Physical constants

· Constant Symbol Approximate value Best value

Speed of I igJ:it{ri vacu m c 3 x 10 8 m/s 2.99792458 x 108 m/s

Elementary charge e 1.6 x 10-19C 1.60217733 x 10-19 c
Mass of the electron me 9.1 x 10-31 kg 9.1093897 x 10-31 kg
Mass of the proton m P
1.67 x 10-21 kg 1.6726231 x 10'27 kg
Proton-to electron m p / me 1840 1836.152701
mass ratio
Mass of the neutron mn 1.67 x 10-21 kg 1.6749286 x 10-21 kg
Gravitational constant G 6.67 x 10-11 m3 I s2.kg 6.67 x 10-11 m3 I s2.kg

Astronomical data

Sun Earth Moon

Mass (kg) l.99xl030 5.97xl0 24 6.38xl06
Mean radius (m) 6.96Xl08 6.38xl06 l.74xl0 6
Average surface gravity (m/s2) 274 9.81 1.67

International System of units

Quantity Name of unit Symbol Equivalent

Some basic SI units
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
lime second s
Electric current ampere A
Some derived units
Area square meter m2
Volume cubic meter m3
Frequency hertz Hz s-1
Density kilogram per cubic meter kg I m3
Speed, velocity meter per second m Is
Acceleration meter per second squared m I s2
Force newton N kg. m I s2
Work, energy joule J N.m
Power watt w JI s
Quantity of electricity coulomb c A. s
Potential difference volt v N . m/C
Electromotive force volt v N.m/C
Electric resistance ohm .Q V/A
 Ministry of National Education, Youth and Sports

•
Physics
•
Secondary Education
First year

fhe Academic

National Center for Educational Research and Development

New Curriculum
•
•
General Coordinator
Moustapha Yaghi

The translation into English of this book was reviewed

and corrected by faculty members at the American Uni­
versity of Beirut.
 •
PHYSICS
•

Secondary Education
First year

Michel Kraidy (Coordinator)

Ali Al-Arab
Elias Chalouhi
Sarni Farah
Ali Haidar
Nassim Haidar
Mohammed Issa
Ibrahim Tannous

National Center for Educational Research and Development

Secondary Publications Company s.a.r.l.
 •
Technical Preparation: Technical Team •NCERD
Illustrations: Graphics Team '•NCERD
Production and Distribution: Secondary Publications Company s.a.r.l.
Printing: Nahhal est.

© NCERD 1998, Sin-El-Fil, Lebanon, P.O.Box: 55264

All Rights Reserved for NCERD
First Edition September 1998
Copies Printed 5000
 I

••• WE BUILD THROUGH EDUCATION

Four years ago, under the leadership of the Minister of National Education,
Youth and Sports, the National Center for Educational Research and Develop­
ment (NCERD) initiated the overall reform of the educational system in Lebanon.
Today, NCERD is pleased to present the first collection of textbooks, developed
in conformity with the new curricula announced by decree no. 10227, dated the
8th of May, 1997, to all those involved in the education sector.

This collection covers the first year of each of the three basic education cycles,
as well as the first year of the secondary cycle. It will be followed, over the next
two years, by the textbooks addressed to the remaining two years of each cycle.

The publication of these textbooks follows directly from previous steps under­
taken as part of the overall effort to rebuild the educational system. The Plan for
Educational Reform, the adoption of a new educational ladder, the new curricu­
la and the new textbooks are all part of a continuous and coherent reform effort.
The reform process views the education of the individual learner as a means to
develop citizens capable of serving their country and self-confident adults ready
to face the challenges of the twenty-first century.

Textbooks play an important role in this ambitious project because they

embody the educational and civic objectives of the new curricula. In keeping with
the spirit and philosophy of the new curricula, a large number of specialists who
had contributed to shaping the new curricula were called upon, from both the pri­
vate and the public sector is to become members of author committees. The
Higher Committee for Planning and the Advisory Committee, which were creat­
ed by NCERD to oversee the whole reform process, closely monitored the devel­
opment of the new textbooks. In addition, NCERD sought the assistance of
experts from outside Lebanon.

However, we do not claim that the textbook we present to you today is perfect,
or that it does not require any revisions whatsoever. Our work is certainly far from
complete. After thirty years of stagnation, it was important to act and to do so
promptly. We thus considered it appropriate to view this first edition as a starting
point and to subject the first collections to the classroom test. A textbook's
strengths and weaknesses can really only be identified in the classroom. It is

-
 •
up to teachers and students to evaluate these new textbooks. Thanks to their
collaboration, we should arrive at concrete proposals for the improvement of sub­
sequent editions.

It should also be pointed out that textbooks have become only one of many
available sources for the transfer of knowledge. Indeed, our students are con­
fronted with a constant deluge of information from a variety of media. Conse­
quently, it becomes imperative for students to "learn how to learn" from textbooks,
as well as from other sources. This means that we must adopt new work and
teaching strategies in order to transform the classroom into an interactive space
between a dynamic and enterprising learner and an informed teacher. The teach­
er's role must lie in assisting the student to acquire knowledge and competencies,
to heighten his or her critical sense and to develop teamwork and participatory
skills. This is why the educational refqrm calls for teacher training, the establish­
ment of a structure capable of advising teachers and providing guidance and
counseling to students, and the modernization of the exam and evaluation sys­
tems to be undertaken alongside the development of new textbooks.

Our attention is now focussed on the next three years. This period will provide
an experimental phase, not only for the new textbooks, but also for all the activi­
ties that have preceded or accompanied their launch. Thus, the next three years
should be viewed as an evaluation phase for the overall educational system of
Lebanon.

Finally, I wish to thank sincerely all those who contributed to writing, editing,
designing and producing the new textbooks. We hope that our combined efforts to
build the future for the children of Lebanon will contribute to the reconstruction of
our country.

Beirut, July 22, 1998

President, NCERD
Mounir ABOU-ASSALI
 This is based on the requirements of the new Lebanese physics cur­

z
riculum. It consists of four parts: electricity, waves, optics, and
mechanics. Each part consists of a number of chapters, each of
which containing the following:

0
-
• Objectives for teaching the chapter, listed at its beginning.

• Experiments to be performed by the student or the teacher. Their

results lead to physical laws.

• Questions and examples inserted at various points in the text.

u • A summary of the main ideas to be mastered by the student.

• Test-your-knowledge type questions that check the student's acqui­

sition of the basic contents of each chapter.

c • Open qualitative questions that may summon, through class dis­

cussions, the different intellectual abi Iities of the student.

0 • Problems that give the student the opportunity to apply the knowl­
edge acquired from the chapter to concrete situations.

• Notes and historical background readings are introduced, when­

ever appropriate, to help the student understand that scientists of

I-
different cultural backgrounds have gradually developed science over
the years.

-
We hope that this book is easy to use and effectively serves the pur­
pose for which it was designed.
 ,, 2 er rr mrr tr
Introduction 7

Part I: Electricity 13

Chapter 1 Electrostatics 15
1.1. Electrostatic interaction 16
1.2. Electric aspect of matter 17
1.3. Charging objects 18
1.4. Insulators and conductors 18
1.5. Charging by contact 18
1.6. Metal-leaf electroscope 19
1.7. Charging by induction 19
1.8. Quantity of electric charge 19
1.9. Coulomb's law 20
Electrostatics in our Iife 21
Home experiments 23
a, Chapter 2 Potential difference 26
2.1. Notion of potential difference or voltage 27

r= 2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
Sign and units
Measurement of potential difference
Laws of potential difference
28
28
30
2.5. Reference potential 32
Instruments for measuring potential difference 33

.....
(..) Chapter 3 Electric current 42
3.1. Nature of electric current 43
3.2. Conventional direction of electric current 43
0 3.3. Magnitude of the electric current
3.4 Direct current and alternating current
44
45
Instruments to measure a current 47

-
3.5. Laws of current 49

Chapter 4 Resistors 53

.c 4.1
4.2
Resistance
Ohm's law
54
55

ca
4.3 Types of resistors 56
4.4 Measurement of the resistance 56
4.5 Resistance of a wire resistor 56
I- 4.6
4.7
Joule's law
Grouping of resistors
57
58
4.8 Applications Readings 60
11 5 &I I :r 1T I s :rrrrz

Chapter 5 Generators and receivers 69

5.1. Generators 70
5.2. Poles of a generator 71
5.3. Current - voltage characteristic of a generator 72
5.4. Ohm's law for a generator 73
5.5. Receivers 74
5.6. Current - voltage characteristic of a receiver 74
5. 7. Batteries in opposition 75
Batteries 77

Chapter 6 Electric circuits 82

6.1. Electric circuits 83
6.2. Drawing the diagram of an electric circuit 84
6.3. Setting up a circuit using a diagram 84
6.4. Solving an electric circuit 84
6.5. Strategy for solving electric circuits 86

90
Chapter 7 Vibrations and waves 91
7.1. Vibrations 92
7.2. Characteristics of vibrations 92
7.3. Waves 94
7.4. Characteristics of a wave 95
7.5. Transverse and longitudinal w,aves 96
7.6. Electromagnetic waves 97
Ripple tank 99

Chapter 8 Reflection and refraction of waves 102

8.1. Wavefronts 103
8.2. Reflection of waves on plane surfaces 104
8.3 Refraction of waves on plane surfaces 105
8.4 Index of refraction 105

Part Ill Optics 109

Chapter 9 Propagation of light 110
9.1. Rectilinear propagation of light 111
9.2. Light beams 112
9.3. Objects and images 113
Chapter10 Reflection of light 115
10.1 Reflection 116
10.2 Laws of reflection 117
10.3 Reversibility of light 117
10.4 Plane mirrors 118
10.5 Image formed by a plane mirror 118
10.6 Field of vision of a mirror 119
Home experiment 120

Chapter11 Refraction of light 124

11.1. Refraction of Iight 125
11.2. Laws of refraction 126
11.3. Total internal reflection 128
11.4. Dispersion of white Iight 129
Optical fibers 130

Chapter12 Lenses 134

12.1. Spherical lenses 135
12.2. Geometry of lenses 136
12.3. Converging and diverging lenses 136
12.4. Ray tracing 137
12.5. Objects and images 138
12.6. Descartes' formula 139
12.7. Linear magnification 141

Chapter13 The eye and the magnifier 145

13.1. Elements of the eye 146
13.2. Accommodation 147
13.3. Far and near points of vision 147
13.4. Myopic or shortsighted eyes 148
13.5. Presbyopic eye 148
13.6. Resolving power of the eye 149
13.7. Magnifier 149
13.8. Angular magnification of a magnifier 149
Microscopes and telescopes 150
Part IV: Mechanics 155

Chapter14 Description of motion 156

14.1 Rest and motion 157
14.2 Position vector 159
14.3 Speed and velocity 160
14.4 Acceleration 162
14.5 Air table 163

Chapter15 Rectilinear motion 167

15.1 Uniform rectilinear motion 168
15.2 Equation of a uniform rectilinear motion 169
15.3 Uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion 170
15.4 Time equation of uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion 171

Chapter16 Force and interaction 177

16.1 Effects of a force 178
16.2 Interaction 178
16.3 Representation of a force 179
16.4 Classification of forces 180
16.5 Forces acting on a system 180
16.6 Resultant of two forces 182

Chapter17 Newton�laws 187

17.1 Newton's first law or the principle of inertia 188
17.2 Newton's second law or the fundamental' principle of dynamics 189
17.3 Newton's third law or the principle of interaction 191
17.4 Newton's law of gravitational interaction 192
Galileo and Newton 194
575 C rt rr E' r rn s T r r rr mr:J

Symbols used in electricity

Direct current generator

��

Open switch ____________/,.

Closed switch -
Ammeter
0
Voltmeter
0
Load (element) �

Earth ground

Common ground
\\\\\�\\\\
Rheostat i
� �

Electrolytic cell
@
Variable resistance
-sz6-
Motor
0
Direct current

Alternating current -----

 Electricity is a fairly modern science. It was not until the end of the 18th century that Volta invent­
ed the first electric cell and the end of the 19th century that Edison installed the first electric
power plant at Central Park, New York, to light streets and buildings.
Today, electricity is the foundation of modern technology. Life depends on the availability of elec­
trical energy. Radio, television, Hi-fi sets, computers, means of telecommunication, and hundreds
of other appliances and discoveries would not exist without electricity.

Electrostatics 13
 ·Safety measures in
electricity

Working with electricity may be dangerous. The following rules should be imple-
mented to avoid accidents.

1. Never use a voltage higher than 20 V without consulting your teacher. In prin­
ciple, the threshold of dangerous voltages is 20 V, but external factors may
come into action, for instance your hands might not be completely dry.

2. Before connecting an experimental setup to the mains, ask your teacher to

check whether the setup is correct.
3. Never manipulate electric appliances with moist hands

4. Never repair an apparatus connected to a power source, even if the repair is

simple like changing connecting wires.

5. Get rid of any contact between a thin wire traversed by a current and sharp -
edged bodies.

6. Never disconnect an apparatus before unplugging its long extension wire.

7. Avoid accidental contacts between connection wires. These 'wires must not be
bared more than the length required for connecting them.

8. Never replace a melted fuse by a non-calibrated wire.

9. Never pull a wire; first pull the plug from its socket.

10. Never touch a bare wire in an electric circuit.

11. Unplug all electrical apparatus after an experiment.

12. When making connections with stranded wires, the stranded ends should be
tightly twisted and coated with solder. Fine wires coming out of connections
may cause dangerous short circuits.

13. In case of fire, turn off all gas outlets and disconnect all electric circuits. To
extinguish the fire, use blankets or fire extinguishers; never use water.
Objectives
• Identify the two types of charge.
• Explain how a neutral object can be charged.
• Distinguish between conductors and insulators.
• State and apply Coulomb's law.

Electrostatics
When your hair is dry and you pass a plastic comb through it, it sticks to the
comb and you hear a crackling sound. When you take off a nylon garment in a
dark room, you see faint sparks and you hear a crackling sound.
Sometimes, when you get out of a car after sliding over a plastic covered seat,
and you touch the metal handle of the car, you get a slight shock. You feel a
similar shock when you rub your feet on a vinyl floor and touch a metallic
object.
These and other phenomena involve electric charges that will be studied in this
chapter.

1. 1 ELECTROSTATIC INTERACTION

Experiment 1.1
Rub two similar plastic rods on a piece of fur.
Suspend one of them so that it can move freely.
Approach the rubbed extremity of the second rod to that
of the first (Figure 1.1).

You observe that the two rods repel each other.

Approach one of the rods close to the piece of fur.
Figure 1.1. Plastic rods rubbed against fur repel each
You observe that they attract each other. other.

silk
Experiment 1.2
Repeat experiment 1.1 by rubbing glass rods on a piece
of silk (Figure 1.2). glass rods
You will also observe that the two rods repel each other.
Bring one end of the rods close to the piece of silk.
You wi 11 observe that they attract each other.

..:++
+++

Figure 1.2. Glass rods rubbed against silk repel each

other.
 Experiment 1.3
Now approach the rod rubbed against fur to the rod rubbed against silk
(Figure 1.3).
You will observe that they attract each other. ,------�.-F -F+,J--L-----1
,--�=-=·;;;·---.. ··-·++,-�+------I

The above experiments and many others show that:

a. Electric charge can be produced by friction. When

an object shows effects of the type observed above, we say it is
charged, or that it has acquired an electric charge. The process
of charging an object is called electrification. Friction is the We may interchange the
most commonly used process of electrification; it consists of labels positive and negative
rubbing two objects against each other. charges. We use these names
by convention. These names
b. There are two kinds of charge: were given by Benjamin
- Positive charge acquired by the glass rods rubbed against silk, Franklin (1706-1790), the first
and internationally known American
- Negative charge acquired by the plastic rods rubbed against physicist. All physicists use this
fur. convention.

c. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

d. When two bodies are charged by friction, one

acquires a positive charge while the other acquires a
negative charge.
No charged object has ever
been found to attract or repel
Question 1.1. What is the kind of charge acquired by the glass rod and
both positive and negative
the silk piece in experiment 1.2 ?
charges.
In the process of electrification, the charge acquired by the
object remains on its surface. We say that the charge is station­
ary. The branch of electricity that deals with stationary charges
is called electrostatics. Electrification takes place eas­
ily in dry weather. Humidity
makes the charges leak.
1.2 ELECTRIC ASPECT OF MATTER
During the last 150 years, scientists have developed a very
accurate model of the structure of matter. According to this
model:
- All matter is composed of atoms, varying in form and size. electron proton

- Each atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons,

which revolve around it (Figure 1.4).
- A nucleus is formed of two kinds of particles called protons
and neutrons. Only the hydrogen nucleus contains one proton
and no neutrons.
- The electron possesses a negative charge, and the proton pos­
sesses a positive charge. These charges have equal values. The neutron

neutron has no electric charge; it is neutral. Figure 1.4. An atom is made of a nucleus sur­
- An atom contains an equal number of protons and electrons. rounded by electrons, which revolve around it.

Electrostatics 17
 d
1.3 CHARGING OBJECTS

In general, objects are neutral; they contain equal amounts of

positive and negative charges. Positively charged object has
a deficit of electrons.
When two objects are rubbed against each other, friction Negatively charged object has
removes some electrons from the surface of one object and an excess of electrons.
deposits them on the surface of the other. The first therefore
has a deficit of electrons and becomes positively charged,
while the second has an excess of electrons and becomes neg­
atively charged.
Materials such as polythene (plastic) gain electrons when
rubbed against fur, which loses electrons. Glass loses the
electrons that are gained by a piece of silk.
Charge is never created or destroyed by friction. It is only
transferred from one object to another, i.e. it is redistributed.
Charge is conserved.

1.4 INSULATORS AND CONDUCTORS

Free electrons
An insulator is a material that does not readily transport elec­ In conductors, some electrons are
tric charge. Materials such as glass, plastic, rubber, wood, loosely tied to the atoms and can
etc., are insulators. When one end of such material is move inside the material. They
charged, the charge stays there because it is unable to move are called free electrons.
to other parts of the material.

A conductor is a material in which electric charges can move.

Materials such as copper, silver, iron, etc., are conductors.
When such materials are charged in some small region, the
charge is readily distributed all over the surface of the con­
ductor.
A conductor can be charged by friction if it is caught with an
insulating handle (see Home Experiment 1.2 at the end of
this chapter).

1.5 CHARGING BY CONTACT

Experiment 1.4
Suspend a neutral metal-coated ball with an insulating thread.
Touch the ball with a negatively charged plastic rod (Figure 1.5).
You will observe that the ball is repelled.
Figure 1.5. The charged rod and the initial­
ly neutral ball repel each other after they are
Some of the excess electrons in the rod move to the neutral ball. put in contact
Since the ball is metal-coated, the electrons move and redistri-

18
·---------------------------------------------
Electrostatics
bute over its entire surface, which becomes negatively charged.
The rod and the bal I, both negatively charged, repel each other.
If the ball is touched by a positively charged rod, it will share
some of its deficit of electrons and will become positively
charged. Hence the rod and ball repel each other.

1.6 METAL-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

An electroscope is a device used to detect the presence of an

electric charge.
A metal-leaf electroscope consists of two thin meta11ic leaves Figure 1.6. Uncharged Metal-leaf electro-
connected to a conducting knob by means of a conducting scopes
stem. The leaves are enclosed in a glass box (Figure 1.6) and
are generally made of gold or aluminum. If we touch the knob -------
with a charged body, part of the charge of the body is distribut­
ed over the knob, the stem, and the leaves. The leaves acquire
the same kind of charge as the body, repel each other, and sep-

1.7 CHARGING BY INDUCTION

Experiment 1.5
Approach an uncharged metal-leaf electroscope to a positively
charged rod ( Figure 1. 7).
You observe that the leaves separate. Figure 1.7. Electroscope charged by induc­
tion.
The positive charges of the rod attract the free electrons of the
conducting object (knob, stem, and leaves) they face. These Quarks
electrons gather at the knob leaving the leaves with a deficit of What is the smallest electric
electrons, hence the leaves become positively charged, and sep­ charge that exists in nature?
arate. Until 1963, physicists thought
that the charge of the electron
The process of charging the knob at a distance is called charg­
was the smallest, indivisible
ing by induction. charge that existed. It was
referred to as the elementary
Question 1.2 Describe what happens when a negatively charged rod charge. In 1963, the American
approaches the knob of a neutral electroscope. physicists Murray Gell-Mann
and George Zweig proposed
the theory that neutrons and
protons were made of smaller
1.8 QUANTITY OF ELECTRIC CHARGE particles called quarks having
charges of ± e/3 and ± 2e/3.
Physicists later discovered
The excess or deficit of electrons in an object can determine the these particles experimentally.
quantity of electric charge of the charged object. However, quarks do not exist as
In the International System of Units (SI), the quantity of electric free particles.
charge is measured in coulombs (symbol C), named as such after
the French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806).
Electrostatics 19
 The charge of an electron is approximately
- e = -l.6xlQ- 19 C.
where e is ca l led the e l ementary charge.
If an object has an excess or deficit of N electrons, its charge
is given by:
lql = N.e

Example 1.1
Find the number of electrons whose charge is (in absolute value) onE
coulomb.

Table 1.1.
Solution Constituent particles of the atom
lql = Ne For lql = lC, 1 = Nxl.6xlQ-19 C
N = 6.25xl018 electrons. Particle Charge in C Mass in kg
Electron-l.602xl0- 19 9. l lOxl0- 31
Table 1.1 gives the charges and masses of the constituents of Proton 1. 602x 10- 19 l.673xl0- 27
the atom. Neutron 0 l.675xl0- 27

1.9 COULOMB'S LAW

The fundamental law of interaction between two stationary
charged partic l es was given by Coulomb in 1795. It can be stat­
ed as follows (see Figure 1.8):

-F-o-
i' • •
+o :-
The magnitude F of the e l ectric force of interaction between two + + - -
point charges q 1 and q2 is direct l y proportional to the product ++++
of their magnitudes and inverse l y proportional to the square of
the distance d separating them.
This law is expressed by the relation:
lq1 l . l q2I
F = k.
d2
In the SI units, d is measured in meters (m), q 1 and q 2 in
coulombs (C), and F in newtons (N). In vacuum, the constant Figure 1.8 Coulomb's law.
k = 9xl09 SI units.

Example 1.2
Two point charges q1 = 2x10-BC and q2 = BxlO-BC repel each other wit
a force of magnitude F = 9xl Q-3N. Find the distance between them.

Coulomb's law applies only to

Solution _lq_1 l_ .l_q2_I two point charges, which are
pply Coulomb's law: F = k. charged objects that are
d2 small compared to the dis-
9
2 K.lq 1 1.lq 2 1 9xl0 x 2xl0- x 8xl0-
8 8
tance between them.
d = = = l6x10- 4
F 9xl0�
d = 4x10- 2 m = 4 cm.

·----------- 20---------------- Electrostatics

i

Summary
* Electrification is the process of charging objects by adding or removing
electrons.
* There are two kinds of charge: positive and negative.
* Electrification takes place by friction, contact, or induction.
* Electric charge is conserved during electrification.
* Like charges repel and uni ike charges attract. I

* A metal-leaf electroscope is a device used to detect the presence of

electric charges.
* Electrons can move quite freely in conductors but cannot move inside
insulators.
* The charge of an electron is - e= -l.6xlQ- C.
19
I

* The charge q of an object, measured in coulombs, is given by lql = Ne,

where N is the number of electrons in excess or deficit.
* Coulomb's law states that the force of interaction between two stationary
point charges is directly proportional to the magnitudes of the charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

ELECTROSTATICS IN OUR LIFE

ELECTRIC DISCHARGE becomes negligible. We assume that the
object is then discharged.
Grounding
Protection from lightning
Earth is a good conductor. Because of its
large size, it can receive a big charge with­ Lightning is the flashing of light produced
out becoming appreciably charged. When a when atmospheric electricity discharges
charged conductor is connected to Earth, from one cloud to another, or from a cloud
both ,share the charge. The earth being to the earth. A typical lightning stroke has a
much larger, it retains much of the charge length ranging from 150m to 3km, a width
while the charge remaining on the object between lcm and 30cm, a duration
between 0.0025s and 1.65s, and a temper-

Electrostatics
 ature that could reach 30000°C. charge leaks away gradually. In fuel
A lightning stroke could transfer to the Earth trucks (Figure 1.11), a chain suspend­
an electric power of up to billions of kilo­ ed from the truck and touching the
watts, which makes it very dangerous for ground takes away the excess charge
buildings and their inhabitants. from the truck's surface to the Earth.
Since the charges in the cloud interact first
with the highest buildings in the neighbor­
hood, high and pointed lightning rods are
fixed to the tops of high buildings and con­ Figure 1.11.
nected to the Earth by good conductors (Fig­ The metallic
ure 1.9). When lightning strikes such a rod, chain in the rear
charges are safely channeled to the Earth. of the fuel truck
conducts the
charge to the
Earth.

REDUCING POLLUTION BY ELECTROSTAT­

IC PRECIPITATORS
Factories and fuel power plants produce
tiny specks of undesirable smoke (Figure
1.12) containing carbon dioxide, sulfur
dioxide, and other poisonous substances.
Figure 1.9. To prevent these particles from polluting
Lightning rods lead the air, electrostatic precipitators, fixed at
charges deep into the the top of the factory's chimney, are used
Earth. as smoke filters.
An electrostatic precipitator is made of a

Discharging moving vehicles

Electric charge builds up on moving

vehicles mainly due to friction with air
particles. Various methods are used for
discharging the vehicle. In airplanes
(Figure 1.10), the rubber tires are
made slightly conducting of electricity
so that

Figure 1.12.

-
Figure 1.10.
Zouk Mikael's fuel power
The slightly con­ v
plant produces smoke par­
ducting tires of a
ticles containing poisonous
plane allow the
gases.
charge to leak
away on landing.
negatively charged fine wire grid sur­
rounded by a positively charged tube

--------- :i!:i!------------------��::!.'".?_i:t:!�:s
 (Figure 1.13). Electrons move from the
grid to the tube, thus striking the smoke
particles and giving them a negative
charge. The smoke particles are then
attracted to the inside surface of the posi­
tively charged tube. This tube is made to
vibrate, shaking off the dust that falls into
containers placed at the bottom of the
chimney.
Figure 1.13.
Electrostatic pre­
cipitator.

HOME EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 1.6:
Construct your electroscope
You need a glass vessel, an L-shaped thin metal­
lic rod, two thin aluminum leaves, and a piece
of cork or wood with a hole in it. Put these
pieces together as shown in Figure 1.14.
Check your electroscope by approaching it from
a charged rod. Does it work?

"'---------------··
Figure 1.14. Home-made electroscope.
Experiment 1.7:
Charging a metallic rod
Rub a metallic rod, held with the hand, against
a piece of cloth. Approach the knob of an elec­
troscope to it. What do you observe?
Repeat the experiment while holding the rod
with a piece of wood. What do you observe?
Can you explain your observation?

Experiment 1.8:
Can a charged body attract falling water?
Charge, by friction, a plastic ruler. Approach it
to a fine thread of falling water (Figure 1.15).
What do you observe?
Figure 1.15. Charged ruler attracts falling water.

Electrostatics 23
I wrr · rs z r rr a ts ss uttr ·r :r r
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE Explain what you observed. What would
have happened if the two charges had equal
1. Complete the following: magnitudes?
a. Like charges ......... and unlike charges

b. All electrons possess the same charge of

magnitude .....................
c. An object has a deficit of electrons; its
charge is ............ ..
d. The force between two charged particles
varies as the .......... ......... of the
distance separating them.

2. In dry weather, one frequently sees

Figure 1.16.
sparks when dry hair is combed or when
clothes are taken off in darkness. Why? 3. Four rods A, B, C, and D are electrified.
We observe that A and B repel each other, B
3. A glass rod rubbed against a piece of attracts C, and C repels D. If the charge on C
cloth becomes positively charged. Which one is negative, what are the signs of the charges
gains electrons? on A, B, and D?

4. What property of the electrons in a con­ 4. An electroscope is negatively charged. A

ductor allows them to move? What property positively charged body is brought near the
of the electrons in insulators prevents them knob. What do you observe? What if the body
from moving? was negatively charged?

5. What is the difference between charging 5. A small conducting sphere is positively

an object by induction and charging it by charged. It is placed inside a neutral spheri­
contact? cal conducting shell (Figure 1.17). What is
the kind of charge on the inner surface of the
QUESTIONS shell? On the outer surface?

1. Two small charged spheres interact

with a force F. How is F modified if:
a. the charges are doubled?
b. the distance between the spheres is
doubled?

2, A small suspended metallic ball A car­

ries a positive charge. A charged metallie
rod B is brought close to it (Figure 1.16).
We observe that B attracts A, A and B touch
each other, and then repel each other. What
was the sign of the charge on the rod?

Figure 1.17 Charged conductor inside a

hollow conducting sphere.
 6. Two identical objects, carrying equal but • Two identical metal balls carry
opposite charges, are fixed on a horizontal charges q 1 and q2 .
line (Figure 1.18). A third object, carrying a a. Take q 1 = -q 2 = 2xl0-BC. Put them
positive charge, is placed on the same line, in contact. What is then the charge
to the right of the charges. In what direction and the number of electrons forming
does the third object move? What if it was the charge on each ball?
placed to the left? b. Same question if
q1= l.5xl0·8 C and q2 = -2x10-sc
PROBLEMS Two electric charges, originally
80mm apart, are brought closer until the
Whenever numerical data is needed, refer to force between them becomes greater by a
Table 1.1. factor of 9. How far apart are they now?

+ ++ ++ + • Two charges are observed to repel each

+ + + + other with a force of 0.1 N when they are
+++
+ ++ 50mm apart. What will the force be when
l 2 they are lOOmm apart? lOmm apart?

• Two identical metallic spheres A and

Figure 1.18 B, each carrying a charge of q C, are fixed.
T hey repel each other with a force of
• An object carries a charge of q = +4xlo-sc.
2x10-5 N. Another identical uncharged
How many electrons are needed to make it elec­ sphere C is made to touch A, moved to
trically neutral? touch B, and placed halfway between A
and B. What is then the electric charge
In a hydrogen atom, the distance and the electric force (in N) on each
between the electron and the proton is sphere in terms of q?
53x10- 12 m. Find the magnitude of th� elec­
tric force acting on the electron. Draw the
electric force acting on each of the two par­
ticles.

Electrostatics 25
 Potenti a I d ifferenc

Objectives
• Explain the notion of electric potential difference
• Measure a potential difference.
• Apply the laws of potential difference.
Whenever an electric appliance is to be used for the first time, we wonder if we
can connect it directly to the mains or should use a transformer. We find out
by reading the indications printed on this apparatus: 110V or 220V
These indications are related to a physical quantity called electric potential
difference, which is the subject of this chapter.

2.1 NOTION OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OR VOLTAGE

Experiment 2.1
Take two containers A and B communicating by means of a tube
provided with a closed tap Rand containing the same liquid at the

l
same level (Figure 2. la).
Open the tap. You will observe that the level of the liquid remains
the same and that the I iquid does not flow.
Close the tap and pour an amount of liquid into one of the con­
a
tainers (Figure 2.lb).
Open R. You notice that the liquid keeps flowing to the other con­
tainers until it reaches the same level in the two containers, and
then stops flowing.

This experiment shows that a liquid flows from one containers to b

another only if the containers communicate with each other and Figure 2.1. The liquid: a) doesn't flow and b)
if the levels of liquid in the two containers are different. flows from the containers with the higher liquid
level.
Something similar happens when a conductor connects two dif­
ferently charged objects.

Consider two identical metallic balls A and B charged

differently (for example q A = -q 8 with q A <O). The two balls are
in different electric states. � �
Connect the two balls with a conducting wire (Figure 2.2).
The electrons of A are attracted by B, and the charges of A
\61
(B)
0
(A)
and B are redistributed in such a way that the two objects
become neutral. The objects A and B are then in identical
electric states.
(B) (A)
In general the displacement of electric charges from an
object to another takes place only if the two objects are Figure 2.2. The two charged balls become
connected by a conductor and happen to be in different neutral.
electric states.

Potential difference 27
 The electric state of an object is characterized by a physical
quantity called electric potential. The electric potential of an
object depends on the sign and quantity of its charge, as wel I
as on its form. Electrons move between two objects only if
there is a potential difference between them.
The potential of a point A is generally written as V A and the
potential difference or voltage between two points A and B as

2.2 SIGN AND UNIT

Figure 2.3. The digital voltmeter indicates the
The potential difference between two points A and B can be
sign of the potential difference.
positive or negative depending on whether V A > V 8 or V A < V 8 We
say that the potential difference is an algebraic quantity

The order of points A and B is important:

VAB = V A - VB
V sA = V s - V A therefore
/
K

A
We can verify this property by doing the following experiment:
(Figure 2.3). a

Experiment 2.2 p

Set up an electric circuit containing a battery, a lamp and a switch.

Connect the terminals of the lamp to a voltmeter with a numeric
display. Close the switch (Figure 2.4 a).
Read the voltmeter's indication. K
Interchange the voltmeter's terminals. (Figure 2.4 b).
Read the voltmeter's indication again.
You wi 11 notice that the two indications are opposite, which shows
b
that VAs = - VsA

In SI units, the electric potential and the potential difference Figure 2.4. The voltmeter with a numeric
are measured in volts (V) after the Italian physicist Alessandro display shows that VA8 = - VsA ·
Volta (1745-1827).

2.3 MEASUREMENT OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

The potential difference is measured by means of a voltmeter or
an oscilloscope. The description and operation of these

28
·-----------------------------------------------
Potential difference
instruments will be dealt with later in this chapter (See pages
33 to 37 ). A voltmeter is represented as in figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5. Representation of a voltmeter.

Potential difference between the terminals of a connecting wire

Experiment 2.3
Set up a circuit that includes a battery G, a lamp L, and an open
- f' ro( j
I N 1 M

switch K (Figure 2.6).

Connect a voltmeter V to the terminals M and N of a connection
wire.
You wi11 observe that the voltmeter reads zero.
Close the switch.
Again, you will notice that the voltmeter reads zero.

Figure 2.6. Measurement of the potential

As a general rule, in an open or closed electric circuit, the difference between the terminals of a con­
potential difference across the terminals of a connection wire nection wire.
can be considered as zero.

' I
Potential difference across the terminals of a switch

Experiment 2.4
In the setup of the last experiment, close the switch K (Figure 2.7) +

and measure the pot�ntial difference across its terminals.

You will notice that the potential difference is zero.
Open the switch. You will observe that the potential difference is
different from zero.

Figure 2.7. Measurement of the potential

This experiment proves that, in an electric circuit, the potential
difference between the terminals of a
difference between the terminals of a switch is zero if the switch switch.
is closed and different from zero if it is open.

Potential difference 29
 Potential difference across the terminals of a battery

Experiment 2.5
Using the preceding setup, with the switch being open, connect the
voltmeter to the terminals of the battery G (Figure 2.8).
You will notice that the voltmeter indicates a certain potential dif­
ference.

This experiment shows that, in an electric circuit, the potential

difference across the terminals of a battery in an open circuit is +
greater than it is in a closed circuit.

2.4 LAWS OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Law of addition of potential differences Figure 2.8. Measurement of the potential

difference across the terminals of a battery

Experiment 2.6
Set up the circuit of figure 2.9. This circuit contains a battery G,
a switch K, and 3 lamps L1, L2 , and L3 placed one after the other
(we say that the lamps are grouped in series).
+
[Remark. You could replace the lamp by another load: motor, elec­
A B
trolytic cell, etc.].
Measure the potential differences VAs , VAo, V 0e, and V es ·
K

Calculate the sum VA0 + V 0e + Ve 8 .You find that this sum is equal to

Figure 2.9. Addition of potential differ­

ences.

This experiment shows that the potential difference across the

terminals of a portion of an electric circuit consisting of a num­ The law of addition of poten­
ber of loads placed in series is equal to the sum of the poten­ tial difference is similar to the
tial differences across the terminals of each of the loads. relation of Chasles in mathe­
matics: A, B, C, and D being
This is the law of addition of potential differences.
points on an axis, we can
write down
BA= BC+ CD+ DA
Law of uniqueness of potential difference B

Experiment 2.7
Set up the circuit of figure 2.10. This circuit is formed of a bat­
tery G and two lamps (or other loads) connected to the same
points M and N of the circuit: the lamps are then connected in
parallel.
Measure the potential differences VAs , Vco and V EF . You will find
that they are equal.
E F
Replace one of the lamps by a different load.
You will find that the potential differences take a different value
but remain equal:

Figure 2.10. Uniqueness of the voltage.

This experiment and others show that, in an electric circuit, the
potential differences between the terminals of loads connected
in parallel are equal.

This is the law of the uniqueness of the voltage.

Example 2.1
Given VAc = 5 V and VA 8 = 2 V. Calculate V8c , A D

Solution
By applying the law of addition of voltages, we can write:
v BC = v BA + v AC =- v AB + v AC M

= _ 2 + 5 = 3 V. Figure 2.11. Rectangles show electric

loads.

Example 2.2
In the circuit of figure 2.11, you are given:
V0M = - 7. 5 V Vco = 10 V V8c = - 5 V and VAe = 10 V.
Calculate VcM , VeM , VA MI and VOA '

Solution
According the law of addition of voltages:
VcM = Vco + VoM = (10) + (- 7.5) = 2.5 V

v BM = v BC +v CM = (- 5) + (2.5) = - 2.5 v
v AM = v AB +v BM = (10) + (- 2, 5) = 7, 5 v
VoA = VoM + VMA = VoM + (- VAM) = (- 7.5) + (- 7.5) = - 15 V

Potential difference 31
2.5 REFERENCE POTENTIAL
Chassis ground
To install a car radio, we can connect the radio to the terminals
of the car battery (Figure 2.12).

The property of electric conduction of the metallic body of the

car is put to use here. We connect the (+) terminal of the radio
to the(+) terminal of the battery and the(-) terminal of the radio Figure 2.12. Car radio connected to the
to the metallic body which is in contact with the(-) terminal of two terminals of the battery.
the battery (Figure 2.13).

The same procedure is used with other electric appliances; for

example, we connect the terminal (+) of an electric torch to its
metallic case.
The body and the case are examples of what we call chassis
ground .The circuit is then closed on the chassis ground.
Common ground
The common ground is represented in figure 2.14. It is used as a
reference potential.
The common ground is usually chosen as the origin of poten­ chassi� ..-�ound
tials, i.e. the potential at a point in the circuit has the same
Figure 2.13.Using the chassis
value as that of the potential difference between this point and
ground to install a car radio.
the common ground. In determining potential differences, we
assume
vground = 0,
even if the real value of this potential is not zero.

Figure 2.14. Representation of the com­

mon ground.
Earth ground
The Lebanese Electric Company distributes electricity by means
of two wires. For security reasons (protection of the line against
lightning, electrocution by direct contact, etc.), and to save wires, phase
EDL connects one of the wires to the Earth (Figure 2.15). This
wire, calied neutraI, forms what we caII Earth ground. The other neutrEl.l

wire is called phase wire or simply phase.

Figure 2.15. Earth ground in a domestic

The voltage between these two wires (phase-neutral or phase
installation.
earth) is dangerous.

The Earth being a conductor, it plays the same role as the body
of the car. It is represented in figure 2.16. I
The Earth, like the chassis ground, constitutes a potential ref­
erence. Its electric potential is zero: V.a,th = 0.
Figure 2.16. Representation of an Earth
ground.
THE VOLTMETER

Whatever its type is, the voltmeter must be connected in par­

allel with the terminals of the portion of the circuit whose
potential difference is to be measured.

Analog voltmeter
The description of an analog voltmeter varies from one type to
another, but they all share the following (Figure 2.17):

- two terminals, one marked (+), the other marked (-). •

- a selector of scales. For example, in the voltmeter of figure
2.17, the scale can be chosen from the scales: 1, 3, 10, 30,
100 and 300V.
Figure 2.17. Analog voltmeter.
- a selector of current: (=) for direct current and (-) for alter­
nating current.
- two series of graduations. In the figure, orie graduation has
20 divisions for the scales 3, 30 and 300V, and the other 100
divisions for the scales 1, 10 and lOOV.
- a needle that points to the measured potential difference.
- a mirror in the form of an arc. For a good reading, the nee-
dle and its image given by the mirror must coincide.

Connection
Scale
The terminal (+) of the voltmeter must be connected to the
pole(+) of the generator, and the terminal (-) to the pole(-) of The scale of a measuring
the generator (Figure 2.18). instrument is the largest
Analog voltmeters are constructed in such a way that the devi­ va I ue that it can mea­
ation of the needle is always proportional to the measured sure. Thus, in an analog
potential difference. voltmeter, the scale is
the potential difference
that produces the maxi­
Digital voltmeter
mum deviation of the
The digital voltmeter (Figure 2.19) displays the numeric value
needle.
of the potential difference together with its sign.

Potential difference
Lr "Ft m a rm r r t

��
- 30ol-),-
100'-- .,'J
30 10
---

--

Super

L< Super
,;,
�
b

igure 2.18. Connecting an analog voltmeter. Figure 2.19. Digital voltmeter.

THE MULTIMETER
Whether digital (Figure 2.20) or analog (Figure 2.21), a multimeter can accomplish many tasks.
It has a terminal marked COM or(-) which has to be connected to the negative pole of the gen­
erator. The other terminals carry the indications A, V and W.

igure 2.20. Digital multimeter. Figure 2.21. Analog multimeter.

 Connection
The multimeter can be used as a voltmeter: we have to connect
the terminals of the portion of the circuit whose potential dif­
ference is to be measured to the terminals COM and [V.mA.Q]
of the multimeter (Figure 2.22). The selector should face a
scale of the zone [V DC] for direct current, and of the zone [V
AC] for alternating current.

The multimeter can also be used as an ammeter (See chapter 3,

page) or as an ohmmeter (See chapter 4, page).

Caution: In the digital multimeter:

- If the sign (-) appears on the screen, the connections COM and
[V ...QJ have been interchanged. In this case, the terminal COM
is connected to the positive pole of the generator. Figure 2.22. Connecting a multimeter used as a
- If the digit 1 appears to the left of the screen, then the voltmeter.
scale chosen is too small and there is a risk that the
apparatus might be damaged.

THE OSCILLOSCOPE
Functions
All types of oscilloscopes share the same functions. Only the form and the positions of the but­
tons differ. An oscilloscope (Figure 2.23) has four zones. Three of them are of special interest
to US:

Figure 2.23. Front view of an oscilloscope.

Potential difference
 , mm s w11 ere r s r "" : rr t

1. zone A controls the setting of the instrument and the

adjustment of the luminous spot on the screen. This zone con­
tains 4 buttons (Figure 2.24):
a. Power: ON - OFF.
b. X'Y: to stop sweeping.
c. Intensity: to regulate the quantity of light.
d. Focus: to focus the spot.

2. zone B contains the two channels of the signals to be visu­

alized. It has seven buttons (Figure 2.25):
a. Y - position: to displace the spot vertically (up or down).
b. Regulation of the vertical sensitivity (number of volts per
division on the vertical axis).
c. Entry of the first channel YA.
d. Visualization of the entry signal YA.
e. Entry of the second channel Y8 •
f. Visualization of the signal Y0 •
g. Visualization of the addition of the two signals: YA + Y 8 •
h. Signal selector AC I DC. Figure 2.25. Details of zone B.

Vertical sensitivity:
Potential difference corresponding to a displacement of
1 division of the spot.

· 3. zone C (Figure 2.26) contains buttons that control the

sweeping and the regulation of the duration of sweeping.

Sweeping:
horizontal motion of the spot.

Remark: the oscilloscope measures and visualizes the poten­

tial difference VvM between the phase and the common ground.

Measurement of a voltage
Press the POWER button to start the oscilloscope. A spot
appears on the screen.
Bring the spot to the point of intersection of the two axes of
the screen (buttons X-position and Y-position).

To measure the potential difference between the terminals of

a battery, for example, begin by choosing a vertical sensibility Figure 2.26. Details of zone C.
that corresponds to the order of magnitude of the voltage to be
measured. Connect the (+) pole P of the battery to the phase
YA of the oscilloscope and the(-) pole N to the common ground
M of the same channel (Figure 2.27). The spot moves up on the
screen, indicating a voltage VPN = VYM > 0.

Since the vertical sensitivity has been selected, and since the
displacement of the spot is proportional to the potential differ-
ence, the position of the spot gives the value of the potential Figure 2.27. Measurement of the potential
difference. difference between the terminals of a battery
with an oscilloscope.
Visualization of a variable voltage
Set up the circuit of the figure 2.28.
Clench the button XY.

Figure 2.29. Alternating sinusoidal signal

visualized on the screen of an oscilloscope.

igure 2.28. Visualizing a variable potential difference.

I
By operating progressively on the horizontal sensibility (time
base), the spot begins to move from left to right on the hori­
zontal axis (the spot sweeps the screen). For an adequate
Figure 2.30.Saw teeth signal visualized on
speed, a horizontal line appears (due to the persistence of the the screen of an oscilloscope.
image on the retina).

Connect the phase of one channel of the oscilloscope and the

common ground to the two poles of a low frequency generator
(LFG).

A variable potential difference, whose form depends on the

chosen entry signal, appears on the screen. We generally
choose one of the three signals: alternating sinusoidal (Figure
2.29), saw teeth (Figure 2.30) or square (figure 2.31 ).
Figure 2.31. Square signal visualized on the
screen of an oscilloscope.

Potential difference 37
 rrrz·rrrrzJ
Example 2.3
A flat battery carries the indication 4.5 V. You want to check the accuracy of the indication.
You have an analog voltmeter with several scales: 10 ml!, 1 II, 5 II, and 50 V. Which scale is
the most adequate for this measurement?
Solution:
The most adequate scale is the 5V. That of 50V can be used, but the deviation of the nee­
dle is smaller. As the error of the reading is one division, it will be smaller in the case of the
scale 5V. Thus the measurement will be more accurate.
The lOmV and 1V scales cannot be used because their use may damage the voltmeter.

Example 2.4
To measure a potential difference, you use a voltmeter whose dial contains 150 divisions.
The scale used is 20V. The needle deviates by 30 divisions. What is the value of the
potential difference?
Solution:
Since the deviation of the needle is proportional to the measured potential difference, you have:
V = 30 x 20 = 4 v.
150

Example 2.5
You want to measure the potential difference between the terminals A and B of a lamp L (Figure
2.32). You use an oscilloscope whose vertical sensibility is 2 V/cm. The spot deviates by 2 cm.
a. In which way does the spot move?

b. Find the potential difference VAB· +

Solution:
a. The oscilloscope indicates the potential dif­
=
ference VEM · In this set up, VEM VsA· Because
B and A are respectively connected to the (-)
and (+) terminals of the battery, V8A < 0 and
thus VEM < 0. makes the spot go down.

b. VAs =- VsA > 0. he vertical sensibility

being 2 V/cm, and the displacement of the E
spot being 2 cm, the oscilloscope gives a M
potential difference of 4V. Thus: VAB = 4 V. Figure 2.32. Measurement of potential difference using an oscillo­
scope.

·--------- -----------------------------
38 Potential difference
 *
Summary
The potential difference between two points of an electric circuit repre­
sents a difference of electric state between these two points.
* In SI units, the potential difference is measured in volts.
* We measure the potential difference between two points of a circuit by
means of either a voltmeter or an oscilloscope.
* The potential difference between the terminals of a connection wire or a
closed switch is zero.
* In a circuit formed of many elements grouped in series, the potential dif­
ference between the terminals of a portion of this circuit is equal to the
sum of the potential differences between the terminals of each of the ele­
ments contained in this portion.
* In a circuit formed of many elements connected in parallel between two
points, the potential difference between the terminals of each of these ele­
ments is the same.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE allel between two points, the potential

differences between the terminals of
these elements are .........
1. Correct the following statements:
e. V AB = 3 V and V 8c = - 5 V. We deduce
a. V M -V N = V NM
that VcA = ........
b. In an electric circuit, the potential differ
f. The needle of a voltmeter whose screen
ence between the terminals of an open
has 100 divisions indicates 70 divi­
switch is zero.
sions when the voltmeter is set on the
c. The oscilloscope allows us to visualize a
scale lOV. The measured potential dif­
potential difference but not to measure it.
ference is .........V.

2. Complete the following sentences: g. To measure the potential difference

a. In the SI, the potential difference is between the terminals of a load, we
measured in ......... connect a voltmeter in ......... to
b. The potential difference between the the terminals of this load.
terminals of a connection wire is ......
c. When two loads are connected in series, 3. A voltmeter is set on the scale 20V. To
the potential differences between their which of the following potential differences
terminals ......... is this scale most adequate? V 1 = 10 V, V 2 =
d. When many loads are connected in par 18 V or V 3 = 30 V ?

Potential difference 39
4. The (-) pole of a battery is connected
PROBLEMS
to the common ground and its (+) pole is
connected to the phase of a channel of an
In the circuit of figure 2.34, you have
oscilloscope. What do we observe on the
the following potential differences:
screen if the time base is on? What hap­ V As = 20 V, V cs = 20 V and V Ao = 30 V.
pens if we interchange the connections? Calculate V Ac , Vso, and V c o·

QUESTIONS
Using an oscilloscope, you want to mea­
sure the potential difference between the termi­
nals of a battery. Draw a diagram showing the con­
nections between the battery and the oscilloscope.
B
2. In the circuit of figure 2.33, show the
Figure 2.34.
p B F

In the electric circuit of figure 2.35,

+ + you have:
V PN = 4.5 V and V 0E = 2.1 V. Find the values
of VCE, V co , and V AB·

G
Figure 2.33.

connections in order to measure the poten­

tial difference V 8A with a voltmeter.
I I I I
Figure 2.33.
c l�· ��I D l���I
E

3. In the absence of potential difference, Figure 2.35.

the spot of an oscilloscope is at the center
of the screen. Describe what you see on the The dial of a voltmeter has 150 divisions.
screen when we apply: The scales are: 2.5 V, 15 V, 25 V, and 150 V.
a. zero potential difference. Complete the following table:
b. A constant potential difference in the
absence of sweeping. Scale (V) Deviation {Divisions)' Polential differ
, 1 enceM
c. A constant potential difference with 2.5 I 125 I
sweeping.
15 I 78 I
25 I I 22

I I 105

I I 1.5

-•
40 Potential difference
 In figure 2.36, the potential difference
'
a. Which potential difference does the oscil­
between the terminals of the battery is V PN = loscope measure: V A8 or V 8 /
lOV and the four loads placed between C and b. The luminous line moves to the top by
D are identical. 2.5 cm. What is the value of the mea­
a. Find the potential difference between the sured potential difference?
terminals of each load.
b.What is the value of the potential diffe­
rence V A8 ? N + p
c. We connect A and B by a connection wire.
Does the potential difference across the
terminals of each load change? A B c

p + N
I
E

Figure 2.39.

c D
II A voltmeter V and an osci I loscope are
connected between the terminals A and B of
a lamp L 2 in the circuit of figure 2.40. The
spot deviates upward by 3 cm.
Figure 2.36.
a. The voltmeter does not have its zero in
the middle. Show, on the diagram, the+
In the circuit of figure 2.37, switch K is terminal of the voltmeter.
open. b. The voltmeter has the scales 3 V, 1 V, and
a. Show the connections to be made to an 0.3 V and its dial contains 100 divisions.
oscilloscope in order to observe, on the Used with a 3V scale, the needle deviates
screen, the shape of figure 2.38. by 30 divisions. Compute V As· Is the used
b. The vertical sensitivity of the oscilloscope is scale the most adequate? If not, what scale
2V/cm. What is the value of the measured do you propose to use? Find, in this case,
potential difference? the deviation of the needle.
c. Calculate the vertical sensitivity of the
osci Iloscope
i- '

I
��
a �
+
c I
!

Figure 2.37. Figure 2.38.

In the circuit of figure 2.39, B is con­

nected to the phase of the channel of the A
oscilloscope and A to its mass. The vertical
sensitivity of the oscilloscope equals 4 V/cm. M
Figure 2.40.

Potential difference
 ,::.

Trace of electrons in a cathode ray tube (CRO)

Objectives
• Know what an electric current is.
• Measure an electric current.
• Apply the laws of electric current.

--------- 42 ____ ------- --��!:���-=��=�

Electricity meters are characterized by the maximum number of amperes
that could flow through them. Catalogues of electric home appliances indicate
the number of amperes that these appliances need in order to function.
In this chapter, we will study the electric current and learn the meaning of the
word "ampere".

3.1 NATURE OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

In a metal
In a metallic conductor, the free electrons execute a random
motion. They move in every direction. (Figure 3.1).
As soon as we apply a potential difference across the terminals
of a conductor (for example, by connecting its terminals to those
of a battery), the electrons execute an ordered drift motion (Fig­ Figure 3.1. The free electrons of a metal
ure 3.2). This produces what we call an electric current. have a random motion.
The electric current in a metal is thus due to an ordered dis­ conventional direction of

placement of free electrons. .an electric current

Q-·
0Q-• 0 00-· 0•
In an electrolyte Q-• 0 Q-
00-·
An electrolytic cell is a vessel containing a solution (electrolyte) 0o-· Q--•
0
0--• 0 Q-•
and two electrodes that conduct electricity. The electrolyte con­ 0o-·
tains positive and negative ions in random motion. -1 I·
11
When we connect the two electrodes to the terminals of a bat­
Figure 3.2. Under the action of a potential
tery, potential difference is established. between the terminals difference, the electrons execute an ordered
(Figure 3.3). This causes the motion of positive and negative drift motion.
ions in two opposite directions, thus creating an electric current.
The electric current in an electrolyte is thus due to an ordered
displacement of positive and negative ions in opposite direc­ e
tions.

3.2 CONVENTIONAL DIRECTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

By convention, the direction of motion of the positive ions in
an electrolyte is assumed to be the direction of the electric conventional direction
of an electric current
current (see figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3. Under the action of an electric
It follows that the direction of the electric current is opposite to
potential difference, the(+) and(-) ions move
that of the motion of electrons in a metal or of negative ions in in two opposite directions.
an electrolyte (see figure 3.2).
In this book, whenever the electric current is discussed, an
arrow oriented in the above-mentioned direction of the current Outside the battery, the current
will represent it. flows from the(+) to the(-) poles
of the battery.

Electric current
 Speed of establishment of the electric current
The speed of electrons in a metal should not be confused with
the speed of establishment of the electric current.

Consider few balls placed one next to the other in a groove (Fig­
ure 3.4). Push ball A. Almost instantly, all the balls begin to
move, although the motion of the balls is not very fast.
_, A

r=k'==��===��� .LJI
Likewise, the current establishes itself very quickly in a con­
ductor, at a speed of the order of 300000 km/s, while the elec­
Figure 3.4. The .balls move almost instantly
trons move at a speed of the order of a few mm/s.
but with relatively low speeds.

3.3 MAGNITUDE OF THE ELECTRIC CURRENT

If we observe the traffic through the Nahr-el-Kalb tunnel, we may
conclude that a flow of 1000 cars I hour is larger than that of 500
cars I hour.
This observation is analogous to the case of electrons crossing
the section of a connecting wire during a given time.
We define the electric current in a conductor as the quantity of
Figure 3.5.Electric current.
electricity that crosses a given section of the conductor per unit
time (Figure 3.5).

If Q is the quantity of electricity crossing a section of the con­ An ampere corresponds to the
ductor in time t, the current is given by: flow of an electric charge of
one coulomb every second.
I = _g_
t
In SI units, t is measured in seconds (s), Qin coulombs (C), and
I in amperes (A), after the French physicist Andre-Marie Ampere
(1775-1836). Table 3.1
Small currents are often measured in sub-multiples of the Orders of magnitude of some
ampere: currents
the milliampere lmA= 10-3 A TV antenna < 1 µA
the microampere lµA= 10-6 A. Quartz watch a few µA
Telephone wire a few mA
If we measure the current in amperes and the time in hours, the Electric torch 0,5 A
quantity of electricity is then measured in ampere-hours (Ah). Ordinary lamp (220V) 0,5 A
This unit is used to characterize the quantity of electricity of a Television 0,7 A
Flashers of a car 1A
car battery:
Vacuum cleaner 3A
1 Ah= 3600 C Flat iron 4A
Electric radiator 10 A
Washing machine 15 A
Starter of a car 50 A
Lightning 6000 to 50000 A

44
·-----�-- ----------------------------------�-
Electric current
 Example 3.1

A car battery of 75 Ah is completely discharged in 80 h. What is the

current (supposed constant) that it delivers?

Solution:
I =QI t = 75 x 3 600/(80 x 60 x 60) = 0.93 75 A""0.94 A

I J�

Example 3.2

Calculate the number of electrons that cross, per second, the sec­
tion of a conductor carrying currents of 4mA, 3A, and 1 OOA.
-t

Solution:
If N electrons cross the section of a wire int seconds, the quantity
of electricity that crosses it within this interval of time is, in abso­ Figure 3.6. A direct current is constant.
lute value, Q = N.e and the corresponding current is:

I = Q/t = N.e/t = n.e

where n is the number of electrons that cross the conductor per sec­
ond.
We can write:
n = 1/e.
If I= 4 mA, n= 4x1Q·3 I (l.6x10· 19 ) = 2.5xl0 16 electrons Is
If I= 3A, n= 3/(l.6xl0' 19 )= l.875xl019= l.9xl019 electrons Is
If I = lOOA, n = lOO/(l.6xl0· 19 ) = 6.25x1020 electrons /s
""6.2 xl020 electrons Is Figure 3.7. General shape of the current
variation of a DC current supplied by a battery
Note that the number of electrons is very high in all three cases. in extended use in an external circuit.

3.4 DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

A direct current (DC) is produced by a battery, an accumulator or a
source of adjustable potential difference. It is characterized by a con­
stant current. The graph of the current versus time (Figure 3.6) is a
straight line parallel to the time axis.
Figure 3.8. Alternating current.
In reality, the current produced by a battery is approximately constant:
it begins to decrease after a certain interval of time and the graph of
the variations of the current with time takes the shape of the one in
figure 3.7.

An alternating current (AC) frequently changes its direction and value

(Figure 3.8). The current supplied for use in homes is a special alter­
nating current; it is a sinusoidal alternating current (Figure 3. 9).
Figure 3.9. Sinusoidal alternating current.
The two types of currents are compared in table 3.2.

Electric current 45
 Table 3.2

Comparison between direct and alternating currents

Direct Current

The circuit of figure 3.10

includes, in series, a battery of
4.5V, a load, and a galvano­
meter with central zero.
When we close the switch, the
needle deviates in one direction y

and points to a well­

�-p
determined value of the electric ��
current; this current flows in
one direction and has a constant
value. It is a direct current. Figure 3.10. The battery supplies a direct cur­
The potential difference between rent that flows in the circuit. Figure 3.11. The direct potential dif­
the terminals of the load ference, visualized on the screen of an
traversed by a direct current oscilloscope, doesn't vary with time.
is also constant (Figure 3.11).

Alternating Current
The circuit of figure 3.12 con­
tains, in series, a generator of a
bicycle, a lamp and a galvanome­
ter with central zero. If we turn
the shingle with a uniform move­
ment, the needle deviates alter­
natively to the right and left of
zero; the current flows alterna­
tively in two opposite directions.
The current produced by the gen­
erator is alternating. Its value
varies with time. The Figure 3.12. The generator supplies an alter­
potential difference between the nating current that flows in the circuit.
terminals of the load traversed
by an alternating current is also Figure 3.13. The alternating potential
variable (Figure 3.13). difference, visualized on the screen of an
oscilloscope, varies with time.

46
·-------- ------------------------------------
Electric current
AMMETER
+
The electric current is measured by means of an ammeter, a
galvanometer, or a multimeter used as an ammeter.
An ammeter is represented by the symbol of figure 3.14. Figure 3.14. Representation of an amme­
ter.

0::_�
Analog ammeter
On the analog ammeter (Figure 3.15), you can observe:
- Two terminals, one marked (+), the other marked (-).
- A selector of scale. - ,.3
0.03
l 0.3 0.1 ,...,., .. =
- A selector of current:(=) for direct current and(-) for alter-
nating current. .---�----------_,_________,_____ A__

?
- Graduations.
- A needle which indicates the value of the current.
- A mirror in the form of an arc. For a good reading, the nee-
dle and its image given by the mirror must coincide. •
Figure 3.15. Analog ammeter.
Connection
To measure the current in a load, you must connect the +
ammeter in series with this load, since the ammeter mea­
sures the current that traverses it.
The(+) pole of the instrument must be connected to the pos­
itive pole of the generator and the (-) pole to the negative +

pole of the generator (Figure 3.16).

-
The multimeter used as an ammeter Figure 3.16. Connecting an analog amme
The multimeter (Figure 3.17, see chapter 2) can also be used as an ter.
ammeter by putting the selector of scale in front of the zone
DC,A,mA,or µA

Galvanometer
The galvanometer (Figure 3.18) is a very sensitive ammeter
with central zero. It is used to measure very low currents and
to detect their directions.

Figure 3.17. Digital multimeter.

Electric current
 Example 3.3
Which of an ammeter's scales: 4 mA, 400 mA, and 2A is the most
adequate for measuring the currents 3 mA, 70 mA, and 1.5 A?

.:,olution.
The most adequate scales are 4 mA for I = 3 mA, 400 mA for I = 70 Figure 3.18. Galvanometer.
mA and 2 A for I = 1.5 A.

Example 3.4
The dial of an ammeter has 100 divisions. If in a measurement
where a scale of 0.1 A is chosen, the needle points to division 82.
a. What is the result of the measurement?
b. What would the needle indicate if the chosen scales were 5 A?
lOmA?

Solution:
a. For the needle to deviate by 100 divisions, a current of 0.1 A
is needed.
To deviate it by 82 divisions, the current needed is:
I= 0.1 x 82/100
= 0.082 A = 82 mA.
b. If the chosen scale is 5 A, the needle points to the division
n 1 so that: n 1 = 0.082 x 100/5 = 1.64 divisions.
If the chosen scale is 10 mA, a similar calculation would
give: n 2 = 0.082 x 100/0.010 = 820 divisions.
This number exceeds the number of divisions in the dial (100
divisions) and thus cannot be obtained. The scale lOmA is to be
avoided.
We should have expected this result because the current to

_____
measure (82 mA) is larger than the maximum current that the
scale can show (10 mA) .
......

48
·-----------�---------------------------------
Electric current
3.5 LAWS OF CURRENT +

Law of uniqueness in a series circuit

Experiment 3.1
Set up the circuit of figure 3.19. This circuit consists of a battery,
a lamp, a fan, and a switch. Connect an ammeter successively Figure 3.19. Circuit to verify the law of
between the battery and the lamp, between the lamp and the fan, uniqueness of the current.
and between the fan and the battery.

Record the indications of the ammeter.

You will always obtain the same value.

This resu It is genera I:

The current is the same at all points of a series circuit.
To measure the current in a series circuit, we may place the
ammeter at any point of the circuit.

Junction rule
Figure 3.20. Points A and B are junc­
An electric junction is a point of a circuit where at least three tions whereas C and D are not.
wires are connected (Figure 3.20).

Experiment 3.2
Set up the circuit of figure 3.21. In this circuit, a lamp and a fan
A
are placed in parallel. Add a rheostat in series with a switch.

With the circuit closed, read the indications of the three ammeters:
You wi II observe that, whatever the position of the cursor of the
rheostat is, the sum of the currents entering a junction is equal to
the sum of currents leaving it: Figure 3.21. circuit with Junctions.
I = I 1 + I2

You would obtain the same result if you had more than two 1,
branches.
The result can be generalized and stated in the following form
called the junction rule: 14

The sum of the currents that enter a junction is equal to the sum
of the currents that leave it.

Electric current
 n

In the junction of figure 3.22, we can write:

I 1 + 14 = 12 + 13 + 15.

Remark:
The law of current in a series circuit and the junction rule in +
a parallel circuit mean that the charge does not accumulate
at a point: the quantity of electric charge in a circuit is con­
served.

Example 3.5

In the circuit of figure 3.23, I= 2 A and 1 1 = 0.5 A. Find 12 .

Solution:
According to the junction rule: I= 1 1 + 1 2 1 2 = 2 - 0.5 = 1.5 A. Figure 3.23.

Summary
* The electric current is due to the flow of electrons in metals and ions in
electrolytes.
* The conventional direction of the current is the direction of motion of
positive ions in an electrolyte.
* The current in a conductor is the quantity of electricity that traverses it per
unit time: I = Q/t. In SI units, I is measured in amperes, Q in coulombs
and t in seconds.
* The current in a load is measured by an ammeter connected in series with this
load.
* The ampere-hour is a commercial unit of quantity of electricity.
* The current is the same at every point of a series circuit.
* The sum of the currents that arrive at a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents that leave it.

·----------- 50 -- Electric current

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 6. 9x101s electrons cross a section of a
conductor during a time t = 3 s. What is the
current in the conductor?
1. Compare the conventional direction of
the electric current to the direction of flow of
electrons in metals.
7. A quantity of electricity of 360 C cross­
es the section of a conductor in 10 min.
2. In the metallic wire of figure 3.24, 1n What is the current in the conductor?
what direction do the electrons move?

8. When functioning normally, a current of

... I
(-:· . ·;/,:· . ·/..:· . ··/.-:· . ·/.:· .. · ./,:·,'./. '·. .. · ./. :· . JI
25 mA traverses an electric bulb. Express this
current in A and in µA.

Figure 3.24
9. Complete the following sentences:
a. The speed of free electrons in a conduc­
3. In the metallic conductor of figure 3.25, tor traversed by a current is a few
the electrons move in the indicated direc­
tion. What is the direction of the electric cur­ b. The speed of establishment of the electric
rent? current is equal to ...............
c. The apparatus which serves to measure very
low currents is called a ...............

10. True or False. Correct false statements.

a. To measure a current of 0.4 A, we can
use the scale 200 mA.
Figure 3.25 b. In an electrolyte, the current is due to
the flow of electrons.
4. In an electrolyte, the positive ions move c. To measure the current in a series circuit,
in the direction indicated in figure 3.26. we can connect the ammeter at any point of
Show the direction of the flow of the negative the circuit.
ions and the direction of the electric current
in the connecting wires.
QUESTIONS
-------------- ------------------------------------
1. You are asked to measure a current with
an ammeter with many scales. In what order
do you use these scales?
+

G- 2. Does the current in a resistor depend on

the speed of electrons?

Figure 3.26 3. Explain how the law of uniqueness of cur­

rent and the junction rule (conservation of the
5. Does an ammeter have to be connected electric charge in a circuit) can be applied to the
in series or in parallel? flow of water in pipes.

Electric current 51
rrrtrrr , twr nr

4. In the circuit of figure 3.27: + -

a. What is the relation between 1 1 , 1 2 and 1 3
when K 1 and K 2 are closed? ,. !=?
b. How is the relation changed if K 2 is A - M
B
opened?
N
c. Can you deduce that the uniqueness law is a
particular case of the junction rule? �
l.5A

Figure 3.29

• In a cylindrical resistor traversed by a

direct current, 6xl018 electrons cross its sec­
tion per minute.
a. Calculate the current in the wire.
b. You measure the current with an amme­
ter whose dial has 100 divisions and has
Figure 3.27 the scales: 20mA, lA and lOA. Which
scale should you use? To which division
does the needle point?
PROBLEMS
• In the circuit of figure 3.30, calculate the
• In a hurricane, a bolt of lightning is currents 1 5, 16 and I 1 ·
accompanied by a transfer of a charge of
20000 C between the Earth and the cloud.
The lightning holds for 1.2 s. What is the
current produced, assumed constant?

• In the circuit of figure 3.28, find the

current in each of the branches GB, BC, DF
and CF.
Figure 3.30
c-
lA
A B D

0.5A ! • In the circuit of figure 3.31, the lamps

are identical. The ammeter indicates 0.12A.
Determine the current and its direction in
H G F E each lamp.

Figure 3.28

• In the circuit of figure 3.29, a charge of

250 C traverses the branch AMB in f�5 s,
whereas an ammeter connected in series in
Ll
the branch ANB indicates 1.5 A. What is the
value of the current delivered by the battery?

Figure 3.31
 Resistors

Objectives
• Explain the notion of electric resistance
• Measure the resistance of a resistor
• Apply Ohm's law for a resistor
• Apply the laws of grouping of resistors.
• Apply Joule's law.

Resistors 53
 is " , ,J
Some electric household appliances, such as electric stoves, irons, electric
water-heaters, and electric radiators, deliver heat when traversed by an elec­
tric current. They transform electric energy into thermal energy. Such appli­
ances are called resistors and have a common property called electric resis­
tance.
Resistors are the subject of this chapter.

4.1 RESISTANCE

Experiment 4.1
Set up the circuit of figure 4.1 formed of a source of adjustable potential difference (from 1 to 20V for
example), a ferronickel resistor F or the wire of an iron, a switch K, an ammeter, and a protection resis­
tance, all placed is series. Connect a voltmeter across the terminals of the wire F.

In an open circuit, the ammeter and the voltmeter indicate zero.

Close the circuit. Give the potential difference increasing values. Read, in each case, the ammeter and
the voltmeter. Record the results of measurements (5 at least) in a table.

An experiment carried out by the authors with a ferronickel wire yielded the values shown in table 4.1.

Table 4.1.
l(mA) 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
V(V) 0.90 1.20 1.82 2.30 2.70 3.20 3.60 4.10

V(v)

��-�-��-� I(A)
Ql Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5

Figure 4.1. Circuit to draw the current- potential characteristic of a resistor. Figure 4.2. Current-potential difference characteristic
of a resistor.

·----------- !)�---------------------�=sis!�!
Draw the graph of the potential difference versus the current
(Figure 4.2).
You will observe that the obtained graph is approximately a
straight line that passes through the origin.
This obtained line is called the current-potential difference
characteristic of the resistor F.

A load whose current-potential difference characteristic is a

straight line passing through the origin is called a resistor.
A resistor is represented in figure 4.3. I R I
I I
The equation of this line is of the form VA s = k I with k > 0.
If we repeat experiment 4.1 with another resistor, the corre­ Figure 4.3. Representation of a resistor.
sponding characteristic always passes through the origin. But the
constant k does not always have the same value; thus k is a char­
acteristic of the conductor: we call it the electric resistance (R or
r).
In SI units, the resistance is measured in ohm (Q) (or in V/A),
after the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854).
The resistance of a conductor is always positive.

4.2 OHM'S LAW

,�--�' -
A I B
If R is the resistance of a resistor AB traversed by a current I - .... I I
- ..... R
from A to B (Figure 4.4), we have

Figure 4.4. A resistor traversed by a current.

or v BA = v B - vA = - RI
This relation is called Ohm's law for a resistor, stated by Ohm
in 1826. It says that the potential difference between the ter­
minals of a resistor is proportional to the current that traverses
it.

Concept of resistance
The resistance of a resistor measures its opposition to the flow
of electric charges that constitute the current. This opposition
comes from the collision between the electric charge carriers
(the free electrons or the ions) and the particles of the resistor.
This friction manifests itself through the heating of the resistor.

Remark
Sometimes, we characterize a resistor by its conductance G,
which is the inverse of its resistance R: G = 1/R.
In SI units, the conductance is measured in siemens (S).

Resistors 55
 4.3 TYPES OF RESISTORS
Commonly used resistors are of two types:

- The coiled metallic wires (Figure 4.5) are especially used in labora-
tories (for example in rheostats) They are also used in domestic appli- B
ances (stoves, water-heaters, electric radiators, etc.) for the heat they
generate when they are traversed by an electric current.
These conductors can withstand currents of few amperes.
- The miniaturized resistors (Figure 4.6) are used especially in elec- Figure 4.5. Coiled wire resistors.
tronic circuits (radios, televisions, computers, etc.). They are made of
a thin layer of carbon powder covering an insulating rod (generally
made of ceramic).
These conductors can only tolerate small currents, of the order of mil­
liampere.
The value of the resistance is clearly indicated on the metallic resis­
tors. The resistance of carbon resistors is indicated by rings colored
according to an international code (see reading, page 63).

-----11�111�>----
4.4 MEASUREMENT OF THE RESISTANCE Figure 4.6. Resistors whose resistance is
indicated by colored rings.
You can measure the resistance of a resistor with a multimeter
used as ohmmeter.

Experiment 4.2
Choose the highest scale on a multimeter. Set the instrument to zero
(Figure 4.7) by putting the two ends of the connection wires in con­
tact, then by working on the setting button until the multimeter indi­
cates zero.
Connect the terminals of the resistor to those of the connection
wires. The multimeter then indicates the resistance of the resistor.
Choose the most adequate scale, reset the multimeter to zero, and
repeat the measurement to obtain a more precise value of the resis-
tance.
Figure 4.7. Set the multimeter to zero. Each
time you change the scale, set the multimeter
back to zero.
4.5 RESISTANCE OF A WIRE RESISTOR
The resistance of a homogeneous and cylindrical wire resistor
depends on three factors: its length, cross-sectional area, and
substance. A digital multimeter does not
need zero setting.
Experiments show that, at a given temperature, the resistance
of such a conductor is proportional to its length e and inversely
proportional to its section s:
·---------- !iE> _____________________�:.:l��!��!
 R = pi.
s
where the constant p, which depends on the nature of the sub­
stance, is called resistivity of this substance. Table 4.2
Resistivities of a few
In SI units, the resistivity is expressed in ohm-meter (Q.m). substances at 20 °C
Table 4.2 gives the resistivities of a few substances.

Substance Resistivity (in Q.m)

4.6 JOULE'S LAW
Metals
The electric energy W consumed by a load when traversed Silver 1.6xl0·8
by a current I, under a potential difference V during a time Copper 1.7xl0·8
t is given by the expression: Aluminum 2.7xl0·8
Tungsten 5.6xl0 8
W = Vlt Iron 9.7xl0 8
Platinum 10.6xl0·8
In a resistor of resistance R, this energy is completely trans­ Lead 2lxl0·8
formed into heat. We then have:
Mercury 98xl0·8
Alloys*
Ferronickel 8.lxl0· 1
W = Rl2t
Nichrome l 1.2xl0· 1
Insulators
In SI units, Wis measured in joules (J), R in ohms, I in Wood 108 _, 1011
amperes and t in seconds. Glass 109 --, 1012
Rubber 1013 _, 1015
This relation is known as Joule's law and was stated in 1842
by the English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818-1889) * These alloys contain metals in the
as follows: following proportions:
Ferronickel: Ni (25%), Fe (75%)
Nichrome: Ni (65%), Fe (23%), Cr (12%)
The heat developed by a resistor when an electric current tra­
verses it is proportional to the resistance of the conductor, the
square of the current, and the time during which the current is
maintained.
This loss of heat is called Joule's effect.

T he electric power P consumed by the resistor is:

P = W/t = VI

In SI units, P is measured in watts (W), V 1n volts and I in

amperes.For a resistor, we have:.

V = RI and P = Rl2

In practice, the electric energy W = Pt is measured in watt­

hours (W-hr) P in watts (W), and t in hours. We often use
the kilowatt-hour kW-hr (Figure 4.8): 1 kWh = 1000 Wh.

Resistors
 Limits of functioning
Resistor manufacturers indicate on every resistor the maximum
power P max (Figure 4. 9) that it can take. Above this power, the
produced heat might damage the resistor.

If we know R, we can calculate l max and V max (to which the

resistor may be connected without damage). The pairs of values Figure 4.8. The domestic meter measures
(P max, l max l or (P max, V max l define the limits of operation of the energy consumed in kWhr.
the resistor.

4.7 GROUPING OF RESISTORS

The resistances of actual resistors have particular values sup­
plied by the manufacturers. However, in practice, we sometimes
need a resistor whose resistance doesn't exist in one single
resistor. Thus it is necessary to group some resistors to obtain
the required resistance, called equivalent resistance of the
grouping. When replacing the grouping in a circuit, this equiva-
lent resistance maintains the same potential difference and cur- Figure 4.9. Photograph of the plate of a
rent. resistor, indicating the maximum power it can
consume.
In the following, we consider two simple methods of grouping
resistors.

Grouping in series

Experiment 4.3
Take two ferronickel wires of the same diameter and different lengths.
Set the multimeter to zero. Measure the resistance of each of the wires.
Connect the wires one after the other in order to form a single wire.
Measure the resistance of the obtained wire (Figure 4.10).
Compare the obtained value to that of the two wires taken separately.
You will find that it is approximately equal to their sum.

This experiment and many others show that the resistance equiv­
alent to many resistors placed in series is equal to the sum of
their resistances:

Figure 4.10. Measurement of the resistance

of two metallic wires connected in series.

--------- - !>El _____________________�:.:l��!��

 You can prove this law by applying Ohm's law and the laws of
potential difference to the circuit of Figure 4.11.
Ohm's law, applied to each of the resistors, gives:
V1= R11, V2= R21 and V2= R31.
The potential difference across the terminals of the equivalent
resistance is:
V = RI.
The law of addition of potential differences gives:
V = V 1 + V 2 + V3
thus: RI= R11+R21+R31 Figure 4.11. Resistors in series.

Grouping in parallel

Experiment 4.4
Take three resistors of different resistances R 1 , R 2 , and R 3
Measure the resistance of each one.

Set up the circuit of figure 4.12 where the three resistors are con­
nected in parallel.
Measure the equivalent resistance R by connecting the multimeter
between the two junctions A and B.
Compare the inverses of R 1 , R 2 , R 3 and R.

You will find that: ..l = ..l + ..l + ..l Figure 4.12 Resistors connected in
R R1 R2 R3 parallel.

The experiment shows that the inverse of the equivalent resis­

tance is equal to the sum of the inverses of the separate resis­
tances in parallel.
I
You can prove this law by considering resistances in parallel A..,_......--i��R1�_J-���s
between two points A and B of a circuit (Figure 4.13).

The current I in the principal branch divides into 1 1 in R 1, 1 2 in

R
R 2 and 1 3 in R3 . The junction rule gives:
I= 1 1 +1 2+1 3
The uniqueness of the potential difference gives:
VAB = R 1 1 1, VAB = R 2 1 2 and VAB = R 3 1 3 Figure 4.13. Resistors connected in parallel
We conclude: 1 1 = VA 8/R 1 , 1 2 = VA8/R 2 and 1 3 = V A 8/R 3 traversed by electric currents.

Between the terminals of the equivalent resistance VAB =RI.Thus

I= VA8/R
By applying the junction rule and canceling V AB • we deduce:

Resistors
 Question 4.1
Show that the equivalent resistance is smaller than the smallest
of the resistances in parallel.
Remarks:
1. Experiment 4.3 verifies that the resistance of a wire resistor
is proportional to the length of the wire.
You can also verify that this resistance is inversely proportional
to the cross-sectional area by binding two metallic wires of the
same length and cross-sectional area s and measuring the resis­
tance of the obtained wire of cross section 2s. You will find that
the obtained resistance equals half of the resistances of each
wire.

2. The equality R 1 1 1 = R 2 1 2 or R 1/ R 2 = 1 2 I 1 1 for the resistances

of the two conductors in parallel shows that the stronger current
passes through the smaller resistance. This explains why a volt­
meter must have a very large resistance in order for the current
that traverses it to be negligible, while an ammeter must have a
very small resistance in order that the potential difference
between its terminals be negligible.

Example 4.1

In the circuit of figure 4.14, the potential difference across the terminals
P and N of the battery is 4. 5 V and the respective resistances of the resis­
tors 01 , 02, and 03 are: R1 = 33 Q, R2 = 47 Q, and R3 = 82 Q
a. Show the resistors connected in series and those connected in
parallel.
b. Determine the value of the equivalent resistance R of the grouping.

Solution
Figure 4.14
a. Resistors D2 and D3 are connected in parallel and their
combination is in series with D1.

b. R2 and R3 being in parallel, their equivalent resistance R4 is

given by: 1/ R4 = 1/ R2 + 1/ R3.
R4 = R 2 R3/ (R 2 + R3 )
R4 = 47x 82 I (47 + 82) = 29.9 Q.

+
R4 and R 1 are in series. Thus R = R4 + R 1
The equivalent resistance is: R = 29.9 + 33 = 62.9 Q.

4.8 APPLICATIONS
Short - circuit
Observe an electrician checking a car battery. He fixes one end Figure 4.15. Short-circuiting a battery
of a thick connection wire to the negative pole of the battery
and touches the positive pole with the other end for a very short
time (a fraction of a second): this produces a spark (Figure 4.15).

-------- � 60
�-�-- ----------------------------
Resistors
We say that the electrician has short-circuited the battery.

Since the resistance of a connection wire is negligible, a short­

circuit takes place in homes whenever electric wires touch each
other: The electric circuit then contains only negligible resis­
tance wires, and the current in the wires becomes very large
(overcurrent).

The same phenomenon takes place when the terminals of a bat­

tery are connected to an ammeter: the current which passes is
too large, and a prolonged contact could damage the battery
and the ammeter. This also takes place whenever the current
exceeds l max ·
Overcurrents cause numerous accidents. Hence it is necessary
to connect a protection resistance in every electric circuit.

Appliances and circuits are usually protected from overcurrents Figure 4.16. Fuses and circuit breakers.
by fuses and circuit breakers installed between the terminals of
the load or the portion of the circuit to be protected (Figure
4.16).

Question 4.2
How does a resistance connected in series in a circuit protect
I
the circuit from overcurrents?
Figure 4.17. Rheostats.
Rheostats
A rheostat (Figure 4.17) is a resistor of adjustable resistance.
We introduce it in a circuit in order to vary the current.

A rheostat alway s possesses three terminals (Figure 4.18). The

middle terminal M is connected to a cursor C whose displace­
ment allows for the change in the value of the resistance in the
circuit when the rheostat is connected between A and M or
between B and M. A \
The rheostat is represented by the sy mbol of figure 4.19. M B

Figure 4.18. Terminals of a rheostat.

Example 4.2 potential divider or potentiometer
In the circuit of figure 4.20, a direct potential difference Vinput is
applied between points A and B. A current I passes through A. I I
a. Give the expression of Vc8 or Vautput in terms of R2 and I I Rh I
b. Give the expression of the intensity I in terms of Vinput, R 1 and R2.
c. Find the expression of Vautput in terms of Vinput , R 1 , and R2 .
Figure 4.19. Representation of a rheostat

Resistors
 Solution:
A

a. Apply Ohm's law to the portion CB of the circuit: R,

Vcs = R 2 I = V autput
b. The law of addition of potential differences in a series circuit gives:
Vinput = VAB = VAc+Vcs
= R 1 1+R 2 1 = (R 1 +R 2 )1
B

Hence: I = V inpu1/(R 1 +R 2 ) D

Figure 4.20.
c. Vautp ut = R 2 I = R 2 Vin pui/(R 1 +R 2 )

In the preceding example, you notice that V output I V inp ut =

R 2 /(R 1 +R 2 ) < 1. c
Rh..._.
This circuit allows to obtain an output potential difference Vautput
smaller than that at the input V in put · For this reason, this circuit
is called potential divider. The resistances R 1 and R 2 can be B
replaced by a rheostat (Figure 4.21), which allows for the divi­
sion of the potential difference in order to obtain the desired
D

output. Figure 4.21. Rheostat functioning as

potentiometer

Summary
'

I
* A resistor is a conductor whose current-voltage characteristic is a straight line
passing through the origin. I
* A resistor is characterized by its resistance R > 0 which represents the opposi-
tion of the conductor to the flow of electric charges.
* The potential difference between the terminals of a resistor is proportional to the
current, which traverses it.
* We measure a resistance with a multimeter.
* The resistance of a conducting wire is given by R = p 1/s.
* In a resistor, electric energy is transformed into thermal energy of value:
W = Vlt = Rl2t.
* The laws of grouping of resistors are R = R 1 + R2 + R3 + ... for a grouping in
series and 1/R = 1/R 1 + l/R2 + 1/R3 + ... for a parallel one.
I
* The pairs of values (Pmax, Vmax) and (P max• 1max) constitute the limits of
functioning of a resistor.
* A rheostat is a resistor with adjustable resistance that allows for varying the
current in a circuit.
--·- ---------- -----..------

---------- E>�--------------�-----��.:i��!��
 READINGS
1. International code of colors
In everyday I ife, it is inconvenient to mea­ mum possible error). The values attributed
sure the resistance of a resistor every time to the different colors are given in table 4.3.
you need it. Resistor manufacturers often
indicate the resistance by printing, on the
resistor, colored rings according to an
international code.

Every carbon resistor has 4 colored rings, 3

of which are very close to each other while
---ti Ill I -I -

/1\\erence
the fourth is a little farther apart (Figure
4.22):

ten's unit's multiplying

the first indicates the ten's digit, the sec­ digit digit power
ond the unit's digit, while the third repre­
sents the multiplying power 10". The
fourth ring indicates the tolerance (maxi- Figure 4.22. Colored rings on a carbon resistor.

Table 4.3
International code of colors

Color Value Tolerance

'
black 0 *
brown 1 1%
red 2 2%
orange 3 *
4 *
green 5 0.5%
blue 6 0.25%
violet 7 0.1%
gray 8 *
9 *
silver 10%
I 5%

* When tolerance is not indicated, it is 20%

Resistors 63
 should never be exceeded. This voltage
Example 4.3
What is the resistance of the carbon resis­ constitutes the threshold of dangerous
tor of figure 4.23? voltage

You should remember that the greater the

t----,1111 t--1
time it takes a current to flow in the human
-i body, the more dangerous its effects are.

/j\�ld

3. Superconductors.
brown black orange
Superconductivity is the phenomenon of
the disappearance of opposition to the flow
Figure 4.23.
of the electric charge in a material. It
Solution:
occurs at very low temperatures. This phe­
In table 4.3, the brown corresponds to the nomenon was first observed in 1911 by the
value 1, the black to 0, the orange to 3 and Dutch physicist Kammerlingh Onnes
the gold to 5%. The resistance of the con­ (1853-1926), who was able to refrigerate
ductor is then: mercury in a liquid helium bath at the tem­
R = 10 x 103 = 10000 Q with a tolerance of
perature of -269° C. Superconductivity has
5 x 10000/100 = 500 Q
become easier to obtain with the use of liq­
Hence R = (10000 ± 500) Q
uid nitrogen, at -169° C. Superconductors
were obtained in 1987 with ceramic at -
2. Electrocution
148° C.
The resistance of the human body is not The resistivity of superconductors is 10-16
always the same. It varies between 50000 Q . times that of the best known conductors.
when the skin is dry and 1000 Q when it is Superconductors are extremely interesting
wet. for their practical applications. Imagine an
When an electric current passes through electric current that, once established in a
the human body, it can, according to its superconductor, maintains itself for years
value, cause dangerous effects like com­ at the same value, without loss of energy
plete paralysis or even death. and without need for voltage to maintain it.
A current of 5 mA is not dangerous, while a Even for very high currents, there is no
current of 20 mA can cause short and sud­ danger of heating in the superconductor.
den involuntary contractions of the muscles. This property is used in hospitals (e.g.
A current of 30 mA can cause asphyxia. diagnosis by magnetic resonance imaging
Complete paralysis and heart arrest occur M.R.I.) and in the construction of ultra-fast
with a current greater than 50 mA. trains in Japan (magnetic levitation).
From this data, we can estimate danger­ Scientists hope to use superconductors in
ous voltages. Take, for example, the most order to minimize the size of electronic
dangerous case (wet body of lOOOW and chips used in computers, as this would
a current of 50mA). The voltage will be: make information processing much faster.
V = RI = 1000 x 50 x 10-3 = 50 V.
For security reasons, the voltage of 24V

64
·-------- ------------·-----------------------
Resistors
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE g. Two resistors, connected in parallel, offer
a greater resistance to the electric current
A resistor KL, of resistance R, is tra­ than either one taken alone.
versed by a current I. If the potential differ­
ence VKL is positive, in which direction does
the current pass in the resistor?
t. Three resistors, of respective resistances
2. Write down the expression of the voltage 11.3, 18.3, and 33 Q, are placed in parallel.
Vco between the terminals of a resistor tra­ The equivalent resistance is:
versed by a current flowing from D to C. a. < 11.3 Q
b. between 11.3 and 33 Q
3. Complete the following sentences: c. 62.6 Q.
a. A resistor transforms the ...............
energy that it receives to ............... A resistor is a symmetrical load, i.e. it
energy. does not have + and - poles. How is it con­
b. The current - voltage characteristic of a nected in the circuit?
resistor is a ............ ............... passing
through the ............... of axes What causes heat dissipation in a resis­
c. The equivalent resistance of many tor that is traversed by an electric current?
resistors in series is equal to the
............... of the ............... of these What happens if we connect an amme­
resistors. It is ............... than the ter in parallel across the terminals of a lamp
............ of the considered resistances. in a closed circuit? Explain.

The three characteristics shown in figure

4. What is the difference between circuit 4.24 correspond to three loads. Choose the
breaker and short-circuit ? one that corresponds to a resistor?

5. Answer by True or False and justify your

answer:
a. The more we increase the resistance of
a resistor connected across the termina Is
of a constant voltage source, the more the
current increases. (a)

b. The voltage across the terminals of a

resistor is zero if it is not traversed by an
electric current.
c. Without a potential difference across the
terminals of a resistor, no current passes (b)
through.
d. If no current traverses a circuit, the
voltage between any two points of the
circuit is zero.
e. The voltage across the terminals of a
resistor can be practically zero while it (c)

is being traversed by an electric current. Figure 4.24

f. Two resistors connected in series offer a
smaller resistance to the electric current
than either one taken alone. Give the expression of the maximum
power consumed by a resistor in terms of its

Resistors 65
 resistance and the maximum voltage instead of the normal 220 V. A student
between its terminals. advised her parents to replace the 220 V
bu I bs with 110 V bu I bs. What are the advan­
7. Why are high voltage lines, used to tages and the disadvantages of taking this
transport electric energy for long distances, advice?
made of metallic wires of large sections?
13. In order to reduce energy losses, copper,
8. By drawing the current - voltage character­ whose resistivity is low l.7xlo-s Q.m, is
istic of a resistor, a student has obtained the used in the transmission of electricity. Why
curve of figure 4.25. Explain what happened? don't we use silver, whose resistivity is lower
(l.6xl0-8 Q.m)?
I

PROBLEMS
n,-1w,, mm-se,1-+e"t• ,-,-• ,.,_,,,, e.rieeeffe\:M • ,-ee:e •• •••ee ee, e ee •-•A

• The lamp in your room is marked (100

W, 220 V ). What do these readings mean?
Calculate, in J and in kWh, the electric ener­
0 v gy consumed for 5 hours of lighting. Deduce
Figure 4.25 the monthly cost if the price of one kWh is
55 L.L.

9. Use the code of colors to find the value • An electric radiator consumes 1500 W
of the resistance of the conductor shown when it functions under a voltage of 220 V.

--1 111 -I
Calculate the current which traverses it.

-
• Calculate the voltage across the termi­

/j\\ver
nals of a resistor of 20 kQ resistance when a
current of 20 mA traverses it.

The current - voltage characteristic of a

grey red black resistor is represented by the figure 4.27.
Give an approximate value of its resistance.
Figure 4.26

10. A fuse is damaged while a certain appli­ v

ance is operating. No identical fuse was
available for replacing the burnt one; 5
instead, two resistors were available, one
4
with a larger resistance and the other with a
smaller resistance. Which one do you think 3
is safer for the appliance?
2
11. You want to replace the resistor in your
boiler with a more efficient one during win­ I (mA)
tertime. Would you replace it with another 0 "----1----1---,,---+---.j---+---HI�
one double the length or half the length? l O 20 30 40 50 60 70

12. Due to overload in an industrial area, the Figure 4.27

potential difference at your home is 120 V

----------- 66 ___.______R_es_is_to_r_s
• A resistor, of resistance 47 n, is dam­ • The circuit of figure 4.29 contains in
aged when it dissipates a power greater than series: a constant voltage source V AB of 6 V,
0.5 W. Determine the maximum voltage that a resistor of resistance 82 n, and a rheostat
can be applied without damaging the resis­ whose resistance varies between O and 100
tor. n. What are the limits between which the
current varies?
• In the measurement of a resistance, we
have picked the values of the voltage
between its terminals and the corresponding A
currents. These values are given in table c
4.4.
Rh
VAB
Table 4.4.

V(vl O 1 2 3 4 5 6
B
l(mA) 0 5 9 15 21 24 31
s2n
a. Propose a diagram for the experimental
setup. Figure 4.29
b. Draw the 1-V characteristic • In an electric circuit, two resistors 0 and
1
c. Find its equation. 02 are under the same voltage of 5 V. 01 is tra­
d. Deduce the value of the resistance. versed by a current of 2 mA and 02 by a current
of 3 mA.
a. Are the two conductors connected in
• The resistance of a copper wire of length
series or in parallel?
10 m and diameter 0.2 mm is 5.33 n. Cal­ Justify your answer.
culate the resistivity of copper. b. Calculate the resistance of each
resistor
• A portion of an electric circuit is formed
of four resistors connected as shown in fig­ • You are given five identical resistors, each of
ure 4.28. The main current is I = 0. lA. Cal­ resistance r. How can you arrange all these resis­
culate: tors (in series, in parallel, or both) in order to
a. The equivalent resistance between A and B. have an equivalent resistance of 7r/2, lr/3, or
b. The voltage V AB· 2r?
c. The currents 1 1 and 1 2
d. The voltages V AE• Vrn, V AF and VFB. • In figure 4.30:
a. Are r1 and r2 connected in parallel? Why?
b. Are r 1 and r4 and r4 connected in series?
E Why?
c. Answer the above questions if i3 = 0.
What is then the equivalent resistance
I
between A and B?
IA ,

Figure 4.28

Resistors 67
 B

Figure 4.30

·------------- 68---- Resistors

 Generators and receivers

'

Objectives
• Define a generator and a receiver.
• Know the characteristics of a generator and a receiver.
• Draw and read the current - voltage characteristics of a generator and of a receiver
• Apply Ohm's law to a generator and to a receiver.

Generators and receivers 69

 Sf

In the preceding chapter, we have studied resistors as converters of electric

energy to thermal energy. We have also used batteries and accumulators as
sources of this electric energy.
There are other sources that transform other forms of energy to electric
energy such as dynamos, thermal and hydroelectric plants, nuclear reactors,
etc. There are also loads other than resistors that transform electric energy
to other forms of energy: Electrolytic cells, motors, and televisions are exam­
ples.
These types of energy converters are the subject of this chapter.

5.1 GENERATORS
"''
,••.• .•
In dry cells (Figure 5.1) and accumulators (Figure 5.2), chemical
energy is transformed to electric energy (See the reading on the bat­
teries at the end of this chapter). Figure 5.1. Dry cells.
In thermal power stations, (Figure 5.3) and in generators used at
homes (Figure 5.4), the thermal energy obtained by burning fuel oil

--=;;.=.;� I ==-
;

4
or gasoline is transformed into electric energy.
In artificial satellites, solar batteries (Figure 5.5) transform the solar
energy received from the Sun to electric energy.
YOKOHAMA'
_ ...!.�-
1..f -•'U,

Question 5.1
What is the form of the energy that, when transformed to elec­
Figure 5.2. Car accumulator.
tric energy, is used as a source for the lights of your bicycle?

Question 5.2
Same question for the electric energy obtained in a hydroelec­
tric plant.

All these sources of energy are called electric generators. Some

generators, like batteries and accumulators, supply direct cur­
Figure 5.3. Jieh power station.
rents. Others, like alternators of power plants, supply alternat­
ing currents.

Question 5.3
What type of current does the dynamo of a bicycle supply? A solar
battery? A hydroelectric plant? An accumulator?

In this book, we will limit ourselves to direct current generators, Figure 5.4. Domestic electric generator
represented by the symbol of figure 5. 6.
 J
5.2 POLES OF A GENERATOR
A DC generator has two poles. When these poles are not marked,
identifying them helps in connecting the generator in a circuit.
This is done by means of either a voltmeter or an oscilloscope.

Figure 5.5. Solar batteries used in satellites.

Experiment 5.1
Identifying the poles of a generator using a voltmeter.
Connect the terminals A and B of the generator respectively to the
terminals V (or+) and COM (or-) of a voltmeter (Figure 5.7). If the
needle of the voltmeter deviates to the right, the voltage V AB = VA­
V B is positive: terminal A of the generator is the positive pole (pole
of exit of current) and terminal B is the negative pole (pole of entry Figure 5.6. Representation of a direct cur­
of current). rent generator.
If you interchange the connections of the voltmeter's terminals, you
will observe that the needle of the voltmeter doesn't deviate. Open
the switch immediately so that the voltmeter is not damaged. In reality, the needle deviates to
the left by nearly 0.5mm before
it is blocked by an obstacle.

·�·-·
Experiment 5.2
Identifying the poles of a generator using an oscilloscope.
Begin by setting the spot at the center of the screen, at the inter­
section of the two axes.
ftEo'\20100
- +
3DD\ It ..
10D'--"3
Connect terminals B and A of the generator respectively to the 30 10 _ illl. _

entry E and the common ground M of the oscilloscope (Figure 5.8).

You wi11 observe that the spot moves downwards, which means that
V BA = V B- VA is negative. This shows that B is the negative pole of
the generator and A its positive pole.

'---
' super
�
Figure 5.7. Identifying the poles of a gener­
ator using a voltmeter.

Figure 5.8. Identification of the poles of a generator using an

osci I loscope.

Generators and receivers 71

 5.3 CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC OF A GENERATOR

Experiment 5.3
Set up the circuit of figure 5.9. Take as generator a flat battery of
4.5V, and use a rheostat of 0-10 W.
Close the switch. Give the rheostat's cursor different positions start­
ing from its maximum position. Write down the corresponding indi­
cations of the voltmeter and ammeter and record them in a table.

V(v)

Figure 5.9. Circuit to draw the characteristic of a generator.

��-��-�-�I(A}
The measurements obtained by the authors are given in table 5.1. Ql Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5

Figure 5.10. Current - voltage characteris-

Table 5.1 tic of a generator.
Variation of the voltage between the terminals of a generator
in terms of the current it supplies

l(A) 0.28 0.32 0.35 0.37 0.40 0.45 0.53 0.56 0.62
vPN(V) 3.74 3.66 3.61 3.56 3.49 3.40 3.28 3.20 3.08

Plot the graph (I, V PN ) (Figure 5.10). Join these points.

You observe that they lie approximately on a straight line of neg­
ative slope and not passing through the origin.

This line is called the current-voltage characteristic of the gen­

erator.

Experiment 5.3 shows that the voltage between the terminals of

72 ------------------------------
·---------------- Generators and receivers
generator is not proportional to the current it delivers to the
external circuit.

5.4 OHM'S LAW FOR A GENERATOR

The equation of the line obtained in experiment 5.3 is of the
form:
V PN = al+ b with a < 0
Let a = - r (with r > 0). The equation becomes:
V PN = - rl+ b

In SI units, since the voltage V PN is expressed in volts, the same

applies for rl. Since I is expressed in amperes, the constant r
must be expressed in V/A or Q. Thus it has the dimension of a
resistance.
If you repeat experiment 5.3 changing the battery, you will obtain
another line with negative slope and another value of r. This con­
stant r characterizes the generator and is called its internal resis­
tance. It causes the heating of the generator while functioning:
part of the produced energy is lost, by Joule's effect, inside the
generator.
If you extrapolate the characteristic of the generator (in dots on the
figure), this line cuts the V axis at the point of ordinate VPN = b.
This value is called electromotive force (emf) of the generator
(written as E): it represents the maximum voltage between the
poles of the generator or its open circuit voltage. In SI units, it
is expressed in volts.
The relation between the voltage across the terminals of a gen­
erator and the current which traverses it becomes:
In fact, Georg Ohm did not work
VpN=-rl+E out this relation. It has this
name because it is an extension
This relation is Ohm's law for a generator. of the relation V = RI for a resis­
The electromotive force E and the internal resistance r are the tor in the case of a circuit con­
characteristics of a generator. taining a generator.

Remark:
In practice, the internal resistance of a generator is always
small. It can be extremely small, as for example in the lead
accumulator of a car, where it is nearly 0.05 Q, but it is never
zero. In some cases, where the internal resistance of a genera­
tor is negligible(r"" 0), we have what we call the ideal or per­ p + -N
fect generator. In diagrams, the ideal generator is represented as
in figure 5.11. Ohm's law becomes: V PN = E.

A real generator (E, r) can then be obtained by grouping, in Figure 5.11 a

series, an ideal generator of electromotive force E and a resistor
of resistance r.

Generators and receivers 73

5.5 RECEIVERS E

p
An electric razor, the motor of a video cassette recorder, an elec­
tric pump, etc., transform electric energy into mechanical ener­
gy (shaving, rotation of the cassette's tape, and pumping respec­ Figure 5.11 b
tively). They are examples of electric motors.

An electrolytic cell converts electric energy into chemical ener­

gy. In a lamp, electric energy is transformed into thermal ener­
gy and light energy.

In all these appliances, electric energy is transformed into another

form of energy. These appliances are called electric receivers.
However, we will limit the use of this term to appliances that trans­
form electric energy to a form of energy other than thermal. K

5.6 CURRENT - VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC OF A RECEIVER

Consider the circuit represented in figure 5.12. This circuit con­

tains an adjustable voltage source (0-20V), an electrolytic cell
containing an aqueous solution of sodium chloride, an ammeter,
a protection resistance, a switch, and a voltmeter connected
across the terminals M and N of the cell.
If you draw the current-voltage characteristic of the cell, you will Figure 5.12 Circuit to draw the 1-V charac­
obtain a graph that includes a linear part (Figure 5.13). teristic of an electrolytic cell.

Note that the characteristic is a straight line of positive slope

which does not pass through the origin. The voltage is not then
proportional to the current..
If you extrapolate the line, it cuts the V-axis at a point whose
ordinate gives the value of V corresponding to I = 0. This inter­
cept is characteristic of the eel I and is called its back-electro-
motive force (back emf), of symbol e, and expressed in volts. vMN
In fact, the current remains zero as long as the voltage between
the terminals of the receiver is smaller than or equal to the value
of e.
As in the case of a generator, the internal resistance of the elec­
e
trolytic cell is the slope of its (1-V) characteristic. Ohm's law for
a receiver is:
VMN = rI + e Figure 5.13. I-V characteristic of an elec­
As for the generator, the internal resistance of a receiver causes the trolytic cell.
receiver to be heated when functioning: electric energy is lost by
Joule's effect.
The (1-V) characteristic is a line of positive slope, not passing
through the origin and whose slope represents the internal resis­
tance.
- A receiver is characterized by its back emf and its internal
resistance.
- The extrapolation of the characteristic intercepts the V axis at
a point of ordinate equal to the back-electromotive force.
- Ohm's law for a receiver is expressed as: V = rl+e.
Remark
If you measure the voltage across the terminals of a receiver in
an open circuit, you will find that it is zero, unlike what you
obtain from Ohm's law. The latter is thus applicable only in
closed circuits, where VMN > e.

5.7 BATTERIES IN OPPOSITION

In the circuit of figure 5.14, the three batteries G 1 , G 2 , and G 3
are connected in series. We observe that the lamp L shines nor­
mally.

Figure 5.14. When the three batteries are connected in series, the lamp shines normally

Generators and receivers

If we remove G 3 , the lamp shines less (Figure 5.15).
Let's connect G 3 as in figure 5.16: the lamp hardly shines.

Figure 5.15. If battery G 3 is removed, the lamp shines less strongly.

We say that battery G 3 is connected in opposition with the cur­

rent entering through its positive pole. It acts against the cur­
rent flowing from the two other batteries and is therefore con­
sidered as a receiver.

'------t � H �·

Figure 5.16. When G 3 is connected in opposition, the lamp hardly shines.

 Summary
* A generator converts forms of energy into electric energy.
* A generator has two poles: a positive one, and a negative one. The current enters
the generator through the negative pole and leaves through the positive pole.
* A generator is characterized by its electromotive force E and its internal resistance r.
* The (1-V) characteristic of a generator is a straight line of negative slope.
* Ohm's law for a generator is expressed as: V = -rl + E
* An ideal generator does not have an internal resistance.
* A receiver converts electric energy to a form of energy other than thermal.
* A receiver is characterized by its 'back-electromotive force e and its internal
resistance r.
* The (1-V) characteristic of a receiver is a straight line of positive slope.
* Ohm's law for a receiver is expressed as: V = r'I + e
* At least one of the generators connected in opposition acts as a receiver.

BATTERIES

In 1936, while excavating at a site in Iraq,

archaeologists discovered 27 batteries (one
of which was still in good condition) , dating fabric
2000 years back. The good battery, of a
length of 20 cm, was made of baked earth �
and contained a copper roll and an iron stick
embedded in a conducting pasty substance.
The two poles of the battery were of copper
and iron. It is not exactly known what this
battery was used for.
The Italian physicist Alessandro Volta invent­
ed the first DC battery in 1796. Volta piled
up copper and zinc disks separated by rags
imbibed with brine (Figure 5.17), thus mak­ zinc
ing this primitive battery which is the origin
of all modern batteries.
figure 5.17. Volta's cell.

Generators and receivers 77

 back to

Today, the most commonly used battery is the 1839. In 1935, another Englishman, Bacon,
dry eel I (Figure 5.18) made of a carbon rod built up the first hydrogen-oxygen cell. These
(positive pole), surrounded by a jellied solu­
tion of zinc chloride or ionized ammonium cells have a very good yield and do not pol­
chloride placed inside a porous membrane. lute.
The whole is placed inside a zinc cylinder
that constitutes the negative pole of the bat­
tery.
-++----++-1- plastic insulator
In the dry cell and in almost all other types
f----++-+- seperator
of batteries brine is used as an electrolyte. steel (+)
In alkaline batteries (Figure 5.19), the elec­
trolyte is an alkaline solution (KOH, for
example). -tt---+1+ Zn + mercury + KoH
1---1-t---tt---,.,+ brass
lid

Figure 5.19. Alkaline battery.

jelly
membrane Fuel cells have been used by the Americans

___
to supply space capsules Gemini and Apollo
with electric energy. They are now used to
./
supply remote villages with electricity, in
_ zinc
sub-marines, and electric cars (in France
and Great Britain). Research is being car­
Figure 5.18. Dry cell. ried out in order to improve these cells, with

The negative pole is made of zinc while the

positive pole is made of manganese dioxide
(Mn0 2 ). These batteries transform chemical
energy into electric energy with a better yield
than saline batteries do (2 to 5 times better),
but they are more expensive.
( air
With fuel cells (Figure 5.20), a new genera­
L
.
.

tion of batteries was born. Fuel eel Is trans­

form to electric energy the chemical energy G•oitrngeo
produced in the chemical reaction between a + water vapor
combustible (hydrogen or methanol) and a
fuel (substance that contains oxygen and
l .. +
..
therefore helps combustion). The principle is
due to the English scientist Grove and dates Figure 5.20. Fuel cell.

78 Generators and receivers

•--w-•--•-••-----�-�------------------------
 c. I= - 0.5 + 0.25 V
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE To what type of elements each equation cor­
responds?
Complete the following sentences:
a. T he quantities that characterize a
generator are: the ............ and the Why should we avoid putting a battery in
a pocket containing keys?
b. The voltage across the terminals of a
generator increases when the current Why doesn't a radio operating with two
batteries function when one of the batteries
c. If the voltage VAB across the terminals of is reversed?
a receiver is positive, the current
traverses it from ...... to ...... The voltage across the terminals of a gen­
erator of poles A and M is: VAM = 2 I - 6.
2. True or False: Which one is the positive pole?
a. A solar battery converts electric energy
into Iight energy. Is a car battery a generator or a receiver?
b. The emf is sufficient to characterize an
ideal generator. A generator of a given internal resistance
c. In an open circuit, the voltage across the feeds a circuit made of an electrolytic cell
terminals of a receiver is equal to its and a small motor. Electric energy is trans­
back emf. formed into three other types of energy. Name
d. The smaller the internal resistance of a them.
generator, the better its quality is.
e. The smaller the internal resistance of a Sketch, on the same graph, the current
receiver, the better its quality is. - potential difference characteristics of two
generators:
3. What is the shape of the 1 - V character­ a. Of equal emf's but different internal
istic of a generator? A receiver? A resistor? resistances
b. Of equal internal resistances but
4. Is a generator traversed by the current it different emf's
supplies?
Which of the generators in figure 5.21
5. What do the readings( 12 V ; 5 Q). on a acts as a generator? As a receiver?
motor mean?
G

QUESTIONS
The voltage across the terminals of a gen­
erator varies very Iittle when we modify the
circuit to which it is connected. Is the inter­
resistance of this generator big or small?
I 1 _____.
2. The (1-V) characteristics of three different
'-----�I I
tric elements have the respective equations: Figure 5.21
a. I= 15- lOV
b. I= 0.1 V Two motors (2 V; 1 Q) and (1 V; 2 Q) are
connected as in figure 5.22. Does a current
flow in the circuit?

-------�-----------------
Generators and receivers 79
--------------------
 V(v)
(2 V, H2)

(1 V, 2 Q) 2

11. A generator (2 V; 1 Q) is connected to a .___..___......__....__.....____.__ I(A)

motor (3 V; 2 Q). Does the motor function? Why 0,25 0,5 0, 75
I Why not?
Figure 5.23

PROBLEMS • The values of the voltage across the ter­

minals of a battery , and the current it deliv­
• The voltage across the terminals of a bat­ ers , were recorded as follows:
tery of emf E = 12 V is 11.8 V when the cur­
rent it supplies is lA. Calculate the internal l(mA) 0 230 280 340 430
resistance of the battery. V(V) 1.53 1.36 1.32 1.29 1.24

• A generator (6 V, 2 W) supplies a current a. Draw the circuit diagram.

of 100 mA. What is the voltage across its ter­ b. Draw the graph of V versus I and give its
minals? equation.
c. Deduce the emf and the resistance of the
• A receiver (70 V, 1 Q) is traversed by a battery.
current of 5 A. Determine the value of the
voltage across its terminals. • You are given two generators (E 1 , r) and
(E 2 , r) of the same internal resistance and
• Write the equation of the (1-V) characteris­ E 2 <E 1 . These two generators are first
tic of the receiver (15 V, 10 Q). grouped in series (Figure 5.24). The volt­
meter indicates 3.6 V.
• The voltage across the terminals of a gen­ In a second experiment , they are connected
erator is 5.7 V when it supplies a current of in opposition (Figure 5.25). The voltmeter
0.3 A. It becomes 5.1 V when I= 0.9 A. Find then indicates 12 V. Calculate the emf of
its emf and its internal resistance. each generator.

• Figure 5.23 represents the (1-V) charac­

teristic of a battery. Determine graphically its
emf and its internal resistance.

Figure 5.24 Figure 5.25

• To plot the characteristic (1-V) of an elec­ . • In the circuit of figure 5.26, determine
trolytic cell, the following values were given in Ve - V8 and VA - Ve when
a certain experiment: a. K is connected to 1.
b. K is connected to 2

i-·
I (mA) 45 90 120 165 220
V (V) 0.7 0.8 0.85 0.9 1.0

a. Draw the circuit diagram. 2

K
b. Plot Vas a function of I and write its
--

I
equation. -V,
c. Deduce the internal resistance and the 2 Q1
back emf of the receiver.
4V,l0

3V, 10

Figure 5.26

Generators and receivers

Objectives
• Set up a circuit represented by a diagram and vice-versa.
• Apply the laws of potential difference and current in an electric circuit.
 In this chapter, we will apply what we have learnt so far to simple circuits in
order to understand circuit diagrams and to set up the corresponding cir­
cuits. However, we should realize that circuits of appliances we use in everyday
life, like that of a television (Figure 6.1) or that of a computer (Figure 6.2), are
not so simple.

6.1 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

The circuit of an electric bell (Figure 6.3) contains: a source of
current S, an electromagnet E, an iron or steel blade L of ham­
mer M, a button B which serves as a switch, and connection
Figure 6.1. Diagram of a television circuit.
wires, all connected in series.

The circuit of a bicycle contains, connected in series, a genera­

tor G, two lamps L 1 and L 2 , connection wires, and a metallic box
M (the common ground), as in figure 6.4.
The home electric circuit (Figure 6.5) contains an electric
meter, a circuit breaker, fuses, lamps, electric household appli­
ances, and connection wires.
Figure 6.2. Diagram of a computer circuit.
All these circuits have the following elements in common:
- A source of current (battery, generator, mains, etc.).
- Receivers and
resistors.
- Connection wires ransmission
that connect the dif­ line
ferent elements.
- One or more switch­ meter
es to switch on or off
220V 30A
the whole circuit or
Figure 6.3. Circuit of an electric bell.
some of its branches.

circuit
In general, an elec­
breaker
tric circuit is a com­
bination of loads,
wires, and switches,
and at least one gen­
erator.

Figure 6.5. Circuit of a domestic electric cir-

cuit. Figure 6.4. Electric circuit of a bicycle.

Electric circuits 83
 6.2 DRAWING THE DIAGRAM OF AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
To draw the diagram of an electric circuit, physicists and
electricians have adopted symbols to represent the differ­
ent elements.

For example, the electric circuit diagram of a bicycle is

shown in figure 6.6.

6.3 SETTING UP A CIRCUIT USING A DIAGRAM

Figure 6.6. Electric circuit diagram of a bicy­
Experiment 6.1 cle.

Observe the diagram of figure 6.7.

Set up the corresponding circuit.
Check that the circuit functions normally.
- Switch on K 1 alone; the two lamps shine.
- Switch on K 2 alone; none of the lamps shines.
p
- Switch on K 1 and K 2 ; only L 1 shines.

Question 6.1
Explain the results obtained in experiment 6.1.

6.4 SOLVING AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Solving an electric circuit consists of determining the currents Figure 6.7.
in different portions of a circuit and the voltages between its dif­
ferent points.
In this section, we shall solve some typical circuits.

Example 6.1

Series circuit containing a battery and two resistors

The circuit of figure 6.8 contains a battery of emf E = 6 V and an N
internal resistance r = 1 Q, two resistors of resistances R 1 = 10 Q
and R2 = 14 Q, and a switch K.
Calculate the current I and the voltages VPN, VA8 and V8N .

A ._______,
B
When we close the switch, the same current I flows in all the
loads of the series circuit. The direction of the current is from Figure 6.8.
the positive pole to the negative pole of the battery.
Ohm's law, applied between the terminals of the battery, gives:
Vr N = V p - VN = E - rI

84
-----�----�--�-------�-------------------------
Electric circuits
Ohm's law, applied between the terminals of the switch and
the resistors, gives:
VPA = Vp - VA = 0
vAB = vA - v B = R 1I
VBN = VB - VN = R 2I

The uniqueness of the voltage and the law of addition of voltages

gives:
VPN = VpA+ VAB+ VBN
E - rl = 0 + R 1 1+ R 2 1

Hence: E = R 1 1+ R 2 1+ rl = (R 1 + R 2 + r)I
and: I= E/(R 1 + R 2 + r)
We deduce::
I= 6/(10 + 14 + 1) = 0.24 A
V PN = 6-1 x 0.24 = 5.76 V
VAB = 10 X O.24 = 2 .4 V
VBN = 14 x 0.24 = 3.36 V.
Remark
We can also solve the circuit by replacing the resistances R 1 �----1 R=24 n 1----�

and R 2 by their equivalent resistance R (Figure 6.9):

R = R 1 + R2 = 10 + 14 = 24 Q. Figure 6.9.
Thus: VP N = Vp -VN = E - rl = RI E = (R + r)I, etc ..., and we
obtain the same resu Its.

Example 6.2
Series circuit containing a battery, a receiver, and resistors
The circuit of figure 6.10 contains a generator (12 V, 0. 5 Q), two
resistors R 1 = 4 Q and R2 = 5.5 Q, a motor (9 V, 10 QJ, and a (E,r,) N
switch K. p
Calculate the current I and the voltages, VPN , VpA , VA8 and VaN·
K

When we close the switch, the same current I traverses all the
loads of the series circuit. The direction of the current is from
the positive pole to the negative pole of the generator.
Figure 6.10.
Ohm's law applied to the terminals of the generator gives
V PN = VP - VN = E - r 1 I
and for the motor:
VAB = e + r 2 1

The law of addition of voltages and Ohm's law give:

V PN = VPA + VAB+ VBN

E - r 1 I = R 1 I+ (e + r2 D + R 2 1
Hence: E - e = (R 1 + R 2 + r 1 + r2 )1

Electric circuits
 711

We deduce:
I= (12 - 9) I (4 + 5.5 + 0.5 + 10) = 0.15 A
V PN = 12 - 0.50 x 0.15 = 11.92 V
V PA = 4 x 0.15 = 0.60 V
V AB = 9 + 10 X O .15 = 10. 5 V
V 8N= 5.5 x 0.15 = 0.82 V.

6.5 STRATEGY FOR SOLVING ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

To solve an electric circuit, it is recommended to go through

the following steps:

• Read the problem carefully in order to identify the ele­

ments that constitute the circuit: generators, receivers, resis­
tors, switches, etc.

fl Identify the different physical quantities that you are asked

to find.

O Draw the diagram of the circuit.

8 Indicate, on the diagram, the direction of the current. If

the circuit contains only one generator, the current moves
from its (+) pole to its (-) pole. If the circuit contains two
generators in opposition, the direction of the current is
imposed by the generator with the higher emf.

O Apply the appropriate laws. If the circuit contains several

resistors, you can replace them by their equivalent resistance.

(9 Solve the obtained equations.

I Example 6.3
A circuit contains a generator (6 V, 1 QJ, a receiver (2 V, 4 QJ and a
resistor of R3 = 3 Q connected in series, and two resistances R2 = 6 Q
and R 1 = 3 Q connected in parallel (Figure 6.11).
Find the currents in the different branches of the circuit and the
voltages between the terminals of the receiver and each of the resis­
tors.

·----------------
86 ----- - ·
Electric circuits
 (6V,ln)
c o·

R,=3 Q
D
I,
-R-,=-6-Q- (2V,4n)

Figure 6.11.

Solution
First step: the elements of the circuit are:
- the generator
- the receiver
- the three resistors

Second step: the required physical quantities to find are:

- the current in the main branch. Let I be the value of this cur­
rent.
- the currents 12 and 11 in the resistors R2and R1 respectively.
- the voltage between the terminals of the receiver
- the voltages between the terminals of R1, R2 and R3.

Third step: In this case, the diagram is given by figure 6.11.

Fourth step: the direction of the current is shown on figure 6.11.

Fifth step: Ohm's law, applied between the terminals of the generator, gives:
Vco = E - rif
The resistance R equivalent to R 1 and R2 is given by:
1/R = l!R1 + l!R2
The addition of the voltage gives:
Vco = Vcp + VpA + VAB + Vao
E - r1I = 0 +RI+R3I + (e + r20
The uniqueness of the voltage between P and A and the junction
rule at P give, respectively:
R1I1 = R2I2 and I=.1J + 12

Sixth step: the solution of the equations give:

R=2Q, l=0.4A, l 1=0.27A l 2=0.13A
The voltage between the terminals of the receiver is:
V80 � 2 + 4 x 0.4 = 3.6V
The voltage between the terminals of VpA =RI=0.8 V
The voltage between the terminals of R3 is: VAB = 1.2 V

Electric circuits 87
 Summary
* An electric circuit is a group of loads joined by connecting wires and
switches, containing at least one generator.
* The solution of an electric circuit consists of determining the currents in
the different portions of a circuit and the potential difference between its
different points.

PROBLEMS • A circuit (Figure 6.13) contains a gen­

erator (16 V, 1 Q), a receiver (4 V, 6 Q) and
a resistor R = 3 Q .
• We connect, in series, a generator (4.5 V; a. Find the current in the circuit.
1.5 Q) and a resistor of resistance R = b. Find VNP• VAN and VPA·
18.5 Q. Draw the circuit diagram. Find
the current in the circuit and the voltage
between the terminals of the generator.
(E,r 1 )
• A circuit contains, in series, a generator
(4.5 V; 1.5 Q) and two resistors R 1 = 25
Q and R 2 = 18.5 Q. Calculate the
current in the circuit by:
a. Applying the law of uniqueness of the
voltage between the terminals of the
generator. N
b. A applying the law of uniqueness of the
voltage between the terminals of R 2 .
Figure 6.13
• In figure 6.12, we have:
E = 4V, r = 1.2 Q, R 1 = 12 Q, R2 = 8 Q and • The circuit of figure 6.14 contains an
R3 = 4 Q. accumulator G (12 V; 0.6 Q), a motor M (4 V;
a. Find the equivalent resistance between P 2 Q) and four resistors R 1 = 1 Q, R2 = 2 Q,
and N. R 3 = 3 Q and R4 = 4 Q.
b. Find I, 1 1 and 1 2. a. Find the equivalent resistance R 5
between B and C. Draw a diagram
containing G, M and R5.
(E,r) b. Find I.
c. Find V 8 c = V 8 - Ve and deduce 1 1 and 12 .
d. Points D and F are now connected. Find
the new current supplied by the generator.

p
N

Figure 6.12

----------- 1313 _______________ ��::!�=-���-���

 G • Connect in series a battery (1.5 V; 1 Q)
and a resistor of resistance 14 Q. Let I be the
p current in the circuit.
a. Find in terms of I, the voltage
between the terminals of the battery.
D
b. Find, in terms of I, the voltage between
the terminals of the resistance.
c. Draw, on the same graph and with the
same scale for I and V, the graphs of the
two obtained functions.
d. Find, graphically, the intersection of the
F two lines.
e. Verify the previous result by calculation.
Figure 6.14
• In figure 6.16, you are given: E = 4 V, r =
• The diagram of figure 6.15 contains two gen­ 1.6 Q, R 1 = 2 Q, R2 = 4 Q, R 3 = 6 Q , R4 =
erators G1 (48 V; 1.5 Q) and G2 (24 V;0.5 Q) in 2 Q and R 5 = 3 Q.
opposition, and a resistor R = 10 Q. a. Calculate the equivalent resistance of
a. What is the role of the generator G 2 in R 1, R 2, R 3, R 4 and R 5.
the circuit? b. Calculate the current in each branch of
b. Find I. the circuit.

G1

A I B

R3 R2

R
R1
(E,r)

c 14

B
Figure 6.15

Figure 6.16

Electric circuits
 Waves

Can you imagine our world without radios, televisions, telephones, guitars, loudspeakers,
X-rays, means of telecommunications, and Internet?
All these sources of fun and wonder use sound, light, or other waves to stimulate our sens­
es of hearing or seeing and allow us to communicate with others.
Indeed, all the information that reaches us through our eyes or ears travel in waveform.

90 ------ --------------------
·-----·-------------· Vibrations and waves
....
 Vibrations and waves

Objectives
• Distinguish between a vibration and a wave.
• Know that waves transport energy but not matter.
• Know the characteristics of a traveling wave.
• Distinguish between mechanical and electromagnetic waves.

Vibrations and waves 91

 If you pluck the string of a guitar, the string vibrates and produces a musical sound. If
you switch on your hi--A system, the membrane of the loud speaker vibrates and you
hear a sound. If you switch the light on, you see objects around you. In all of these cases
vibrations produce waves that propagate to reach your ears or eyes and stimulate
your senses of hearing and vision.
In this chapter, we will study the characteristics of vibrations and waves.

7.1 VIBRATIONS
A body suspended from a spring (Figure 7.1) oscillates up and
down when it is pulled down and then released.
A small mass attached to the free extremity of a string (Figure
7.2) swings (or oscillates) under the action of its weight when
shifted to one side and released.
Other objects, such as a long plastic ruler rigidly clamped at one
extremity (Figure 7.3) or a stretched guitar string (Figure 7.4)
behave in the same way; they vibrate after being displaced from Figure 7.1. Oscillating body.
their rest position and then released.
IIIIIIIIII
Vibrations or oscillations are regular to-and-fro motions of an
object between two extreme positions. I\
1 \tring
An oscillation or a vibration is a cycle.

7.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATIONS

£!_)]
Period
Figure 7.2. Oscillation of a mass tied to a
string.
Experiment 7.1
Suspend a small metallic ball to a 1-meter long string (see figure
7.2). Shift the ball to one side by a small angle and release it.
Using a stopwatch, measure the time it takes to make 10 oscilla­
tions and record the resu It.
Figure 7.3.Vibration of a long plastic ruler
Repeat this experiment a few times, counting, each time, the same
number of oscillations.

Compare the answers obtained. You will find that the results are
approximately equal.
Divide the measured time by the number of oscillations. You will
find that the result T obtained is always the same.

Figure 7.4. Vibrating string.

92
·----------------------------------------�----
Vibrations and waves
In this experiment, the time Tis called a period. Galileo Galilei
T he first to discover that a
In general, the period T is the constant interval of time a vibrat­
pendulum always takes the
ing object takes to make one vibration.
same time to swing to-and-fro
In SI units, the period is measured in seconds (s). was the Italian physicist
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642).
His discovery was later used
Frequency to make clocks.
Frequency f is the number of cycles a vibrating object completes
per second. It is the inverse of the period:
f = number of cycles I time taken

f= ..l
T
In SI units, since the time is measured in seconds, the fre­
quency is measured in 1/second or s-1 This unit is called the
hertz (Hz), after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857-
1894), who discovered the existence of radio waves in 1887.

Amplitude
The amplitude of a vibratory motion is the maximum displace­
ment of the vibrating object in either direction measured from
the equilibrium position. Figure 7.5. Pendulum clock.
The amplitude is equal to one half the distance traveled
between the two extreme positions of the vibrating object. For
example, in the oscillation of the mass tied to a spring, shown
in figure 7.1, the amplitude is the distance OA or OB.

Figure 7.6 The needle of a sewing machine

executes a vibratory motion.
Example 7.1
A mass suspended from a spring describes a line segment of
an average length of 20cm and makes 40 oscillations in 20 s.
Find the amplitude, the frequency, and the period of the
motion of the mass. All vibrations die out gradually
because they lose their initial
energy to their environment; we
Solution
say that vibrations are damped.
The amplitude is equal to half of the described segment:
To overcome damping, energy
a = 20 I 2 = 10 cm.
should be supplied to the vibrat­
The frequency is the ratio of the number of cycles and the time ing object at regular intervals of
taken: f = 40 I 20 = 2 Hz. time; mechanical energy is sup­
The period is the inverse of the frequency: T = 1 If= 1 I2 = 0.5 s. plied to a pendulum clock (Fig­
ure 7.5) and electrical energy is
supplied to a sewing machine
(Figure 7.6).

Vibrations and waves

7.3 WAVES
fixed end
Experiment 7.2 !
I
signal

0
Fix one end of a long rope (or string) to a fixed support.
Tie a ribbon at a certain point M and stretch the rope in a horizon­
tal position (Figure 7. 7). Snap the other end O of the rope up and
down, only once. This produces a hump that travels along the rope
towards its fixed end.
As the hump passes by point M, the ribbon moves up and down
without traveling along with the hump.

Now swing your hand up and down several times so that the end
O of the rope oscillates around its rest position at an approximate­
ly constant frequency. Several humps travel towards the fixed end,
causing the ribbon to move up and down several times without trav­
eling along with the hump.
Figure 7.7. Hump traveling along a rope.

In the first case, the traveling hump is called a signal or a pulse.

In the second case, the series of traveling humps is called a wave
train, or simply a wave.

Experiment7.:3
Place a piece of cork on the surface of water in a ripple tank, away
from the dipper. (Read about ripple tanks at the end of this chap­
ter).
Set up the tank to produce circular waves.
Start the vibrations of the dipper.

The piece of cork moves up and down but does not move in the
direction of the propagation of the waves.

Use a stroboscope to observe the waves on the screen (Figure 7.8).

Measure the distance between any two consecutive crests (or
troughs) or two consecutive bright (or dark) shadows. You will find
that this distance is the same everywhere in the wave pattern

Figure 7 .8. Shadow of the waves produced

in a ripple tank.
From the above experiments, we deduce the following:
a. To produce ·waves, we need a source of vibrations.
b. The source causes disturbances in the medium, which trav­
el away from the source, progressing from point to point in the
medium. This is called a traveling or progressive wave.
c. The particles of the medium (the ribbon, the cork, or any
other particle) do not propagate from point to point as the wave
does but oscillate around their equilibrium positions. This
means that, while it propagates, a progressive wave transports
energy but does not transport matter.

Waves of this type need an elastic medium (spring, string,

water, etc.) to propagate. They are called mechanical waves.

7.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A WAVE

Frequency, period, and amplitude
In experiment 7 .3, the frequency, the period, and the amplitude
of the wave produced in the ripple tank are imposed by the dip­
per. They are the same as those of the dipper.

Wavelength
If you measure the distance between two consecutive crests or
troughs, you will find that it is always the same on the surface of the
water. This distance is traveled during a period T of the vibrating
source and is called the wavelength of the wave.
Figure 7.9 represents the wave train along one direction of propaga­

+,
tion. The pattern shown is a sinusoidal curve. The wavelength corre­
!A �
sponds to the distance AB or CD. of\ /� B c �
The wavelength is represented by the Greek letter 'A (pronounced:
'
I! -V-
lambda). In SI units, 'A is measured in meters. 1 '

Speed of propagation
In a homogeneous medium, a traveling wave has a constant Figure 7 .9. Pattern of waves along one
speed of propagation direction of propagation.
Since a wave travels a distance "A during a time equal to one
period T, its speed is:

v= distance I time= "A IT.

Therefore: v = "A/T= "A.f. =;c, x= v.T. =f

The speed of a wave on the surface of a liquid depends on many

factors, among which are:
- The properties of the liquid.
- The depth of the liquid in which it propagates

Vibrations and waves 95

Question 7 .1
What is the difference between the speed of propagation (v) of a travel­
ing wave in a homogeneous medium and the speed (u) of the up and
down motion of the vibrating particles of the medium (Figure 7.1 O)? v
-------�

Example 7.2
The wavelength of a water wave in a pool is 0.8 m and its speed of Figure 7 .10. Speed v of propagation of the
propagation is 0.2 mis. Find the period and the frequency of the wave and speed u of motion of a particle of
wave.
the medium.

Solution
The relation between the speed, the wavelength and the period is:
v=AI T Therefore T=).Iv= 0.8 I0.2 = 4 s.
The frequency is given by: f = 1 IT= 1 I4 = 0.25 Hz.

Direction of
vibration of

7.5 TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL WAVES

the particles
of the medium
v

Transverse waves Figure 7 .11. Transverse waves.

In a11 the types of waves we have considered so far (waves on
water surface and in ropes), the direction of vibration of the par­
ticles of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of propa­
gation of the wave (Figure 7.11). These waves are called trans­
verse waves.
We can also produce transverse waves in a spring (Figure 7.12).

Longitudinal waves

Experiment 7.4 Figure 7.12. Transverse waves along a slinky

spring.
Compress 3 or 4 loops at the end of a horizontal slinky spring and
let it go (Figure 7.13).
Waves will travel along the spring while each point of the spring
moves to and fro along the same direction.

The waves produced in this experiment are called longitudinal

waves.
In longitudinal waves the direction of the vibration of the particles
of the medium is parallel to that of the propagation of the waves.

Sound waves
Sound waves are longitudinal. When a sound wave passes a
given region, it makes the particles of that region vibrate in the Figure 7.13. Longitudinal waves along a
slinky spring.
direction of motion of the wave (Figure 7.14).

Human vocal chords and loud speakers are examples of emitters ..,._________ .,.
of sound waves. When talking, the vibrations of the vocal chords
are transmitted to air molecules. Similarly, the vibration of the
membrane of a loudspeaker sets air molecules vibrating in the
direction of propagation of the sound.

The human eardrum and microphones are examples of sound

receivers.
Figure 7.14. Propagation of sound waves, the
In both examples, a membrane is set vibrating by sound waves. passing wave make particles of air vibrate in
the direction of propagation of the wave.

Experiment 7.5
Connect a loudspeaker to the poles of a low frequency generator
(LFG). Use a sinusoidal voltage of frequency of 100 Hz; you hear a
sound.
Connect a microphone to an oscilloscope and place it at some dis­
tance from the loudspeaker. You will observe, on the screen of the
oscilloscope, a sinusoidal wave (Figure 7.15).
low
Knowing the vertical sensitivity of the oscilloscope, measure the frequency
frequency of this wave; you find that it is equal to the frequency generator
given by the LFG.
Increase the amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage; you will hear a
louder sound and observe that the amplitude of the wave shown on �
the screen increases.
11--------. microphone
loud-speaker
Figure 7 .15.

7.6 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

In chemistry, you have learnt that an atom has many energy lev­
els. Whenever an electron falls from an energy level to a lower
Electromagnetic waves are
one, it emits an electromagnetic wave.
transverse waves. This will be
studied in the third secondary
In general, when charges osci I late, electromagnetic waves are class.
produced.
These waves, unlike mechanical waves, do not need a material
medium to propagate: they can travel in vacuum, where their veloc­
ity is always the same, equal to c = 300000km/s = 3xl0B m/s. In
other mediums, their speeds are different.
As for all waves, the speed, the wavelength, and the frequency
are related by the equation:
AXf = v
For electromagnetic waves in vacuum,
Axf = c = 3xl0B m/s.
Electromagnetic waves differ by their frequencies.
Figure 7 .16 shows the frequencies and wavelengths of the elec-

Vibrations and waves

 Visible
spectrum

4 6
10·" 10·" 10
-6
10 2 10 10 Wavelength

=---=
Y rays Radio waves (m)

Lon waves

IO
24
10
18

. 1 0 "' J{) I�·· ••• 10 l 2

10
IO
10
8
10
6
10
4
10
2

_._ _ __ .. ......
• •
_
. · ·.·. ·
Visible spectrum

---38Q. ·400. · · 500 600 700 Wavelength

- - -
-�
(nm)

Ultra­ �
violet Infrared
.,,
Y(l0 1 'Hz) 7.5 6 4

Figure 7.16. Spectrum of white light obtained through a prism.

tromagnetic spectrum. As you can see from this figure, visible

light occupies a small range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
It is made of many colors. The eye can distinguish, in increas­
ing order of frequency, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,
and violet. These colors can be seen in the rainbow or when
sunlight traverses a prism (Figure 7.17).

The indigo color is quite dif­

ficult to distinguish from
blue and violet.

The first to analyze sunlight

into its component colors was
the English physicist and
mathematician Sir Isaac New­
ton (1642-1732). Newton
obtained the colors of the
rainbow by passing sunlight
through a prism. He was also
able to synthesize white Iight
by drawing a circle on a card­
board, painting sectors of the
circle with different colors,
and rotating the cardboard.
The circle then appeared
white.
Figure 7.17. White light is seperated into its component colours by a prism.
 A ripple tank (Figure 7.18) is an apparatus used in laboratories to produce and observe
wave motion on the surface of water. This observation allows us to study the properties
of water waves.
Basically, the ripple tank consists of:
- A pool of water about lcm deep placed in a glass tank.
- A dipper (Figure 7.19) which is made to vibrate by means of a small motor. It produces
plane or circular waves.
- A system for projecting the ripples on a screen.

Since it is difficult to perform measurements on the ripples while they are moving continuously, we
use a stroboscope to 'freeze' them.

A stroboscope is a lighting device that goes on and off regularly with an adjustable frequency which
can be made equal to that of the wave. When the stroboscope is used with a ripple tank, the waves
appear stationary.

Figure 7.19. Dipper used to produce plane waves. On the surface of the water,
these appear as rectilinear ripples.
Figure 7.18. Ripple tank.

Vibrations and waves 99

I

! Summary
* A vibration or an oscillation is a to-and-fro motion of an object between two

: *
extreme positions.
A vibration produces a wave with the same frequency, period, and
I
amplitude.
* In a given medium, a wave propagates with constant speed and frequency.
* A wave is characterized by its frequency, period, amplitude, wavelength, and
speed.
* Waves can be transverse or longitudinal.
* Mechanical waves do not travel in vacuum; they need a material medium
to propagate in.
* Electromagnetic waves are produced by oscillating charges. They can
propagate in both vacuum and other mediums.
* In vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel with the same speed.
* A ripple tank is an apparatus used in laboratories to produce and observe
water waves.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 6. Do the particles of an elastic medium in

which a wave travels, move along with the
What are the characteristics common to all wave itself?
vibrations?
7. How does an electromagnetic wave dif­
2. Draw a wave and label its amplitude, crest, fer from the wave produced on the surface of
trough, and wavelength. water?

3. A wave travels in a certain medium. What 8. What does a traveling wave transport?
is the relation between its frequency, its
speed, and its wavelength? 9. Fill in the blanks:
a. The speed of propagation of a wave is
4. What is the difference between a trans­ ......... of the form of the wave, and
verse and a longitudinal wave? ........ on the nature of the medium.
b. Sound waves propagate in air in ........ .
5. The frequency of a wave is increased. directions.
Does its period increase or decrease?
10. True or False: cribed by a particle of the medium, under­
a. Sound does not propagate in vacuum. going a vibratory motion of amplitude 2 cm?
b. A plane wave and a circular wave of the
same frequency propagate on the surface 6. List two differences between mechanical
of water with the same speed and the and electromagnetic waves.
same wavelength.
c. The wave that propagates on the surface PROBLEMS
of a liquid is a longitudinal wave.
d. The distance traveled by a wave during
a vibration of the source is called a Our favorite radio station operates at a
wavelength. frequency of 90 MHz (1 MHz = 106 Hz).
e. Light propagating in a material medium The wavelength of the emitted waves is
is a mechanical wave. 3.33 m. What are the period and the speed
f. White light propagating in vacuum is an of the wave?
electromagnetic wave.
.All electromagnetic waves travel in vacu­
Fill in the blanks: um at the speed of c = 3xl0B mis. Find the
11. Electromagnetic waves are produced by wavelength of microwaves of frequency 1010
Hz.
b. Sound waves are .......... waves.
c. A .... ..... is an apparatus used to study • A dipper sends 300 ripples per minute
waves. across a water tank. The distance separating
d. The number of oscillations completed two successive ripples is found to be 3 cm.
by a vibrating source in one second is Find the wavelength, the period, and the
the ........ of the source. speed of the produced waves.

• A bat emits an ultrasound of frequency

50 kHz and speed 350 mis. Calculate the
wavelength of the emitted sound.

QUESTIONS • The wavelength of a water wave is 4m

and its period is 2s.
a. Find the speed and the frequency of
The frequencies of two sounds emitted the wave..
by vibrating guitar strings are 200Hz and b. Calculate the distance traveled by the
250Hz.Which of the two sounds will move wave in 2 minutes..
faster through the air?
• The speed of light in water is 225000
2. Propose a concrete situation, not men­ kmls. Find its frequency if its wavelength is
-9
tioned in this chapter, to show that a wave 590 nm. (lnm = 10 m)
transports energy but not matter..

3. Why does the amplitude of water waves

vary with the distance from the source?

4. How far does a wave travel in three peri­

ods of the source? Give your answer in terms
of the wavelength 'A.

5. What is the length of the segment des

Vibrations and waves

 Reflection and refraction of wave

Objectives
• Distinguish between reflection and refraction of waves
• Define the index of refraction

------- _ 1 02 Reflection and refraction of waves

 Observe water waves in a swimming pool; when they strike the edge of the pool,
they change their direction. Similarly, when you shout in a valley, you hear, after
a while, the echo of your voice. When you look at a straight rod half-immersed
in water, it appears to be broken.

These phenomena are the subject of this chapter.

8.1 WAVEFRONTS

When a stone is dropped in a pool of water, it produces a set of cir­

cular ripples that move from the point where the stone hits the water
and spread all over the pool.

The pattern of waves, seen from above, as shown in (Figure 8.1 ),

consist of concentric circles called wavefronts. These circles are Figure 8.1. Wave diagram showing the
wave pattern at a given instant.
equally spaced since the speed of travel of the ripples is con­
stant. The diagram looks like the shadows on the screen of a rip­
ple tank.

Not all waves are circular. For example, we can produce plane
waves in a ripple tank by using a vertical plane strip as a dipper
(Figure 8.2). Spherical sound waves are produced when a fire­
cracker explodes in air (Figure 8.3).
Figure 8.2. Plane waves in a ripple tank.
The direction of travel of the waves is always perpendicular to the wave
fronts: it is a ray.
In the case of light, this ray is called a light ray.

Figure 8.3. Spherical waves produced in the

air by the explosion of a firecracker.

Reflection and refraction of waves 1 03

 8.2 REFLECTION OF WAVES ON PLANE SURFACES

Expriment 8.1
Produce plane wavefronts on the surface of a ripple tank.
Place a metal strip or a ruler perpendicular to the surface of the water
and oblique with respect to the waves (Figure 8.4). incident ra s
You will observe that the waves move away from the strip.

The waves that strike the strip are called incident waves, and those
that move away from the strip are the reflected waves. The sudden
change of direction of the waves at the strip is called reflection.
Figure 8.4. Reflection of plane parallel
waves on a planobstacle.
From this observation, we conclude that:
Incident plane parallel waves are reflected as plane parallel waves.

Experiment 8.2
Repeat experiment 8.1 using a point source of waves.

Observe the reflected waves (Figure 8.5).

From this observation, we can see that:

a.Incident concentric circular waves are reflected as concentric
circular waves.
b.lncident and reflected waves have equal wavelengths and so
Figure 8.5. Reflection of concentric circular
travel at the same speed. waves on a straight obstacle.
c. If S represents the source of the incident waves and S' the
common center from which all reflected waves seem to start,
then S and S' are symmetrical with respect to the plane reflec­
tor.

The same phenomenon is obtained with light waves. However,

since the wavelengths of visible light are much smaller, we can­
not see these waves.
Light waves (Figure 8.6) have the same properties as those of
the waves reflected in the ripple tank.

The wavelengths and speeds of reflected and incident waves are

identical. The source S and its 'image' S' (the center of reflect­
ed waves) are symmetrical with respect to the reflecting surface.

The reflection of light waves on plane surfaces will be studied in

chapter 10.
Figure 8.6. Reflection of light waves on a
plane surface.

1 04 Reflection and refraction of waves

-·-------- -------·----------------------------
 8.3 REFRACTION OF WAVES ON A PLANE SURFACE

Experiment 8.3
In an empty ripple tank, place a rectangular glass plate of thickness
6mm.
Pour water into the tank unti I it just covers the glass plate (Figure 8. 7).
You will obtain two regions of different depths.
Plane parallel waves, of frequency f, strike the boundary between the Figure 8.7. Refraction of waves.
deep and shallow water obliquely.
You observe that the waves leaving the edge of the plate are also paral­
lel to each other but have a direction different from that of the incident
waves (Figure 8.8).
Use a stroboscope to 'freeze' the waves.
Measure the wavelength t.1 of the incident waves and the wavelength t.2
of the waves that crossed the boundary.
You wi11 find that the two wavelengths are different: t.2 < t.1.

Figure 8.8. Representation of the refraction

of waves.
But v = t..f, Therefore, for the same frequency f v2 /v 1 = t.2 /t. 1 .
This implies that v2 < v 1 . and that the speed of water waves is
higher in deeper water.

The waves crossing the boundary between deep and shallow

water are called refracted waves.
The sudden change of direction of the waves as they move
across the boundary separating the two mediums is called
refraction.
air

Refraction is the sudden change in the direction of a wave as it

crosses the boundary between two different transparent medi­ glass
ums.
The phenomenon of refraction also occurs with light waves.
Incident light waves in air, falling obliquely on the surface of a
transparent medium are refracted (Figure 8.9): their direction of
propagation changes and their wavelength becomes smaller. Figure 8.9. Light waves are refracted at the
surface separating two transparent mediums.

8.4 INDEX OF REFRACTION

Consider light waves of a given frequency f, i.e., monochromat­
ic light. The speed of light in vacuum or in air is c = 3xl0B m/s.
The wavelength of this light is: A 1 = cl f. If v is the speed of the
same monochromatic light in glass or water, then: A2 = v /f.
Dividing A 1 by A2 we obtain:
A2 c
A2 =v
Reflection and refraction of waves
 Air
This ratio is called the index of refraction of the transparent medium glass
and denoted by the letter n (Figure 8.10):
n = c Iv Figure 8.10. The index of refraction is n =
c Iv.
Note that the index of refraction has no units since it is the ratio
of two speeds.
The index of refraction n of a medium varies slightly with the
wavelength of the light used. It is usually given for the yellow
light of sodium in air of, 'A= 589 nm= 589x1Q-9 m.
Table 8.1 gives the indices of refraction of some mediums. Table 8.1
Indices of refraction of some
mediums for the yellow light
of sodium of
('A= 589 nm).
Medium Index of
Example 8.1
refraction
Find the index of refraction of benzene given that the speed of light
in benzene is 200 000 km/s. Vacuum 1
Air "' 1
Solution Water 1.33
Ethyl alcohol 1.36
Since the index of refraction of a medium is the ratio of the speed Ruby 1.54
of light in vacuum to that in the medium: Flint 1.65
nbenz = C I Vbenz Diamond 2.42
= 300 000 I 200 000 = 1.5.

Summary
* A ray is a straight line perpendicular to wavefronts and falling along their
direction of travel.
* In the reflection of waves, the incident and reflected waves have the same
frequencies, wavelengths, and speeds.
* In the refraction of waves, the incident and refracted waves have the same
frequencies but different wavelengths and speeds.
* The index of refraction of a transparent medium is the ratio of the speed
of light in vacuum to its speed in the medium.

·-------- _1 06 Reflection and refraction of waves _

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. What is a ray?
y
2. What is the difference between the

I· I I
reflection and refraction of waves?

3. True or False:
a. A reflected wave has the same
frequency as an incident wave. x
b. A refracted wave has the same Figure 8.11
wavelength as an incident wave.
c. The frequency of a wave refracted from
air into water is smaller than that of its 3. In figure 8.12, PQ represents the edge of
incident wave. a glass plate placed in a ripple tank so as to
d. The speed of propagation of a reflect­ make a region of shallow water. Complete the
ed diagram, showing the refracted waves.
wave is smaller than that of an
incident wave.
e. The speed of propagation of a
refracted wave in water is greater than
that of an incident wave in air.
4.
4. Fill in the blanks:
a. The wavefronts of ........ waves are
concentric circles. Q
b. The wavefronts of ........ waves are
reflector
parallel straight lines.
c. The wavefronts of spherical waves are

d. Reflection occurs when a wave meets

an ........
shallow water
e. In reflection, the incident wave and the
deep water
reflected wave have the same ........
and the same ...... p
QUESTIONS
You can obtain waves in a pan of water Figure 8.12
by dipping one of your fingers in the middle
of the water surface at a regular rate. 4li In table 8.1, you have nair"" 1. Is it slight­
a. Sketch, on a sheet of paper, the shape ly more or slightly less than 1? Why?
of 5 waves.
b. Draw one ray. Tell whether rays are parallel or concurrent
in:
Figure 8.11 represents water waves mov­ a. A plane wave.
ing from left to right in a ripple tank. The line b. A circular wave.
xy represents a plane obstacle placed across c. A spherical wave.
the ripple tank. Complete the diagram,show­
ing the position of the reflected;waves.

Reflection and refraction of waves 107

 PROBLEMS • A water wave of wavelength 10cm travels
100cm in 2s.
a. What is the frequency of this wave?
• In figure 8.13, S is a point source of b. It is reflected on a plane reflector.
vibrations in a ripple tank; M, N, and P are What are the wavelength, the frequency,
three incident wave fronts, and xy is a plane and the speed of the reflected wave?
reflector.
a. Complete the diagram, showing the
• In shallow water, the speed of an inci­
reflected waves and the common dent wave is 0.5m/s and its wavelength is
center S' of the reflected waves. 10cm. The speed of its refracted wave in
b. From the diagram, find the wavelengths deep water is 0.8m/s. Find the wavelength
of the incident and reflected waves. of the wave refracted in deep water.
c. What is the speed of propagation of
the reflected wave if the speed of the • The speed of light in vacuum is 3x10S
incident wave is v = 2 m/s? m/s. Find its speed in ruby of index of
refraction 1.54.

• The speed of I ight in diamond is

y 1.24xlos m/s. Find the index of refraction
M N p of diamond.

• Calculate the speed of light in a medium

whose index of refraction is 4/3.

• The wavelength of a laser light is 'A =

s 0.66 µm in air and 'A= 0.44 µm in glass of
index of refraction n = 1.5. Compare the fre­
quencies of this light in the two mediums.
Explain.

x
Figure 8.13

1 08 Reflection and refraction of waves

-----------------------------------------------
 Optics

Optics is a very old science. In the 3rd century BC, the mathematician Euclid stud­
ied geometrical optics and believed that light is emitted from the eye and envelops
the object the eye sees. In the 9th century, the Arab scientist lbn-AI-Haitham, known
in the West as Alhazen, after dissecting the eye, discovered that it was a receiver of
light. He described its structure and gave the relation between the distance of a lens
to an object and its image. During the 17th century, the French philosopher and
mathematician Rene Descartes (1596-1650) improved on the work of lbn-AI­
Haitham and established the final form of the latter's relation. Later in the same cen­
tury, the English physicist Isaac Newton (1642-1727) discovered the dispersion of
light.

The subsequent progress of optics made possible the development of biology

through microscopes and that of astronomy through telescopes.

Optics is the science that allows us to understand how we see objects around us and
observe the universe. Among its many contributions, it has allowed us to see very
distant stars, which are millions of light-years away, and viruses, magnified thou­
sands of times.

1 09
---------------------------------------------
Propagation of light
 Objectives
• Know that Iight propagates in straight Iines
• Identify different types of beams of Iight
• Distinguish between an object and an image
• Identify real and virtual images

,_________11 0 ---------- Propagation of light

 When sunlight falls on buildings, trees, or people, it forms shadows simi­
lar to those of the original objects. When light enters a room through a
window, an illuminated area appears on the opposite wall or on the floor
that reproduces the form of the window.

Such phenomena are an indication of how light propagates. Propagation

of light is the subject of this chapter.

9.1 RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

E

Experiment 9.1
Place a triangular obstacle P between a lit candle B and a screen E par­
allel to P (Figure 9.1).

You will observe a triangular shadow P' similar to P on the screen E.

Figure 9.1. The shadow is similar to the
obstacle.

Experiment 9.2
Let a candle C illuminate a large circular hole H made in a cardboard P
(Figure 9.2).
You observe an illuminated circular region on another board P' placed
behind P and parallel to it.

Figure 9.2. Illuminating a circular hole

gives an illuminated circle on the screen.

Experiment 9.3
Drill 3 holes, one in each of 3 cardboards P 1 , P2 , and P3.
Place the cardboards parallel to each other.
Light a candle and place it to the left of the cardboards (Figure 9.3).
Look through the third hole from the right.
You can only see the flame if your eye, the three holes, and the flame
all lie on the same straight line. If you displace one of the cardboards,
your eye, or the candle up or down, or right or left, you will not be able
Figure 9.3. Light from the candle can be
to see the flame any more.
seen if the flame, the three holes, and the eye
lie on a straight line.

Propagation of light
_________ JJJ___________
 The above experiments clearly show that light propagates in
straight lines. This is referred to as the principle of rectilinear
propagation of light.

9.2 LIGHT BEAMS

Any beam of light issued from a small source is a divergent

beam (Figure 9.5).
If you hold a magnifying lens in the path of sunlight, you notice Figure 9.4. Light does not propagate in a
that the beam emerging from the magnifier converges to a spot straight line through an extremely small hole.
F on the screen (Figure 9.6). The principle of rectilinear propagation of
light is no more valid. This is the phenomenon
This beam is said to be convergent. of diffraction, which is not dealt with here.
A divergent beam can also be obtained if a screen P, on which
the beam converges, is moved back from the magnifier. An illu­
minated area appears on the screen. The beam from F to P is a
diverging one and F acts as a source of light (Figure 9. 7).

The beam of light shown in figure 9.8 is a cylindrical or parallel

beam. Rays issued from the Sun or stars can be considered as
parallel.

A divergent laser beam of very small angle (Figure 9.9) 1s an

approximation of a ray of light.
Figure 9.5. Divergent beam of light.

(P)

Figure 9.6. Convergent beam of light. Figure 9.7. The beam issued from F towards the screen is divergent.

Figure 9.9. A divergent beam of light of small angle approximates a

Figure 9.8. Parallel beam obtained from a laser source.
light ray.

__________112 __________ Propagation of light

9.3 OBJECTS AND IMAGES
In optics, an object is any source of light falling on an optical
system. The Sun, a candle, a lamp, etc., are examples of optical
objects. The Moon, an illuminated wall, etc., reflect light falling system
s S'
on them and are also considered obj�cts.
If you stand in front of a plane mirror, you see your "image"
object real
through the mirror. This image is of the same shape and size as image
you are. If you look at a building through the "eye" of a camera,
you also see the image of the building. This image is not of the
Figure 9.10. A real image is formed by a
same size as the building.
converging beam emerging from an optical
In these cases, what you see is called the image of the object given system.
by the optical system (the mirror or the lens of the camera).
In general, an optical system forms an image of any object placed in
front of it.
This image can be:

- A real image which can be collected on a screen, like the spot

observed in figure 9.6. It is formed by a converging beam S'

emerging from the optical system (Figure 9.10).

virtual
image
- A virtual image cannot be collected on a screen, like your
image in the plane mirror. The rays emerging from the optical
system (the mirror) form a divergent beam, which appears to Figure 9.11. A virtual image appears to
come from the virtual image (Figure 9.11). issue a divergent beam emerging from the
optica I system
The eye can see both real and virtual images.·
In all cases, if B' is the image of a point object B, any ray issued
from B toward the system emerges from it and passes through
B' if B' is real, or seems to come from B' if B' is virtual.

lj
Summary I
* Light propagates in straight lines.
* Beams of light can be converging, diverging, or parallel.
* Real images are formed by converging beams of light emerging from optical
systems and can be collected on a screen.
* Virtual images appear to issue divergent beams of light emerging from optical
systems and cannot be collected on a screen.

Propagation of light
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE QUESTIONS
1. Describe a si mpie experiment that 1. The famous mathematician Euclid believed
demonstrates the pri nci pie of recti Ii near that objects are seen when light is issued from
propagation of Iight. our eyes towards the object. Do you agree with
him? If not, give a counter example.
2. Draw a convergent beam, a divergent beam,
and a cylindrical beam. 2. A girl climbs a hill. Which part of a tree,
located on the other side of the hi11, does she
3. A square plate is placed between a point see first? Why?
source of light and a screen. What is the shape
of the shadow thrown on the screen? Assume 3. When do we observe an eclipse of the
the source lies on the axis of the plate and that moon? Draw the pictures corresponding to a
the plate is parallel to the screen. partial and total eclipse.

4. Is the shadow, formed in question (3) 4. When do we observe an eclipse of the sun?
above, of the same dimensions as the plate? Of Show, by a graphical construction, places on
larger dimensions? Of smaller dimensions? Earth where partial and total eclipses of the Sun
Illustrate by drawing a figure. can be seen.

5. Is the image seen through a plane mirror 5. A thin piece of paper burns if sunlight is
real or virtual? Explain. focused on it by means of a magnifier. Why does
not the paper burn by exposing it to direct sun­
6. Complete the following sentences: light?
a. A point object is the vertex of a ........
beam. 6. When sunlight is focused by means of a
b. A real point image is the vertex of a magnifier, what are the object, the optical
........ beam. system, and the image? Is the image real or
c. Light rays are perpendicular to the virtual?
........ of the I ight waves.
d. The path followed by light from one
point to another is not changed when
the ........ of propagation of Iight is PROBLEMS
reversed.
e. A ......... image is visible to the eye, but • A square plate P of center O and side 10cm
it cannot be formed on a ........ is placed between a point source S and a screen
E. The plate and the screen are parallel and
7. True or False. Correct the false statements: 40cm apart, and SO= 20cm. Determine the side
a. In a transparent medium, light moves faster of the shadow seen on the screen, Knowing that
than it does in vacuum. S is placed along the axis of the plate P.
b. In the same medium, the principle of
rectilinear propagation of light is • A pinhole camera consists of a cube with a hole
always valid. in one face and a pane of dark glass making the oppo­
c. For light to propagate, a transparent site face. This pinhole camera is used to take a pic­
medium is required. ture of a person of height l .8m standing 6m away
d. The speed of light in air is greater than from the camera. The depth of the camera, from hole
its speed in vacuum. to screen, is 40cm. Find the height of the image of
the person.

114 Propagation of light

 Reflection of light

Objectives
• State and apply the laws of reflection.
• State and apply the principle of reversibility of light.
• List the characteristics of the image given by a plane mirror.
• Compare the fields of vision of plane and convex mirrors.

Reflection of light 115

 Look at yourself through a mirror, the still surface of a swimming pool, or the
clean and polished surface of a car. You see clear images of yourself and the
objects surrounding you.
In each case, the object emits light waves in all directions. Light waves that
fall on the surface are sent back as if coming from a form similar to the object
called its image.
This phenomenon is called reflection and is the subject of this chapter.

10.1 REFLECTION

When a parallel beam of light falls on a polished surface (Figure

10.1), its direction of propagation changes suddenly.
This sudden change in the direction of propagation of the beam is
called reflection.
Figure 10.1. Beam of light reflected on a
We represent the original direction of propagation of the wave by a
polished surface.
light ray (a straight line with an arrow), called the incident ray, and
the direction of propagation after reflection by the reflected ray.
The point where the incident ray strikes the reflecting surface is
called the point of incidence, and the perpendicular OH to the
M N

\
surface at the point of incidence is called the normal to the surface
(Figure 10.2).
The plane formed by the incident ray and the normal is called the
plane of incidence.
The angle i between the incident ray and the normal is called the A 0

angle of incidence and that between the reflected ray and the
Figure 10.2. Graphical representation of
normal, r, is called the angle of reflection. reflection.

When the reflecting surface is smooth, an incident parallel

beam of light is reflected in one direction. This is what we
usually call regular reflection (see figure 10.1). When light falls
on a rough surface, like when Sun rays fall on a wall, light is
reflected in all directions, i.e., light is reflected irregularly
(Figure 10.3). In fact, we see objects around us when they
produce diffuse reflection of the light falling on them, which
then reaches our ey es.
Figure 10.3. Diffuse reflection of light.

116
··-------------------�----------------� -----w--
Reflection of light
 10.2 LAWS OF REFLECTION

Experiment 10.1
Place a plane mirror M vertically in such a way that its straight edge
coincides with the diameter of a graduated disk lying on a horizontal
plane (Figure 10.4).
Direct a narrow beam of light, or a laser beam, towards the center O of
the disk. Adjust the beam to graze the surface of the disk.
This incident beam is represented by the ray AO (Figure 10.5).
Observe the reflected beam OB. It also grazes the surface of the disk.
Measure angles AOH and HOB. You will find that they are equal.
Change the value of angle AOH. You will still find that the two angles
are equal.
Figure 10.4. Experiment to prove the
laws of reflection.

This and other experiments (See also Home Experiment 10.1

at the end of this chapter) show the following:
First law of reflection: the incident ray, the reflected ray, and
the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
Second law of reflection: the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection. i = r.
These two laws are known as Descartes' laws.
H
Note that, if the incident ray is perpendicular to the mirror, i.e.
the angle of incidence is equal to zero (i = 0), the angle of
reflection is also zero (r = 0). The incident and reflected rays
are confounded. In other words, a ray normal to the surface
retraces itself.

Question 10.1
Find the angle of deviation of the incident ray upon reflection (i.e.
the angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray). Figure 10.5. Laws of reflection.

10.3 REVERSIBILITY OF LIGHT

Experiment 10.2
Repeat experiment 10. l interchanging the incident and reflected
rays (Figure 10.6).
You will observe that M reflects BO along OA.

117 --------·
----------------------------------��
Reflection of light
 la,,w,

This means that if the incident ray falls along the initial path
of the reflected ray, the latter follows the path of the initial
incident ray.
This result is known as the principle of reversibility of light:
A
The path of light is independent of its direction of ropagation.

10.4 PLANE MIRRORS

A plane mirror is a polished plane surface that reflects light falling Figure 10.6. Reversibility of light.
on it.
The most common plane mirrors are made of thin glass plates
covered on one side with a silver or tin compound protected by
paint (Figure 10.7).
Other examples of plane mirrors are smooth plane metallic
surfaces and still water surfaces.

10.5. IMAGE FORMED BY PLANE MIRRORS

Figure 10.7. Plane mirrors.

Experiment 10.3
Place two identical candles in symmetrical positions A and B with
respect to a thin, preferably colored, vertical glass pane (Figure
10.8).
Light candle A.
Look at the unlit candle B from the side of A: B appears lit although
no actual flame ignites it.
Move one of the candles. Candle B no longer appears lit.

What you saw from the side of A is actually the image of the
flame of candle A through the plane mirror. The image of the
flame does not emit light although it appears to do so: it is a
virtual image.
This result is general :
If an object is placed parallel to a plane mirror and in front of it
its image has the following properties:
- It is virtual.
- It is of the same size as the object.
- Its distance from the mirror is equal to that of the
object from the mirror. Figure 10.8. Image formed by a plane
- It is not inverted along the vertical direction. mirror.
- It is laterally inverted (the image of a right hand is a left hand).

118
----------------------------------------------
Reflection of light
 Construction of the image

Consider a point object, represented by point A, placed in front

of a plane mirror.
To construct its image, consider two rays issued from A and
incident on the mirror (Figure 10.9):
-A ray AO norma I to the mirror and reflecting on itse If. I'

- Any other incident ray Al reflecting along 11' suc h that i = r,

(2nd law of reflection ).As A is the intersection of the two
incident rays AO and Al, its image A' is the intersection of the
corresponding reflected rays OA and 11'. These two rays do not
meet in front of the mirror, but their backward extensions meet
at A' be hind M.
A' is thus the virtual image of A seen through the mirror.
Note that any incident ray of light issued from A is reflected as
if issued from its image A'.
Figure 10.9. Construction of the image
Using the same method, you can construct the reflected beam formed by a plane mirror.
corresponding to a divergent incident beam (See figure 10.9).

10.6 FIELD OF VISION OF A MIRROR

Field of vision of a plane mirror

An observer, standing in front of a plane mirror (M), can see, by

reflection, a region of space. This region is the field of the plane mirror.
A ray of light issued from any point in that region can reach the eye of
the observer after being reflected on the mirror (Figure 10.10). (M)
If the observer moves closer to (M), he will see a larger region of space;
if he steps back, he will see a smaller region.
If, for the same position of the observer, the mirror (M) is replaced by
a larger mirror (M'), the observer will see a larger region.
For a given position of observer, the field of vision of a plane mirror is
that region of space that can be seen by the observer after reflection
on the mirror. This field depends both on the position of the observer
and the dimensions of the mirror. Figure 10.10. Field of vision of a plane
mirror.
We can get an idea of the shape of the field of vision by applying the
second law of reflection and constructing the rays reaching the eye
after being reflected at the edges of the mirror.

Reflection of light
____________ 1_!�------------·
 Field of vision of a convex mirror

A convex mirror may have a spherical (Figure 10.11), cylindrical, or

parabolic shape. It is usually made of glass the inner side of which is
silvered.
For the same position of the observer's eye, if a circular plane mirror is
replaced by a convex spherical mirror of the same size, the observer will see
a larger region of space through that mirror.
You can understand why the field of a convex mirror is larger than that of a
plane mirror of the same surface area by applying the second law of Figure 10.11. Convex spherical mirror.
reflection and constructing the rays that reach the eye after being reflected
at the edge of the mirror (Figure 10.12).
Because their field of vision is larger, convex mirrors are used as rear-view
mirrors in cars and motorcycles, and at crossroads.
A

HOME EXPERIMENT 0

Experiment 10.4
B
Verification of the laws of reflection
Figure 10.12. Field of vision of a convex mirror.
Place a plane mirror M vertically on a piece of cardboard lying on
a horizontal table.

Insert two identical pins B and A in the cardboard, in the region

H
facing the mirror (Figure 10.13). (DI
�A
If you look through M, you can observe the images A' and B' of the
two pins. B
c
Move your eyes until you see B' hiding A': your eye and the two (M)

points A' and B' lie on the same straight line. Along this line, and 0
in front of the mirror, insert two additional pins C and E.
On the board, draw the lines D and D' passing respectively through B'

A&B, and C&E. You will find that D and D' intersect at point O on
the mirror. Draw the normal OH to the mirror. A'

D represents the incident ray, D' the reflected ray, and OH the
Figure 10.13.
normal.
Measure the angles of incidence and of reflection.

You find that the two angles are equal, which verifies the second
law of reflection.

120
�--------- ------------------------------------
Reflection of light
 Summary
* Reflection is the sudden change in the direction of propagation of light
falling on a polished surface.
* When an incident ray falls on a reflecting surface, it is reflected and obeys the
following laws:
- The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.
- The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
* The path of a ray of light is independent of its direction of propagation: this
is the principle of reversibility of light.
* The image of an object, given by a plane mirror, is virtual and symmetric
of the object with respect to the mirror.
* For the same position of an observer, the field of vision of a convex mirror
is larger than that of a plane mirror of the same dimensions.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 6. In figure 10.9, the incident and the

reflected beams are both divergent.
What are the characteristics of the image of
an object formed by a plane mirror? Construct the reflected beam if the incident
beam is
2. Can the following statement replace the - Cylindrical.
second law of reflection: "The incident ray - Convergent.
and the reflected ray are symmetrical with
respect to the normal at the point of 7. A fluorescent lamp makes an angle a with
incidence"? the surface of a plane mirror. What is the angle
formed by:
3. Is the phenomenon of reflection restricted a. The image of the lamp and the mirror?
to plane mirrors? b. The lamp and its image?

4. The image of an object in a plane mirror 8. Choose the correct answer:

is virtual. Yet, the image could be seen with a. A light ray Al, emitted from an object A,
the naked eye. Does this constitute a reflects at I on a plane mirror and retraces
contradiction? Explain. itself. Ray Al is:
- Perpendicular to the mirror.
5. A virtual image of an object is formed - Parallel to the mirror.
behind a mirror. Is this image due to a - Inclined with respect to the mirror.
reflected beam behind the mirror? b. The image of a point object, given by a
plane mirror, is:

Reflection of light
---------- J_?J_ --------·
 - In front of the mirror. eye with the same speed?
- On the surface of the mirror.
- Behind the mirror. 7. The field of vision of a plane mirror is
c. A cinema screen receives light from a determined with respect to a given position of
projector and reflects it to the an observer. Does this field include the
spectators. The reflection is: observer himself? Verify by constructing a
- Regular, like that on plane mirrors. figure.
- Diffuse.
- An optica I i11usion.
d. On a vertical paper facing a vertical
plane mirror, we read the number 118.The
PROBLEMS
number we read through the mirror is:
- 811 • The angle between an incident ray and
- 181 the corresponding reflected ray is 70°. What
- 118 are the angles of incidence and reflection?
e. Sarni is 50 cm from a vertical mirror. He
moves 20 cm away. The distance between • You are given a circular plane mirror of
his image and himself is then: diameter d and a convex spherical mirror of the
- 100 cm same diameter. On the same sheet of paper, draw
- 120 cm the limits of the field of vision of each mirror for
- 140 cm the same observer. Compare the two fields.

QUESTIONS • In 1969, when Neil Armstrong landed

on the Moon, one of his tasks was to place
1. Give examples that demonstrate the two perpendicular plane mirrors on the
reversibility of light upon reflection. surface of the Moon so that scientists could
determine the exact Earth-Moon distance by
2. You are given a point object and its sending a laser beam to be reflected on the
image through a plane mirror. Use them to system of mirrors and therefore measuring
draw the reflected ray corresponding to an the time it takes the beam to return to Earth.
incident ray issued from the object. Show that the beam reflected on the two
perpendicular mirrors is parallel to the
3. Suggest a system of plane mirrors that incident beam.
allows you to see the back of your head.
Sketch the path of a ray of light from the • An observer looks at the infinite number
back of your head to your eye. of images of a candle formed by two parallel
plane mirrors (A) and (B) placed x meters
4. A driver can see a passenger sitting in the
back seat through the rear-view mirror. Does the apart. The candle is at a distance x/3 from
passenger necessarily see the face of the driver? (A). How far from the mirror (A) are the first
Why? 3 images formed by (A)?

5. Can you think of a system of mirrors that • A periscope is an optical instrument

cancels the right-left reversal, i.e., that would made of two plane mirrors inclined at an
allow you to see a text as it is? angle of 45 ° with respect to the axis of the
tube (Figure 10.14). An observer places her
eye at point 0.
If you approach a plane mirror at a certain a. Draw the path of a ray of light issued from A.
speed, does your image approach the mirror at b. Determine the position and the nature of
the same speed? Does the image approach your the image of A given by the two mirror system.

___________122 ____________ Reflection of light

 7 7 r, 77 SJ r :ran c m:z r r r md
B

6cm
A

2cm
M
Figure 10.14 6cm

• A ray SI strikes a plane mirror M at point Figure 10.15

I making an angle of incidence i.

a. Draw the reflected ray IR. • An observer 180 cm tall stands in front
b. SI is held fixed. The mirror M is rotated of a vertical plane mirror (Figure 10.16). His
by an angle a around an axis passing eyes are 170 cm above the ground.
through I and lying in the plane of the a. Calculate the minimum height of the
mirror. Determine the direction of the mirror that allows the observer to see
corresponding rotation of the reflected ray. all his/her image.
c. The mirror is held fixed. SI is rotated in b. What is then the distance between the
the plane of incidence by an angle a. bottom of the mirror and the ground?
Determine the direction of the c. Does the result depend on the distance
corresponding rotation of the reflected ray. between the observer and the mirror?

• In problem 6, the mirror is displaced

parallel to its initial direction while the
incident ray is kept fixed. Determine the
direction of the reflected ray with respect to B
its initial direction. c �

• A light ray is emitted from point and A

reaches point 8 after reflection by a mirror M
(Figure 10.15). Construct the incident ray Al A
and the reflected ray 18.
Figure 10.16

Reflection of light 123

 Objectives
• State and apply the laws of refraction.
• Know the condition for total internal reflection.
• Interpret the phenomenon of dispersion.

---------- 124____________ Refraction of light

A rod, partly immersed in water (Figure 11.1), appears to be broken at the
water surface. A coin, placed at the bottom of a glass full of water, appears
closer when viewed from air. Medical doctors diagnose stomach troubles by
inserting a tube (gastroscope) through the. mouth to inspect the inside of the
stomach. When light passes through a prism, you see different colors on a
screen placed behind the prism.
The study of these phenomena constitutes the subject of this chapter.

11.1 REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Experiment 11.1
Use a ray box or a laser source to direct a thin beam of light
Figure 11.1 An oblique rod, partly immersed
obliquely on the plane surface of a graduated right semi-cylindrical
in water, appears sharply bent at the water
piece of glass (Figure 11.2). surface.
You wi11 observe that part of the I ight is reflected on the surface
(according to the laws of reflection) while the other part bends upon
entering the piece of glass.
Draw a diagram to represent the bending of the light.

Represent the incident light by the incident ray SO, the

reflected light by rpy OR', the bent light by ray OR, and the
perpendicular to the surface at point O by ON (Figure 11.3). Figure 11.2. Photograph of a beam of light
falling on a right semi-cylindrical piece of
glass.
The sudden change in the direction of a beam of light, as it
crosses obliquely the surface separating two transparent N R
mediums, is called refraction.

In figure 11.3, SO is the incident ray, OR' the reflected ray,

OR the refracted ray, ON the normal at the point of incidence, (1)
i 1 the angle of incidence, r the angle of reflection, and i 2 the
angle of refraction. (2)

Figure 11.3. Representation of the refraction of

light falling on a glass surface.

Refraction of light
____________ 1�-�----------·
 starer: rr mm r
11.2 LAWS OF REFRACTION

Experiment 11.2
Repeat experiment 11.1 (Figure 11.4) by directing the beam of
I ight so that it grazes the surface of the table and strikes the semi­
12)
cylindrical glass at its center 0.
The refracted ray OR also grazes the surface of the table. ill

Measure the angle of incidence i 1 for several directions of the inci­

dent ray and the corresponding values of angle of refraction i2 .

Record the values you obtain in a table, together with the values of
their sines.
Calculate the ratio sin i 1 I sin i2 . You will find that it is approximately Figure 11.4. Verification of the laws of refrac­
constant. tion.
If the index n2 of glass is known, compare the ratios sin i 1 I sin i2 and
n2 I n 1 .

You find they are equal:

The second law of refraction is
known in English speaking coun­
tries as Snell's law, and in French
The authors performed this experiment using glass of index n 2 = speaking countries as Descartes'
1.5 and found the values shown in table 11.1. law.
In fact, the law was at first
worked out by the Dutch physicist
Table 11.1 Willebrord Snell (1580-1626)
Measured values of the angle of incidence and the but the French philosopher,
corresponding values of the angle of refraction (n 2 = 1.5) mathematician, and physicist
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
I1 100 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° stated it in the clear form we use
today.
12 6.5° 13.5° 19.5° 25.5° 31.5° 36.0° 40.0°

sin i 1 0.174 0.342 0.500 0.643 0.766 0.866 0.940

Sin 12 0.113 0.233 0.334 0.430 0.522 0.587 0.643

sin i 1 I sin i2 1.54 1.47 1.50 1.49 1.47 1.48 1.46

The results of this experiment obey what is known as the two

laws of refraction:
First law of refraction: The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the
normal at the point of incidence lie in the plane of incidence.
Second law of refraction: The ratio of the sine of the angle of
incidence to that of the angle of refraction is constant.
The second law of refraction is expressed as:

___ __ __ 126 __ -------- Refraction of light

 77 d

where n 1 is the index of refraction of the medium where light is

incident and n 2 is that of the medium where light is refracted.

Example 11.1
Light crosses from air with an angle of incidence i1 = 60 ° to anoth­
er medium where the angle of refraction is i2 = 30 °. Determine the
index of refraction of the second medium.

Solution
apply the 2 n d law of refraction: �= �
sin i2 n1
n2 = n 1 �
sin i 2
For air n 1 = 1, Therefore
lx13
n2 lx sin 60: 2 _1:::--
= '13 = 1.73
__
sin 30 = -1
2
Symmetric form of the second law of refraction
The second law of refraction is often written in the symmetric form:

sin i 2 n 1
n1 . sin i 1 = n 2 . sin i 2

The symmetric form of the 2nd law of refraction does not specify which
one is the medium of incidence and which is the medium of refraction.
This means that the two mediums can be interchanged without violat­
ing the laws of refraction, which verifies the principle of reversibility of
light.
Important special cases
1. If i 1 = 0, sin i 1 = 0 then sin i 2 = 0 and i 2 = 0
This means that an incident ray normal to the interface between
air and a transparent medium is not deviated.
2. If each of the angles i 1 and i 2 is small (less< 10° ), then the
angle, expressed in radians, is approximated by its sine: sin i 1 .:::
i 1 and sin i 2.::: i 2. The second law of refraction becomes:

This particular case of the second law was established by the

German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) and is
known as Kepler's law.

127
---------------------------------------------�
Refraction of light
 11.3 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Experiment 11.3
Using the same experimental setup as in figure 11.5, change the
position of the source of I ight, keeping the beam perpendicular to
the cylindrical surface (Figure 11.6). In, I

Rotate the source around the glass so that the angle of incidence (n,)

increases.

You will notice that the angle of refraction (in air) is always larger
than the angle of incidence (in glass).

You will also notice that, when the angle of incidence reaches a cer­
tain critical value 'A, the emerging beam of light grazes the plane Figure 11.5. n 1 and i 1 refer to medium 1, and
surface of the glass and that, for angles of incidence larger than 'A, n1 and i 1 to medium 2.
light does not emerge from the semi-cylindrical glass at O; all the
light is then reflected at point O on the interface between glass and
air (Figure 11.6).

Let n 2 be the index of refraction of the glass. If we apply the 2 nd

law in its symmetric form we obtain:
n 1 sin 'A= l=> sin 'A= -
1
n,< n, , ·�
n1 °
,,=90

This relation is general:

The sine of the critical angle in a medium of index n 1 , which
corresponds to an angle of refraction of 90 ° in air, is equal to
the inverse of the index of refraction of the medium. Figure 11.6. Refraction of light at the glass­
air interface.

Experiment 11.4
Using the setup of the previous experiment, direct the beam of light
in air on the plane surface of the semi-cylindrical piece of glass.
Start with normal incidence and gradually increase the angle of
incidence.
The beam of light always refracts into the glass toward the normal,
and total internal reflection does not occur.

Experiments 11.3 and 11.4 show that total internal reflection

may occur for light crossing from glass to air but not from air
to glass.

·--------- 128____________ Refraction of light

This result is general:
Light undergoes total internal reflection when it crosses from
a medium of index n 1 to another medium of index n2 < n 1 with
i 1 > 'A such that
. /\, . /\,
'\ = n => sin n2
'\ = -
n 1 s1n <1
2
n1
We say that the medium with larger index is an optically
denser medium. For example, water, of index 1.33, is optically
denser than air of index"" 1.

Question 11.1
Is total internal reflection possible when light crosses from diamond to
ethyl alcohol? From ethyl alcohol to diamond? From glass to flint? (Refer
to table 8.1 of chapter 8).

Question 11.2
Show that, when light crosses from an optically light medium to an
optically denser medium, if i 1 = 90 °, then i2 = 'A.
Figure 11.7. Prisms

11.5 DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT

In the following experiment, we will use a prism, which consists
of a piece of glass or any other transparent medium with two
non-parallel plane surfaces (Figure 11.7). The prism is repre­
sented as in figure 11.8.

Experiment 11.5
Direct a beam of white light to the surface of a prism as in figure Figure 11.8. Representation of a prism.
11.9.

Place a screen behind the prism.

You observe that the emerging beam is bent toward the base
of the prism and you see on the screen, from top to bottom,
a succession of colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indi­
go, and violet.

This experiment indicates that white light contains the different

colors we see on the screen. These colors constitute the spec­
trum of white Iight.
The prism has dispersed the colors that constitute white light. Figure 11.9. Dispersion of white light by a
prism.
This phenomenon is called the dispersion of white light.

----------------------------
Refraction of light
-�----- -----------
 Sr

A prism bends a ray of light twice towards its base: once at each
of its plane surfaces.
Let us compare the bending of two rays contained in the beam
of white light: a red ray and a violet ray. Red light has a larger
wavelength than violet light. Since the index of refraction
decreases with increasing wavelength, the index of refraction of
the prism is therefore lower for red I ight than for violet I ight. The
red ray then bends less than the violet ray. Figure 11.10. Rainbow.

The rainbow
The dispersion of white light coming from the Sun causes the
formation of rainbows (Figure 11.10).
Sunlight is intercepted by raindrops in the atmosphere. Some of
the light refracts into the raindrop, reflects on the drop's inner
surface, and refracts again into the air (Figure 11.11). Each of
the two refractions contributes to the angular separation of the
Figure 11.11. Dispersion of white light by
colors of white I ight.
moisture droplets to form a rainbow.

OPTICAL FIBERS
An optical fiber, also called light rod, is
usually made of a flexible transparent Optical fibers are used in medicine for
glass of index of refraction n 2 coated the examination of the inner surfaces
with another transparent substance of of hollow organs of the human body
index n 1 so that n 1 < n 2 . The light rod (endoscopes): the stomach (gastro­
is made very thin, as thin as 15 mm, scope), the urinary bladder (cyto­
and is coated with a layer of opaque scope), the lungs (bronchoscope), etc.
paint (Figure In the gastroscope, an optical fiber is
11.12). inserted into the stomach through the
throat. Light is reflected by the stom­
Light enter­ ach wal I to the fiber and forms an

��������-
ing one end image on the film of a camera attached
of the light to the upper
rod suffers end of the
successive fiber. This
total internal Figure 11.12. Longitudinal sec­ enables doc­
retlections at tion of an optical fiber. tors to detect
the boundary irregularities
separating glass from its coating. Light on the inner
is therefore guided along curved paths
(Figure 11. 13). Figure 11.13. Path of I ight in
an optical fiber.

----- ·- --·------------
130 ------- -- - -
Refraction of light
m t " r:rr r a an ;;
surface of the stomach. nal reflections inside the glass fiber that
can transmit a large number of calls in
Another important application lies in both directions and at the same time.
telecommunications. One optical fiber
replaces the thousands of wires used to
connect telephone stations. The tele­
phone signals are transmitted as laser
light that undergoes successive total inter-

Summary
'
* Refraction is the sudden change in the direction of light when it crosses obliquely
the surface separating two transparent media.
!
I
I
* 1st law of refraction: the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the
I refracting surface at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
2nd law of refraction: n 1 sin i 1 = n 2 sin i2
*
*
For small angles of incidence the second law reduces to Kepler's law: n 1 . i 1 = n2 . i2
Total internal reflection occurs when light in an optically denser medium strikes the
I
surface of separation with another medium at an angle of incidence greater than
the critical angle.
* White light is dispersed into its component colors by a prism.
I
* Optical fibers are used in medicine and telecommunications. 1

I
--- I
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE Refraction changes the ........ but
not the ........
A cylindrical beam is incident from air
onto water. Is the refracted beam cylindrical,
b. For light to pass from medium (1) of
converging, or diverging? ndex n 1 to medium (2) of index n2 < n 1,
the angle of incidence must be
2. Do you observe total internal reflection ........ than the ........ angle.
as light crosses from water of index nw = 1.33 c. The critical angle of refraction 'A,
to a glass of index ng = 1.50? Why? What if between two mediums of indices n 1
light crosses from the glass to water? and n2 such that n2 < n 1 is given by
3. Complete the following sentences: sin 'A,= .........

a. Consider the frequency and the

wavelength of a I ight wave.

Refraction of light 131

 QUESTIONS Tablel 1.2

On hot days, one feels as if water were cov­ i1 10' 20° 30° 40° 50° 60' 70° 80°
ering sand or asphalt roads ahead. Explain.
12 8' 15.50 22.50' 29° 35° 40.50° 45.50 50'
Show, by ray tracing, why a fish in a pool
appears closer to water surface than it really is.
a. Are these results consistent with the second
In an experiment on the dispersion of law of refraction?
sunlight by a prism, list the colors of the b. If so, find the index of refraction.
spectrum, starting by the least deviated one.

You are standing on the shore of a lake. • A coin is placed at the bottom of a con­
Would a fish, observing you from the lake, see tainer of depth d filled with a liquid of index
your head higher or lower than it really is? of refraction n. Show that rays issued from a
point of the coin, close to the normal, appear
In the tenth century, lbn-al- Haytham was to come from a point of distance d I n from
able to explain why one can see the Sun shortly the surface.
after sunset by assuming that the atmosphere
consisted of successive layers of transparent air
•
of decreasing densities as you go upwards. ABC is a section of a right isosceles prism
Assume that the index of refraction of air increas­ (Figure 11.15) whose index of refraction is n =
es with increasing density, and explain how lbn­ 1.5. Trace the path of a ray of light incident on
al-Haytham would have reasoned. Apply the the prism normal to AC.
same assumption to the fact that we start seeing
the Sun before sunrise.
c
°
45
s
PROBLEMS
• An observer has his eye level with the 45
°

surface of a liquid filling a tank of height 85 A 8

cm and width 1.1 m. The observer can just Figure 11.15.
see the corner C of the tank (Figure 11.14).
Find the index of refraction of the liquid.
• A ray of light is incident on the surface
separating two media. The angle of incidence
<i:bl_____
i
is 30 ° . Determine the angle of refraction if
the refracted ray is deviated by an angle of
85c 15° :
a. Away from the normal.
Figure 11.14. """"====""'ll" b. Towards the normal.
c
�-- 1.1 m --------.

• In an attempt to find the index of refrac­

tion of water, a pupil obtained the data for
angles of incidence (in air) and refraction (in
water) as shown in table 11.2.

·-----
132
•--••--�"�-
Refraction of light
•w•----------------=---�----
 Light crosses from medium 1 of index • Figure 11.17 represents a section of a glass
• cube, perpendicular to its edge, and SI an incident
3f to medium 2 of index ; . Determine the ray lying in this section. The cube is immersed in
water. The critical angle for total internal reflection
angle of refraction if the angle of incidence is from glass to water is 'A = 63°.
30 °, 45°, and 60° respectively. a. The refractive index of water is 4/3.
Calculate that of glass.
b. If IA = AD I 5, how should the angle of
• In problem 6, can one observe total inter­
nal reflection if Iight crosses from medium 2 to incidence be chosen so that the refracted
medium 1? From medium 1 to medium 2? If ray reaches face AB?
yes, determine the critical angle. c. This being the case, draw the path followed
by light for i = 45° and i = 90°.
• A ray of light is incident in air on the face
AB of an optical fiber (Figure 11.16) with an
angle of incidence i8 . A B
a. Determine the angle of refraction r in
terms of n 2 and i8. I

;::
b. Calculate cos r in terms of n 2 and i 8.
c. Show that ray I I' undergoes successive glass
total internal reflections if
sin i8 < � (n22 - n 12 )

D c
Figure 11.17.

A
r' n1

I�

/
n2

n1
B

Figure 11.16.

----· --·--·------·------ ---------

Refraction of light
·-------�--
133 ------ ----
 Objectives
• Define a lens and know its characteristics.
• Distinguish between converging and diverging lenses.
• Determine the characteristics of the image given by a lens.
• Apply Descartes' lens formulas.

134
·----------�------------------------------------
Lenses
 We are all familiar with magnifying glasses, cameras, microscopes, eye­
glasses, and spy glasses. In each of these instruments, lenses play an
essential role. The purpose of this chapter is to study lenses.

12.1 SPHERICAL LENSES

If you intercept sunlight with a magnifier (Figure 12.1) placed
perpendicular to the direction of the rays, sun rays converge to
a small spot.
The magnifier is an example of a spherical lens.

A spherical lens is a transparent medium bounded by two sphe-

rical surfaces or by a plane surface and a spherical one. ,

Commonly used spherical lenses are of many forms. These forms

are shown in figure 12.2. Figure 12.1. A magnifier converges sun light
to a spot.

o,
o,

---+R 1 =oo

(a) (b) (c)

R 2 =oo

RI RI
R2 R2

o, o, o, 0 1 02

RI

Figure 12.2. Forms of lenses,

al biconvex b) piano-convex c) converging meniscus d) biconcave e) piano-concave f) diverging meniscus

Lenses 135
 12.2 GEOMETRY OF LENSES
A biconvex lens is represented in figure 12.3. 0 1 and 0 2 are the cen­
ters of the two spherical surfaces that limit the lens. The two radii
R 1 and R 2 of these spheres are called the radii of curvature of the {l) 12)
lens.
The line joining 0 1 and 0 2 is called the principal axis of the lens.
In commonly used lenses, the thickness A 1 A2 along the principal
axis is very small compared to the distance 0 1 0 2 making the lens a
thin lens. Points A 1 and A2 nearly coincide at a point O called the
optical center of the lens.

12.3 CONVERGING AND DIVERGING LENSES Figure 12.3. Geometrical features of a lens.

Experiment 12.1
With one hand, hold a lens of one of the forms shown in figure
12.2a, b, or c (Figure 12.4).
Intercept sun rays with the lens placed perpendicular to their direc­
tion.
With the other hand, hold a screen, a piece of cardboard for
example.
Change the screen-lens distance to minimize the size of the spot
obtained.
Repeat the experiment by letting the light fall on the other side of
the lens.
You observe the same resu It. Figure 12.4. Converging lens and its focus.

In experiment 12.1, a beam of light parallel to the principal

axis of the lens is made to converge. The lens is therefore cal­
led converging lens. The spot where light converges is the
focus F' of the lens. ..
L

Experiment 12.1 shows that a converging lens has two foci

located on its principal axis and symmetric with respect to the
optical center. F'
0
Applying the principle of reversibility of light, we conclude that
an incident ray passing through either one of the foci of the
lens emerges parallel to the principal axis.
The distance between the lens and each of the foci is called
the focal length of the lens. The biconvex lens, the plano­ Figure 12.5. Representation of a converging
convex lens, and the converging meniscus shown in figure lens: L represents the lens, 0 its optical cen­
12.2 are converging lenses. ter, F and F' its foci, and FF' its principal axis.
A converging lens is represented as shown in figure 12.5

136
-----------..---------------------------- - --
Lenses
 Experiment 12.2
Repeat experiment 12.1 by using one of the lenses shown in
figure 12.2d, e, or f. (Figure 12.6).
For any position of the screen, sunlight is diverged by the lens, and
the illuminated area on the screen is always bigger than the lens.
Furthermore, the light emerging from the lens seems to come from
a small region behind the lens, on the side of the sun.
Figure 12.6. Diverging lens and its focus.
Repeat the experiment by letting light fall on the other side of the
lens. You observe identical results.

In experiment 12.2, a beam of light parallel to the principal

axis of the lens is made to diverge. The lens is called a diver­ F'
0
ging lens. The spot where I ight seems to come from is the
focus F' of the lens.
Experiment 12.2 shows that a diverging lens has two foci, one
on each side.
Figure 12.7. Representation of a diverging
The distance between the lens and each of the foci is called lens: L represents the lens, 0 its optical cen­
the focal length of the lens. The biconcave lens, the plano­ ter, F and F' its foci, and FF' its principal axis.
concave lens, and the diverging meniscus lens shown in figu ­
re 12.2 are diverging lenses.
A diverging lens is represented as shown in figure 12.7.
screen
converging lens

12.4 RAY TRACING

We will only consider small objects that are perpendicular to A

the principal axis

Converging lenses
Figure 12.8. Light passing through the opti­
cal center of a converging lens is not deviated
Experiment 12.3 by the lens.

Direct a thin cylindrical beam to strike a converging lens at its

center O (Figure 12.8).
You will observe that the beam emerges from L without deviation.
(l)

This experiment shows that any ray passing through the optical center
of a converging lens leaves the lens without deviation.
(2)
We have seen that an incident ray parallel to the principal axis
emerges from the lens passing through the focus F'. Due to the rever­
sibility of light, any incident ray passing through the focus F emerges
parallel to the principal axis. Figure 12.9 .. Three incident rays and their
It is therefore possible to trace the emerging rays corresponding to corresponding rays emerging from a conver­
three different incident rays. Figure 12.9 shows these rays. ging lens.
 7 '.'.

Diverging lenses

diverging lens
Experiment 12.4 screen
Repeat experiment 12.3, replacing the converging lens by a diver­
ging lens (Figure 12.10).
You will also observe that the beam leaves the lens without deviation

This experiment shows that any ray passing through the optical
Figure 12.10. Light passing through the opti­
center of a diverging lens leaves the lens without deviation. cal center of a diverging lens is not deviated
We have seen that an incident ray parallel to the principal axis by the lens.
emerges from the lens seeming to come from the focus F'.
Due to the reversibility of light, any incident ray directed towards
the focus F emerges parallel to the principal axis.
All this provides us with the possibility of tracing the emerging
rays corresponding to three different incident rays. Figure 12.11
shows these rays.

12.5 OBJECTS AND IMAGES Figure 12.11.. Three incident rays and their cor­
responding rays emerging from a diverging lens.

Experiment 12.5
On an optical bench (Figure 12.12), mount three movable stands
carrying a screen S', a converging lens of known focal length f, and
a screen S in which an arrow AB is cut. Let the light issued from a
lamp fall on the slit AB.

---------- 1:31:J______________________ �_:_n_i:_��

 Place the lens at different distances p from S, and, for each posi­
tion, move the screen S' until you get a clear image A'B' of the slit
AB. Measure, for each value of p, the distance p' between the lens �o F' A'
and screen S'.
You wi11 observe that:

- For large values of p (p > 2f), a real image A'B' is seen on screen
S'. It is smaller than AB and inverted. The image is shown in figu­ Figure 12.13. Image of an object placed at a large
re 12.13 as obtained by ray tracing. distance from a converging lens.

- For smaller values of p (f < p < 2f), the image is still real and
inverted, but it is magnified (Figure 12.14).

- For still smaller values of p (p < f), no real image is seen on the
screen. If you look through the lens from the side of screen S', you
see a straight and magnified image behind the lens. This image is
virtual (Figure 12.15).
A'

Figure 12.14.. Image of an object placed at a

distance p such that f < p < 2f.
Experiment 12.6
Repeat experiment 12.5 replacing the converging lens by a diver­
ging lens.
You will find that you cannot see the image on the screen. Image B'

A'B' is always virtual. The image is shown in figure 12.16 as obtai-

ned by ray tracing

12.6 DESCARTES' FORMULA Figure 12.15. Image of an object placed bet­

ween a converging lens and its focus.

Experiment 12.5 leads to a relation between the distances of

the lens from the object and the its image.
Choose several values of p and the corresponding values for p'.
Typical experimental results obtained with a converging lens of
focal length f = 11.2 cm are shown in table 12.1. 0---------------

Figure 12.16. Virtual image of an obJect as

formed by a diverging lens.

Lenses 139
 Table 12.1
Image-lens distances corresponding to different
object lens distances

p (m) 0.48 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.15

p' (m) 0.147 0.157 0.178 0.247 0.413

-1 2.08 2.50 3.33 5.00 6.67
p
1
6.80 6.37 5.62 4.05 2.42
p'
'
l+l 8.88 8.87 8.95 9.05 9.09
p p'

You find that the sum l+ l, has approximately the same value
p p
for all values of p.
Calculate the inverse of the focal length 1/f = 1/0.112 = 8.93.
You find that:
l+l=l
p p' f

·�
The relation
(LJ
positive sense
, pf positive sense
P= - B
p-f p

is referred to as Descartes' position formula since it was established by 0 A'

A F F'
I
the French scientist and philosopher Rene Descartes. It applies to all
!
->
f p•

lenses, whether converging or diverging, provided the sign convention B'

(Figure 12.17) is followed:

f > 0 for converging lenses and f < 0 for diverging lenses. Figure 12.17. Sign convention for f, p, p',
p' > 0 if the image is real and p'< 0 if it is virtual. AB, and A'B'.
p > 0.

Example 12.1
Determine the position and nature of the image of an object placed
20cm from a converging lens of focal length 10 cm.

Solution
Since the lens is converging f > 0
Apply Descartes' position formula
p' = .E.!.. => p'= 20xl0 = 20cm
p-f 20-10
p' > 0 => the image is real
The calculated value of p' is positive, therefore the image is real.
The distances from each of the object and the image to the lens
are equal whenever p = 2f

)
--------- 140 ______ . ------- �M�e�
Question 12.1
Using Descartes' formula in a converging lens, show that, if p = 2f, then p = p'.

Example 12.2
A diverging lens of focal length 1 Ocm gives a virtual image of an object at 5cm from the lens. Find the
position of the object

Solution
Since the lens is diverging and the image is virtual, we have:
f = -10 cm and p' = -5 cm
Applying Descartes' formula 1- .l = l_ => p =....121.= (-5) x (-10) = 10 cm
+
p p' f p'-f (-5) - (-10)
The object is placed at 10 cm in front of the lens

12.7 LINEAR MAGNIFICATION

As we have seen in experiment 12.5, the dimensions of the object and its image formed by a lens
are not generally equal.
Let AB and A'B' be the algebraic values of the sizes of the object and its image, with the positi­
ve direction chosen vertically upward.
We define the linear magnification of the lens as the

ratio : Y=A'B' . We can verify experimentally (or prove mathematically) that this ratio is equal
AB
to that of the distances of the object and the corresponding image from the lens.

Using the sign convention, we obtain: y = _ .£'.

p
This is Descartes' magnification formula.

Question 12.2
p'
Referring to figure 12.13, prove that A'B'
-=- = - -
AB P

Example 12.3
The length of the object in example 12.1 is 2cm. Find the length of the corresponding image.

Solution
Apply the formula of the linear magnification:

Y= A'B' = :E.'._ => A'B' = :E.'._ xAB = -2 o X2 = -2 cm

AB P P 20

The image is inverted with respect to the object and has a length of 2cm.
Note that the object and the image have the same length. This is always the case when p = 2f.
 12.8 POWER OF A LENS
Lenses for vision correction are usually described by their power. The power of a lens is defined as
the reciprocal of the focal length:
1
P =T
In SI units, f being measured in meters, the power is measured in diopters (d) or m-1.
The power is positive for converging lenses and negative for diverging lenses

Summary
* A spherical lens is a transparent medium bounded by two spherical I
surfaces or by a plane surface and a spherical surface.

!
* Thin lenses are either converging or diverging.
* Converging lenses may have three different forms: biconvex, piano-convex,
or converging meniscus.
I
* Diverging lenses may also have three different forms: biconcave, plano-
concave, or diverging meniscus.
* A converging lens gives a real image of an object as long as p > f
* A diverging lens always gives a virtual image of an object.
* Descartes' formula lip + lip' = llf applies to all thin lenses provided the
sign convention is followed. -,-, ,
* The linear magnification of a thin lens is defined by the ratio Y = :: =-f

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE d. A converging lens gives for a point object

at infinity on its principal axis an image at
What are the two types of lenses? Draw ......... and of .........nature.
a section of the three forms of each type. e. A diverging lens gives for a point object at
infinity on its principal axis an image at
2. Fill in the blanks: ......... and of ......... nature.
a. If a ray of light leaves a lens without
deviation, then it necessarily passes 3. Choose the best answer.
through ........... If the image of an object, given by a converging
b. A ray of light incident on a converging lens, is virtual, then
lens through its focus emerges............. a. The lens is necessarily piano-convex.
c. A ray of light incident on a diverging lens b. The lens has a very small focal length
and directed towards its focus F c. The object is of relatively small dimensions
emerges....... d. The object lies between the focus of the lens
and its optical center

--••u--•- 142_•-------------------�=�-��
I Pl "I 5 'J

4. Choose the best answer. A flame placed close to a spherical trans­

Several experiments were carried out in order to parent container full of water appears magni­
find the image of a candle placed at successive fied when observed from the other side of the
distances from a lens. No image has been detec­ container. Explain.
ted on a screen on the opposite side.
a. There is something wrong with the You are given two converging lenses L 1 and
experiment. L2 of the same focal length. L 1 is piano-convex
b. The candle is too small and L2 is biconvex. Do these two lenses give simi­
c. The lens is diverging. lar or different images of the same object placed
d. The lens is converging. successively at the same distance from each of
them? Explain.
5. Is it true that a converging lens has a
constant magnification for all positions of
objects? Explain. PROBLEMS
• A small object of length 5 cm is placed
perpendicular to the principal axis of a
QUESTIONS converging lens of focal length 20 cm. A vir­
tual image is observed 20 cm behind the
Empty glasses can start fires in forests on lens
hot days. Explain.. a. Determine the object-lens distance.
b. Find the size of the image.
c. Draw the path of a beam of light
An observer places his eye behind the through the lens.
focus of a piano-convex lens and faces the
plane face of the lens (Figure 12.18). He
sees a virtual image of his eye although the • A diverging lens of focal length 10 cm
image of his eye formed by the lens is real in gives, of an object, an image that has one
this case. Explain. third of the dimension of that object. Deter­
mine the distance between the object and its
image.

• L 1 and L 2 are converging lenses of f 1 =

10 cm and f2 = 15 cm and placed 40 cm
apart along the same principal axis. An
object AB of length 1 cm is placed 60 cm in
front of L 1 .
a. Determine the nature, position, and size
of the first image A'B' of AB given by L 1 .
b. Determine the nature, position, and
o '
,____________,F,.__op size of the second final image A"B" of
<f----4--__,
F'
A'B' given by L 2 .
c. Draw a beam of light.
d. Repeat the same problem if L 2 is
replaced by a diverging lens of focal
length 15 cm.

Figure 12.18

Lenses 143
 • Fill in table 12.2. • A converging lens, of focal length f = 20
cm, gives an image of an object that is four
times larger. Find the positions of the object
Type Converging lens Diverging lens
for which the image is:
p' -30 cm 20 cm a. Real.
b. Virtual.
p 20 cm 20 cm

y 1/2
• A diverging lens off= -20 cm gives a vir­
f +15 cm tual image of an object that is four times smal­
ler. Find the positions of the object and its
Real image?
image.
Inverted image ? Non

Table 12.2

___________1titi______________________ �:-"_���
Objectives
• Explain the process of accommodation.
• Define the near point and the far point of clear vision.
• Know some defects of the eye and the corresponding corrections.
• Know the principle of a magnifier and its usage.
• Define the angular magnification of the magnifier.

145 ---------
------------------------------------
The eye and the magnifier
 The human eye is the organ of vision. It allows us to see objects around us.
Some of the defects of the eye can be corrected by the use of lenses.
People use optical instruments to see the details of small or distant objects.
The simplest of these instruments is the magnifier.
In this chapter, we will study the eye and the magnifier.

13.1 ELEMENTS OF THE EYE

The eye (Figure 13.1) is an almost spherical jelly-like mass contained within a tough shell, the sclera,
whose front transparent portion is called the cornea.
Behind the cornea lies a chamber filled with a clear liquid called the aqueous humor. Immersed in this
liquid is a diaphragm, known as the iris, which controls the amount of light that enters the eye through
a hole, called the pupil.
Immediately behind the iris is a
transparent elastic medium in the
form of a converging lens called Cornea
the crystalline lens. The backside
of this lens bathes in a transpar- Aqueous humor
ent liquid called the vitreous
humor that fills the interior of the
eye.
From the interior, the eye is cov­
ered with successive layers: (i) the
retina, which, upon receiving light
signals, transmits them to the
brain through (ii) the optic nerve,
vitreous
(iii) the opaque choroid, and final­
humor
ly (iv) the sclera, the outer shell.
The distance between the crys­
talline lens and the retina is
around 1.5 cm.
The set of transparent mediums is
equivalent to a converging lens
and gives, of an object, an invert­ Choroid
ed real image on the retina.
In this chapter, we will use a sim­
nerve
plified model of the eye called the Visual
reduced eye. It consists of a lens axis
(equivalent to the crystalline lens
and humors), a diaphragm (iris), Optic
and a sensitive film (retina). axis
Figure 13.1. The components of the eye.

__________146______ The e�e and the ma_9!1ifier

 13.2 ACCOMMODATION crystalline
lens
Retina

The crystalline lens of the eye is elastic. Under the action of muscles
called ciliary muscles, it can be contracted to reduce its focal length
and relaxed to increase it.
Consider an eye looking at a distant car and seeing it clearly with the
ciliary muscles relaxed. In this case, the image of the car is formed
at the focus of the crystalline lens, which coincides exactly with the Figure 13.2. For clear vision, the image is
always formed on the retina.
retina (Figure 13.2).
As the car approaches, and according to Descartes' formula, its
image will be formed behind the retina, which is always at the same
Lens Retina
distance from the crystalline lens. This happens if f, the focal length, A
is constant. To obtain an image on the retina (i.e. for clear vision),
the ciliary muscles compress the crystalline lens to reduce its focal
length. If the car moves away from the observer, its image is formed
I�
ahead of the retina; the muscles relax to focus the image on the reti­
na.

This action of the muscles to keep the image of an object on the

retina by changing the focal length is called accommodation.
�,
Figure 13.3. For a normal eye, the far point
is at infinity.

Lens
Retina
13.3 FAR AND NEAR POINTS OF VISION

Any eye has a range of vision within which it can see objects
clearly.

The most distant point an eye can see clearly without accom­
modation is called the far point located at the maximum dis­
tance Li of clear vision from the eye. For a normal eye, the far Figure 13.4. The near point is the closest
point is at infinity and the focus of the lens lies on the retina, point at which the eye can see clearly with
i.e. the normal eye can see very distant objects clearly without maximum accommodation.
accommodation (Figure 13.3).

As the object gets closer, the eye accommodates to see it clear­ Table 13.1.
ly again. The closest point at which the eye can see clearly with
Variation of 8 with age
maximum accommodation is called the near point, located at Age (years) 8 (in cm)
the minimum distance 8 of clear vision from the eye (Figure 10 7
13.4). 20 10
30 14
For the normal eye of an adult, 8 ranges between 20 and 25 40 22
cm; it increases with age as can be seen from table 13.1. 50 40
The zone between Li and 8 is called the range of distinct vision.

The eye and the magnifier

---------------------------- -147
--------·
 13.4 MYOPIC OR SHORTSIGHTED EYES
A myopic or shortsighted eye cannot see distant objects clearly. Its
crystalline Jens is more converging than for normal eyes: the image
of an object at infinity is formed, without accommodation, in front
of the retina (Figure 13.5) and the far point is not at infinity.
Accommodation does not correct myopia since it increases the
already large convergence of the crystalline lens. This defect is
corrected by using eyeglasses with diverging lenses that .,____,./
decrease the convergence of the eye and place the far point at
infinity.
The correcting diverging lens (L 1) gives an image of an object at Figure 13.5. A myopic eye is over-converg­
infinity at the far point of the eye (Figure 13.6) so that the eye ing
can see the object clearly without accommodation and thus act
like a normal eye.
If f 1 is the focal length of the correcting lens and a the distance
between the lens and the eye, then (see figure 13.6):
(L,)
....

-·
/�

If contact lenses are used, then a = 0 and

·-f--->- �
<-/'J.-

.,_a.

The near point of a myopic eye is closer than that of a normal eye. /"- ,,
With the use of correcting glasses the near point moves away from Figure 13.6. Correcting a myopic eye using
the eye and 8 increases. a diverging lens.

13.5 PRESBYOPIC EYES

Presbyopia is the lack of accommodation of an eye that affects all
of us as we get older. It is due to the hardening of the crystalline
lens and/or the weakness of the ciliary muscles.
Due to this, the near point moves away from the eye (see table
13.1) while the far point remains at the same position. This is why
an elderly person moves the book away when reading without eye­
glasses.
To correct presbyopia, converging lenses are used when looking at
close objects, e.g. when reading.
With age, a myopic eye could become presbyopic. For the correc­
tion of both defects, two different eye-glasses must be used: a
diverging lens to correct myopia when viewing far objects, and a
converging lens to correct presbyopia when looking at close
objects. In this case, bifocal eyeglasses are used.

·--------·- 148 --- ----------

�-��--� The eye and the magnifier
------------
 13.6 RESOLVING POWER OF THE EYE
For the eye to see the details of a certain object, the different points
of the object must have images on different cells of the retina. Dis­
tant stars, for example, are seen as single points and their details
cannot be resolved with the naked eye.
For the two extremities of an object AB (Figure 13.7) to be distin­
guished, the angle a through which AB is seen must be greater than Figure 13.7. Angular limit of resolution.
a minimum value£ called the angular limit of resolution.
For a normal eye, a is approximately 1 minute of arc= 3xlQ-4 rd.
If a< £, the object is seen as a point.
The resolving power of the eye is defined as the inverse of the angu­ A'
lar limit of resolution.

13.7 MAGNIFIER
When you look at close tiny objects like an ant, a pin, etc., you
cannot see the details clearly because you see them through
smal I angles. Figure 13.8. Image of a tiny object seen
In order to improve the observation of small objects, a magnifi­ through a magnifier.
er is used. A magnifier is a converging lens of small focal length
(few cm) which gives of a tiny object placed between its focus
and its optical center, a virtual, erect, and magnified image
(Figure 13.8) seen through a larger angle (Figure 13.9).

13.8 ANGULAR MAGNIFICATION OF A MAGNIFIER

The details of an object are best seen with the naked eye when
it is placed at the near point of the eye (Figure 13. 10): Figure 13.9. Angles under which the object
a rd "" tan a= AB I 8 and the image are seen, a.< a.'.
If a' is the angle through which the image is seen under a mag­
nifier and a the angle through which the object is seen at the
near point, the angular magnification of the magnifier is defined
as:

G=� where a and a' are expressed in radians.

a
I
a'
=.Q... =-x8
AB AB
8
Since the magnifier is used to increase the angle under which
the object is seen, a'is necessarily greater than a.
The an·gular magnification is usually between 3 and 25. Figure 13.10. A tiny object is best viewed
Magnifiers are used by jewelers, watchmakers and repairers, when placed at the near point
etc., and by other people who need to examine small parts of
tiny objects.

------- ------- ·-----------·-------

The eye and the magnifier 149 ---------·
 m nrrs rzn I i7i J
,·
·.. ·. A
Example 13.1
A magnifier of focal length f = 4 cm is used to examine an object
o
of length 1 mm placed at 3.5 cm from the lens. The eye, of = 25 cm
is placed at the focus. Find its angular magnification.
'
Solution Figure 13.11
Figure 13.11 shows the image obtained by ray tracing. The situation is
similar to that of figure 13.9 with the eye at F'.
The angle under which the object AB is seen at the near point is
a= AB I 8 = l0-3 I 0.25= 0.004 rad.
To find the angle under which the image is seen through the mag­
nifier, we first determine the position of the image A'B' using
Descartes' formula:
1 = 1 1 ::;,, 4 1 = 1 + 1 ::;,, P =, -28cm
f P+P, 3.5 j)'
We next use Descartes' formula for Iinear magnification:
A'B' I AB= - p'/p
A'B' = 28 x AB I 3.5= 8 AB
a'= A'B'/0.32= 8 AB I 0.32= 25 AB
The linear magnification of the magnifier is therefore:
G = a'/a= (25 AB)/(4 AB) = 6.25

MICROSCOPES AND TELE­

SCOPES
Cqmpound
microscope
A compound microscope (Figure 13.12) is
an instrument used to observe extremely
small objects like blood cells and bacteria.
Observing an object through a microscope
involves two processes of magnification:
the first uses a converging lens, called the
objective lens, of focal length of few mil­
limeters, and the second uses another Figure 13.12.
converging lens, called the eyepiece,of Photograph of a
focal length equal to few centimeters, and microscope
playing the role of a magnifier. A typical

150 The eye and the magnifier

----------�------------------------------------
I rrtrrr
ray diagram of the path of light inside a mic roscop� is shown in figure 13.13. Object AB,
placed to the left of the focus F 1 of the objective lens and close to it, gives a magnified
inverted image A 1 B 1 located between the eyepiece and its focus F 2. The eyepiece magni­
fies A 1 B 1 to give a final virtual image A'B' inverted with respect to AB.
The maximum clear magnification that can be obtained with a compound mic roscope is
around 900.

ocular

objective

Figure 13.13. Ray diagram for a microscope.

Telescopes
Telescopes are optical instruments used to examine the details of distant objects.
Astronomical telescopes give magnified and inverted images of planets and stars. Their objective lens
is a converging lens of a large focal length (from a few centimeters to a few meters) almost equal to
the length of the telescope tube. The eyepiece is also a converging lens of a small focal length that
plays the role of a magnifier. The path of a beam of light inside an astronomical telescope is shown in
figure 13.14.
Terrestrial telescopes give magnified and erect images of far away objects on Earth. The objective lens
is a converging lens of a focal length of 10 cm to 20 cm. The eyepiece used here is a diverging lens.
Figure 13.15 gives the ray diagram for a Galilean telescope, the best known type of terrestrial tele­
scopes.

151
----------------------------------------------
The eye and the magnifier
 ocular

objective

F,

A'

Figure 13. 14. Path of a beam of light through a telescope.

objective

2F,

Figure 13. 15. Path of a beam of light through a Galilean telescope.

·--------- _152______ The eye and the magnifier

 Summary
* The reduced eye is an optical model of the real eye.
* Accommodation is the process of changing the focal length of the crys­
talline lens and is possible because of the elasticity of that lens.
* The near point is the closest point to the eye that can be seen clearly with
maximum accommodation.
* The far point is the most distant point the eye can see without accommo­
dation.
* For a normal eye, the far point is at infinity.
* Myopia results from the over-convergence of the crystalline lens. It is cor­
rected by the use of diverging lenses
* Presbyopia is the lack of accommodation of the eye due to the lack of elas­
ticity of the crystall ine lens caused with age; it can be corrected using con­
verging lenses.
* The eye can resolve two points if it can form two distinct images of them
on two different cells of the retina.
* The magnifier is a converging lens that gives a virtual, erect and magnified
image of a close object.
* The angular magnification is the ratio of the angle through which the image
is seen under the magnifier to the angle through which the image is seen at
the near oint by the naked eye. -----=================================�
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE b. Can see closer points more clearly
than a normal eye.
c. Has a focal length larger than that of
the normal eye.
2. Explain the process of accommodation. d. Can be corrected by using converging
lenses.
3. Define the near and the far points.
- A magnifier
4. Does a myopic person need bifocals? a. Enables us to see magnified real images
Explain. of small objects.
b. Is a diverging lens with a small focal
5. True or False: length.
- The myopic eye c. Allows us to see images through larger
a. Does not have any problem with seeing angles.
distant objects. d. Is used to correct a presbyopic eye.

153
----------------------------�-----------------·
The eye and the magnifier
 7 ?51 7 Tl # i?J
QUESTIONS • The limits of distinct vision of a certain
eye are 8 = 11 cm and ,1 = 101 cm.
Read about photographic cameras and a. Do you consider this eye as normal,
a. List the similarities in the constitution of myopic, or presbyopic?
the eye and the camera b. This eye uses a lens placed at 1 cm
b. Explain the difference between the from it. It can then see clearly at
focusing of a camera and the infinity without accommodation. What
accommodation of the eye. is the nature of the lens? What is its
focal length?
2. Contrary to the myopic eye, the hyper­
metropic eye is less convergent than the • An elderly person cannot read in a book
normal eye. unless he places it at 102 cm from his eyes.
a. Does accommodation allow the eye to Determine the nature and the focal length of
see clearly at infinity? Explain. the lens that he should place 2 cm from his
b. What type of lens would allow that eye eyes so that he can read at 22 cm. Are these
to see clearly at infinity without lenses helpful for viewing distant objects?
accommodation? Why?
3. Why don't we use the magnifier to
examine tiny objects at great distances? • An object of dimension 0.2 mm is exam­
ined by an observer using a magnifier of f =
3 cm. The observer places her eye at the
focus.
PROBLEMS a. Show that the angle a' through which
the image is seen is independent of
the position of the object between the
• Consider a normal eye of ,1 = oo and 8 = other focus and the lens. Determine
15 cm. The distance between the crystalline this angle a'.
lens and the retina is 15 mm. Determine the b. The near point of vision of the person's
focal length of the eye when: eye is at 24cm. Calculate the angular
a. Viewing very distant objects. magnification of the magnifier.
·b. Viewing objects at the near point.

·---------- 154------ The eye and the magnifier

Mechanics is second only to Astronomy as the oldest branch of physics. Archimedes (287-212 BC)
was able to explain how pulleys and levers work and wrote a book on the equilibrium of bodies. Clas­
sical mechanics, a part of which is going to be studied in this book, dates back to the 17th cen­
tury and was established by Galileo (1564-1642) and Newton (1642 -1727), who succeeded in
describing the motion of bodies and established the laws governing this motion.
Mechanics explained the behavior of bodies on the surface of the Earth and that of the planets
around the Sun; it also paved the way to space exploration.

Description of motion 155

 Objectives
• Choose a frame of reference.
• Distinguish between average speed and instantaneous speed.
• Distinguish between speed and acceleration.
• Represent velocity and acceleration by vectors.

156 --- -----·-----

------------------ Description of motion
The world around us is full of moving objects such as cars, planes, ships, birds,
children in playgrounds, balls in billiard games, lifts, etc.
In this chapter, we will study the simple motion of a body moving in a straight
line.

14.1 REST AND MOTION

Relativity of rest and motion

When you are on a bus, you are in motion with respect to a per­
son standing on the sidewalk, and at rest with respect to a per­
son on the same bus.

The notion of rest or motion is relative. The same object may be

at rest with respect to a certain observer and in motion with
respect to another.

Trajectory
Roll a ball on the surface of a courtyard and observe its motion
(Figure 14.1). The path described by the ball is called its tra­
jectory.
The trajectory of a moving object is the Iine or path described
by this object during its motion.
Figure 14.1. Motion of a ball on the school
When the trajectory is a straight line, the motion is rectilinear. playground.

Question 14.1
In each of the following cases, identify the trajectory of the body and
say if the motion is rectilinear.
a. Motion of a freely falling body between the point where it
is dropped and the ground.
b. Motion of the Earth around the Sun.
c. Motion of a lift between two floors of a building.
d. Motion of a ball on a billiard table between two
consecutive collisions with two other balls.
e. Motion of a car between Beirut and Tripoli.

Description of motion 157

----------------------------------------------
 Frames of reference

To determine the position of a ball in rectilinear motion at any

instant, we measure its distance from the launching point. Its A frame of reference is a sys­
position M 0 , at the launching instant, may be chosen as the ori­ tem of "guideposts" relative
gin of space. to which all positions and
motions can be determined.
The trajectory of the ball lies on the surface of the playground. For a frame of reference we
This latter is called the frame of reference of the motion of the may also use a set of axes
bal I. attached to the object of ref­
erence. The position of a
For practical purposes, the axis M 0 x, of origin M 0 and in the point is then determined by
direction of motion, is also called the frame of reference of the its co-ordinates.
motion. The position M of the ball at an instant t is determined
on this axis by the abscissa M 0 M = x.
If you set the ball in motion from another point and along anoth­
er direction (Fig.14.2), you have to use another frame of refer­
ence.
The description of the motion of a particle is not the same in all
frames of reference. For example, when studying the motion of
the Earth around the Sun, the Sun is taken as the frame of ref­
erence; but the Earth is taken as the frame of reference when
0
)(
Mo
•
Ball

M
�
x
we study the motion of the Moon around the Earth.
From now on, we will use a terrestrial frame of reference i.e. a
frame attached to the Earth. By taking the instant of the �Mo
launching as the origin of time, we define a time reference with
which we can describe the motion at any instant. Figure 14.2. Different origins and frames of
reference.
The time interval between the beginning of the motion of a par­
ticle and its arrival at another point is called the duration of the
motion.

Example 14.1
Choose, for each of the following motions, an origin of time and a
frame of reference
a. Motion of a lift from the ground floor to the fifth floor.
b. Motion of a ball launched vertically upwards.
c. Motion of a billiard ball between two successive collisions
with other balls.

Solution
a. You may choose the starting instant of the motion as the origin
of time, and the vertically upward axis or the building as the frame
of reference.
b. Origin of time: instant t = 0, the launching instant.
Frame of reference: vertical axis directed upward, your body, or the
Earth.

·--------- 158 ---------- Description of motion

 rr rrr r
Elements of a vector
A vector is characterized
by:
- An origin
c. Origin of time: instant when the first collision took place.
- A line of action
Frame of reference: straight line drawn on the billiard table
- A direction
between the two points where the successive col I isions took
- A magnitude
place, the billiard table, or the Earth.
It is represented by an
arrow.

14.2 POSITION VECTOR

The position of a particle, at an instant t, can be represented
0 M
by the vector OM: which has the following elements: --------i�---------
- An origin 0.
- A line of action (the line holding O�.
- A direction (from O to M).
- A magnitude (the distance between the particle and the Figure 14.3. Elements of a vector.
origin).
This vector is called the position vector of the particle (Figure
14.4).
If x is the abscissa of point M and T7the unit vector along the
x'Ox axis
� �
OM= x.i )(
0
.. M x
Note that the abscissa of the particle depends on the chosen
frame of reference.
If 0 1 is the origin and Tlhe unit vector along the direction of Figure 14.4. Position vector of a particle
motion, the position vector is, at the same instant t, (Figure
14.5)
� � �
01 M = X 1 .I-=!- X.I )(
0
.. M

Note also that the abscissa can either be positive or negative

depending on the position of the particle on the chosen frame.

Example 14.2
)( .. ..x,
M
..
At a certain instant, the abscissa of a moving particle with respect
U Figure 14.5. The abscissa and the position
to the frame of reference (0, is x = 3 (Figure 14.6). Determine its vector of a particle depend on the chosen
;J
abscissa with respect to (01 , such that 010 = 2. frame of reference.

Solution
Let M represent the particle. M
On the axis ( 01, T\ X=+3
�
x

o�=oj+oM
X1 = + 2 + 3 = + 5
Figure 14.6.

Description of motion -----------�-�-�-------------

 14.3 SPEED AND VELOCITY
Average speed
If a car travels 150 km in 2 hours, its average speed over the 2-hour
��--�--����--��
t, d
M2 x
period is 150 km / 2 h= 75 km/h.
In general, if d is the distance covered by a particle between two
instants t 1 and t 2 (with Lit= t r t 1 > 0) (Figure 14.7), the aver­
age speed of the particle during this time interval is
Figure 14.7. Va=
!t
Va= distance covered I time elapsed
In this book, we study only
Va = d I Lit rectiIinear motion.
The average speed of a moving particle between two instants is
the quotient of the distance covered by the particle between
these two instants by the time interval between them.

In SI units, d is measured in meters (m), Lit in seconds (s), and

va in meters per second (m/s or m.s- 1 ).

,, " ,,

Instantaneous speed

A passenger sitting in a car and watching the speedometer does not

necessarily read 75 km/h at any instant during the motion. He finds
that the reading varies from time to time depending on the state of Figure 14.8. The smaller the time interval
the traffic. t-.t = 1 2 - t 1 , the closer v, is to v.
The reading of the speedometer at any instant of time represents the
instantaneous speed.
The instantaneous speed v at an instant t is approximately equal to
the average speed between two instants t 1 and t2 very close to t, with
t lying between t 1 and t2 (t 1 < t < t2) (Figure 14.8).
The smaller the time interval Lit= t2 - t 1 > 0 is, the closer the aver­
age speed is to the instantaneous speed at time t.
The instantaneous speed is also measured, in SI units, in m/s or in
m.s- 1 .

Example 14.3
Figure 14. 9 shows the motion of a puck, left without initial speed
on an inclined air table. The time interval between two consecutive
dots is r = 60 ms.
a. Determine the average speed of the puck between t0 and t3,
t1 and t4, and t2 and t6.
b. Determine the instantaneous speeds of the puck at the instants
t1, t2, and t3. What can you deduce? Figure 14.9. Recording of the motion of the
puck.

---------- 160---------- Description of motion

 Solution
a.The distances traveled by the puck during the time intervals
t3 -1:o
= 3 'T = 3 x 60 ms, t4 - t2 = 2 x 60 ms and 43 - t2 = 4 x 60
ms
are respectively:
M0M 3 = 23 mm, M 2M4 = 22 mm and M 2M6 = 55 mm
The average speeds during these time intervals are respec­
tively:
Vo,3 = 23 I 180 = 0.128 mm/ ms,
V2,4 = 22 I 120 = 0.183 mm I ms and
V2 6 = 55mm I 240ms = 0.229 mm I ms

=
b.The instantaneous speeds at instants t1 , t 2 and t 3 are:

=
V1 V0,2 = M0M2 I (t2 - t0) = 13 I (2x60) = 0.108 mm I ms

=
V2 V1,3 = M1M3 I (t3- t1) = 18 I (2x60) = 0.150 mm I ms
V3 (t4 - t2) = 22 I (2x60) = 0.183 mm I ms
V2,4 = M2M4 I
We deduce that v is increasing.

Velocity
The knowledge of the instantaneous speed v is not sufficient to
describe the motion of the object. The chosen origin and the
direction of motion must also be known. This information is
given by the velocity vector v--rFigure 14-10) that has the follow­ _____ ..
direction of motion
ing elements: v
t
---)(f--------))(f----1�--..
..
- An origin (the position of the puck at the considered instant). O M x
- A line of action (the rectilinear trajectory).
- A direction (that of the motion at the considered instant).
- A magnitude (the speed at that instant). Figure 14.10. Representation of the veloci­

v7
ty vector. The chosen scale is 1 cm to Sm/s. A
The chosen scale determines the length of the velocity speed of Sm/s is represented by a vector of
length lcm.

Example 14.4
A train moves on rectilinear rails. At an instant t, it passes by the
midpoint M of its path and its velocity can be represented by the
vector MN'of length MN= 2 cm drawn to the scale 1 cm to 10 mis
(Figure 14.11).
v M
Determine, at instant t, the direction of the motion and the magni­ )( ... l(
tude of the velocity in km/h. A N 2 cm t B

Solution
The direction of the motion at instant t is that of its velocity at Figure 14.11.
the same instant t, (from B to A).
Referring to the chosen scale, the magnitude of the velocity is:
v = 2 cm x 10 m/s I 1 cm = 20 m/s
Since 1 m/s = 10-3 km x 3600/h = 3.6 km/h
v = 20 x 3.6 = 72 km/h

Description of motion 161

 14.4 ACCELERATION
Average acceleration
starting stopping
According to everyday language, a car accelerates when its � c=:.-,. �
speed increases and decelerates when its speed decreases (Fig­ t=O

ure 14-12).
In physics, acceleration is a quantity used to describe the vari­ Figure 14.12. The starting and stopping of
ations of the velocity with respect to time. a car.

Consider a falling body. Suppose that, at the origin of time,

its speed is zero, and that 2 seconds later its speed is 20 mis.
The speed of the body has increased by 20 mis during 2s
or, on average, by 10 mis during each second. Thus the aver­
age acceleration of the falling body is 10 mlsls or 10 m1s 2 .

If v 1 and v 2 are the instantaneous speeds of a particle M at

instants t 1 and t 2 respectively, the average acceleration a a of
this particle between instants t 1 and t 2 is defined as the
ratio of the variation of the speed to the elapsed duration:
Recall: we study always
a a = variation of v I duration = 11v I 11t
rectiIinear motion.
In SI units, the acceleration is measured in m I s 2 or m.s- 2 .

Instantaneous acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration a, at an instant t, is approximate­
ly equal to the average acceleration between two instants t 1 and
t2 very close to t so that t 1 < t < t2 .

Acceleration vector -
a
-·v
To describe the motion of a particle, we need, in addition to its
velocity vector, the acceleration vector which has the following -v
-·accelerated motion
a
elements (Figure 14.13)
retarded or decelerated motio�
- An origin (the position of the particle).
- A line of action (the straight line on which the particle moves).
- A direction (that of the motion if the speed increases and Figure 14.13. Representation of the
opposite to it if the speed decreases). acceleration vector.
- A magnitude (the value of a).
The chosen scale determines the length of the acceleration vec­
tor a7

·---------- 162____,____ Descriptionotm�n

 ------

Example 14.5
In example 14.3, determine the average acceleration of the puck
between the instants t 1 and t3 and between t2 and t4 (Figure
14.14).

Solution
The average accelerations are respectively:
a1,3 = (v3 - v1) I 2 'C = (0.183 - 0.108) I (2 x 60 x 10-3)
= 0.62 m I s2
a 2 , 3 = (v 3 - v 2) I 'C = (0.183 - 0.150) I (60 x 10-3)
= 0.55 m I s 2

Example 14.6
Calculate the average acceleration of a car moving along a rectilin­
ear path in the positive direction, whose speed changes from 120
km/h to 130 km/h during 5 s. Figure 14.14. Recording of the motion of
the puck.
Solution
The given speeds are, in m/s: (1 km/h =1/3.6 m/s)
v1 = 120 x 103 I 3600 = 33.33 mis
V 2 = 130 x 103 I 3600 = 36.11 m/s
The variation of the speed is:
11v = v 2 - v1 = 36.11-33.33 = 2.78 m/s
11t = 5 s,
Therefore a a = 11v I 11t = 2.78 I 5 = 0.56 m/s2

Technique of the air cushion

If a body moves on a surface, its motion is affected by the fric­

tion between the two touching surfaces. The best technique
used to avoid friction is that of the air cushion.
In a hovercraft (Figure 14.15), the engines blow air down­
wards and create an air cushion between the boat and water
surface. Thus the boat moves without touching this surface.
This technique allows the boat to achieve greater speeds.
Air tables
In laboratories, the above technique is used in air tables (Fig­
ure 14.16) in order to study the motion of a body with no fric­
tional forces.
There are different models of air cushion tables. Figure 14.15. Hovercraft.

Description of motion 163

 In the model presented here, the puck whose motion is to be
studied is self carried as it blows air from its bottom against
the surface of the table, by using a pump placed inside it.
(Figure 14.17).
The pucks are connected to a recording system. During their
motion, they leave regular traces of black points on a piece of
paper on which they move. The time interval between two con­
secutive traces remains constant during the experiment and it
can take other values in other experiments. Tracing is pro­ Figure 14.16. Air table.
duced by an electric spark between a sharp edged rod placed
at the bottom of the puck and the recording paper.
The principal parts of air tables used in schools are:
- a table with an insulating frame and adjustable stands
- a set of wedges that allow to modify the inclination of the
table
- a pulse generator, fed by the electricity mains, that produces
pulses (of adjustable period) to be recorded
- an air pump, placed inside the puck and activated by a
motor
- electrically conducting paper to record the pulses
- two pucks Figure 14.17. Puck.
- a launching system with a spring .

Summary
•

* The notion of rest and motion is relative and depends on the chosen frame
I
I of reference.
iI * The motion of an object is rectilinear when the trajectory is a straight line.
* The position of a particle at a given instant is determined by the position
vector.
'
* In a rectilinear motion, the average speed of a particle which moves a
distance d during the time interval �t is defined by the ratio Va = jt
* The instantaneous speed (at an instant t) is approximately equal to the
average speed between two instants very close tot which lies between them.
* The speed can be represented by a vector called velocity.

*
* In SI units, the speed is measured is mis or (m.s-1).
* In rectilinear motion, the average acceleration of a particle whose speed
varies by �v during the time interval �t is defined by the ratio
�
* In SI units, the acceleration is measured in m/s2 or (m.s-2)·
* The acceleration can be represented by a vector.

·---------- 164___,_____ Description of motion

 TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 3. In figure 14.18 the average speed and
the average acceleration are given for differ­
1. Why is a frame of reference necessary to ent time intervals. Find, in each case,
study motion? whether the motion is accelerated or retard­
ed.
2. Can a body be at rest and in motion at the
same time? Give examples.
a,
3. What is the average speed of a particle
between two given instants?

4. Define velocity.
Figure 14.18

5. Express, in m.s-1, a speed of 54 km.h-1.

Express, in km/h, a speed of 20 mis.

PROBLEMS
6.
----------------------------------- �--
7. Define the average acceleration of a particle
Table 14.1 gives the values of some par-
between two given instants.
ticular speeds.
8. True or False Table 14.1
a. In rectilinear motion, the velocity is in Particular speeds
the direction opposite to that of the motion.
b. In rectilinear motion, the velocity always
has the same direction as that of the accel­ Motion Speed
eration vector.
c. The speedometer of a car always indi­ Man on foot 4 to 7 km/h
cates its average speed. Rabbit 65 km/h
A jet airplane 800 to 900 km/h.
9. An airplane in rectilinear motion travels
a distance of 4000 km at an average speed of Sound in air at 0'C 330 mis
800 km/h. What is the duration of the trip? Moon around the Ea rth 1017 mis
Sound in wate r 1420 mis
Light in vacuum 3xl08 mis

QUESTIONS Convert the speeds given in m/s to km/h and

those given in km/h to mis.
N.8. All questions are about rectilinear
motion.
• Two cars start moving from the same
point on a rectilinear path at the same time,
1. Under what condition is the velocity of
heading to the same destination 90 km
a particle negative?
away. The first travels at an average speed of
50 km/h and the second at 60 km/h. Deter­
2. · Can a particle have a constant speed and mine the time interval separating the arrival
a non-zero acceleration? Justify your answer.
of the two cars to their destination.

Description of motion
--------- _1_�-�- --------·
 • A car driver moving at a speed of 100 km/h c. Calculate the accelerations at points A 1,
spends 2 s looking at a damaged car at the side A2, A 3, A4, and A 5. What can you
of the road. Calculate the distance covered by his conclude?
car during these 2s.

• A car driver spends 3 h driving at an aver­

age speed of 80 km/h, stops for 30min to
have some rest, and then drives at an average
speed of 90 km/h for 2 hours. Calculate the
average speed during the whole journey. Ao
• Figure 14.19 shows the recording of the
successive positions of the tracer M of a puck
on an inclined air table. B

Figure 14.20

• • • • • •

Figure 14.19.

a. What is the form of the trajectory of M? "'

<{ • a:,.

b. Calculate the average speed of M

between the instants t2 and t5.
c. Calculate the instantaneous speeds at
instants t2 and t 5 and represent, using
a convenient seale, the corresponding
velocities.
d. Calculate the acceleration at instants t2
and t 5. .; .
• The speed of a car decreases from 100
km/h to 80 km/h during 5s. Calculate its
average acceleration during these 5s.

• A puck is released from point A 0 on

an inclined plane (Figure 14.20). It slips "'
on the frictionless path A 0 A 6 B. Its posi­ <{ •
<(.
tion is recorded at instants separated by
equal intervals of time t = 0 .05 s. Figure
14.21 shows the recording from A 0 to A 6,
and figure 14.22 the recording from A 6 to N
<{ •
B.
a. Use figure 14.22 to calculate the

.
speed at point A 6. <{ •
b. Use figure 14.21 to calculate the 0
<{ • .;
speeds at points A 1, A 2, A3, A4, and A 5.
figure 14.21 figure 14.22

---------- 166 ---------- Description of motion

Objectives
• Know the characteristics of a uniform rectilinear motion.
• Kno·w the characteristics of a uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion.
• Determine the characteristics of a motion from its graph.

Rectilinear motion 167

 In the preceding chapter, we described a motion by its position, velocity and
acceleration.
In this chapter, these concepts will be used to describe the motion with con­
stant velocity and that with constant acceleration.

15.1 UNIFORM RECTILINEAR MOTION

Experiment 15.1
Verify that the air table is horizontal (Figure 15.1) and choose a
period of impulses 'L
Launch the puck with your hand.
The positions of the center M of the puck are recorded on a paper
at equal intervals of time 't.

Let M0, M 1, ..., Ms be the points marked on the paper at t0 = 0, t 1 = 't,

t2 = 21, ... , ts= 81 respectively.
You will obtain data similar to the one obtained by the authors,
shown in figure 15.2.
You notice that the trajectory of M is a straight line.

Measure the distances covered during each of the intervals 't. They
are approximately equal. Calculate the average speeds between t 1 Figure 15.1. Horizontal air table.
and t 5 and between t 2 and t 7 , and the instantaneous speeds v 1 , v 2 ,
..., v 7, at instants t 1 , t 2 , ... t 7.

The average and instantaneous speeds are approximately equal.

Record your results in table 15.1.

Figure 15.2. Recording of the

• • • • • • • • • motion of the puck with 'C = 60 ms .

Table 15.1

x (mm) 0 12 24 37 50 63 76 88 10 2

t (ms) 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480

xi - x i (mm) 12 12 13 13 13 13 12 14

v (m/s) 0.200 0.208 0.217 0.217 0.217 0.208 0.217

168
·----------------------------------------------
Rectilinear motion
 From this experiment you will conclude that:
a.The trajectory of the puck is a straight line, and the
motion is therefore rectilinear.
b.The distances covered during equal intervals of time are
equal.
c.The average speed between any two instants is nearly the
same whatever the interval of time considered is.
d.The instantaneous speed is nearly constant and is equal
to the value of the average speed between any two
instants..
You may conclude that the instantaneous velocity vector is the
same at all instants: vt_ = vt_ = . . . = v; because all the elements
of the velocity vector remain the same.

Such a motion is a uniform rectilinear motion.

In general, a rectilinear motion is said to be uniform if its
instantaneous speed is constant.
x��mm

Boats, airplanes and cars sometimes move with approximately 80

constant velocity. The motion of a lift after starting and before 70
stopping is a uniform rectilinear motion. 60

50

Question 15.1 40

What is the value of the acceleration of an object moving at a 30

20
uniform rectilinear motion?
10

t 2t 3t 4t st 6t 1t at t

Figure 15.3. Variation ofthe abscissa ofthe

15.2 EQUATION OF A UNIFORM RECTILINEAR MOTION moving object as a function oftime.

Take point M 0 as the origin of abscissas ·on the trajectory orient­

ed positively in the direction of the motion, and the instant at
which the moving object passes by M 0 as the origin of time. The
abscissa of M 0 is x0 = 0.
Use the values in table 15.1 to draw the variation, with respect 0,5

to time, of the position of the moving object from M 0 . (Figure 0,4

15.3). Join the obtained points. These points lie on a straight 0,3

0,2 • • • • • • • •
line passing through the origin.
0,1

On another graph, draw the variation of the instantaneous veloc­ �

t
ity as a function of time. (Figure 15.4). You will obtain a straight
line parallel to the time axis.
Figure 15.4. Variation of the speed of a
From the first graph we may conclude that, in a uniform recti- movingobject as a function oftime.
linear motion, if we take x0 = 0, the abscissa of the moving
object is proportional to time
x = k.t.
The second graph shows that the speed is constant. This result
has already been proved.
We can prove that x = k.t by starting from the definition of the

Rectilinear motion
 velocity v = !lx I !lt

If x0 -:t O is the abscissa of the moving object at the origin of

time (t = 0), we have for any t.

!lx = x - x0 and M = t - 0 = t => v = (x - x0 )/t

=> x = v.t + x0
This is the time equation of uniform rectilinear motion.
If x0 = 0 , then x = v t, which is consistent with the results of the
experiment.
Figure 15.5. Inclined air table with a= 3 °

15.3 UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED RECTILINEAR MOTION

Experiment 15.2
Incline the air- table by an angle a= 3 ° (Figure 15.5).
Record the motion, without initial velocity, of the puck on the
table.
2 •
Figure (15.6) is a real recording of this motion with a period 't = 60ms.

Let M0 , M 1 ... M 7 be the points marked on the paper at t0 , t 1 ...t 7

respectively.
You notice that the trajectory of the puck is a straight line.

Measure the distances traveled during the successive time inter­

vals t. They are not equal but rather increase with time.

Calculate the average speed in each interval and the instantaneous

velocity at t 1 , t 2 ...t 6 . They increase with time.

Calculate the instantaneous acceleration of the motion of the puck 2 •

at the considered instants. It is nearly constant.
Place your results in table 15.2.

2 •

2 •

Figure 15.6 Recording of a motion without

initial speed on an inclined air table.

----------- 1'7'()____________�:.:���:��-�.?!���
 rrr: rr : :77 n

Table 15.2

t (s) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

0 3 11 24 42.5 66 95 128

I I
x (mm)

V m (m/s) 0.03 0.08 0.1310.181

5 0.2351 0.291 0.33

v (m/s) 0.055 0.10 0.16 0.21 0.26 0.31

a (m/s2) 0.50 0.50 0.55 0.50 0.50

This experiment shows that the motion of a puck without

initial velocity on an inclined air table has the following proper­
ties:
a. The motion is rectilinear.
b. The distances traveled during equal and successive
intervals of time are not equal but increase with time. x mm

c. The average speeds and the instantaneous speeds are

variables and increase with time. 70

d. The acceleration is constant. 60

50
The motion of a puck left without initial velocity on an 40

inclined air table is a uniformly accelerated motion. 30

20
By definition, a rectilinear motion is said to be uniformly 10

accelerated if its acceleration is constant. t 2t 3t 4t st 6t 1t st t en ,

The motion of a car starting from rest, that of a freely

Figure 15. 7. Variation of x with respect to t.
falling body in air at the beginning of its fall, and the start
of the motion of a lift are examples of rectilinear motions
that are nearly uniformly accelerated.

15.4 TIME EQUATION OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED RECTI­ ml

/S
V
LINEAR MOTION 0,25

0,20

0,15
Take as frame of reference the rectilinear trajectory of the
0,1
puck, oriented positively in the direction of the motion, and
0.05
having as origin O the starting point M 0 .
t'
Take as origin of time t = 0, the instant at which the puck is
at M 0.
Figure 15.8. Variation of v with respect to
With this choice, the abscissa and the speed at t = 0 have the t. The obtained curve is a straight line pass­
va I ue of zero. ing through the origin.

Rectilinear motion 171

 Use the values of x in table 15.2 to plot the variation of x as a
function of time. Join the obtained points. You get the curve of
figure 15.7.
Use the values of v in table 15.2 to plot the variation of v as a
function of time. Join the obtained points. You get a straight
line passing through the origin (Figure 15.8).
The equation of this straight line is of the form v = k t, where
k is a constant.
To determine the constant k and understand its significance,
fill in table 15.3 with the values of abscissas, speeds, and
accelerations taken from table 15.2.

Table 15.3

t (s) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

x (mm) 0 3 11 24 42,5 66 95

v (m/s) 0 0.05 0.10 0.16 0.21 0.26 0.31

a (m/s2) 0.50 0.55 0.55 0.50 0.50

v/t 0.50 0.50 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.52

2x/t2 0.60 0.55 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53

You may conclude that, within the limits of experimental error,

the ratio v/t is constant and equal to the value of the accelera­
tion a. Hence,

v/t = a => v = a.t

Also note that the ratio 2x is also constant and equal to the
acceleration a. Hence, t
2

2x =
a => x = l2 at
2

t 2

The time equations of uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion

without initial velocity are:
- For position

x = � a.t2

where x is measured from the starting point of the

moving object
- For the velocity
v = a.t

------
·----------- 172 ----------------------------
Rectilinear motion
 Summary
* Rectilinear motion is said to be uniform if the instantaneous speed of the mov­
ing object is constant.
* In uniform rectilinear motion, the instantaneous speed of a moving object is equal
to the average speed between any two instants.
* In uniform rectilinear motion, the distance traveled by a moving object is
proportional to the time needed to travel this distance.
* In a frame of reference where the x - axis is the trajectory of the uniform
rectilinear motion directed positively in the direction of motion:
- The speed is v = M
- The time equation is x =vt + x0 where Xo is the abscissa at t = 0.
* Rectilinear motion is said to be uniformly accelerated if its acceleration remains
constant with time.
* If the x - axis is the trajectory of the motion, is oriented positively in the direc­
tion of motion, and has the starting point as origin of abscissas, and if t = 0 is
taken at the starting point, the equations of motion of the uniformly accelerated
rectilinear motion are
v =a t and x = a.t 2
!

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 3. An object, moving with a uniform rectilinear

motion, has a constant speed v = 5m/s.
What is a uniform rectilinear motion? Determine its time equation if, at t = 0, its
abscissa is 1 m.
2. True or False. Correct the wrong statements.
In a uniform rectilinear motion. 4. A car moves with a constant speed of 25 m/s
a. The acceleration is constant. on a rectilinear track. What is the distance trav­
b. The speed of a moving object is constant. eled in 10 minutes?
c. The average speed between any two instants
is equal to the instantaneous speed. 5. What is a uniformly accelerated rectilinear
d. The velocity vector of a moving object
motion?
changes its direction during the motion.
6. True or False
In a uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion
a. The instantaneous speed is constant

Rectilinear motion
 b. The acceleration is of the same sign as the
velocity PROBLEMS
c. The acceleration is proportional to time.
• The time equation of a body in recti-
linear motion is x = 10 t + 2 in SI units.
a. What is the nature of its motion?
QUESTIONS b. Determine the positions of the body at
t = 0 and at t = 1 min.
The graphs of figure 15. 9 represent rec­ c. What is the direction of motion on the
ti Iinear motions. Which of them corresponds x - axis?
to a uniform rectilinear motion? d. What is the acceleration vector?

he graphs of figure 15.10 represent the vari­ • A car moves at a constant speed of 80
ation of the speed v of a moving point as a func­ km/h on a rectilinear path. How long does it
tion of time for the given graph of rectilinear take to travel 100 km?
motion. Indicate the type of motion correspond­
ing to each graph. Justify your answer. • A cubic block, initially at rest, slides
with constant acceleration on an inclined
plane 10 m long in 2 s. Calculate the accel­
eration of the block.

• An object is dropped without initial speed

from a height of 20 m above ground and falls
with a constant acceleration of 10 m.s-2.
a. How long does it take the object to
reach the ground?
b. What is its speed upon reaching
ground?

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Figure 15.9.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 15.10.
• An electron starts from rest, travels a dis­ b. Calculate the average speed of the puck
tance of 15 cm with constant acceleration, between any two instants you choose.
and hits a television screen at a speed of Conclude.
3xl06 m Is. Calculate the acceleration of the c. Calculate the instantaneous speed of
electron. the puck at any three instants you
choose. Conclude.
• d. Calculate the average acceleration of
Before taking off, a plane starts from rest
and travels 800 m in 20 s. Assume the accel­ the puck between any two instants you
eration to be constant and calculate choose. Conclude.
a. The acceleration of the plane before it e. What is the nature of the motion?
takes off.
b. Its speed at the instant it takes off. • Figure 15.12 is a recording of the motion
of the center C of a puck without initial speed
• Figure 15.11 shows the recording of the on an inclined air table, with 'C = 1/50 s.
motion of the center C of a puck thrown on a Answer the same questions as in problem 7.
horizontal air table. The marks on the paper are
separated by equal time intervals t = 1/50 s.
The successive positions of C are: C0 (t0 ),
C 1 (t 1 ), C2 (t 2 ), ...C i (t i ) ..., where t 0 is taken as
origin of time.
a. Compare the distances traveled by the
puck in equal time intervals. Conclude.

•• • • • • •

Figure 15.12

c
• • • • • • • •

Figure 15.11.

Rectilinear motion 175

 A marble is dropped at point A 0. Its a. Describe the motion of the car between
free fall is photographed after equal suc­ A and B.
cessive intervals of time -r = 0.2 s. Figure b. Calculate distance AB..
15.13 represents, with a scale of 1/40, c. Prove, by calculation, that distance AB is
the positions A 0, A 1, A 2, A 3 , A 4, and A 5, numerically equal to the area between the
respectively at the instants O s, 0.2 s, graph and the time axis (shaded on the fig­
0.4 s, 0.6 s, 0.8 s, and 1 s. ure).
a. Is the motion uniform or uniformly
accelerated?
b. Measure the distances AoA 1, A 1A2, A2A3,
A3A4, and A4A 5. What are the values of
30,..
these distances in meters?
c. Calculate speed v1, v2, v3, and v4.
20 -
d. Express v as a function of time. What do
you conclude?
10
e. Calculate the accelerations a 1, a2, a3, and
a4. What do you conclude? I I

20 40 60 80
igure 15.14 shows the graph (v, t) rep­
resenting the variations of the speed of a car Figure 15.14.
on a rectilinear trajectory between points A
and B.

• •
t=O"C
A2
•
2"C
A3

3"C
• .
4"C
•
5"C

Figure 15.13.

·-------- _176 ----------- Rectilinear motion

Objective
• Know the effects of a force.
• Know that a force is due to an interaction between two bodies.
• Draw a free body diagram of forces acting on a body.
• Find the resultant of two concurrent forces.

Force and interaction 177

In a tennis game, the player strikes the ball with the racket and changes its
motion. When the wind blows, it deforms the leaves and bends the branches of
trees. It also moves a boat after deforming its sails.
The action exerted by the racket on the ball changes the motion of the ball.
Similarly the action exerted by the wind on the leaves bends the branches and
that exerted on the sails displaces the boat.
Such actions form the subject of this chapter.

16.1 EFFECTS OF A FORCE

An inflated tire (Figure 16.1) gets deformed when mounted on
the transmission axis of a car resting on the ground (Figure
16.2).
When a ball is dropped, it falls (Figure 16.3) due to the action
of the attraction of the Earth.
In a tennis game, the racket changes the direction of the motion Figure 16.1. An inflated tire.
of the ball (Figure 16.4).
These examples constitute evidence of the action of the ground
on the tires, of the Earth on the ball, and of the racket on the
ball. This action is represented by a force.
These examples show that a force may
- Deform a body.
- Cause the motion of a body.
- Modify the motion of a body.
Figure 16.2. The tire is deformed under the
action of the weight of the car and the ground.

16.2 INTERACTION

When the racket exerts a force on the bal I, the player feels the
action of the ba11 on the racket in the form of a vibration; if the
force is strong enough, it deforms the net of the racket.
Thus, the racket and the ball exert forces on each other at the
same time. We say that there is an interaction between them. Figure 16.3. The ball falls due to the attrac­
tion of the Earth.

Experiment 16.1
Fix a nail and a magnet, each on a piece of cork.·
Place them apart on the surface of water placed in a container
(Figure 16.5).
Keep the magnet fixed and leave the nail free. You observe that the
magnet attracts the nai I. Figure 16.4. The racket changes the motion
of the ball.

Force and interaction

 Keep the nail fixed and set the magnet free; the nail attracts the nail magnet
magnet.

This experiment shows that the magnet attracts the nail and
the nail attracts the magnet at the same time. Therefore there
is an interaction between the magnet and the nail.
In electrostatics (see chapter 1), we have seen examples of Figure 16.5. The magnet and the nail
interactions between charges (Figure 16.6) attract each other.
We conclude that a force does not exist alone; forces always
exist in pairs.
In other words, if body A acts on body B, then, at the same
time, body B acts on body A (Figure 16.7).

Note: the pair of forces of interaction do not act on the same body.

16.3 REPRESENTATION OF A FORCE

Figure 16.6. Electrostatic interaction.

Experiment 16.2
Take a spring balance graduated from Oto 5 N.
Fix its upper end Band release its lower end C. The spring balance
indicates zero (Figure 16.8).
Pull the end C vertically downward (Figure 16.9), then obliquely
(Figure 16.10) so that in each case the spring balance indicates 2 N.

Figure 16.7. Interaction of two bodies.

The spring invariably takes the direction of �e force exerted by the
hand. This force is represented by a vector F (Figure 16.11) having
the following elements:
- A point of application (end C of the spring)
- A line of action (the axis of the spring)
- A direction (vertically downwards in figure 16.9, and from B to C
<111111---
O(N) ...
in figure 16.10)
- A magnitude (2 N in each of the two cases).
In SI units, the force is measured in newtons (N) after the English
physicist Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Figure 16.8. If no force acts at C, the spring
balance reads zero.

c c

Figure 16.9. The spring is vertical due to Figure 16.10. The spring is oblique due to Figure 16.11. Elements of a vector. The
the vertical force exerted by the hand. the oblique force exerted by the hand. chosen scale is 2 cm IN.

Force and interaction 179

16.4 CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES
Forces are classified according to the relative positions of the
interacting bodies.

Contact forces
Force of traction: the force exerted by the hand for expanding
the spring is called the force of traction.
In a moving train, the locomotive exerts a force of traction on Figure 16.12. Force of traction exerted by
the first wagon (Figure 16.12) which, in turn, exerts a force of the locomotive on the first wagon.
traction on the second wagon and so on.
Tension: when a solid hangs at the free end of a string fixed at the
other end, the string exerts on that solid a force called the tension of
the string. (Figure 16.13).
The cable of a lift in rectilinear motion exerts a tension on the cage.
Push: to move a wheelbarrow, a pushing force is exerted (Figure
16.14).
Figure 16.13. Tension of a string.
Friction: to push a box on a horizontal ground, a force greater than the
force of friction between the box and the ground has to be exerted
(Figure 16.15). If the ground is lubricated, the frictional force
becomes smaller.

Force exerted by a support: a body placed on a horizontal table is sub­

jected to a vertical force (Figure 16.16) exerted by the table, that pre­
vents it from falling. This force is usually called the normal force of
reaction.
All of these forces would not exist if the bodies were not in contact;
Figure 16.14. Push.
this is why they are called contact forces.
>f

Forces at a distance
A body dropped in air falls to the Earth.
In experiment 16.1, we have seen the interaction at a distance between
the nail and the magnet.
In electrostatics, we have studied the interaction at a distance between
electric charges. Figure 16.15. The pushing force must be
The force of attraction exerted by the Earth on objects on or around it, greater than the force of friction.
the force of attraction exerted by a magnet on magnetic substances, and
the force of attraction or repulsion between electric charges are called ��
forces at a distance.

16.5 FORCES ACTING ON A SYSTEM

To solve problems in mechanics, you have to identify the forces act­
ing on the system. You first have to specify the system to be studied,
which may be a body or a set of bodies. You then have to identify the
external forces exerted on the system by its environment. These have Figure 16.16. Normal force exerted by the
table on the body.
to be distinguished from the internal forces of interaction between
the different parts of the system.
Finally you should draw a diagram, known as a free body diagram,
where all the external forces acting on the system are represented.

Example 16.1
Consider a solid attached to the end C of a spring whose other end
A is fixed. Draw the free body diagram showing the forces exerted Figure 16.17. Forces exerted on a solid
on the solid, the spring, and the so/id-spring system. attached to the end of a spring.

Solution
a. The system chosen is the solid attached to the spring (Figure
16.17).
The solid interacts with the spring and the Earth. The external forces
applied on the solid are: the vertical upward tension F of the spring,
exerted by the spring on the body, and the downward weight W of
the solid, exerted by the Earth on the solid and of magnitude
W= mg.
b. The chosen system is the spring, assumed to be of negligible mass.
The spring interacts with the support and the solid (Figure 16.18).
The external forces acting on the spring are: force rexerted by the Figure 16.18. Forces exerted on the spring.
solid and force rexerted by the support.
c. The system chosen consists of the solid and the spring. The system
interacts with the Earth and the support (Figure 16.19). The exte­
nal forces acting on the system are: force F" exerted by the support,
and the pull exerted by the Earth (weight of the system). In this case
the forces exerted by the solid on the spring and by the spring on the
solid are internal forces of the system (not shown in the figure) which
are not taken into consideration.

Example 16.2
A body, initially at rest on a horizontal floor, is set in motion by a Figure 16.19. Forces exerted on the solid -
horizontal force �exerted by a person. Draw the free body diagram spring system.
showing the forces exerted on the body in the two following cases:
a. Friction is negligible.
b. Friction is not negligible.
direction
of motion
Solution
a. The body interacts with the Earth, the horizontal floor (with-
out friction), and the person.
The external forces exerted on the body are (Figure 16.20):
- The weight of the body, which is a force directed vertically
downward.
17
- The normal force exerted by the frictionless floor on the
body. This force is perpendicular to the floor and prevents
the motion of the body towards the center of the Earth. Figure 16.20. Forces applied on a body in
- The horizontal force of traction "Pot the person which rectilinear motion under the action of a hori­
produces the motion. zontal force.

Force and interaction

 b. In addition to the previously Iisted forces, the floor
exerts a horizontal force of friction -Pon the system. The • •
direction of this force is opposite to that of the motion .,..
____ ___
(Figure 16.21).

Figure 16.21. The force of friction impedes

16.6 RESULTANT OF TWO FORCES motion. Its direction is opposite to that of the
motion.
Two collinear forces

Ti 'G,
Consider the situation shown in figure 16.22 where two persons pull
one side of a rope with forces and and a third person pulls the
other side of the rope with a force "'G in such a way that the three forces
keep the rope in equilibrium.
T,
r:.
Suppose that a fourth person produces the same effect as the first two,
'ft
i.e. he/she pulls with a force that balances
Force Tdhas (Figure 16.23):
- The same Iine of action as Tj7 and "'G,
- The same direction as T! "G,
and Figure 16.22. Resultant of two collinear
- A magnitude equal to the sum of the magnitudes of fj7 and "G. forces.
Force t. which has the same effect as and 'fi ft, is called their resul­
tant.

In general, the resultant of two collinear forces of same directions is the

single force that has the same direction and line of action as these two
forces and a magnitude equal to the sum of their magnitudes.

Question 16.1 Figure 16.23. T1= f1+ T�

Find the resultant of two collinear forces of opposite directions.

Two concurrent forces

Experiment 16.3
Place three spring balances S1, S2, and S3 on a horizontal table,
as shown in figure 16.24.
Note their readings T1, T2, and T3.
Place a piece of paper on the table beneath the spring balances,
and draw, on this paper, the directions of the springs.
Replace spring balances S1and S2 by a spring balance S4 in such
a way that S3 keeps the same direction and gives the same read- Figure 16.24. Resultant of two concurrent
ing. forces of different directions.
 Read the indication of S 4 and draw its direction on the paper. The
T1 T2
line of action of S 4 is different from those of S 1 and S 2 and the
reading of S 4 is not equal to the sum of the readings of S 1 and S 2 .

Remove the piece of paper, and use a convenient scale to represent

Ti, ft,
and T,i
exerted respectively by S 1 , S 2 , and S 4 (Figure 16.25)

Complete the parallelogram of sides Ti and "'G (Figure 16.26). � is Figure 16.25.
the diagonal of the parallelogram.

Force T,ihas the same direction, the �me I� of action, and the
same magnitude as the resultant of T 1 and T2 .
We conclude that the resultant of two concurrent forces is the
force represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram whose
sides are the two forces.

Figure 16.26. Parallelogram of forces.

Question 16.2
Construct the resultant of the two forces Pi and72 represented in fig­ F,
ure 16.2 7. Use a ruler and a compass to measure the magnitude of a

Fi.
their resultant and a protractor to measure the angle that this resultant
makes with

...
Figure 16.27.

Summary
* A force exerted on a body may deform it, cause it to move, or modify its
motion.
* If body A acts on body B, then body B acts on body A at the same time.
* Forces always exist in pairs.
* A force is represented by a vector.
* Forces are either forces of contact or forces at a distance.
* The resultant of two collinear forces of the same direction is the single
force of the same direction as the individual forces and of a magnitude
equal to the sum of the magnitudes of the two forces.
* The resultant of two concurrent forces is represented by the diagonal of the
parallelogram that has these two forces as sides.

Force and interaction

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE QUESTIONS
1. What is the effect of the application of
a force on a body ? 1. A book is placed on a horizontal table
that rests on a horizontal floor. Identify the
2. What is meant by the word interaction? different interactions taking place. Draw a
Give examples of interactions at a distance free body diagram of the forces acting on
and of contact. each of the book and the·table.

3. How do you represent a force? 2. A ping-pong ball falls vertically on a

horizontal table and rebounds vertically.
4. A body falls under the action of the Earth's Figure 16.28 represents the force � exert­
attraction. Represent the interaction between the ed by the table on the bal I at the instant of
earth and the body. impact. Represent the force exerted at this
instant by :
5. How do y ou determine the resultant of a. The ball on the table.
two forces which are: b. The Earth on the ball.
a. Collinear? c. The Earth on the table.
b. Concurrent?

6. True or False. Correct the wrong state-

ments.
a. When two bodies interact, they may or
may not be in contact with each other.
b. When a body and the Earth interact,
they are necessarily in contact with
Figure 16.28.
each other.
c. If object A exerts a force Fon object
B, then, after a certain time, object B 3.
exerts a force r7 on object A. a. Give the characteristics of the interaction
between the Moon and the Earth
7· A mass is suspended from the lower b. An object is placed on the Moon.
end of a string whose upper end is fixed to Represent its interaction with each of
the ceiling. Which of the following pairs of the Moon and the Earth.
forces correspond to an interaction?
a. The force of the string on the mass and 4. The electrostatic pendulums A and B have
by the string on the ceiling. charges of the same sign. lt
F is the force
b. The force of the ceiling on the string exerted by A on B (Figure 16.29). Draw the
and that of the mass on the string. free body diagrams showing the forces acting
c. The force of the ceiling on the string on B and on A.
and that of the string on the ceiling.
d. The force of the mass on the string and
that of the string on the mass.
e. The force of the mass on the string and
that of the string on the cei Iing.
f. The force of the Earth on the mass and
that of the mass on the Earth.
B F

Figure 16.29.
5. A mass is suspended from the lower
extremity of a string whose upper extremi­ ceiling

ty is fixed to the ceiling. The mass is com­

pletly immersed in water, and the string
remains stretched. Represent the different
existing interactions (Figure 16.30).
ball

Figure 16.33

Figure 16.30.

6. Represent by vectors the weights of Figure 16.34

objects A, B, and C, placed at different loca­
tions on the surface of the Earth (Figure
16.31).

string
magnet
IN sI
iron ball

Figure 16.35

Figure 16.31

7. In figures 16.32 to 16.37, name the

forces exerted respectively on the beam, the
ball, the ring, the iron ball, the staff, the
object being cut by the cutter, and the bal­ Figure 16.36
loon.

Figure 16.37

Figure 16.32

Force and interaction 185

 F,

2N

AL
2N �

Figure 16.38 Figure 16.40

PROBLEMS 3N
120
°

F,
3N

• Figure 16.39 shows three strings, f 1, f2,

Figure 16.41
and f3 attached to point A. String f 1 is vertical
and attached to an object of weight 3 N. f2 is
horizontal and attached to a spring balance
that reads 2 N. Choose an appropriate scale to
determine, graphically, the resultant of the ten­
sions of strings f 1 and f 2 F, 3N 3N

Figure 16.42

2N

2N
Figure 16.39 .

• Determine graphically the resultant of the

forces represented in each of figures 16.40 to
16.43. Figure 16.43

186 Force and interaction

--�-------------------&���----------------------
Objectives
• State and apply the three laws of motion
• State and apply the law of gravitational interaction
• Know the variation of g with altitude.

Newton's laws
 Until the 17th century, scientists shared Aristotle's belief that a force was
needed for motion to continue: "No force, no motion".
In the 17th century, thanks to the works of Galileo and Newton, the causes of
motion were better understood, and we accept today that: "No force, no
change of the state of motion".
In this chapter, we will study the laws of motion as established by Galileo and
Newton, and Newton's law of gravitational attraction.

17.1 NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OR THE PRINCIPLE OF INERTIA

In order to explain the principle of inertia, Galileo thought of the

following experiment:
Consider very smooth surfaces AB, BC, and CD and a body left A D
at M on surface AB (Figure 17 .1). The body wiII slide without A
M�----� �aM_',
friction until it reaches M' at the same height as M. If angle a B C
is decreased, the body will always go up to the same height but
will travel a longer distance CM'. As a tends to zero, the body
continues its motion indefinitely without stopping.
Galileo concluded that in the absence of any external force, a Figure 17.1. A body continues its motion
body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion on a horizontal indefinitely if it is not subjected to any
surface continues indefinitely in a uniform rectilinear motion. external force.
This is the principle of inertia of Galileo.

Verification of the principle of inertia Inertia

It is the "tendency of matter
to remain at rest if at rest, or,
if moving, to keep moving in
Experiment 17.1 the same direction unless
Make sure that the air table is horizontal. affected by some outside
force" (Webster's Dictionary,
Regulate the pulse generator to a period 'C (40 ms or 60 ms)
Unabridged Version, 1978).
Before launching, the marks made by the puck are all confounded.
If you stand up in a bus that
Once the puck is launched, the marks are successively traced on starts jerkily, you are thrown
the paper (Figure 17.2). to the back; your body,
Join these marks; they lie on the same straight line. initially at rest, tends to stay
Measure the distances AB, BC, CD etc. between these points. You at rest. If the driver applies

= = = ...
will find that they are approximately equal. the brakes suddenly, your
AB BC CD = Constant. body tends to stay in motion:
The motion of the puck is therefore uniform and rectilinear. Inertia causes your body to be
projected forwards.

188
·--------------------------------------------�
Newton's laws
 x• • • • • • • • • • •
A BC D

Figure 17.2. Recording of the motion of a puck on a horizontal air table.

The forces exerted on the puck are: its weight vi (vertically

downward) and the force N (vertically upward) exerted by air
(Figure 17 .3). The resultant of these two forces is zero.
Therefore, the body obeys the principle of inertia since the
resultant of all forces acting on it is zero.

Newton was the first to understand Galileo's principle of inertia

and to state it in the form that we know today:
When an object is subjected to several forces of zero resultant, p
it remains at rest if it was initially at rest and in uniform
rectilinear motion if it was initially in motion. Figure 17.3. The resultant of forces acting
on the puck is zero.

17 .2 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OR THE FUNDAMENTAL

PRINCIPLE OF DYNAMICS

If a body of mass m is subjected to the action of several forces

of non-zero resultant F; it moves with an acceleration �of the
same line of action and direction as Fsuch that:

This is Newton's second law, the most important law of

dynamics also known as the fundamental principle of dynamics.
In SI units, F is measured in N, a in m/s2 and m in kg.

Newton's laws 189

 • • • • •
m

Figure 17.4. The weight of the Figure 17.5. Recording of the motion of the puck.
suspended mass pulls the puck horizontally.

Experiment 17.2
Set the air table horizontal.
Join the puck to a mass m by means of a string passing over the
groove of a pulley (Figure 17.4)
Adjust the pulse generator to a value 'C, and release the puck.
You will obtain the recording of the motion shown in figure 17 .5.
Measure the distances between consecutive points. You find that
these distances are not equal.
Following the same method used in experiment 15.2 (chapter 15,
page 170), calculate the acceleration of the motion; it is nearly
constant.
Inertia and mass
Repeat the experiment by suspending larger masses and calculate
Mass is a property of all material
the corresponding accelerations. You will find that the accelerations bodies. It is more than a
increase with the suspended mass. constant in Newton's second law
that relates the force to the
acceleration it produces.
The physical significance of the
The external forces applied on the puck during its motion are: mass lies in inertia. The greater
- Its weight vi
(a force exerted by the Earth on the puck and the mass of a body, the greater
directed vertically downwards) (Figure (17 .6) its inertia, and the greater its
- The tension Tof the string (a horizontal force along the line of opposition to change its state of
action and in the direction of motion). rest or motion.
- The normal action l'f
(vertical, upwards) of the ejected air.
The puck moves under the action of these forces of non-zero
resultant:
w+T+N=m�
Forces W� and l'f
are opposite and have the same magnitude;
therefore, they cancel each other. The puck moves under the N
action of force T jl
f
Since (as obtained above) acceleration increases with the

t
suspended mass, we conclude that acceleration increases with
the force of traction thus verifying the second Jaw of Newton.
,,.,1 '"'""""'
�--= "�: ..,,.. ... .,,
·--' ""

,.
,,

p
Weight of a body Figure 17 .6. Free body diagram of
If left alone, a body falls freely and is subjected to the action of applied forces on the puck.
F W
��-=
its weight only: =

·-----___ 190 ___________ --�:.w!�n·s

 r
(A)

-
(B)
1, F (a) (b)
Figure 17.7. A body in free fall is under the Figure 17.8. Interaction of two bodies.
action of its weight only.

Applying Newton's second law, you obtain (Figure 17.7):

W=m�
Just like the weight, the acceleration is always directed
vertically downward. We find that, at the same place, its value
is always the same. This acceleration is called the acceleration
of gravity and is indicated by g7 The expression of the weight
becomes:
W=mt
In Lebanon, at sea level, the value of tis:
g = 9.8 m/s 2 .

17.3 NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OR THE PRINCIPLE OF INTERACTION

In chapter 16 (experiment 16.1), we saw that a magnet and a Figure 17 .9. In order to walk, you press
nail attract each other. against the ground obliquely backwards with a
force F. According to Newton's third law the
Similarly, Coulomb's law (chapter 1, section 1.9) states that like
ground presses against you with a force r7= -I'
electric charges repel and unlike charges attract with forces of Force r'is the resultant of the normal force W
equal magnitudes. and the force of friction Tixerted by the ground.
These two interactions are similar and lead to Newton's third law,
also called the law of interaction which can be stated in the
following form:
If body A exerts a force Fon body Bthen, simultaneously, body Bexerts
on A a force Pof the same line of action and magnitude as �but of an
opposite direction (Figure 17-8):

Figures 17.9 and 17.10 show how Newton's third law is applied to
walking and to swimming. In both cases, motion is produced by the
force of friction.
Important remarks
Figure 17.10. While swimming, you push
1. Fore� Fis applied on Band force Pis applied on A. This means that
the water backward with your arms and legs.
the two forces of interaction are not applied on the same body.
Simultaneously, the water pushes you
2. Newton's third law is applicable to bodies A and B whether they are forward.
at rest or in motion.

Newton's laws 191

 Verification of the third law of Newton.

Experiment 17.3
Hook two spring balances S 1 and S 2 together and place them on a
table (Figure 17.11).
Pull their free ends and note their readings.
You find that the readings are the same.
Figure 17.11. The two spring balances exert
=-1 ;tj
on each other forces of opposite directions but
S 1 exerts on S 2 a force F 1 and S 2 exerts on S 1 a force F2 . of the same magnitude.
The two forces have equal magnitudes, the same line of action, and
opposite directions:
� �
F 1 = -F 2
Newton's third law is also known as the principle of action and N
a
I
reaction and is stated as follows :
To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
�j
Example 17 .1
In each of the following interactions find the pair of exerted forces?
a. A body plac ed on a horizonta l table �,_
_N
b.A body suspended from a string. '
Figure 17.12. Interaction between a table
Solution and the body resting on it.
a. The table exerts a vertical upward force � on the body. This
force prevents the body from falling (Figure 17.12). The body
exerts on the table a force - I'?
Remark: the magnitude of the force exerted by the body on
the table is numerically equal to the magnitude of the weight
since the whole system is at rest, but this force is not the
weight itself. The latter is the force of attraction exerted by the
Earth on the object, and its "reaction" is the force of attraction
exerted by the body on the Earth (Figure 17.13).
_p
b. The body exerts on the string a downward vertical force
equal to its weight, and the string pulls the mass with a center of
the Earth
vertical upward force of the same magnitude (Figure 17.14).
This last force is the tension in the string. Figure 17.13. Two pairs of forces relative to
two different interactions.
17.4 NEWTON'S LAW OF GRAVITATIONAL INTERACTION
.
/

Why does the Moon rotate around the Earth without straying in
space? If the Earth didn't exert a force on the Moon, then,
according to the first law, the Moon should continue in uniform ' F
rectilinear motion and get away from the Earth. (Figure 17.15).

[il
When. dropped, why does a body fall vertically downwards?
According to the first law, a body initially at rest remains at rest
p
if it is not acted upon by any force.
Newton was the first scientist to establish that the motion of the Moon Figure 17.14. Interaction of a string with a
body suspended from it.
around the Earth and the motion of a body near the surface of the Earth

----------- 192 _______________�_E:".'.:'!0!:'�}���

 are governed by the same law. This is the force of gravitational Moon
r
interaction that applies to all bodies in the universe.

This force of interaction pulls the M oon towards the Earth and prevents
it from continuing its motion in straight line and pulls a body falling
toward the center of the Earth.

Newton stated the law of universal attraction as follows:

Two bodies A and B of respective masses mA and ms exert on Earth
each other opposite forces of attraction held by the same Figure 17.15. If it were not for the attraction
straight Ii ne AB, of a common magnitude proportional to masses of the Earth, the Moon would continue its motion
mA and ms and inversely proportional to the square of the on a rectilinear path with a constant velocity.
distance d= AB (Figure 17.16) between them:
mA.mB
F =G. -;
d2 (A) F F (BJ
Where G = 6.67xlO-ll (SI units) an d is called the constant of
I ... ... I

universal gravitation.
F =_F'
Newton used this law to explain the motion of planets around the
Sun and that of ordinary bodies on the surface of the Earth.
Figure 17.16. Force of gravitational
This law is valid as long as the dimensions of the interacting bodies are attraction.
very small compared to the distances separating them.
As far as universal gravitation is concerned, a homogeneous spherical
body is treated as if all its mass is concentrated at its center.

Variation of weight with altitude ------------./IF

(
,/'

cente, of \
Assu me the Earth to be a homogeneous sphere of radius R and
mass M . Consider a body of mass m at a height z above the
\ the Earth
surface of the Earth (Figure 17 .17) .
A body is represented by a point, and we assume that the Earth
\
\ I
/
behaves as if a11 its mass was concentrated at its center. \"'°', ----/
Apply the law of gravitational interaction. The magnitude of the Figure 17.17. Attraction of a body by the
force exerted by the Earth on the body is Earth.

F = G m.M
(R + z)2

This force represents (approximately) the weight W of the body. Mass and weight
The mass is the property of a
But W = m.g where g is the gravitational acceleration, gives body, which depends on the
F = W = mg body regardless of where it is
placed. It is always constant.
F =W =mg= G m. M
(R + z)2 The unit of mass is the kilogram.
The weight of a body is the force
Then the value of g can be expressed as. of attraction exerted by the
Earth on this body. It depends
g = G�M
(R z)2 on the distance of the body from
the center of the Earth, and
This expression shows that g varies with altitude z. therefore varies from one place
At sea level z = 0 to another. It is a vector and its
g is also expressed as g = g0. R 2/(R + z) 2 magnitude is measured in
go R 2 newtons.
g0 = G. M =Constant � g = -·-2
R2 (R + z)
Newton's laws 193
 Example 17 .2

What is the value of g at Kornet al Sawda, which is 3083 m high?

Assume that, at sea level, g0= 9.80 m/sec2 and the mean value of
the radius of the Earth is R = 6370 km.

Solution

Using the relation Figure 17 .18. Galileo

go R2
g=-·-
(R + z)2
9.80 x (6370000)2
= = 9.79 m/s2
(6370000 + 3083)2
This value differs by almost 1/1000 of the value of g at sea level.

Figure 17 .19. Newton

GALILEO AND NEWTON

After centuries of stagnation, science made
very important advances during the 16th and Isaac Newton (1642-1727), one of the
17th centuries. The progress was so important greatest geniuses that ever existed, made
that this period was called the period of decisive discoveries in mechanics, astronomy,
Scientific Revolution. Many scientists optics, and mathematics.
contributed to this revolution in science, but In mechanics, Newton established the laws of
the contributions of Galileo (Figure 17.18) motion of objects at the surface of the Earth.
and Newton (Figure 17.19) stand out. He used these laws to explain the motion of
Galileo Galilei was the most famous physicist planets around the Sun and proved that all
and astronomer of his time. these motions are due to the same cause: the
In mechanics, he discovered the principle of force of gravitational interaction.
inertia and studied the free fall of bodies and In optics, he was the first to analyze white light
the motion of projectiles. into its component colors.
Galileo made the first telescope and used it to In mathematics, he developed, simultaneously
observe the sky. He found that the surface of with the German scientist Gottfried Leibnitz
the Moon was similar to that of the Earth, for (1646-1716), differential and integral
it had mountains and valleys. He also calculus, which helped later develop many
discovered that Jupiter had natural satellites branches of physics.
and observed the solar spots, Saturn'? rings, Newton spent an important part of his life
and the phases of Venus. He was a strong writing books on religion and philosophy and
proponent of the heliocentric theory that studying alchemy that consists of transforming
advocated that the Earth rotated around the metals into gold.
Sun. Until the end of the 19th century, Newton's
Galileo invented the thermometer, discovered ideas dominated physics and astronomy and
that a pendulum always oscillates with the had a decisive influence on the development
same period, and established the scientific of human thought.
method, as we know it today.

194
�--------�------------------------------------
Newton's laws
 Summary
* Newton's first law, or the principle of inertia, states: under the action of
many forces whose resultant is zero, an object, initially at rest, remains at
rest, and if initially moving, keeps moving in a uniform rectilinear motion.
* Newton's second law, or the fundamental principle of dynamics, states: if
an object of mass m is under the action of many forces whose resultant F
is not zero, it moves with an acceleration a7 of the same Iine of action and
F
direction as and so that t=
m a?
W g;
* The weight of a body is given by = m where tis the acceleration of
gravity.
* Newton's third law states: when body�A exerts force Fon body B, then,
simultaneously, B exerts on A force F' of the same line of action and
magnitude as F but opposite to it: = P -F.'
* The law of gravitational interaction states: any two bodies A and B of masses
m A and m 8 attract each other with equal and opposite forces lying on line AB,
and of magnitude F proportional to the two masses and inversely proportional to
their distance d = AB; F = G mAm8/d2
* The weight of a body varies with altitude.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE QUESTIONS

State Newton's three laws of motion. 1. True or False. Correct the false
statements.
2. State Newton's law of universal attraction. a. A particle moves under the action of
several forces of zero resultant. It has an
3. Give the characteristics of the weight acceleration 2(0f the same direction as v:
W = m gbf a body of mass m in the neighborhood b. Many particles of different masses are
of the Earth. acted upon separately by a constant force
F:The particle of the smallest mass has
4. Give the expression of g at altitude z. the smallest acceleration.

2. Discuss
the following
argument:

Figure 17 .20.

Newton's laws 195

 In a train, the locomotive exerts on the a. The wa�on on the horse.
wagon a force �at A (Figure 17.20), and the b. The horse on the wagon.
wagon exerts at the same point A a force � c. The ground on the horse.
such that P -t
= Therefore the train does d. The horse on the ground.
not move.

3. Figure 17.21 shows the recordings of two 7. Can we apply the principle of inertia to
motions on an air table with the same period. the following systems?
What is the type of motion in each case? a. A freely falling object.
Explain. b. A parachutist in vertical downward
motion at constant speed.
c. A book at rest on a table.

I ·I
d. A puck moving on a horizontal air
• • • • table .

8. Which of Newton's laws applies to each of

I .I
the following situation? Explain.
• • • • a. For the same force of traction exerted by
the engine of a car accelerating from Oto
Figure 17.21. 20 km/h, it takes longer when the car
carries four passengers than when it carries
4. A car pulls a trolley on a slope (Figure only two.
17.22). Two spring balances S 1 and S2 b. Many a novice has experienced a sore
connect the car and the trolley. shoulder after firing a shotgun.
a. The car-trolley system is at rest. Do S 1 and c. It is almost impossible to stop a car on
S2 read the same value? hard smooth ice.
b. Same question if the system is in motion.

PROBLEMS
• The Earth, of mass M = 5.98 x 1Q24 kg,
and the Moon, of mass M' = 7.34 x 1022 kg, are
represented by two particles separated by a
distances d = 384000 km. Calculate the
Figure 17.22. magnitude of the force exerted by the Moon on
the Earth.

5. True or False. Correct the false statements: • Figure 17.23 shows the recording of a puck's
a. When the forces acting on a body motion on a horizontal air table. The time elapsed
balance, its speed is variable. between two points is 0.04 sec. Calculate the
b. When the forces acting on a body speed of the puck. What is the resultant of the
balance, the body stops immediately. forces acting on the puck?
c. Two persons A of mass mA and B of mass
m 8 < mA are standing on an ice rink. A

/1 · · I/
pushes B who recoiIs and A does not move.
d. Both persons in question c recoil. • • •
6. Choose the correct answer:
When a horse pulls a wagon, the force that
Figure 17.23.
moves the horse is the force exerted by:

196
------------------------ ----------------
Newton's laws
• A body �f weight 200 N is suspended b. Write, as a function of time, the equations
by means of three strings (Figure 17.24). of the velocity and position, the initial
Strings s 1 and s 2 form an angle of 120 ° and position of the body being taken as origin
they are symmetric with respect to s3 . of distances.
Determine graphically the values of the c. Calculate the time needed by the body to
tensions of s 1 and s 2 . travel a distance of 10 m. What is its speed
then?

• A solid S, of small dimensions and a mass

of 500 g, moves on a horizontal straight line. The
A magnitude of the force of friction is 0.5 N. The
total force applied on the solid is 2 N. Draw a free
body diagram showing the forces acting on S.

(s)

• A force of 100 N gives mass m an

Figure 17 .24. acceleration of 4 m/s 2 . The same force gives
mass m' an acceleration of 8 m/s 2 . What
• Consider the system represented in figure acceleration would this force give m and m'
17.25. Determine graphically the value of angle fastened together?
a and the tension of s3 .
Two girls of masses 40 kg and 60 kg, are
standing side by side in the middle of an ice rink.
One of them pushes the other with a force of 100
N for 0.2s. Neglect friction.
a. What is the acceleration of each girl?
b. What speed will each girl reach at the end
of the 0.2 s interval?
c. Does it matter which girl did the pushing?

• An astronaut on the surface of Mars finds

5N
that a freely falling stone has an acceleration
Figure 17 .25. of 3.6 m/s2 and that a spring balance reads
252 N when he stands on it.
a. What is his mass on Mars?
• A body falls freely without initial speed. The b. What is his mass on Earth?
only force acting on it is its own weight and its c. What is his weight on Earth where
trajectory is vertical. g = 9.8 m I s2 ?
a. Apply Newton's second law to
calculate the acceleration a of the Explain why the gravitational acceleration g
body. Deduce the nature of motion in at the Poles is greater than at the Equator.
free fall (g = 9.80 m I s 2).
Calculate the mass of the Earth if the
acceleration of gravity at the Earth's surface is
9.80 m/s2 and the Earth's radius is 6400 km.

Newton's laws 197

 Index alphabetique
A
Acceleration 162 Electrocution 64
Accommodation 147 Electromotive force 73
Accumulators 70 Electrons 17,18
Air table 163 Electroscope 19
Alhazen 109 Equivalent resistance 58,59
Alternating current 46 Euclide 109
Ampere 44
Ammeter 47
Amplitude 93,95 F
Angle Fiber optic 130
of incidence 116,125 Field of a plane mirror 119
of reflection 116 Focus 136,137
of refraction 125 Forces
Angular resolution 149 classification 180
Archimedes 155 concurrent 182
diagram of 190
representation 179
B Frame of reference 158
Battery 70 Franklin, Benjamin 17
Free electrons 18
Frequency 93,95
c Fuse 61
Charging 18,19
Common ground 32
Connection G
of an ammeter 47 Galilee 155,188
of a voltemeter 33 Grouping of resistors 58
Conventional direction of a current 43
Couloumb 19
Couloumb's law 20 H
Current 43,44 Haitham, lbn Al 109
Hertz 93
Hovercraft 163
0
Damping 93
Descartes' formula 139
Descartes, Rene 109 Image 113
Direct current 46 Image given by a plane mirror 119
Dispersion 129 Index of refraction 105,106,126
Displacement of charge 43,44 Inertia 188
Interaction
electrostatic 20,119
E gravitational 192
Edison, Thomas 13 International code of colors 63
Electric charge 17 Insulator 18
Electric discharge 21,22
Electric potential difference 27,28
Electric precipitator 22 J
Electric resistance 54,55 Joules' law 57
Junction rule 49 , Position vector 159
Potentiometer 61
K Power 57
Keplers' laws 127 Presboyopia 148
Principal axis 136
Prism 129
L Puck 164
Law of addition of potential difference 30
Leibnitz, Gottfried 194
Lens 112, 135 Q
Limits of functioning 58 Quarks 19
Luminous beam 112

R
M Rainbow 130
Magnification 141,149 Ray 103
Magnifier 149 Rectilinear propagation of light 111
Mass 190 Reduced eye 146
Measurement Reflection
of electric current 47 laws of 117
of potential difference 33 tota I interna I 128
of resistance 56 Refraction
Motion laws of 126
uniform 168 Resistivity 57
uniformly accelerated 170 Resistor 53
Multimeter 34 Resultant of two forces 182
Myopia 148 Reversibility of light 118
Rheostat 61
Ripple tank 99
N
Near point 147
Newton, Isaac 155,194 s
Newton's laws 188 Safety measures 14
Short circuit 60
Snell, Willebrord 126
0 Speed 160
Object 113 Speed of establishment of a current 44
Ohm's law 55 Speed of propagation of a wave 95
Ohmmeter 56 Spectrum 98,129
Optical center 136 Stroboscope 164
Optical system 113 Superconductor 64
Osei Ilation 92
Oscilloscope 35
Overcurrents 61 T
Telescope 151
Time equation 169,171
p Trajectory 157
Period 93
Plane mirror 118
Pole 71 u
Uniqueness of potential difference 31
Uniqueness of current 49

v
Vibration 92
Volt 28
Volta, Alessandro 77
Voltmeter 29,33

w
Watt 57
Wave 94
Wave front 103
Wave length 95
Weight 190

z
Zweig, George 19
 Conversion of units
Length

I centimeter
cm
1
m
10-2
km
l0- 5
in
0.394 3.28x10-2
ft mi
6.2lxl0-6
meter 100 1 10-3 39.4 3.28 6.2lxl0-4
kilometer 10 5 1000 1 3.94xl04 3281 0.621
inch 2.54 2.54xl0-2 2.54xlo-s 1 8.33x10-2 l.58xlo-s
I foot 30.48 0.305 3.05xl0- 4
12 1 l.89xl0-4
I mile l.6lxl05 1609 1.609 6.34xl04 5280 1

Mass

I g kg oz lb
gram 1 0.001 3.527x10- 2
2.205xl0-3
kilogram 1000 1 35.27 2.205
ounce 28.35 2.835x10- 2
1 6.250x10-2
I pound 453.6 0.4536 16 1

Energy, work, quantity of heat

Btu J cal kWh

British thermal unit 1 1055 252.0 2.930xl0-4
joule 9.48lxl0-4 1 0.2389 2.778xl0- 7

I
calorie 3.969xl0-3 4,186 1 l.163xl0-6
kilowatt-hour 3413 3.6xl06 8.600xl05 1
I
Prefixes for multiples and sub-multiples
� I

Multiples Sub - multiples

Prefix Value Prefix Value
kilo 103 centi 10-2
mega 106 mi Iii 10-3
giga 109 micro 10-6

I tera 1012 nano 10-9 I

pico 10-12 na
femto 10-1s 00
Secondary Publishing Company s.a.r.l.
(LP. 11000)