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Materials Selection in Oil and Gas -An Overview

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.10626.45769

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 Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

1 Introduction
In the oil and gas industry, corrosion-related failures have been reported to constitute over 25% of
total safety incidents. The problem of corrosion in oilfield environments is predominantly
associated with the presence of corrosive species such as CO2 (causing sweet corrosion) and H2S
(causing sour corrosion), and other associated reservoir constituents. Oxygen-related corrosion is
mostly encountered in water injection systems. Some of the corrosion is found associated with as-
manufactured defects on metallic components. This corrosion leads to material degradation
causing costly failures with severe consequences for human life and the environment [1]–[3].
According to NACE IMPACT, in 2013, the global cost of corrosion-related economic losses for
all industries is estimated to be USD 2.5 trillion, which is equivalent to 3.4% of the global Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) including corrosion in the oil and gas production industry where the total
annual cost of corrosion is estimated to be USD 1372 billion [1], [4].
Commonly, corrosion control focuses on materials and environments. Active corrosion control is
by taking effective control of the process of corrosion, which includes the modeling of the system,
material selection, and general design. The material selection process is one of the key stages in
the integration assurance of the system, which plays an important role in the overall corrosion
control process [1], [5].

2 Materials Selection Consideration

Choosing among materials to manage the corrosion needs a very careful understanding of the
working and environmental conditions including design pressure and temperature, weldability,
compatibility, and corrosion concerns especially the severity of the service fluid, such as pH, H2O,
H2S, CO2, O2, salt, and other fluid content of the crude oil or gas. The materials selection process
shall consider all statutory and regulatory requirements. The project design criteria, such as design
lifetime, cost profile (CAPEX/OPEX), inspection and maintenance philosophy, safety and
environmental profiles, operational reliability, failure risk evaluations, and other specific project
requirements should be considered [5]–[7].
In addition, other criteria such as the safety and easy-to-repair level should be considered in the
material selection process. As a rule of thumb, it should be taken extra attentions to products that
are used in hard-to-repair locations. For offshore installations and particularly subsea, access for
the purposes of maintenance and repair can be limited and costly and should be carefully
considered in the design [5]–[7].

3 Material Selection Methods

The selection of materials can be a complex procedure, if improperly carried out can lead to
mistakes in application and misunderstanding about the performance of a materials in a specific
service environment. There are a variety of ways individuals and companies select materials [8]:
1) Companies with large research facilities typically initiate a test program that involves
simulating the particular part of the field environment under study (i.e. flowlines versus
downhole). Based on the available information, a group of alloys is selected that represents

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 Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

a possible range of alternatives. It is more cost-effective and less time-consuming to test

only a few materials that are likely candidates, rather than test all alloys all the time [8].

2) Review the literature for corrosion data that generally applies to the anticipated field
conditions. This can narrow the number of candidate alloys for testing. The selected
materials are then tested under very specific conditions to fill gaps in literature data and/or
field experience. Care must be taken when using this approach, for example, the corrosion
resistance of many materials is specific to a particular temperature range. Likewise,
changes in critical environmental components such as elemental sulfur can have a profound
impact on the resistance to stress corrosion cracking (SCC), and another important factor
in alloy selection [8].

3) The quickest and least expensive alloy selection method is simply to review the codes,
standards, and literature including but not limited to ISO 21457 [6], NORSOK M-001 [7],
and ISO 15156/NACE MR0175 (all parts) [9], [10], and existing or similar field data, and
make the selection. These standard covers different alloy types with separate tables for
different applications. It is important to obtain the latest version and corrigenda. This
method can be quite unsatisfactory since certain critical factors or conditions will not be
known and must be assumed. A greater chance for error exists in this approach is the
introduction of a potential for failure of the materials or the use of a more expensive alloy
than is required. It is advisable if this method is used, to consult with someone who has a
working knowledge of materials and their applications [8].

4 Materials Selection Framework

This article provides an overview of material selection and corrosion protection for the oil and gas
industry based on well-established and robust material selection guidelines standards including
ISO 21457 [6], NORSOK M-001 [7], and ISO 15156/NACE MR0175 (all parts) [9], [10]. Figure
1 shows the material selection framework. This article gives an overview of guidance and
requirements for:
• Corrosion evaluation.
• Design and limitations in mechanical properties
• Material selection based on codes, standards, and literature.
• Compatibility of dissimilar materials.
• Corrosion protection and control.
• Cost-effective selection.
• Corrosion monitoring.

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 Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

Figure 1. Materials selection framework.

5 Corrosion Evaluation
Corrosion evaluation is an inevitable part of the material selection process. It is necessary to know
the environment of oil and gas in the system. Commonly, sweet service or sour service. ISO
15156/NACE MR0175 defines ‘sweet service’ as service in any gas free of hydrogen sulfide.
While ‘sour service’ is used to identify environments containing measurable amounts of H2S [10].
Production of sand and other solids are also common in most oil and gas wells. Therefore,
materials selection in oil and gas is normally based on an evaluation of corrosion and erosion. The
corrosion mechanisms and the specified process design parameters are included in ISO 21457, for
offshore installations, NORSOK M-001 should be considered, see Table 1 and Table 2 [5]–[7].
All internal and external media should be considered for the entire design life. This should also
include the stages of transportation, storage, installation, testing, and preservation. The aim of
corrosion evaluation is to find how corrosive and aggressive the service fluid is to the materials.
Corrosion evaluations and calculations should be based on well-known corrosion models (such as
the Sell model, NORSOK M-506, etc.), laboratory tests, or field experiences [5]–[7].
Calculated corrosion rates based on models should be verified by the end user in order to
incorporate field experience. If corrosion evaluation using the field experiences method, requires
a well-documented successful experience of the material usage at the specific service fluid
condition for at least two years and should preferably involve a full examination of the equipment
following field use. In this case, according to ISO 15156/NACE MR0175, the usage of the same

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 Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

material at a similar service condition is acceptable. The severity of intended service conditions
shall not exceed that of the field experiences [5]–[7], [10].

6 Design and Limitations in Mechanical Properties

Mechanical properties such as yield strength, tensile strength, hardness, and impact toughness
should be considered in the selection of materials. In addition, for parts of the production system
that operate at low temperatures or experience low temperatures, can suffer thermal cooling
stresses and thus require material toughness to be sufficient to prevent brittle fracture under these
conditions [6], [7], [9], [10].
Exposure temperatures during intermediate stages, such as manufacturing, storage, testing,
commissioning, transport, and installation, should be considered when specifying the design
temperature. Material properties based upon the minimum and maximum design metal
temperatures and wall thicknesses shall be in compliance with specified design codes. The material
weldability should also be considered to ensure an effective fabrication [6], [7], [9], [10].
The following guidelines for design and limitations in mechanical properties should apply for
materials selection [6], [7], [9], [10]:
• The specified minimum yield strength (SMYS) of carbon and low alloy steels intended for
welding should not exceed 560 MPa. A higher SMYS may be specified, provided that
documentation showing acceptable properties with respect to weldability and the properties
of the base material, heat-affected zone, and weld metal is presented.
• Usage limitations for materials in H2S-containing environments shall be in accordance with
ISO 15156-2 and ISO 15156-3.
• Free-machining steel grades should not be used.
• Austenitic SS castings with PREN ≥ 40 should not be used for butt weld components due
to risk of micro cracking in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) in weldments.
• For martensitic carbon, low-alloy and CRA, the hardness of any components shall not
exceed 328 HB or 35 HRC (submerged parts that exposed to CP).
• Ferritic-austenitic (duplex) stainless steel shall be regarded as potentially susceptible to
HISC, independent of SMYS or specified maximum hardness. Compliance with DNV-RP-
F112 shall be specified (submerged parts that exposed to CP).
• The hardness of weld and HAZ of any steel grade should not exceed 350 HV10 for non-
H2S-containing service.
• Titanium should not be used for hydrofluoric acid or anhydrous methanol with water
content less than 5 %.
• Certain titanium alloys in submerged parts may not be compatible with cathodic protection.

7 Materials Selection Based on Standards

Nowadays, codes like ISO 21457 [6], NORSOK M-001 [7], and ISO 15156/NACE MR0175 (all
parts) [9], [10] provide materials selection guidelines for specific systems and areas in the oil and
gas industry. Based on these codes [6], [7], [9], [10], for wet hydrocarbon systems, the internal and
external corrosion mechanisms indicated in Table 1 and Table 2 should be evaluated. Materials
carbon steel or corrosion-resistant alloy (CRA) listed in Table 1 and Table 2 are the recommended
options for material selection in this systems. CRA should be evaluated against carbon steel when
this is considered appropriate in the materials selection process [6], [7].

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 Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

However, these standards do not exclude the use of other materials. Use of materials with equal or
better performance shall be agreed with end-user [6], [7]. Furthermore, materials selection for
other systems and areas such as oil and gas production and processing systems, flare systems,
produced water systems, injection systems, utility systems, pipelines, and flowlines are provided
in ISO 21457 [6] and NORSOK M-001 [7].
In addition, the possibility for "sour" service conditions during the lifetime shall be evaluated. Sour
service definition, metallic materials' requirements, and qualification shall be according to ISO
15156/NACE MR0175 (all parts) [6], [7], [9], [10]. The evaluation and use of materials in
conditions containing H2S, where cracking including hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) shall
follow the requirements. This evaluation should include the potential for future changes in
reservoir H2S content. Dehydration of gas or use of corrosion inhibitors should not relax the
requirement to use H2S-resistant materials [6], [7], [9], [10].
Material selection shall be optimized and provide acceptable safety and reliability for the entire
design life. As a minimum based on code and standard [6], [7], [9], [10], the following shall be
considered:
• Corrosivity, taking into account specified operating conditions including start up and shut-
down conditions.
• Design life and system availability requirements.
• failure probabilities, failure modes and failure consequences for human health,
environment, safety, and material assets.
• Resistance to brittle fracture.
• Inspection and corrosion monitoring.
• Access and philosophy for maintenance and repair.
• Minimum and maximum operating temperature.
• Minimum and maximum design temperature.
• Weldability (girth welds and overlay welds).
• Hardenability (carbon and low alloy steels).
For the final material selection, the following additional factors shall be included in the evaluation:
• Priority shall be given to materials with good market availability and documented
fabrication and service performance.
• Number of different materials shall be minimized considering stock, costs,
interchangeability and availability of relevant spare parts.
• Environmental impact and authority permissions, e.g., on discharge of chemicals like
corrosion inhibitors shall be considered.

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Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

Table 1. Materials prone to internal corrosion mechanisms in hydrocarbon systems [6], [7], [11].
Corrosion Materials prone
Description Parameters
mechanism CS & LAS1 CRA2
CO2 corrosion is one of the most common Temperature, partial
corrosion mechanisms oil and gas pressure and fugacity
production and processing systems. The of CO2 and H2S, pH,
CO2 and H2S
presence of H2S in combination with CO2 content of organic Yes Yes3
corrosion
influences the corrosion. The type of acids and flow
corrosion is dependent on the proportions of conditions.
these constituents in the production fluids.
Microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC) Water intermittent,
caused by living organisms such as bacteria, stagnant, or low-flow
algae, or fungi. It is often associated with the conditions allow
presence of tubercles or slimy organic and/or promote the
MIC substances. Often, the bacteria produce growth of Yes Yes
localized corrosion in the form of pitting or microorganisms. pH
crevice corrosion. range of 0 to 12, and
temperatures from 0 °F
to 235 °F.
Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC) is the H2S level, pH,
cracking of a susceptible metal under the contaminants,
combined action of tensile stress and temperature,
corrosion in the presence of water and H2S. microstructure,
SSC/SCC
SSC occurs in high-strength (high-hardness) hardness (correlates to Yes Yes
caused by H2S4
steels, in highly localized zones of high strength), and tensile
hardness in weld metal and HAZs. PWHT is stress level (applied or
beneficial in reducing the high hardness and residual).
residual stresses.
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking (HIC) results See SSC/SCC caused
from hydrogen atoms diffusing into the steel by H2S, with
as a result of corrosion, resulting in internal consideration that
separations parallel to the surface of the blistering and HIC
steel. The separations grow then eventually damage develop
HIC/SWC4 Yes No
forming a thru-wall leak path. without applied or
Interconnecting cracks between HIC residual stress. PWHT
separations on different planes have a stair- will not prevent them
step appearance, so HIC is sometimes from occurring.
referred to as “Stepwise Cracking (SWC)”.
Alkaline environments containing Level of tensile stress
compounds such as amines, caustic or and/or residual stress,
carbonates can cause alkaline stress the type and
corrosion cracking (ASCC) of carbon steels, concentration of
especially where there is the potential to amines, NH3 and H2S,
ASCC5 Yes No
concentrate these compounds, e.g. in the caustic or carbonates,
presence of crevices or evaporation. temperature, pressure,
Typical mitigation measures may include fluid velocity, localized
heat treatment after welding or forming, use turbulence, pH, and
of protective coatings, and CRA. alloy composition.
Internal Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) Chloride content,
can occur in SS in the absence of H2S and temperature, pH,
dissolved oxygen. This is due to water tensile stress, presence
evaporation and deposition/concentration of of oxygen, and alloy
SCC without
chlorides in high salinity waters and at high composition. No Yes
H2S
temperatures. Systems where this can occur
should be designed with fresh wash water
injection facilities or resistant materials
should be used.
The material loss due to flowing solid The velocity and
Erosion/Erosion-
particles (sand) or in a liquid or vapor stream number of impacting Yes Yes
Corrosion
physically abrading the material to material particles (sand), size,

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Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

Corrosion Materials prone

Description Parameters
mechanism CS & LAS1 CRA2
loss accelerated by the flow of corrosive shape, hardness, and
liquid or vapor possibly combined with the density of particles, the
velocity-assisted removal of a protective hardness of the
film or scale. material, and the angle
of impact.
1)
CS = Carbon Steel; LAS = Low Alloy Steel
2)
CRA = Corrosion-Resistant Alloy
3)
The presence of H2S in combination with CO2 can also lead to localized attacks of CRAs. There are no generally
accepted limits and the limits vary with type of CRA.
4)
The evaluation and use of materials in conditions containing H 2S, where cracking including hydrogen-induced
cracking is possible, shall follow the requirements given in ISO 15156/NACE MR0175 (all parts) [9], [10]
5)
Reference can be made to NACE RP0403 for guidance on caustic cracking or to API RP 945 for guidance on
amine cracking.

Table 2. Materials prone to external corrosion mechanisms in hydrocarbon systems [6], [7], [11].
Corrosion Materials prone
Description Parameters
mechanism CS & LAS1 CRA2
The external marine atmospheric MOT limits to avoid
environment contains water and chloride chloride-induced SCC:
salts. Carbon steel will be corroded. CRAs
can suffer from corrosion, including pitting, Material
MOT (°C)
crevice corrosion and SCC. Welds are Grade
particularly vulnerable to SCC. Type
60
A coating may be applied to prevent such 316 ASS
External marine Type
corrosion and SCC. Operate material below
atmospheric 6Mo 120 Yes Yes
Maximum Operating temperature (MOT) ASS
environments limits to avoid chloride-induced SCC. Type
Nickel-, titanium- and copper-based alloys 22Cr 100
are in general considered to be immune to DSS
SCC in marine environments. Type
25Cr 110
DSS
ASS = Austenitic SS
DSS = Duplex SS
The corrosion of metals from exposure to Temperature, moisture
soils and submerged environment. The and oxygen availability,
external protection of buried or submerged soil/water resistivity,
structures is usually achieved by a soil/water type,
Buried and
combination of external coatings and cathodic protection,
submerged Yes Yes
cathodic protection. stray current drainage,
installations
Depending on metallurgical condition, some and coating type, age,
CRAs, such as UNS S17400, UNS N05500 and condition.
and duplex stainless steel, can be susceptible
to HSC while catholically protected.
Corrosion of piping, pressure vessels, and Temperature, presence
structural components resulting from water of chlorides, local
trapped under insulation or fireproofing. condensation on the
Corrosion Under
metal surface, duration
Insulation (CUI) Yes Yes
of wetting, coating
and fireproofing
system, insulation and
sealing system, and
environment.
1)
CS = Carbon Steel; LAS = Low Alloy Steel
2)
CRA = Corrosion-Resistant Alloy

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 Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

8 Corrosion-Resistant Alloy (CRA) Selection Literature

Corrosion-resistant alloys (CRAs) are employed in severe oil and gas production environments
that operate at high pressures and temperatures and contain chlorides, CO2, and H2S. They exhibit
high resistance to uniform corrosion in these environments due to their passivity. CRA generally
includes a wide range of Fe–Ni–Cr–Mo–W and Ti alloys that tend to form a passive film [12].
However, CRA can suffer from different forms of environmentally assisted cracking (EAC),
depending on the environmental and metallurgical conditions. The localized corrosion resistance
of the CRAs is often ranked by the pitting resistance equivalent number (PREN). The limits of
SCC resistance are given in terms of chloride concentration, temperature, pH, and H2S partial
pressure. ISO 15156/NACE MR0175 provides a number of guidelines for the selection of CRAs
for sour service. The ISO15156-3/NACE MR0175-3 standard lists a number of environments
where different CRAs could be used in service without further testing [9], [10], [12], [13].
Today, the qualification of materials for oil and gas production is based on a research and
development, combination of standard tests, fitness for purpose evaluations, and, perhaps more
importantly, experience [13]. Several research has been conducted for the development of selection
corrosion-resistance alloys for the oil and gas industry. A selection scheme for CRAs was identified
by Ueda and Sumitomo Metals and reproduced in Figure 2 [12], [14].

Figure 2. CRA selection scheme, adapted from Ueda and Sumitomo Metals [12], [14].

9 Compatibility of Dissimilar Materials

Galvanic corrosion can occur when dissimilar metallic materials are connected together in a
conductive corrosive fluid. The extent of the galvanic corrosion risk is influenced strongly by such
factors as the area ratio of the two metals, the cathode efficiency of the more noble metal, the

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 Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

conductivity of the electrolyte, oxygen content, and temperature. It is necessary to evaluate all
these parameters in the design of the facilities [6], [7].
Wherever dissimilar metals are coupled together, a corrosivity evaluation shall be made. If
galvanic corrosion is likely to occur, there are the following methods to mitigate it [6], [7]:
• Flange connection is the preferred method of connecting dissimilar materials when there
is a significant risk for internal galvanic corrosion.
• Install a distance spool between the dissimilar metals so that they will be separated by at
least 10 pipe diameters from each other. The distance spool may be either of a solid
electrically non-conducting material (e.g. GRP) or of a metal that is coated internally with
an electrically non-conducting material, e.g. vulcanized rubber. The metal in the distance
spool should be the most noble of the dissimilar metals unless vulcanized rubber lining is
selected.
• Apply a corrosion allowance on the less noble metal or a sacrificial thick-walled carbon
steel spool, which is designed for replacement at scheduled intervals.
• Install internal sacrificial anodes through access fittings near the interface, e.g. resistor-
controlled cathodic protection for seawater systems.
• Apply electrical isolation of dissimilar metals; however, the risk of electrical continuity via
pipe supports, decks and earthing cables should be evaluated.
• At critical interfaces between dissimilar metals in hydrocarbon production and processing
systems, weld overlay of the flange face of the less noble material with a corrosion-resistant
material may be considered.
• Apply a non-conducting coating on the most noble of the dissimilar metals to reduce the
cathode area. The coating shall extend at least 10 pipe diameters into the most noble pipe
material.
• For connections between copper alloys and stainless steel/nickel alloys/titanium, the use
of easily replaceable spools with added wall thickness should be evaluated.
• Direct contact between aluminum and carbon steel or copper alloys shall be prevented.
If the use of dissimilar metals is unavoidable and necessary, an attempt to select metals which form
“compatible couples or groups” should be made. The “Galvanic Corrosion Indicator” published
by the International Nickel Company Ltd. can be useful [15].

10 Corrosion Protection and Control

For dry gas/oil/condensate systems, carbon steel can be selected with no requirements for internal
corrosion control. However, a corrosion allowance may be required if periods of wetness are
envisaged during the construction/commissioning phases or during the operational phase [6].
For wet gas/oil/condensate processing, the corrosivity of the wet gas/oil to carbon steel can be very
high due to the low pH of the condensed-water phase. Therefore, the appropriate material choice
combined with appropriate corrosion control shall be considered [6], [7].
10.1 Chemical Treatment
Common methods of chemical treatment for carbon steel in production and processing facilities
are the use of film-forming inhibitors, oxygen scavengers, biocides, anodic inhibitors, and pH
stabilizers. Environmental requirements for the use of corrosion inhibitors should be agreed with
the end user [6], [7].

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 Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

Parameters that can strongly influence the feasibility of chemical inhibition are temperature, flow
conditions, H2S content, compatibility with other chemicals, and effects of erosion in solids-
containing systems. For produced water systems, contaminants such as oxygen and MIC should
also be considered. These parameters should be defined in the design basis. The performance of
inhibitors should be confirmed via laboratory testing. Actual field trials should be performed to
test and optimize the dosing [6], [7].
10.2 Corrosion Allowance (CA)
An internal corrosion allowance is commonly used for carbon steel. The corrosion allowance
should be added in response to expected internal corrosion. Each system should be evaluated and
the selected corrosion allowance supported by corrosion evaluations. Possible corrosion during the
construction, installation, preservation, start-up period and production upsets should be included,
in addition to the expected corrosion during normal operation. The corrosion allowance formula
was provided in NORSOK M-001 [6], [7].
Commonly used corrosion allowances in piping systems are listed below [6], [7]:
• 1.0 mm to 1.5 mm for non-corrosive service.
• 3.0 mm for mildly corrosive service.
• 6.0 mm for severely corrosive service.
For pipeline systems, a maximum internal corrosion allowance of 8 mm to 10 mm should be used
as a general upper limit for use with carbon steel [6], [7].
10.3 Internal and External Coating
Selection of internal coating for equipment should be performed on an individual basis due to the
very wide range of possible service conditions. Additionally, some internal coating systems are
specified in conjunction with cathodic protection [6].
External coating system selection for carbon steel should consider the design life, operating
conditions and conditions during construction, transport, storage, commissioning and installation
of the facilities. Carbon steel shall always have external surface protection when exposed to
external atmospheric environment. Guidance on selection of coating system selection for different
environments is given in ISO 12944-5 and surface preparation grades are defined in ISO 12944-
4. Performance of the external coating system for carbon steel for offshore atmospheric and
immersed conditions should generally conform to the requirements of ISO 20340, or NORSOK
M-001 and NORSOK M-501 [6], [7], [16].
For equipment with SS material in the marine atmosphere, special consideration should be given
to coating selection, surface preparation, and quality control during the application of the selected
coating system. It should be recognized that external coatings can have service lives that are shorter
than the anticipated operational life cycle and can require maintenance in order to minimize the
threat of SCC of SS equipment or external corrosion of carbon steel. The coating systems selection
and requirements for application shall be as specified in ISO 12944-5, ISO 12944-4, and ISO
20340, or NORSOK M-001, and NORSOK M-501 [6], [7], [16].
10.4 Cathodic Protection (CP)
A. Offshore
The cathodic protection design shall be in accordance with NORSOK M-503 [17] for submerged
installations and seawater-containing compartments or NACE SP0176 [18] or DNV-RP-B401 [19]

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 Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

for subsea structures and components, and ISO 15589-2 [20] for offshore pipelines. Subsea
installations should be protected against corrosion using paint or other coating systems combined
with cathodic protection. Cathodic protection systems, or coating systems, or both, should be used
for all metallic materials that are susceptible to seawater corrosion. An exception is made for
components where it is impractical to obtain reliable electrical contact with the anode system. Such
components shall be made either of seawater-resistant materials or of carbon steel with a sufficient
corrosion allowance for the required lifetime [6], [7].
B. Onshore
The cathodic protection design for onshore buried pipelines should be as described in ISO 15589-
1 [21]. Cathodic protection should be considered for all other underground steel equipment, e.g.
buried fire-water ring mains, but this should depend on the external corrosivity evaluation [6].
10.5 Splash Zone Protection
For structures and risers in splash zones, the corrosion protection for permanently installed
equipment shall consist of coating and corrosion allowance. The selected coating should be
designed to perform for the entire design life. Damage to the coating system should be expected.
The corrosion allowance for risers should take into account exposure of bare steel to the
environment for a realistic period for repair of coating damage. The corrosion allowance for carbon
steel should be based on the predicted corrosion rate and design life but should be a minimum of
6 mm unless otherwise specified. NORSOK M-001 provides guidelines for splash zone protection
[6], [7].
10.6 Corrosion Protection of Closed Compartments
For completely closed and sealed dry atmospheric compartments in carbon steel structures,
internal corrosion protection is not necessary. Dehumidification equipment can be applied in a
closed or semi-closed atmospheric compartment to prevent humidity and corrosion [6], [7].
For completely closed seawater filled compartments in carbon steel (e.g. in jacket legs, J-tubes
and caissons) no internal corrosion protection is needed. For compartments with volume to area
ratios exceeding 1 m3/m2 and a possible, but restricted sea water exchange (e.g. subsea
installations), treatment with oxygen scavenger can be used as an alternative to cathodic
protection. In structural compartments with low water circulation where H2S can be formed, zinc
anodes should be used [6], [7].
10.7 Corrosion Under Insulation Control
Insulation for structures, vessels, equipment, piping systems etc. shall be according to NORSOK
R-004 and ensure drainage at low points and access in areas where maintenance and inspection
are required. Heat tracing shall be avoided in conjunction with stainless steel materials [7].
Passive fireproofing materials for protection of structural steel or for area segregation should be
of spray applied types. A corrosion protection coating system shall be applied to the steel. The use
of cement type fire protection of aluminum structures should be avoided [7].
10.8 Other Corrosion Controls
Other corrosion controls are provided in ISO 21457, in additional for offshore installations,
NORSOK M-001 should be considered [6], [7].

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 Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

11 Cost-Effective Selection
Before extensive efforts are made to make a final CRA selection for a specific application, it is
often desirable to make preliminary selections of candidate CRAs to test in a simulated field
environment or to perform an economic analysis to judge the cost-effectiveness of several
corrosion control alternatives (i.e. carbon steel plus inhibitors, CRAs, etc.). In most instances, there
will be different alternative materials that may be considered for a specific application [8], [15].
Calculation of true long-term costs requires estimation of the following:
• Total installation cost.
• Service life.
• Maintenance cost.
• Time and cost requirement to replace or repair at the end of service life.
• Cost of downtime to replace or repair.
• Cost of inhibitors, extra facilities, or training required to assure achievement of predicted
service life.
• Time value of money.
• Factors which impact taxation, such as depreciation and tax rates.
• Inflation rate.
For example, in the offshore atmospheric environment, material selection and surface protection
shall be such that general corrosion is cost-effectively prevented and chloride stress corrosion
cracking, pitting, and crevice corrosion are prevented. It should be realized that every process and
treatment will give added value and increase the final material cost. Also, the costs of alloys will
be higher than those of unalloyed metals [7], [15].

12 Corrosion Management
A corrosion management program shall be prepared and implemented before start-up of
production. Carbon steel in combination with suitable measures to control corrosion is the base
case material selection for most production facilities. Selection of CRAs will limit the need for
inspection and monitoring. A corrosion management program for carbon steels used in corrosive
service should as a minimum consist of the following parts [6], [7]:
• Definitions of roles, responsibilities and reporting routines within the organization.
• Corrosion risk evaluation.
• Planning and execution (methods, location and frequency) for corrosion monitoring,
process parameter monitoring and water analyses.
• Planning and execution of addition of corrosion control chemicals.
• Develop procedures for evaluation of corrosion monitoring data and for verification that
the corrosion rates and conditions are within acceptable levels (pre-defined targets).
• Definition of consequences and actions if targets are not met.
12.1 Corrosion Monitoring
Requirements for corrosion monitoring including locations for monitoring devices and sample
points should be included as a part of detailed engineering. The design of corrosion monitoring
systems shall take into account the probability and consequences of failure. Typical monitoring
methods and their application are given in Table 3 [6], [7].

Febri Ramdani Nugraha Materials and Corrosion Engineer febriramdaninugraha@gmail.com

 Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

Permanent corrosion monitoring shall always be used when the corrosion control is based on
chemical treatment. For cathodically protected components should be considered when the
components are not accessible for potential measurements. Monitoring can include both reference
electrode(s) for potential measurement and monitored anodes for current determination. Other
methods that can be used to assess the corrosivity are fluid analyses and wall thickness
measurements and various inspection methods. It is recommended to use at least two methods.
One method should always be weight loss coupon(s) [6], [7].
Table 3. Internal corrosion monitoring [7].
Method Applicable systems Comments Notes
Weight loss coupon All systems Coupon should be of the
same/similar material as the wall. 1
May include weld
Linear polarization Systems with an Requires normally approx. 30%
resistance aqueous/electrically aqueous phase with min. 0.1%
conducting phase salinity
Galvanic probes Aqueous Water injection systems
Electrical resistance All systems Downstream inhibitor injection
points when monitoring pipelines
Erosion/sand Process flowline systems
monitoring probes Subsea production systems
Hydrogen probes Hydrocarbon systems For sour service conditions
Notes
1. Recommended maximum time between inspection/replacement: 3 months.

13 References

[1] V. A. Solovyeva, K. H. Almuhammadi, and W. O. Badeghaish, “Current Downhole

Corrosion Control Solutions and Trends in the Oil and Gas Industry: A Review,”
Materials, vol. 16, no. 5. MDPI, Mar. 01, 2023. doi: 10.3390/ma16051795.
[2] Alireza. Bahadori, Corrosion and materials selection : a guide for chemical and
petroleum industries. 2014.
[3] M. Iannuzzi, A. Barnoush, and R. Johnsen, “Materials and corrosion trends in offshore
and subsea oil and gas production,” npj Materials Degradation, vol. 1, no. 1. Nature, Dec.
01, 2017. doi: 10.1038/s41529-017-0003-4.
[4] E. Bowman, N. Thompson, D. Gl, O. Moghissi, M. Gould, and J. Payer, “NACE
IMPACT: International Measures of Prevention, Application, and Economics of Corrosion
Technology Study,” 2016.
[5] M. Eskandarzade, A. Kalaki, M. Safajou-Jahankhanemlou, and M. N. Ershadi, “Material
Selection Strategy for Corrosion Control in Iranian Upstream Oil and Gas Industry,” 2022.
[Online]. Available: http://jgt.irangi.org/article_699817.html
[6] International Organization for Standardization, “ISO 21457: Petroleum, petrochemical and
natural gas industries — Materials selection and corrosion control for oil and gas
production systems,” 2010.

Febri Ramdani Nugraha Materials and Corrosion Engineer febriramdaninugraha@gmail.com

 Materials Selection in Oil and Gas – An Overview

[7] NORSOK standard, M-001: Materials selection. 2014. [Online]. Available:

www.standard.no/petroleum
[8] B. D. Craig and L. Smith, “Corrosion Resistant Alloys (CRAs) in the oil and gas industry
- selection guidelines update,” 2011.
[9] ANSI/NACE/ISO, “ANSI/NACE MR0175/ISO 15156-2: Petroleum, petrochemical, and
natural gas industries - Materials for use in H2S-containing environments in oil and gas
production - Part 2: Cracking-resistant carbon and low-alloy steels, and the use of cast
irons,” 2015.
[10] ANSI/NACE/ISO, “ANSI/NACE MR0175/ISO 15156-1: Petroleum, petrochemical, and
natural gas industries - Materials for use in H2S-containing environments in oil and gas
production - Part 1: General principles for selection of cracking-resistant materials,” 2015.
[11] ANSI/API, “ANSI/API RP 571: Damage Mechanisms Affecting Fixed Equipment in the
Refining Industry,” 2020.
[12] N. Sridhar, R. Thodla, F. Gui, L. Cao, and A. Anderko, “Corrosion-resistant alloy testing
and selection for oil and gas production,” Corrosion Engineering Science and Technology,
vol. 53, pp. 75–89, Mar. 2018, doi: 10.1080/1478422X.2017.1384609.
[13] M. Iannuzzi, “Environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) in oil and gas production,” 2011.
[14] Sumitomo Metals, “Material Selection Guidelines: SUMITOMO PRODUCTS FOR THE
OIL AND GAS INDUSTRIES.”
[15] Alireza. Bahadori, Corrosion and materials selection : a guide for chemical and
petroleum industries. 2014.
[16] NORSOK, “M-501: Surface Preparation and Protective Coating,” 2012.
[17] NORSOK STANDARD, “M-503: Cathodic Protection,” 2007.
[18] T. National Association of Corrosion Engineers (Houston, NACE Standard RP0176-2003
Corrosion control of steel fixed offshore structures associated with petroleum production.
NACE, 2003.
[19] D. Norske Veritas, “DNV-RP-B401: RECOMMENDED PRACTICE CATHODIC
PROTECTION DESIGN,” 2010. [Online]. Available: http://www.dnv.com
[20] International Organization for Standardization, “ISO 15589-2: Petroleum, petrochemical
and natural gas industries - Cathodic protection of pipeline transportation systems - Part 2:
Offshore pipelines,” 2012.
[21] International Organization for Standardization, “ISO 15589-1: Petroleum, petrochemical
and natural gas industries - Cathodic protection of pipeline systems - Part 1: On-land
pipelines,” 2015.

Febri Ramdani Nugraha Materials and Corrosion Engineer febriramdaninugraha@gmail.com

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