legal ones assume a shape more like that of a hamburger
implications. bun. When they get larger than a radius of 4.5 mm
they rapidly become distorted into a shape rather
Forms like a parachute with a tube of water around the
base – and then they break up into smaller drops.
1. Drizzle or Mist – tiny liquid water
droplets, 0.1 to 0.5 mm Φ.

 Falls < 1 mm/hr (appear to

float)
2. Rain – liquid water drops > 0.5 mm Φ.

a. Rainfall – refers to amount of liquid Weather Maps – describes the current weather by showing
precipitation the position of isobars, grounds position of the fronts, and
b. Glaze – ice coating, generally the areas of precipitation.
clear and smooth, formed on
exposed surfaces by the freezing
of super cooled water deposited
by rain or drizzle.
 Specific gravity ≈ 0.8 to 0.9
c. Rime – white, opaque deposit of
ice granules separated by
trapped air and formed by rapid
freezing of supercooled water Measurement of Rainfall – amounts and intensity of rainfall
drops. are important since most estimates of runoff rates are
 Specific gravity ≈ 0.2 to 0.3 based on rainfall data.
d. Snow – composed of ice crystals,  8” Standard Rain Gage – rainfall depth (mm)
chiefly in complex, branched  Tipping Bucket Rain Gage – rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
hexagonal form, and often Errors: Water creeping up the meter stick, evaporation,
agglomerated into snowflakes leaks and dents; obstruction from trees, buildings
(may reach 100 mm Φ). (distance from obstruction should be at least 2x the
 Average specific gravity ≈ 0.1 height of the object); human error
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Precipitation-Gage Network

 Affected by the spatial variability and intended use

of data.
Recommended minimum densities of precipitation
networks:
Flat regions 600 to 900 km2 per station
Mountainous 100 – 250 km2 per station
Small mountainous 25 km2 per station  Knowledge of the frequency of hydrologic events is
islands with irregular necessary for the design of structures such as flood
precipitation control reservoirs, open ditches, farm ponds, tile
Arid and polar zones 1500 to 10000 km2 per station drainage systems, bridge openings, and many
other water carrying structures.
Analysis of Rainfall Data  Among the number of frequency distributions or
Rainfall Intensity (usually in mm/hr) – average rainfall depth probability density curves used in hydrology are the
that falls per time increment. normal, log-normal, Gamma, Poisson, and other
 High rainfall intensity indicates that it’s raining hard Pearson types of distribution functions.
and low intensity means that it’s raining lightly.
 Storms of high intensity do much erosion damage Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curve – a tool that
and may cause devastating floods. characterizes an area’s rainfall pattern.
Duration – high intensity storms generally last for short period  Is the plot of duration versus rainfall intensity for
of time. several return periods.
 Storms covering large areas are seldom of high  By analyzing past rainfall events, statistics about
intensity but may last several days. rainfall re-occurrence can be determined for
Frequency – very intense storms are not necessarily more various standard return periods, for example, the
frequent the infrequent combination of high intensity and size rainfall event that statistically occurs every 10
long duration gives larger total amount of rainfall. years.
 The first step in designing a water-control facility is to  Typically 2-,5-,10-,25-,50-, and 100-year return
determine the probable recurrence of storms of periods.
different intensity and duration so that an  Used in design assuming that past rainfall statistics
economically sized structure can be provided. continue to represent rainfall statistics into the
Return Period (Recurrence Interval) – period of time within future.
the depth of rainfall for a given duration will be equaled or  Created with rainfall records collected at a specific
exceeded once on the average. monitoring location.
 The relationship between return period and
probability of occurrence can be expressed by
100
T=
P
Where:
T = return period in years
P = % probability that an observed event in a given year is
equal to or greater that a given event

Hydrologic Frequency analysis

Storm Classification – since no two storms have exactly the
Hydrologic Frequency Analysis – probabilistic analysis of same time-intensity relations, it is convenient to group
hydrologic processes deals with the estimation of the storms with regards to their characteristics.
chance or likelihood of occurrence of a given event by  Based on intensity and pattern of rainfall histogram.
determining the frequency curve of best fit to samples of
hydrologic data.
Frequency Curves – a frequency curve realtes the
magnitude of a variable to its frequency of occurrence.
 The curve is an estimate of the cumulative
distribution of the population of that variable and is
prepared from a sample data.
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY

Thiessen Polygon Method

Isohyetal Method

Areal Precipitation – most hydrologic and agronomic

problems require the estimation of the average rainfall
depth over an area such as a watershed and cropped
area.
 The usual procedure is to extrapolate gage
measurements to areal averages.
Most common methods:
1. Arithmetic Averages – the simplest of the area averaging
methods.
 This involves averaging arithmetically all the rain
amounts measured by the rain gages within the
area.
 Assumes uniform gage coverage of the area and
linear variations in rainfall in between any two
gaging stations.

The average rainfall over an area, P is simply calculated by:

Stream Order (Strahler Stream Order) - used to define
stream size based on a hierarchy of tributaries (Arthur
Newell Strahler, 1952).

Where Pi is the rainfall at each station and n is the number

of stations.

Sample Problem:

The following table shows the mean values of measured

annual precipitation in 5 rain gauges located in a certain
catchment. Determine the average rainfall by the average
method.
Annual
A. PAvg = 500 mm
Estimation of Average Areal Precipitation Station Precipitation
(mm)
P1 800 B. PAvg = 540 mm
P2 600
C. PAvg = 580 mm
P3 900
Arithmetic Method P4 400
D. PAvg = 620 mm
P5 200
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Solution: 3. Isohyetal Method – the rainfall depths recorded in all the
stations in and around an area of interest are plotted on a
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖
𝑃= map of desirable scale.
𝑛
∑𝑛
 By interpolation, lines of equal rainfall depths or
𝑖=1 800+600+900+400+200
𝑃= = 580 mm isohyets are then plotted.
5
 In plotting the isohyets, considerations may be
2. Thiessen Method – assumes that the rainfall in an area
given to various factors influencing the precipitation
may be taken as similar to that recorded in the nearest
over an area (e.g., orographic effects).
gaging station.
 The rainfall within an area enclosed by two
 The location of the rain gages in and around the adjacent isohyets is taken as the average value of
area of interest is first plotted and straight line the two isohyets.
connecting neighboring stations are then drawn.  Hence, the average rainfall over an area is the area
 On each of these lines, perpendicular bisectors are weighted average rainfall of all the area enclosed
drawn resulting in the formations of polygon by two adjacent isohyets.
referred to as Thiessen polygons.
 The average rainfall over the area is then estimated
as the area weighted average rainfall of all the
polygons.

The average rainfall over an area, P is calculated by:

The average rainfall over an area, P is calculated by:

Where:
Ai is the area enclosed by each stations
Where: AT is the total area
Ai is the area enclosed by each stations Pi the rainfall average value between two adjacent
Pi rainfall amount isohyets
AT is the total area

Sample Problem:
A watershed of 544 ac with six rainfall gages can be
divided into Thiessen polygons with the data listed in the
accompanying table. Using the total storm rainfall depths
listed, find the average rainfall over the watershed.
Gage Rainfall Area
(in.) (ac)
A 2.20 101
B 3.22 83
C 0.71 21
D 0.88 111
E 2.49 191
F 6.72 37
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
ARITHMETIC AVERAGE Zone of Aeration (Vadose zone) – consist of the root zone
(soil water), intermediate zone and transition layer to the
Advantages: zone of saturation.
1. Fast and easy  If the transition zone is the capillary zone or
2. Objective fringe, the water is under suction or negative
3. Accurate to extent controlled by gage density pressure as a result of capillary forces.
4. Subject to only slight error in computation

Disadvantages:
1. Ignores orographic effects
2. Uses only stations in basin
3. Gives poor results if stations unequally distributed
(which is the general case)

THIESSEN METHOD
Zone of Saturation (Phreatic zone) – all voids are filled with
Advantages:
water.
1. Stations weighted according to area controlled
2. Utilizes stations outside basin Water Table – divides the two major subsurface
3. Objective zones.
 Locus points where hydrostatic pressure
Disadvantages:
equals atmospheric pressure.
1. Requires some skills at drawing Thiessen
2. Slow Perched Groundwater – local saturated zones
3. Orography generally ignored above impervious layer; of limited extent.
4. Stations have fixed areas for control Aquifer and Confining Beds (in the order of water availability)
5. Requires more computations, therefore subject to
more errors. Aquifer – contains water and transmits it at rate sufficient to
be economically develop for pumping.
ISOHYETAL METHOD
Aquitard – does not readily yield water, but may serve as a
Advantages: storage unit for groundwater (e.g. sandy clay)
 has a leaky confining bed, and transmits
1. Possible to account for topography
water at very low rate.
2. Gives best results (most accurate)
Aquiclude – geologic formation which contains water but
3. Takes advantage of unequal gage density
is not capable of transmitting (e.g. clay)
4. Utilizes stations outside basin
5. For large basins it is possible to determine Aquifuge – has no interconnected openings and cannot
contributing area. Very important in streamflow hold nor transmit water.
analysis.
6. Results can be utilized in transportation techniques Unconfined Aquifer – has water table serving as upper
7. Possible at a glance to see rainfall pattern surface of the zone of saturation.
 Water table wells – the water level in these
Disadvantages: wells indicates the position of the water table
in the surrounding aquifer.
1. Subjective
2. Slow
3. Requires some training skills
4. Subject to possible large errors due to number of
computations
GROUNDWATER

Confined or Artesian Aquifer – ground water is confined by

relatively impermeable layer.

Semi-Confined Aquifer – the upper confining layer is leaky

or semi-permeable.
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
 When the ratio of the permeability of the aquifer
relative to the confining upper layer is at least 10,
the aquifer is considered to be a confined one.

Artesian Wells – wells drilled into confined aquifers, water

rises to the piezometric level.

Flowing Wells – wells drilled into confined aquifers wherein Isotropic Aquifers – those with uniform hydraulic
the piezometric level is above ground. conductivity
Anisotropic Aquifers – those with varying k values.

4. Coefficient of Transmissibility – rate of flow of water at the

prevailing water temperature through a vertical strip of the
aquifer one foot wide extending the full saturated thickness
of the aquifer under a hydraulic gradient of 100%.

Transmissibility, T – the rate at which water of the prevailing

kinematic viscosity is transmitted through unit width of the
aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient.

 In confined aquifers, the product of aquifer

Important Aquifer Properties thickness (b) and hydraulic conductivity (k), thus,
1. Specific Retention, Sr – measure of the water retained by 𝐓= 𝐤 ×𝐛
the soil formation against the force of gravity.
𝑉𝑤𝑟 5. Storage Coefficient or Storativity, Sc – the volume of
𝑆𝑟 = × 100 water released or added per unit area of aquifer per unit
𝑉𝑇
drop or rise in head or pressure.
Where:
Vwr – volume of water retained  Confined aquifer’s water yielding capacity.
VT – total volume
Sr – specific retention; in percent

2. Specific Yield, Sy – the water that can be extracted by

gravity flow.

 Measure of the volume of water yield per unit soil

volume.
𝑉𝑤𝑦
𝑆𝑦 = × 100
𝑉𝑇
Where:
Vwy – volume of water yield
VT – total volume
Sy – specific retention; in percent

Specific Yield, Sy – the fraction of the porosity of an aquifer.

 Fraction of water stored in between the field

Well Hydraulics
capacity and saturation point. Steady-state Flow – implies that at any given point within
 For most alluvial aquifers, Sy ranges from 5-30% of n. the flow field, flow properties such as head and velocity do
 Discharge from or recharge into a well is reflected not vary with time.
in the change in the volume of stored water within
the aquifer. Drawdown – vertical distance from the static water table
level to the piezometric level at the well any time during
3. Hydraulic Conductivity/Coefficient of Permeability, k pumping.
 Flow rate per unit area normal to the flow direction
resulting from one units of hydraulic gradient Well Losses – additional drawdown due to friction in the well
causing the flow. screen and filter pack

 Difference between the theoretical and actual

drawdown.
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Steady Radial Flow in Confined Aquifers – the flow is Sample Problem
assumed to be two dimensional in a homogeneous,
A 20-ft thick confined aquifer with hydraulic conductivity of
isotropic aquifer.
400 ft/day was trapped by a 4-inch diameter shallow tube
Thiem equation well. With a radius of influence of 2,500 ft, determine the
maximum discharge of the STW in liters per second. Assume
an allowable drawdown of 12 ft.
Since,
Given:
b=t= 20’ d = 4 in
k = 400 ft/day r2 = 2,500 ft
allowable dr = 12 ft

Required: Qmax in L/s

Solution:

Groundwater – shallow well areas are mostly located at

elevations below 50 m below above mean sea level.
Deep well area are usually located at elevation above 50
meters above mean sea level.
Aquifers are usually located at a depth of more than 20
meters below ground surface.
Difficult areas – areas with insufficient data to be classified
as either shallow or deep well areas or areas with varying
Unconfined Aquifer
groundwater depths (e.g., faults and other geologic
discontinuities).

Shallow Tubewells (STW): 20-60 ft depth (for shallow

aquifers)
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Stages of STW Irrigation Development Well Construction Methods:
1. Dug Wells – by pickax and shovel
1. Collection of baseline information
2. Bored Wells – by earth augers
Determine the lithologic properties of the site such as: 3. Driven Wells – by driving a casing with screened
a. Thickness of confining layer drive point.
b. Thickness of aquifer 4. Jetted Wells – by excavating hole with high pressure
c. Depth of confining layer jet of water.
If not available conduct WELL LOGGING 5. Percussion Drilling Method – by raising and
dropping with chisel bit.
6. Hydraulic Rotary Method – by rotating a drill pipe to
which one or several types of drag or roller bits is
attached
a. Normal Rotary
b. Inverse Rotary
7. Air Rotary Method – drilling fluid is air rather than
mud.
4. Well development

Reasons:
1. To increase its discharge capacity
2. To prevent sand pumping
3. To attain sustainable yield
4. To obtain maximum economic life

2. Well design and specifications Objective:

1. To remove the materials surrounding the well openings.
a. Pipe specifications
b. Pipe length
c. Pipe perforations
d. gravel pack for unconfined aquifers.

5. Pumps and prime mover (pumpset) specification and

installation

3. Well drilling and pipe installation

 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY

Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration - process by which precipitation
reaching the earth’s surface is returned to the atmosphere
as vapor through evaporation from wet surfaces and
transpiration by plants.
 Important parameter in predicting the irrigation
requirements of crops, estimating runoff from river
basins and in determining the amount of water
available from storage reservoirs

 During photosynthesis, air enters the leaf through

the stomata and chloroplasts within the leaf uses
carbon dioxide from the air and a small portion of
the water to manufacture carbohydrates for plant
growth.
Evaporation - occurs when some water molecules in a free  As the leaf surface is impermeable to water vapor
water surface attain enough kinetic energy to overcome and other gases, gaseous exchange is controlled
the attractive forces of other molecules and eject by the stomatal action.
themselves from the water mass.  As air enters the leaf, water escapes through the
open stomata.
Vapor Pressure - the motion of the escaping molecules.  Each stoma lies between two guard cells;
 Some of the escaping molecules may collide with  Stomatas open when water moves into and
those in the air and drop back into the water elongates the guard cells.
surface.  Stomatal action is influenced by light intensity, air
 Some water molecules in the air may also strike the temperature, moisture supply of leaves, relative
water surface and get trap by the water mass. humidity and chemical changes within the plant
 The number of escaping molecules will exceed that leaves.
of returning molecules if the air above the water  From 95 to 99 % of the water extracted by plant
surface is not saturated, that is, the pressure roots is used in transpiration.
exerted by the escaping molecules exceeds that  The annual amount of water loss through
of the surrounding air transpiration may vary from 0.50 to 2.0 meters
 Under equilibrium condition, the surrounding air is at depending upon soil, hydrologic and
saturation vapor pressure and the number of climatological conditions as well as type of crop
escaping molecules equals that of returning and density of cover.
molecules

Transpiration - evaporation of water from plants.

 Process in which water molecules escape through

tiny openings in leaves called stomata which may
number up to 100,000 per sq. cm leaf area.

 Soil water passes through the root membrane due

to osmotic pressure and transferred through the
plant to the intercellular spaces within the leaves.
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY

Importance of Evapotranspiration
A. Hydrologic Cycle – ET redistributes energy within an
ecosystem and throughout the atmosphere.

B. Crop Yield – water availability determines plant survival,

development and productivity; cooling mechanism for
plants.
Direct Measurement of Crop ET:
C. Irrigation Management – estimation of ET determines the 1. Soil Water Balance 2. Lysimeter
status of soil water supply; helps to know when to initiate
crop irrigation and how much water to irrigate.

Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration

1. Bowen Ratio-Energy Balance Method

A. Weather Parameters - radiation, air temperature,

humidity and wind speed.
2. Climatological Methods
Reference Evapotranspiration (𝑬𝑻𝑶) - ET from
standardized vegetated surface, not short of water,
at any given climatic condition
B. Crop Factors - Crop type, variety and development
stage.
Crop Evapotranspiration (𝑬𝑻𝑪) - calculated from the
climatic and crop data by integrating the crop
coefficient 𝑘𝑐.
Standard Conditions for 𝑬𝑻𝑪
 Disease-free, well fertilized crops that are Pan Evaporation method – observing the evaporation loss
grown in large fields under optimum soil from a water surface and applying empirical coefficient to
water. relate pan evaporation to ETo.
 Excellent management and environmental
conditions.
 Achieve full production under the given
climatic conditions
C. Management and Environmental Factors - adjustment
reflects the effect on 𝐸𝑇𝐶 of the environmental and
management conditions on the field.
Non-optimal Conditions:
 Presence of pests and diseases
 Soil salinity STREAMFLOW AND RUNOFF
 Low soil fertility
 Water shortage or water logging Surface Runoff – precipitation that falls on the saturated or
impervious ground and flows downhill over land.
Watershed – area containing natural waterways bounded
by arbitrary selected outlets and by ridges, summits, and
hydraulic boundaries such that precipitation falling onto
this area is trapped within and consequently discharged
through the area.
 River basin; catchment area; drainage area;
drainage basin.
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Streamflow – amount of surface water flowing downhill  Represents the response of the basin on a given storm
through creeks, streams, and rivers toward the oceans. duration and characteristics.

Sources of Streamflow: Synthetic Hydrograph – prepared using data from a

a) Channel precipitation number of watershed to develop dimensionless unit
b) Groundwater runoff (baseflow) – enters the hydrographs which are applicable to ungagged
streambed where the channel intersects the water watersheds.
table, providing a steady supply of water during
To obtain Unit Hydrograph:
both dry and rainy periods.
1. From the natural hydrograph, subtract baseflow from
c) Interflow – water that infiltrates the soil and then
runoff data.
moves laterally to the stream channel in the zone
2. Determine equivalent depth (d) of DRO
above the water table. 𝐷𝑅𝑂
d) Surface Runoff – water that which travels over the d = 𝐴 𝑡 Where: A = watershed
t = time interval
ground surface and through the channels to reach 3. Obtain a Unit Hydrograph by normalizing the DRH.
the basin outlet. (Normalizing implies dividing the ordinates of DRH by VDRH in
Overland Flow – that part of surface runoff equivalent units of depth.)
that flows over the surface towards the
stream channel. Sample Problem
Direct Runoff - surface runoff plus interflow. Obtain a unit Hydrograph for a basin of 350 sq km of area
using the stream flow tabulated data.
Important Properties of Runoff
Time (hr) Discharge, Q UH Coordinates
Peak Flow (qp) – used to determine the magnitude of floods (m3/s) Q/d
and valuable consideration in the design of structures. 0 200
Time to Peak (tp) – used for flood forecasting and water 1 200
2 400
quality studies; watershed response time.
3 800
Runoff Volume (V) – total yield from a storm for a given 4 1100
watershed. 5 900
Recession Time (tr) – time for surface and interflow to 6 700
7 500
recede; duration of flooding. 8 400
Base time (tb) – total of time to peak and recession time; 9 300
(tr = tp + tr). 10 200
11 200
Base Flow – low flow; dependable flow, groundwater
discharge. Σ = 5900 m3/s

Runoff Hydrograph – graph showing the rate of flow Water Stage Measurement – height of the water surface at a
(discharge) versus time past a specific point in a river, or location along a stream or river.
other channel or conduit carrying flow. 1. Staff Gage
2. Crest Stage Gage – provide record of the highest stage
 Area under the hydrograph gives runoff volume. observed at a stream.
3. Bubbler Gage – record the pressure required to maintain a small
Two types of contributions to a streamflow hydrograph: flow of gas from an orifice submerged in the stream.
1. Base Flow – a result of releases of water from subsurface 4. Float-type Water-Stage Recorder – motion of a float is recorded
storage. on a graph.
 The fairly regular lower portion that changes slowly
Discharge Measurement
throughout the year.
1. Estimation Method
2. Direct Runoff – determined using a unit hydrograph. 2. Float Method Where:
 A rapidly fluctuation component that represents
𝟐 Q = discharge (m 3/s)
the immediate response to rainfall. Q=
𝟑
𝑨𝑽 V = velocity (m/s)
Direct Runoff Hydrograph Development A = cross sectional area (m 2)
Basic Hydrograph – assumes that all hydrographs from all
Generally, actual velocity is about 80-85% of surface velocity.
small watersheds (in the US) have similar forms.
 It is plotted over 100 arbitrary units of time. 3. Current Meters
V = a + bN
Triangular Hydrograph – approximation of basic a). Price (Cup-type) Meter
hydrograph b). Propeller-type Meter Where:
V = water velocity
 Develop mainly to simplify flood routing procedures.
a = starting velocity or velocity required to
Unit Hydrograph (Leroy K. Sherman, 1932) – a hydrograph overcome mechanical friction
with a unit volume (e.g., 1 cm) of direct runoff for a given b = constant proportionality
storm duration (e.g., 1 hour). N = revolution per seconds of the meter
cups/ propeller
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
4. Weirs and Flumes Runoff Hydrograph – a plot of runoff magnitude versus time.
Weirs - structures built into the stream that force the
water to flow through an opening of a known size
and shape.
Flumes – artificial open channels built to contain
flow within a designed cross section and length.

5. Use of Manning’s Equation and similar empirical formula

𝟏.𝟒𝟗
V=( )(Rh2/3)(s1/2)
𝒏

Where:
n = a roughness coefficient
Rh = the hydraulic radius = A/WP (WP = wetted perimeter)
s = energy slope as approximated by the water surface slope

6. Stage-discharge Relation (Rating Curve) – develop by

steam gauging multiple times, at different flows, seasons
etc.

Estimating Volume of Runoff

Rational Method
Q = CIA
Where:
Q = peak runoff rate (cms/cfs)
I = rainfall intensity (mm/hr or in/h) for a duration equal to the time of
concentration and for the given return period
A = catchment area (ha or acres)
C = runoff coefficient (ratio of the peak runoff rate to the rainfall intensity)
Time of concentration,
tc = 0.02 L 0.77 S-0.385 (Metric)
tc = 0.0078 L 0.77 S-0.385 (English)
Where:
L = maximum length of flow (m or ft)
S = watershed gradient (ft/ft or m/m) or the difference in elevation
between the outlet and the most remote point of the watershed.

Sample Problem
For a watershed of 360 hectares, the peak run-off rate for a
0.5 cm/hr rain intensity (at the time of concentration) was
observed as 2.5 m3/s. What is the run-off coefficient?

Runoff Hydrographs
Estimation of important Runoff Properties
Method Runoff Property
Use of empirical equations Peak flow, dependable
water supply Sample Problem
Hydrologic frequency Peak flow, dependable Given the following observed flows from a storm of 3-hr
analyses water supply
duration on a watershed with a drainage area of 10 sq. km.
Hydrograph analyses Peak flow, dependable
Assume that the base flow at the end of the runoff period
water supply, time to peak,
runoff volume. is 6.0 cubic meters per second.
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
1. Determine the direct run-off hydrograph by separating Sample Problem
the baseflow. P1 = 2 in, P2 = 3 in, and P3 = 1 in, baseflow = 500cfs and
watershed area is 7.03 mi2. Given the Unit Hydrograph
2. Derive the unit hydrograph (for 1 centimeter of direct below, determine the streamflow hydrograph.
runoff) for the 3-hr rainfall)
Time Q Base Flow Direct Runoff 3-hr UH
(hours) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s)
1 6 6 0 0.0
2 15 6 9 5.0
3 27 6 19 10.6
4 21 6 15 8.3
5 13 6 7 3.9
6 6 6 0 0.0
TOTAL DEPTH 1.8 cm 1.0 cm

1. Direct Runoff Hydrograph

B. Basic Hydrograph – was develop using hundreds of

recorded hydrographs in the United States.
 These hydrographs were all standardized to reflect
100 units of w and k.

2. Unit Hydrograph – is a hydrograph with unit volume of

direct runoff (e.g. 1 cm) for a given storm duration.

 The resulting average hydrograph, which is the

basic hydrograph is not directly useful under the
Philippine setting.
 The approach to basic hydrograph development is,
however, very useful. Using available stream flow
records, we can develop a basic hydrograph for
small watersheds in the Philippines.
C. Triangular Hydrograph – is an approximation of the basic
hydrograph. It was develop mainly to simplify flood routing
procedures.
Methods of Hydrograph Development
A. Unit Hydrograph – the unit hydrograph concepts enable
one to synthesize hydrographs from complex storms by
superimposing the hydrographs resulting from the individual
components of the storms.
 Since the physical characteristics of basin that
govern flow (e.g. shape, size, slope, etc.) are
constant, it is reasonable to assume that direct
runoff from rain events of the same duration will
have the same shape and base time.
Application of UH
 Once a UH is derived, it can be used/applied to find
direct runoff and streamflow hydrograph from other
storm events,
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Where:
Tc = time of concentration
tp = lag time
C = 2.08 (283.4 in English System)
A = drainage Area in km2 (mi2)
tb = base time
tr = duration of effective rain fall
Tp = time to peak/recede
qp =Peak flow/discharge

Sample Problem
Construct a 15-min SCS UH. A= 2.5 km2 and Tc = 1.2 hrs
1 ℎ𝑟
tr = 15 min ( ) = 0.25 h
60 𝑚𝑖𝑛
tp = 0.6Tc = 0.6 x 1.2 = 0.72 h
𝑡𝑟
Tp = + 𝑡𝑝
2
0.25
Tp = + 0.72 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒𝟓 𝐡
2
𝐶𝐴 2.08 𝑥 2.5
qp = = = 6.15 m3/s-cm
𝑇𝑝 0.845
tb = 2.67Tp

tb = 2.67 x 0.845 = 2.26 h

Hydrograph Shape
“When the local abstractions have been accomplished for
a small area of a watershed, water begins to flow overland
as overland flow, and eventually into drainage channel (in
a gulley or stream valley.

Factors:
a. Drainage Area
b. Channel slope
c. Hydraulic roughness
d. Natural and channel storage
e. Stream length
f. Channel density
g. Antecedent moisture conditions
Other: vegetation, channel modifications, etc.
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Sample Problem
The ordinates of a 6-hr unit hydrograph are given. A storm
had 3 successive 6-hr intervals of rainfall magnitude of 3,5,4
cm, respectively. Assuming a phi-index of 0.2 cm/hr and a
base flow of 30 m3/s. Determine the resulting hydrograph of
the flow.
Given:
Baseflow = 30 m3/s
Phi-index = 0.2 cm/hr
Time Magnitude Intervals Phi-index Magnitude – 1.2
0 – 6 hr 3 cm 6 x 0.2 = 1.2 1.8 cm
6 – 12 hr 5 cm 6 x 0.2 = 1.2 3.8 cm
12–18 hr 4 cm 6 x 0.2 = 1.2 2.8 cm

Time Ordinate UH x UH x UH x DRH Baseflow Hydrograph

(hr) of 6-hr 1.8 3.8 2.8 (cm3/s) (m3/s) of Flow
UH cm cm cm
0 0 0 - - 0 30 0
6 250 450 0 - 450 30 420
12 600 1080 950 0 2030 30 2000
18 800 1440 2280 700 4420 30 4390
24 700 1260 3040 1680 5980 30 5950
30 600 1080 2660 2240 5980 30 5950
36 450 810 2280 1960 5050 30 5020
42 320 576 1710 1680 3966 30 3936
48 200 360 1216 1260 2836 30 2806
54 100 180 760 896 1836 30 1806
60 50 90 380 560 1030 30 1000
66 0 0 190 280 470 30 440
72 - 0 140 140 30 110
Sample Problem (Unit Hydrograph) 78 - - 0 0 30 0
Given the following observed flows from a storm of 3-hr
duration on a watershed with a drainage area of 10 sq. km.
Assume that the baseflow at the end of the runoff period is
6.0 cubic meters per second.
1. Determine the direct run-off hydrograph by separating
the baseflow.
2. Derive the unit hydrograph (for 1 centimeter of direct
runoff) for the 3-hr rainfall.
Time (hr) Q Base Flow Direct Runoff 3-hr UH
(m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Q/d
1 6 6 0 0.0
2 15 6 9 4.81 Weather and Climate
3 27 6 21 11.23
4 21 6 15 8.02 Weather – the condition of the atmosphere at any
5 13 6 7 3.74 particular time and place. (Short term)
6 6 6 0 0.0  It is always changing and is comprised of the
∑ = 52 (m3/s) elements of:
1. Air temperature 5. Precipitation
𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜 187,200 𝑚 3
VDRO = ∑DRO (∆t) d= = 1000 𝑚 2
2. Air Pressure 6. Visibility
𝐴 10 𝑘𝑚 2 ( )
1 𝑘𝑚 3. Humidity 7. Wind
𝑚3 100 𝑐𝑚
= 52 (3600 s) d = 0.01872 𝑚( ) 4. Clouds
𝑠 1 𝑚
VDRO = 187,200 m3 d = 1.87 cm Climate – the “average weather” of a particular region.
(Long Term)
 Represents the accumulation of daily and seasonal
weather events over a long period of time.
 Climatic classification (Koppen System)
a. Tropical Moist Climates
b. Dry Climates
c. Moist mid-latitude climates with mild winters
d. Moist mid-latitude climates with severe winters
e. Polar Climates
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Climatic Controls Southeast (SE) trade winds (S. Hemisphere)
a. Intensity of sunshine and its variation with latitude  Air masses moving towards the equator that
b. Distribution of land and water are deflected to the left by the Coriolis
c. Ocean currents force.
d. Prevailing winds  Originated from the South Pacific
e. Position of high and low pressures anticyclone.
f. Mountain barriers  Reach the southern part of the Philippines
g. Altitude (lower altitude = high pressure and vice versa) from May to July.

Climatic Controls for Philippine Climate C. Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

a. Topography and location
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) – region of
b. Trade winds
convergence of the two trades (NE and SE trade winds)
c. Fronts
from the two hemispheres that is characterized by a
d. Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
relatively low-pressure zone.
e. Easterly waves
 The weather over this zone is quite distrusted
f. Monsoon winds
consisting of widespread cloudiness, precipitation,
g. Tropical cyclones
occasional thunderstorms and moderate to strong
surface winds.
 Affects the Philippines from May to October.

D. Easterly Waves

A. Philippine Geography and Topography Easterly Waves – wavelike oscillations that move with the
 Located at the tropical region (between 5° and 21° easterly currents of the tropics in an east-to-west direction.
N and between 117° and 127° E).  Have the tendency to propagate typhoon.
 Located about 800 km off the coast of mainland SE  Affect the Philippines about twice a week in varying
Asia and consists of more than 7,000 islands. intensities being more frequent in the summer that
 Has varied geographical and topographic features the winter months.
that bring a variety of climatic conditions and
influence the orographic type of rainfall.

B. Trade Winds
 Develop in regions between the subtropical high
pressure belts and the equatorial trough (0-30°).

E. Monsoon Winds
 Seasonal winds arising from the temperature
differences between the land the ocean.
 Continents tend to warm up easily during summer
and cool rapidly during summer.
2 Types of Monsoon winds:
1. Northeast (NE) monsoon
Northeast (NE) trade winds (N. Hemisphere) 2. Southwest (SW) monsoon
 Air masses moving towards the equator that are
deflected to the right by the Coriolis force.
 Reach the Philippines in the NE, E and SE directions.
 Warmest air masses that affect the Philippines and
its convection activity may result to the formation of
fair weather cumulus and stratocumulus clouds.
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Northeast (NE) Monsoon – winter monsoon or locally known Types of Front
as “amihan”.

 Coldest air masses that affect the

Philippines during winter months
appear in the Philippines from
October to March (with
maximum intensity in December
and January).

Climate of the Philippines

Southwest (SW) Monsoon – summer monsoon or locally Temperature
known as “habagat”. Mean Annual Temperature – 27.1°C
Mean Annual Temperature (Baguio) – 18.3 °C
 Warm and humid air masses that
Warmest Month - May (mean T=28.3°C)
bring heavy rains which are
Coldest Month – January (mean T=25.5°C)
concentrated over the western
coastal areas of Luzon and Humidity
Visayas. Mean monthly RH – 71% (March) to 85% (September)
 Arrive in the Philippines from May
to September (with maximum Rainfall (annual rainfall varies from 965 to 5000 mm)
intensity in August).
Lies astride the typhoon belt and experiences 15 to 20
typhoons a year from July through October.

F. Tropical Cyclones
Tropical Cyclones – A large vortex of air (usually 25 km)
spiraling inwards towards the center where the pressure is
at a minimum.

 Effect can be felt over as far as 500 km from the

“eye” and bring torrential rains and high wind
velocities that are destructive to life and property,
 Number of tropical cyclones that enter Philippine
Area of Responsibility (PAR) based from 1948-2000 Philippines Climatic Types
data. The Corona Classification
Average: 20 per year  TYPE 1. Two pronounced
Minimum: 11 per year (1998) wet and dry seasons:
Maximum: 32 per year (1993) wet during the months
Classification based on maximum wind speed: of June to November
and dry from December
 Tropical Depression – max wind speed: 30-64 kph to May.
 Tropical Storm - max wind speed: 65-117 kph  TYPE 2. No dry season
 Typhoon - max wind speed of more than 117 kph with a very pronounced
maximum rain and
G. Fronts
February.
Fronts – develop in the middle latitudes and considered as  TYPE 3. No pronounced
the interface between the NE monsoon and north Pacific maximum rain period
trades. and short dry season
lasting from one to three
 Affect the Philippines during winter months and months.
responsible for a portion of the rainfall and  TYPE 4. Uniformly
cloudiness along the eastern coats of the country. distributed rainfall.
Types of Front
1. Cold Front
2. Warm Front
Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
 Abe31 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Tropical Cyclone
 Intense low-pressure system.
 Originated from tropical oceans T = 27 °C
 Winds rotate in a counter-clockwise direction
(Northern Hemisphere).
 With minimum winds of 45 km per hour.
 Generally moves westward then poleward.
 Diameter ranges from 300-100- kilometers.

Weather Systems: Structure of a Typhoon

Eye – relatively calm & generally clear area of sinking air

and light winds.
Eyewall – ring of tall clouds and thunderstorms that
produce heavy rains and usually the strongest winds.
Rainbands – curved bands of clouds and the thunderstorms
that trail away spirally from the eye wall, capable of
producing heavy burst of rain, wind, tornadoes, etc.

Classification of Tropical Cyclone

Air Pressure, temperature, humidity & wind

Transport of Heat (Principles of Thermodynamics)
 Heat always flows from areas of higher temp toward
areas of lower temp.
 Heat is transported through Conduction,
Stages of Tropical Cyclone Warning CONVECTION, and RADIATION.

Conduction – occurs within the substance or between

substances that are in direct physical contact.
 Heat is transferred by a collisions between
neighboring atoms or molecules.
 Air – very poor conductor of heat (good insulator)
 Heat is conducted from warm ground to cooler
overlying air (significant only in very thin layer of air
that is in intermediate contact with the earth’s
surface).
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Convection – occurs only in liquids and gases.
 Transport of heat within a fluid via motions of the
fluid itself.
 Occurs in the atmosphere as a consequence of air
density.
 Warm is less dense than cold air, hence, the cooler,
denser air sinks downward and forces the warmer,
lighter air to rise. The cooler air is then heated by the
ground.

Radiation – principal means whereby the earth- Divergence – air descends and diverges at the earth’s
atmosphere system gains heat from the sun and loses heat surface.
to space. Convergence – air converges at the earth’s surface and
 Does not require an intervening physical medium ascends.
and can take place in a vacuum.  Less air diverge than air subsides – high pressure
 Less air converge than air rises – low pressure.
Specific Heat – amount of heat required to change the
temperature of 1 g of the substance by 1 °C.
 Substance with low specific heat warm up easily
than substance with high specific heat.
 Water – high specific heat (exhibits a greater
resistance to temperature change than land).
 Land – low specific heat (heats up more during the
day and in summer and cools down more at night
and during winter).

Temperature – measure of the average kinetic energy of

the individual atoms or molecules.
 Measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of the
object.
At absolute zero (-273°C or - 459°F), the atoms or
molecules would possess a minimum amount of energy
and theoretically no thermal motion.
Air Pressure – a measure of the force exerted on the
Temperature Gradient – change in temperature with
surfaces of all objects that it contacts per unit of surface
distance.
area.
Horizontal temperature gradient (between equator
 Air pressure at a given location is the weight per unit
and poles)
area of the column of air above that location.
Vertical temperature gradient (between earth’s
 At the atmosphere, air pressure decrease with
surface and tropopause)
increasing air temperature.
Geographic Distribution of Temperature
GENERAL RULE: Weather becomes stormy when air
 Surface air T tends to be highest at low altitudes and
pressure falls and becomes fair and when air pressure
to decrease pole ward.
rises.
 Distorted by the influence of land and water
Air Pressure Gradients - change in air pressure with distance masses, topography and vegetation.
and initiates air motion.  T are higher in summer and lower in winter in large
To eliminate the pressure gradient, the wind blows islands and continents than on coasts for the same
away from regions where air pressure is high and latitude.
towards regions where air pressure is relatively low.  T at high elevations are colder than a low levels.

Time Variations of Temperature

 The daily variation in T lags slightly behind the daily
variation in solar radiation. T begins to rise shortly
after sunrise, reaches a peak 1 to 3 hours after the
sun has reached its highest altitude and falls
through the night to a minimum about sunrise.
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Lapse Rate – vertical temperature gradient.  Atmospheric moisture decreases with elevation
 Rate of change of temperature with height in the and is greater over vegetation than over barren soil.
free atmosphere.
Mean Lapse Rate – decrease of about 0.7°C per 100 m Time Variations of Humidity
 Like T, atmospheric moisture is at minimum in winter
increase on height.
and at a maximum in summer.
Temperature Inversion – increase in temperature with
 In the north hemisphere, the driest months are
height because of surface cooling (may occur during still,
January and February and most humid are July and
clear or cloudless night – little turbulent mixing of air and
August.
outgoing radiation is unhampered by clouds).
 RH is at minimum in summer and maximum in winter.
Dry-adiabatic Lapse Rate – rate of temperature change of
 Minimum atmospheric moisture near sunrise and
unsaturated air resulting from expansion or compression as
maximum by noon.
the air rises (lowering pressure) or descends (increasing
 RH is at maximum in the early morning and at a
pressure) without heat being added or removed – 1°C per
minimum in the afternoon.
100 m.
Super-adiabatic Lapse Rate – air near the ground is Latent Heat of Vaporization (Hv) – amount of heat
sufficiently heated-greater than 1°C per 100 m. absorbed by a unit mass of a substance, without change in
 Unstable condition – will continue to rise. temperature , while passing from the liquid to the vapor
Saturated adiabatic Lapse Rate – if the air is saturated state;
(RH=100%) and is lifted adiabatically, its water vapor will Hv (kJ/g) = 2.50 – 0.00236 T (°C)
condense, releasing latent heat of vaporization.
Latent Heat of Fusion – amount of heat required to convert
 Less than DALR
1 gram of ice to liquid water at the same temperature
Pseudo-adiabatic Lapse Rate – the rate at which the (0.337 kJ/g at 0°C)
temperature of the air will decrease if the moisture of the
Latent Heat of Sublimation – is the amount of heat required
rising air is precipitated as it is condensed (not strictly
to convert 1 gm of ice into vapor at the same temperature
adiabatic as the heat is carried away by the falling
without passing the liquid state (2.83 kJ/g at 0 °C)
precipitation).
 The specific gravity of water vapor is 0.622 times
Saturated or Pseudo- adiabatic – neutral equilibrium that of dry air at the same temperature and
Less than SALR or PALR – stable pressure.
Greater than SALR or PALR – unstable  Moist air is lighter than water.

Humidity - measure of the amount of water vapor in the air. Dewpoint Temperature (Td) – temperature at which space
Evaporation – process by which liquid water is converted become saturated when air is cooled under constant
into vapor. pressure and with constant water vapor content.
 Rate of evaporation increases with temperature,
 Temperature at which e = es
since kinetic energy increases and surface tension
decreases with temperature. Wet-bulb Depression – difference between the air and wet
Relative Humidity (RH %) – ratio of the amount of moisture bulb temperatures.
in a given space to the amount the space could contain if
saturated. Saturation deficit (e-es) – drying power of air.
 Percentage ratio of the actual vapor pressure to Specific Humidity (qh) – mass of water vapor per unit mass
the saturation vapor pressure. of moist air (expressed in grams/kilogram)

Vapor Pressure (e) – partial pressure exerted by water

vapor in a gaseous mixture. Where pa is the total pressure of the air in kilopascal
Saturation Vapor Pressure (es) – pressure exerted by vapor Mixing Ratio (wr) – mass of water vapor per unit mass of
in a saturated space. perfectly dry air in a humid mixture.
Geographic Distribution of Humidity  Also expressed in grams/kilogram of dry air
 Atmospheric moisture decreases with increasing
latitude.
 RH, being an inverse function of T, increases with
latitude.
 Atmospheric moisture is greatest over oceans and
decreases with distance inland.
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Perceptible Water (Wp) – total amount of water vapor in a
layer of air extending up from the earth’s surface expressed
in depth.
 Estimates the amount of precipitation that might
occur over a given region.
Wp = ∑ 0.1 qh Δpa
Where:
Wp is in mm; pa in kPa in kPa; and qh is in g/kg and is the
average of the specific humidities at the top and bottom
of each layer.
Wind – air in motion.
 Exerts considerable influence in evaporation
process.
 Important in the production of precipitation, since it
is only through sustained inflow of moist air into a
storm that precipitation can be maintained.
 Has both speed and direction.
Geographic Variation of Wind
 In winter, surface winds blow from colder interior of
land masses towards the warmer oceans.
 In summer, winds blow from cooler bodies of water
towards warmer land. Groundwater Flow – movement of water through the
Geographic Variation of Wind phreatic zone.
 Diurnal land and sea breezes result from
temperature differences between land and water.
 Wind speed and direction are influenced by
orographic barriers (upslope – daytime and
downslope).
 Oro means mountain.

Time Variation of Wind

 Wind speeds are highest and most variable in winter
and calmest during summer.
 Diurnal variation of wind is significant only near the
ground and is more pronounced during summer.
 Wind speed: minimum – sunrise; maximum – early
afternoon
GROUNDWATER FLOW
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Darcy’s Experiment
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Seepage Velocity – velocity through the void spaces
obtained by dividing the average velocity by the porosity.

v ki
vs  
n n
Hydraulic Conductivity – the ability of the soil to transmit
water.

It depends on:
 Particle Size
 Void Ratio
 Composition
 Fabric
 Degree of Saturation

Groundwater Occurrence

Aquifer – a geologic formation or stratum containing water

in its voids or pores that may be extracted economically
and used as a source of water supply.

Confined Aquifer – groundwater is confined under pressure

greater than atmospheric by overlaying impermeable
strata.
 It is also known as artesian or pressure aquifer.
Darcy’s Law
Darcy observed that: Unconfined Aquifer – a water table serves as the upper
1. Q is the proportional to the head loss. surface of the zone of saturation.
2. Q is proportional to the cross-sectional area of flow.  It is also known as a free, phreatic or non-artesian
3. Q is inversely proportional to the length of flow path. aquifer.
4. Q is influenced by the nature of the medium. Flowing Artesian Well – exists when the piezometric surface
lies above the ground surface.
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Aquiclude – a geologic formation so impervious that for all
practical purposes it completely obstructs the flow of
groundwater (although it may itself be saturated with
water).
Aquitard – a geologic formation of rather impervious and
semi-confined nature which transmits water at a very slow
rate compared to an aquifer.
Specific Retention (Sr)
Wr
Sr =  Using the plane polar coordinates with the well as
Vt the origin, the well discharge rate Q for steady
Where:
radial flow to the well at any distance r is obtained
Wr is the volume of water retained
as
Vt is the total volume of rock (soil)
Specific Yield (Sy) – the water removed by the force of
gravity. It is also known as effective porosity.
Wy
Sy =  For the boundary condition at the well, and at the
Vy edge of the island, we can write:
Where:
Wy is the volume of water drained
Vt is the total volume of rock (soil)
N = Sr + Sy
Tramissivity (T) – a measure of the ease of water movement
 For the more general case of a well penetrating an
in the soil.
extensive confined aquifer, there is no external limit
T=Kxb
for r. At any given value of r we can write:
Where:
K – Hydraulic conductivity
b – Aquifer thickness
Steady Radial Flow to a well
 When a well is pumped, water is removed from the
 The equilibrium equation enables us to determine
aquifer surrounding the well, and depending on the
the hydraulic conductivity of a confined aquifer
type of aquifer, the water table or piezometric
from a pumped well that fully penetrates the
surface is lowered.
aquifer.
 The drawdown at a given point is the distance the
 The method consists of measuring drawdown in two
water level is lowered. A drawdown curve shows
observation wells at different distances from a well
the variation of drawdown with distance from well.
pumped at a constant rate.
In three dimension, the drawdown curve describes
a conic shape known as the cone of depression.

 Assume two dimensional flow to a well centered on

a circular island and penetrating a homogenous
and isotropic confined aquifer. Assume the flow is
horizontal everywhere.
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For Unconfined aquifer

Sample Problem No.1 Q


k h1  h2
2 2

ln  r1 
A fully penetrating well of diameter 0.3 m abstracts water
from a confined aquifer. Compute the discharge when the
steady state drawdown at distances of 10 m and 60 m are
 r2 
respectively 2.4 m and 0.5 m, given the thickness of the Sample Problem No. 3
aquifer and k as 20 m and 10 m/day respectively. A well of radius 30 cm fully penetrating a water table
Given: Required: Q aquifer, with hydraulic conductivity of 20 m/day and an
𝑑𝑤 initial head above the impervious stratum of 40 m, is
= 𝑟𝑤 = 0.3 𝑚
2 pumped till a steady water level in the well is 35 m above
s1 = 2.4 m
the stratum. Assuming that the radius of influence is 600 m
s2 = 0.5 m
and that there are no well losses, estimate the steady state
r1 = 10 m
discharge.
r2 = 60 m
b = 20 m Given: Required: Q
k = 10 m/day r1 = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Solution: r2 = 600 m
𝑠1−𝑠2 K = 20 m/day
Q = 2π𝐾𝑏 𝑟2
𝐼𝑛 ( ) h1 = 35 m
𝑟1
h2 = 40 m
𝑚 2.4 𝑚−0.5 𝑚
Q = 2π(10 )(20 𝑚)
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝐼𝑛 (
60 𝑚
) Solution:
10 𝑚
𝜋𝐾(ℎ12−ℎ22)
Q = 1,332.55 m3/day Q= 𝑟1
𝐼𝑛 (𝑟2)
Sample Problem No. 2
A well fully penetrates a 25-m thick confined aquifer. After
𝜋(20)(352 − 402)
a long period of pumping at a constant rate of 0.05 m 3/s, Q= 0.3
the drawdowns at distances of 50 and 150 m from the well 𝐼𝑛 ( )
600
were observed to be 3 and 1.2 m, respectively. Determine
the hydraulic conductivity.
Q = 3,099.89 m3/day