Basic of Air-Conditioning

3.1 Basic Principle of Automotive Air-Conditioning

Automotive air-conditioning aims to create a condition, in which passengers can drive

and ride in a comfortable environment.
This chapter explains the basic principle of air-conditioning, which controls the
condition of air and maintains a certain level of comfortableness.

3.1.1 Comfortableness in the Cabin

(1) Environment and Comfortableness

Comfortableness consists of temperature, humidity, air flow and heat radiation. These
elements are termed “Four Environmental Elements”. They are dependent on each
other, such as when the temperature is high, we feel warm, but if the humidity is low
and fresh air blows at that time, we feel comfortable. Comfortableness depends on
various human factors such as what we wear and amount of physical activities, sex and
age of the person, and the season of year. They also depend on psychological factors,
such as unpleasant odor in the cabin, noise, and bad visibility (Figure 3.1).
In order to maintain conformableness, automotive air-conditioning provide following
functions to control the condition in the cabin.
- Temperature control: cooling and heating of air
- Humidity control: dehumidification of air
- Control of air flow: Air flow volume (air flow velocity) and direction of flow

Environmental factors Human factors

Temperature Thermal
amount of physical Others
Comfort
activities (amount of Sex, age of the
Humidity metabolic) person, and the
season of year

Air flow
Cloths Psychological factors

Heat radiation Odor, noise,

and visibility

[Fig 3.1] Various factors affect the passenger’s comfortableness

Among four environmental elements, heat radiation refers to heat that transfers
independent from the condition of air, such as that it is hot because of direct solar
radiation or it is cold near the window in the winter. Heat radiation strongly
influences the thermal comfort of passengers. Automotive air-conditioning does not
control the temperature by adjusting the heat radiation directly but by controlling other
elements such as by lowering the temperature.
Furthermore, to improve the safety and comfortableness of passengers which is
dependent on psychological factors, air-conditioning provide the following functions:
- Security of visibility: defrosting and defogging of windshield
- Ventilation of air: exchanging of recirculation air with fresh air
- Purification of air: Removing dust, smoke, bacteria, and odor
- Quietness: Reducing noise of equipment

(2) Balance of Skin Temperature

Comfortableness depends on environmental factors, human factors, and psychological

factors, as explained above. Thermal sensation, such as feeling “hot” or “cold” is
determined by the balance of heat transfer between a person and the surroundings.
Figure 3.2 indicates the thermal balance of passengers in the cabin.

a) Quantity of heat generated in the body

Human body generates heat through metabolism and physical activities. The quantity
of heat that is generated in the body is 80W at resting and 150W when driving just as
light exercises in case of adults.

b) Heat transfer with surroundings

Heat transfer is generated by expiration, convection, perspiration, radiation and
conduction. In the cabin, influence of radiation is especially large both in summer and
winter. There is also heat conduction from the back of passengers, although very small
in quantity, because they sit.

Convection
Radiation

Expiration
Perspiration

Conduction

[Fig 3.2] Thermal balance of passengers in the cabin

 very hot
hot

warm
Thermal
comfort insensitive

cool

cold
very cold

Temperature

[Fig 3.3] The relationship between human thermal sensation and actual temperature

very hot
hot Confidence area

warm
Thermal
comfort
insensitive

cool

cold
very cold

Head skin temp.

[Fig 3.4] The relationship between human thermal sensation and skin temperature

The balance of such heat transfer comes out as a difference of human skin temperature.
Figure 3.3 indicates the relationship between the human thermal sensation and the
actual temperature, according to the data obtained from 280 subjects. As indicated in
Figure 3.3, although temperature is one of the factors that determine the thermal
sensation, it is not possible to describe the thermal sensation only by the temperature.
In Figure 3.4, the data of Figure 3.3 was rearranged according to the head skin
temperature. Since skin temperature changes based on all factors that influence the
thermal sensation, it represents thermal sensation very well.
Recently research and development are performed to evaluate the air conditioning
using skin temperature. In some endeavors, by measuring surface temperature of
dummies and regarding it as skin temperature, thermal sensation of passengers was
estimated and the performance of air-conditioning was estimated.
(3) Thermal Sensation Index

The most accurate method to obtain the human thermal sensation is to measure it
directly on the skin. However, such detector is not yet developed. Instead, some
measures have been suggested, which simulates influence of all factors related to
thermal sensation through modeling of human being. Standard Effective Temperature
(SET*) is the most popular measure among them. Following section explains the
influence of environmental factors using SET as an example.
Standard Effective Temperature (SET*) is an index, suggested by Gagge in 1971. It
takes environmental and human factors into consideration and expresses the
comfortable condition using a temperature at 50% humidity in windless condition which
people are usually exposed to. People have almost the same thermal sensation (hot or
cold feeling) at the same SET* value.

(i) Influence of wind velocity and humidity

Figure 3.5 and 3.6 indicate the influence of wind velocity and humidity in
air-conditioning based on the calculation using SET*. At 24 SET*, which is generally
considered as a comfortable temperature, when wind velocity changes from 0.2 m/s to
1.0 m/s, it provides an equivalent temperature increase of 2.5℃. When humidity is
reduced from 80% R•H to 20% R•H, it provides an equivalent temperature increase of
1.5℃.

(ii) Influence of radiation

Thermal sensation of passengers is greatly influenced by solar radiation. To prevent

heat due to solar radiation, it is necessary to reduce the temperature of air or to
increase the air flow volume.

Relative humidity
Wind velocity

Temp. Temp.

[Fig 3.5] Influence of wind velocity [Fig 3.6] Influence of humidity

Generally, when it is slightly cloudy (sun load: approx. 250 W/m2), it is necessary to keep
the temperature 1.5℃ lower than when it is without solar radiation to maintain the
thermal sensation of passengers according to SET*. On a sunny day (sun load: approx.
700 W/m2), it is necessary to lower the temperature by approximately 5℃ than when it
is without solar radiation.

(iii) Comfortable Temperature Distribution of Passengers

Figure 3.7 indicates the comfortable temperature distribution of passengers in summer

and winter. In summer, comfortable temperature of passengers is 23 to 26℃ with
nearly homogeneous temperature distribution in the whole body. In winter, however,
passengers feel comfortable when the temperature of upper and lower part of the body
are different by approximately 5℃, as is said “cool head and warm feet”.

(At cooling)
Head

Body
Thigh
Foot

Temp.
(At heating)
Head

Body
Thigh
Foot

Temp.
[Fig 3.7] Comfortable temperature distribution

Expanding Understanding

Discomfort Index (DI)

Discomfort index is not used to express comfortableness in the cabin but is often used in
relation to the climate. This index was developed by Bosen J. F., at US Weather
Bureau (USWB) by using humidity and temperature to express comfortableness and
uncomfortableness of people. Discomfort index is 100 when the temperature is same
with the body temperature (36.5℃) and the humidity is 100%R•H (Figure 3.8).
 Relative
temperature
in the cabin

Cabin temp.

[Fig 3.8] Temperature, humidity and discomfort index

3.1.2 Humid Air

(1) What is “humid air”?

Air, which contains no water vapor, is termed “dry air” and that contains even a small
amount of water vapor, “humid air”. Water vapor, which is contained in 1 kg dry air, is
very small in amount at ambient temperature. For example, 1 kg air contains 20 g
water vapor at 25℃. However, since water generates a large amount of latent heat as
it evaporates and condenses, water vapor is an important element when considering
about air conditioning. (Figure 3.9)
Since air can be considered as an ideal gas, it is possible to obtain the pressure
according to the number of molecules (N) contained in the air. When water vapor
molecules (H2O) are mixed into the air, the volume of air increases to maintain the
atmospheric pressure, otherwise the pressure increases. This can be expressed by the
following equation.

PH2O + Pair= Atmospheric pressure (3.1)

PH2O/Pair=NH2O/Nair=MassH2O/Massair (3.2)
PH2O: Partial pressure of water vapor

Dry air Air molecules Humid air Water vapor molecules

(Atmospheric pressure) (Atmospheric pressure)

[Fig 3.9] Dry air and humid air

 Partial
pressure
of water
vapor

Temp.

[Fig 3.10] Saturation line of water vapor

Pair: Partial pressure of air

Here, since the molecular weight of water vapor (18) is smaller than that of air (29),
humid air, which contains water vapor, is lighter than dry air. Figure 3.10 indicates
the saturation pressure and temperature characteristic of water vapor in humid air.
This is partial pressure of water vapor in the atmosphere. This partial pressure equals
to the pressure generated by water, which is being added in a vacuum vessel, at the
temperature of water. As is well known, water is 1 atmospheric pressure at 100℃
(101.3kPa) and boils at 100℃.

Expanding Understanding

Characteristics of Ideal Gas

- What is ideal gas?

Gas that is thin, in which molecules are separated from each other as in the atmosphere
and the influence of intermolecular attraction can be ignored, is termed ideal gas.
With ideal gas, the relationship between the pressure P, volume V, and absolute
temperature T are always the same regardless of the kind of gas.
- What is pressure P?
Pressure P is the force of gas pushing against the wall.
This can be obtained as the total force generated when
momentum mv of a molecule that has mass m and
average speed v crashes against the wall.
P=(2mυx υ/2h x N/3)/h2=1/3Nmυ2/h3
Change of momentum Number of crushes Number of molecules which crash
against the wall.
- What is the absolute temperature T?
This is the kinetic energy of molecules.
Kinetic energy of all ideal gas is proportional to the absolute
temperature T.
1/2mυ2=1/2m’ υ’2=kT (3.5)
k: Boltzmann’s constant 1.381x10-23J/K
- What is the equation of ideal gas?
Based on the equations (3.4) and (3.5),
PV=2/3NkT (3.6)
Here, the number of molecules N is constant with all gases,
N=2.69x1025 molecules /m3 (0 degree of centigrade, atmospheric pressure)
Generally, N is expressed by the Avogadro’s constant NA, which is the number of
molecules per mole.
NA=6.022 x 1023 molecules /mol
(One mole refers to the amount of gas which is 22.414 liter at 0 degree of centigrade,
atmospheric pressure.)

(2) Psychrometric Chart

Psychrometric chart indicates the condition of humid air on one chart. Figure 3.11
indicates a typical psychrometric chart, which is widely used. Psychrometric chart
indicates various values of physical conditions of air, in addition to the saturation line of
water vapor, as indicated in Figure 3.10.

(i) Relative humidity（φ : % R•H）

We usually use the relative humidity as humidity. 100% R•H indicates a condition,
under which partial pressure of water vapor is at saturation pressure and no more
water vapor can be contained. 50% R•H indicates a condition, which contains only a
half of water vapor molecules as that at the saturation. Partial pressure of water
vapor is also half as that at the saturation pressure. As indicated in Figure 3.12,
relative humidity is expressed as a line, which is proportional to the saturation line of
water vapor on the psychometric chart and can be expressed in the following equation.
φ=PH2O/PH2O’ x 100 (3.3)

(ii) Absolute humidity（x: kg/kg’）

On the psychrometric chart, absolute humidity is indicated by the vertical axis on the
right side. Since PH2O∝MassH2O, absolute humidity is indicated as the weight of H2O
in 1 kg’ humid air.
 Absolute
temperature x

Relative
humidity Partial
Enthalpy
pressure
Saturation of water
line Specific vapor
volume
Wet bulb
Dry bulb humidity t
humidity

[Fig 3.11] Psychrometric chart (Refer to end of a book.)

(Atmospheric pressure)

Partial
Partial Saturation pressure
pressure water of air
of water vapor Absolute
vapor pressure temperature

Temp.

[Fig 3.12] Relative humidity on the Psychrometric chart

Expanding Understanding

How is the humidity measured?

When humid air with less relative humidity than 100% is exposed to water, it is still
possible that water is evaporated into the air. Humidity is measured by utilizing the
fact that when water evaporates, the temperature goes down.
 Partial Saturation
pressure water vapor
of water pressure
vapor gauze
water
wet-bulb dry-bulb
Temp. (dry bulb temp.) thermometer thermometer

[Fig 3.13] How to measure humidity [Fig 3.14] Psychrometer

As indicated in Figure 3.13, when water evaporates, the partial pressure of water vapor
increases (a  b) as temperature goes down. The temperature becomes stabilized
when the water is evaporated until it reaches the saturation pressure. The
temperature at this point t’ is termed the wet bulb temperature at temperature t and
humidity ψ%R•H, differentiated from the temperature that normally used (dry bulb
temperature). Humidity is obtained as the intersection point of dry bulb temperature t
and wet bulb temperature t’. Generally, wet bulb temperature is measured by a wet
bulb thermometer. With wet bulb thermometer, it is necessary to provide wind velocity
of 5 m/s or higher in order to secure water evaporation.

(iii) Enthalpy (i: kJ/kg’)

Enthalpy is the total heat quantity that the air possesses and is expressed by the total
of heat quantity of 1 kg dry air and that of water vapor, into which dry air is contained
(unit: kJ). The quantity of energy is expressed by the difference from the enthalpy of
dry air at 0℃, which is set to 0. On psychrometric chart, as indicated in Figure 3.15,
enthalpy is expressed by an inclined line, which is located on the upper left side and is
calibrated at regular intervals.

dry bulb temp.

Partial
Enthalpy
pressure
line
of water
vapor dry bulb temp. line

Saturation water Isoenthalpic curve

vapor pressure
Humidity (dry bulb temp.)

[Fig 3.15] How to find enthalpy

Enthalpy line is almost parallel to the wet bulb temperature line because the latent
heat of vaporization reduces the temperature of the whole system of humid air. This
means, since the change is only from the latent heat into sensible heat, enthalpy line is
almost parallel to the wet bulb temperature line.

Expanding Understanding

What is evaporative cooling?

We all know that when we put water in an unglazed pot, the temperature of water goes
down, or wind blowing over the surface of water is cool. When the relative humidity is
low, the temperature of air goes down as the air is exposed to water. Under ideal
condition, it goes down to the wet bulb temperature.
For example, when water is atomized (into micro particle of spot cool breeze
machine
water) using ultrasound humidifier and supplied with air
into the atmosphere of 30℃ to 50℃ R•H, it is possible to
cool the air as low as 21℃. Although the humidity reaches
100% R•H quickly in an enclosed room, this method has been
commercialized as a simplified cooler for forklift recently, as a
forklift
spot cooling for open space as indicated on the right.

(iv) Specific volume（υ: m3/kg’）

Generally, specific volume of gas is represented as the volume that 1 kg of gas occupies.
However, since humid air is a mixture of two gases, specific volume of humid air is
represented as the volume of dry air and water vapor per 1kg’ of dry air, as with the
absolute humidity. On the psychrometric chart, the higher the temperature, the larger
the volume of gas becomes under the same pressure, as indicated in Figure 3.16.

Constant specific volume line

Large
Small
Partial
pressure
of water
vapor

Saturation water
Temperature
vapor pressure
[Fig 3.16] How to find the specific volume
Also, when water vapor is mixed with the air, since water vapor is lighter than air and
the specific volume becomes large, the constant specific volume line indicates an
inclination to the right.

(v) Dew-point temperature（t” : ℃）

Dew point temperature is the temperature of saturation humid air (saturated water
vapor pressure), which contains the same amount of water vapor as that in the humid
air. When the temperature drops below the dew-point temperature, humid air cannot
contain the water vapor any more and water drops come out.

(3) Usage of psychrometric chart

It should be noted that all physical values indicated on the psychrometric chart is
expressed per “1kg dry air” and not per unit volume. Therefore, when using the chart,
it is necessary to convert the volume to the weight of dry air first.

(i) Cooler (cooling and dehumidification)

Air flow volume Ga is indicated in volume flow rate (m3/h) in general. To obtain the
capacity of cooler using psychrometric chart, it is necessary to convert the air flow
volume Ga to that of dry air volume (Ga’ : kg’/h) first. When converting, an appropriate
value of specific volume should be used according to the position, where the air flow
volume is measured. In this case, since the measurement was conducted at the upper
stream side of the cooler, specific volume on the inlet side υ1 is used.
Ga’ = Ga / υ1 (3.7)
(kg’/h) (m3/h) (m3/kg’)

[Fig 3.17] Cooling and dehumidification by cooler

Next, the difference of enthalpy between before and after the cooler is calculated to
obtain capacity Qg, as indicated in Figure 3.17. At this point, the air is cooled, but
since the temperature is reduced below the dew-point temperature, dehumidification
occurs at the same time. The air ① is cooled below the dew-point temperature t” and
the temperature goes down further until point ②.
Therefore, the capacity QE is indicated as follows.
QE = Ga’ x (i1-i2) (3.8)
(kJ/h) (kg’/h) (kJ/h’)
The quantity of dehumidification WE, which occurs here, can be obtained by the
following equation, based on the difference of absolute humidity between before and
after the cooler.
WE = Ga’ x (x1-x2) (3.9)
(kg/h) (kg’/h) (kg/kg’)

(ii) Heater (heating)

Automotive air-conditioning utilizes hot water heater using engine coolant in general.
The air is introduced into the heat exchanger, called heater core, for heating. The
heating capacity can be obtained from the difference of enthalpy between before and
after the heater, as with the case of cooler, as indicated in Figure 3.18. When the air
① at the inlet of heater is heated, since the temperature of air increases without
changing humidity, it is possible to obtain the temperature of air ② at a constant
absolute humidity.

(iii) Air Mix (Mixing cold and warm air)

Automotive air-conditioning provide air of desired temperature, by mixing cold air
created by cooler and warm air, which is created by heating a part of cold air through
the heater core.

Cooler

Heater

[Fig 3.18] Heating by heater [Fig 3.19] Air mix

As indicated in Figure 3.19, position of mixture air point ③ is located on the line
connecting points ① and ②, at a point which devices the line at a ratio of (1-K) to K,
when quantity K of cold air at ① and quantity (1-K) of warm air ② are mixed. (Since
warm air of point ② is created by heating the cold air ①, it is located on the constant
absolute humidity line, as explained in the Heating Section.)

(iv) Fogging of Windshield

One of the important functions of automotive air-conditioning is to prevent fogging of
windshield in order to secure safety during driving. Fogging of windshield can be
explained as follows.
In Figure 3.20, temperature in the cabin is supposed to be t1, absolute humidity x1, the
dew-point temperature t1” and the surface temperature of windshield t2. When air at
point ① comes contact with the windshield and t2＜t1”, the air will be cooled first to the
dew point temperature t1” and then to t2. Then the condensed water (x1-x2) gathers on
the windshield and causes fogging of windshield. To prevent this, it is necessary either
to reduce the humidity at point ① by dehumidification or to raise the temperature of
windshield ② by providing warm air, thus t2＞t1”.

(4) Thermal Load and Required Capacity

When a vehicle is exposed to a certain environment, there is a heat transfer between the
cabin and outside. In summer, there is heat coming in and in winter, heat moving out.
Sum of thermal quantity, which transfers between the cabin and outside is termed
vehicle thermal load. The air conditioning, which is installed in the vehicle, controls
the environment to create comfortable condition for the passengers. The time required
to create a comfortable condition and the final cabin temperature depend on the balance
with capacity of the air-conditioning and vehicle thermal load.

(i) Vehicle Thermal Load

As indicated in Figure 3.21, vehicle thermal load can be divided into four major groups.

qa: transferred heat quantity

due to solar radiation
qb: heat radiation quantity
due to temperature
difference between inside
and outside the cabin
qc: heat generation in the
cabin (passenger, various
equipment)
qd: heat loss due to
ventilation
[Fig 3.20] Fogging of Windshield [Fig 3.21] Vehicle thermal load
 FRESH mode Heating
load
RECIRC mode FRESH mode
Solar radiation:
Cooling 1kW/m2 Solar radiation: 0
load Ambient air: Passenger: 1
35degrees,50%
1600cc
parked outside in the
hot weather

Cabin Temp. Outside air humidity.

[Fig 3.22] Cooling load [Fig 3.22] Heating load

Vehicle thermal load Q shall be expressed as follows.

Q=qa+qb+qc+qd (3.10)
When cooling, heat comes into the cabin from outside and Q is positive value in the
equation (3.10). When heating, the heat in the cabin is released outside and Q is
negative value. The absolute values of these are termed cooling load and heating load
respectively. Thermal load is determined by the temperature in the cabin. Solar
radiation, ventilation and heat transfer have a great influence in summer and
ventilation and heat transfer in winter, as indicated in Figure 3.22 and 3.23.
Regarding cooling, recirculation air mode has smaller cooling load than that of fresh air
mode by the heat loss due to ventilation qd, as indicated in Figure 3.22.
Also, as the temperature increases in the cabin, the transferred heat due to
temperature difference qd decreases and the cooling load becomes smaller
correspondingly. At the cabin temperature of approximately 65℃, cooling load shall be
0. At this point, heat radiation quantity due to temperature difference between inside
and outside the cabin qb (negative value) and the transferred heat quantity due to solar
radiation are balanced. This corresponds to a condition of a vehicle, which is parked
outside in the hot weather.
Usually, the value of heating load is obtained when there is no solar radiation, as
indicated in Figure 3.23, as solar radiation serves as heat source. Heating load is
proportional to the difference of temperature inside and outside the cabin. To maintain
the same cabin temperature, the lower the fresh air temperature is, the greater the
heating load becomes. Quantity of heat generation in the cabin qc is a negative value
and serves to reduce the heating load.

(ii) Required Capacity

Cooling capacity of air conditioning can be obtained by the difference of the condition of
air at the evaporator inlet (①) and at the outlet (②). To obtain the cooling capacity QT
using the psychrometric chart, the capacity can be divided into the heat quantity
 Temp.

[Fig 3.24] The condition change of air at the evaporator

(latent heat QL), which is required to lower the humidity of air, and heat quantity
(sensible heat Qs), which is required to lower the temperature of air, as follows.

QT=Ga/υ1 x (i1-i2)=QS+QL (3.11)

Here,
QS: Sensitive heat
QL: Latent heat
QL=Ga/υ1ｘ(i1-im) (3.12)
Qs=Ga/υ1 x (im-i2) (3.13)

According to the equation above, the lower the inlet temperature t1 and the lower the
inlet humidity ψ1 are, the smaller the cooling capacity becomes in summer. Therefore,
when cooling with re-circulation air (recirculation mode), greater cooling capacity is
required at the beginning of air conditioning, when the temperature and humidity are
high in the cabin. In contrast, when cooling with fresh air, the cooling capacity is
constant unless the temperature and humidity of fresh air change. By combining the
characteristic of cooling capacity and vehicle thermal load, indicated in Figure 3.22, an
intersection point is obtained as in Figure 3.25. At this intersection point P, the
required capacity and the vehicle thermal load are balanced. This is the final
temperature in cabin. When the capacity of air conditioning is increased, the point of
balance changes from P1 to P2, reducing the temperature in cabin. Current automotive
air-conditioning have a great capacity in preparation for the star-up time when parked
outside in the hot weather and to provide an overcooled temperature in the cabin when
stabilized.
Heating in winter is generally conducted by introducing fresh air. Balance between
the vehicle thermal load and the heating capacity is indicated in Figure 3.26.
 Solar radiation Solar radiation

Ambient temp. Ambient temp.

RECIRC mode FRESH mode

Cooling
Cooling
capacity Improvement
capacity
in capacity
Cooling
Improvement
load Cooling load Cooling load
in capacity

Cabin temp. Cabin temp.

[Fig 3.25] Vehicle thermal load and cooling capacity

FRESH mode
Ambient temp.

Solar radiation

Heating capacity FRESH mode

Heating

Heating Cabin
Heating load
load temp.

Cabin temp. Heating air flow volume

[Fig 3.26] Vehicle thermal load and heating capacity [Fig 3.27] Vehicle thermal load and heating capacity

Due to ventilation loss, there is an optimal air flow volume, which provides the highest
temperature in the cabin, as indicated in Figure 3.27.

3.2 Air-Conditioning System of Automotive Air-Conditioning

Figure 3.28 indicates the entire schematic of automotive air-conditioning system. It

consists of HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning) unit and refrigeration
cycle, which is installed in the engine room and provides low temperature refrigerant to
the evaporator in the HVAC unit. The automotive air-conditioning system provides the
following functions in order to create a comfortable condition in the cabin.
 Refrigeration system

Condenser

Compressor

Engine Engine room

Filter Cabin

Blower
Evaporator Heater core

[Fig 3.28] Automotive air-conditioning system

(1) Temperature control: controls the temperature of air blow

(2) Air intake mode control: Switching between recirculation air and fresh air
(3) Humidity control: controls the humidity by controlling the outlet temperature of
evaporator
(4) Air flow volume control: controls the discharged air flow volume
(5) Air flow mode control: grille selection (See Chapter 4.)
(6) Filtration (See Section 3)

(1) Temperature Control

Automotive HVAC consists of fan motor, which creates air blow, evaporator, which
provides cold air using low temperature refrigerant, and heater core, which provide
warm air using engine coolant. Comfortable temperature for the passengers is created
by re-heating the cool air. Currently two temperature control methods are used:
air-mix method and full reheat method. Most vehicles introduce the air-mix method
but some luxurious vehicles in Europe introduce the full reheat method. Table 3.1
compares the configurations and characteristics of these two.

(2) Air intake mode control

 [Table 3.1] Configuration and Characteristics of Temperature Control Methods

Configuration Characteristics
Air-mix door A space is required for Parts and
air-mix door and air-mix control method
Air-mix Air-mix chamber. The air-mix are simpler and
method chamber door regulates the ratio the cost is lower
of air flow volume to be compared to the
re-heated by the heater full reheat
Blower core and the air-mix method.
chamber mixes the cold
Evaporator Heater core Full reheat
and warm air method requires
homogeneously. a complicated
Full
Because the space for hot water flow
Reheat Hot water flow
the air-mix door and volume control.
method control valve
air-mix changer is not
required, the size is
smaller and the air flow
resistance is lower.

With air intake mode door located at the inlet of ventilator, the mode is selected among
the recirculation mode (RECIRC), fresh air mode (FRESH) and in-between. In
recirculation mode, the air in the cabin is re-circulated, and in fresh air mode, fresh air
is used for air-conditioning. (See Figure 3.29.)

The mode of air-conditioning is selected according to the purpose:

RECIRC mode - Used when cooling load is large, for example, at cool-down
- Used when fresh air has odor, for example, when driving in the city
FRESH mode - Used to introduce fresh air from outside (ventilation)
- Used to prevent the fogging of windshield during heating

(FRESH mode)

(RECIRC mode)

[Fig 3.29] The air flow in the cabin in fresh mode and recirculation mode
(3) Humidity Control

Figure 3.30 indicates the humidity balance in FRESH mode. Here, dry air flow volume
is Ga’, absolute humidity xin, and the volume of air coming into the cabin and going out
from the cabin are the same. The absolute humidity going out from the cabin and that
in the cabin xr are considered to be the same. When the perspiration quantity of
passengers is Xm, the humidity in the cabin can be obtained by the following equation.
Ga’ x xin + Xm = Ga’ x xr (3.14)
xr = Ga’ x xin + Xm/Ga’ (3.15)
In RECIRC mode, the air quantity Ga’, which moves between inside and outside the
cabin, is only natural ventilation and small in quantity. Therefore, it is necessary to
dehumidify the air in the cabin to prevent fogging of the windshield.
Figure 3.31 indicates the relationship between the balanced humidity in the cabin and
the fogging of windshield according to the air-conditioning mode. The hatch line
indicates the humidity limit for fogging. When the humidity is higher than this level,
the windshield is covered by fogging and when it is lower, it is not.
In RECIRC mode, when operating without air-conditioning, the air in the cabin has
higher humidity than the humidity limit for fogging and the windshield is covered by
fogging. Therefore it is necessary to dehumidify the air with air-conditioning.
In contrast, in FRESH mode, the windshield is not covered by fogging even when the
air-conditioning is turned OFF. However, in the mid-term, when heating is not
required, humidity of the air in the cabin becomes as high as outside and causes
uncomfortableness. Therefore it is necessary to operate the air-conditioning and
dehumidify the air to maintaining comfortableness.

RECIRC mode
Humidity limit for fogging FRESH mode
(Vehicle spped:100km/h) Air flow volume: 180m3/h
Passenger: 2
(RECIRC mode) Cabin temp.:25 degrees
Ambient humidity:70%
Fog

Comfortable
Cabin A/C temperature
relative RECIRC mode
humidity
FRESH mode
A/C

Ambient temp.

[Fig 3.30] The cabin humidity balance [Fig 3.31] The cabin humidity balance
As explained above, air conditioning maintain the temperature in the cabin, prevent
fogging of the windshield and create a comfortable condition.
Since air-conditioning lowers the temperature of air at the evaporator outlet as low as
0℃, which is temperature limit for frost, to obtain maximum humidification effect, and
re-heats the air with the heater core to obtain the optimal temperature, humidity in the
cabin becomes as low as 30%.
The lower the temperature of air at the evaporator outlet is, the greater the
dehumidification effect becomes. However, this requires a correspondingly greater
compressor power at the same time (Figure 3.32). Recently, to save energy,
automatic-economy control was introduced (Figure 3.33). Auto-economy control sets
the temperature at the outlet of evaporator higher, as long as it does not go over 60%,
which is the upper limit of comfortable humidity. This is however not in winter since it
is necessary to provide defogging of the windshield. On the graph, the target
temperature goes down at the fresh air temperature of 23℃. This is not to control the
humidity but to maintain the cabin temperature.

Outlet
Compressor temp. of
power evaporator
Small-size car

Blower

Evaporator outlet temp. Ambient air temp.

[Fig 3.32] The relationship between temperature [Fig3.33] Automatic-economy control;

at the evaporator outlet and compressor power targeted evaporator outlet temperature

(4) Air Flow Volume Control

Air flow volume is controlled by the voltage applied to the motor of the air conditioning’s
fan. Generally, in case of automatic air-conditioning, air flow volume is larger at the
beginning such as cool-down and warm-up, since the cooling and warming load are high.
Then the air flow volume is gradually decreased as the temperature in the cabin
reaches a comfortable level. When the temperature in the cabin is stabilized,
air-conditioning controls the air flow volume as low as possible to maintain the
temperature. Air flow volume is also controlled when the solar radiation increases, the
temperature of fresh air changes or the cabin temperature setting has been changed.
3.3 Purification of Air

As explained so far, air conditioning aim to control the environmental factors, which
realize a comfortable cabin environment (temperature, humidity, air flow, and heat
radiation). However, due to an increasing awareness of comfortableness, “purification
of air” has become an important factor besides the four environmental factors. In this
trend, air purification technology to remove pollen, black smoke in the diesel emission
and other particles, odor and toxic gas, has been attracting attention.

(1) Outline of Air Purification

Air purification is effective to provide comfortableness by improving passengers’
psychological factor.

The technology targets the following substances when purifying the air:
① Solid and liquid particles floating in the air, such as pollen, diesel emission gas and
smoke of cigarette
② Odor gas when driving after a diesel car or through the industrial area
③ Carbon monoxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, and carcinogenic substance contained in
diesel emission gas, such as Benzpyrene (BaP)
④ Microorganism such as moldiness and pyogenic bacteria.
Since automobile is a mobile vehicle, target substances coming into the cabin from fresh
air are various. Therefore various technologies are required to purify the air in the
cabin.
As the basic technology of air purification, this section explains technology to remove
particles, odor, and toxic gas.

(2) Dust Removal Technology

Dusts, which contaminate the cabin, partly come from the fresh air and are partly
generated in the cabin. Dusts from the fresh air include pollen and black smoke in the
diesel emission gas and they come from the fresh air when operating the air
conditioning in FRESH mode. Dusts generate in the cabin include lint from the
passengers’ clothes and smoke of cigarettes. Types and particle diameter of these
dusts are various as indicated in Figure 3.34. Different technologies are required to
purify all of these particles.
Most automotive air-conditioning introduces electrostatic dust capture method or
filtration method due to limitation of installation and the size of target particles (a
range of sub-micron to several hundred micron).
 Smoke of cigarette
Diesel carbon
Dust, particle of spike

Pollen

Bacteria

Particle diameter

[Fig 3.34] Particle diameter distribution of dusts

(i) Electrostatic Dust Capture Method

In this method, dusts and finite particles such as cigarette smoke are electrically
charged, using accelerated ions that are generated at the time of corona discharge, and
captured electrically (Figure 3.35). This method is effective with finite particles with a
size of sub-micron to several microns and the pressure drop is small. However, as it
utilizes high voltage, it has a problem of safety and high cost.
Figure 3.36 indicates an example of electrostatic air purifier, which utilizes a principle
of electrostatic dust capture method.

Activated carbon filter

Collector (Deodorization)
part
Collector
Ion shower (Dust removal)
[

Electric discharge electrode

Ionizer
Electrically charged to [ (Electrified)
negative [
[Fig 3.35] Principle of electrostatic dust capture [Fig 3.36] Electrostatic air purifier

(ii) Filtration Method

① Mechanical Capture
In this method, dusts are filtered by filter paper made of pulp or non-woven cloth made
of synthetic fiber such as polyethylene. Large particles such as lint are captured by the
fiber and small particles such as pollen are captured by the intermolecular forces (van
der Waal’s forces), which occur between the particles and fibers.
 General fibers Electret fiber

Passed

captured

Minute particle Minute particle

[Fig 3.37] Electret fiber and capture mechanism

Therefore, to increase the capture efficiency, the inter-fiber space should be made
smaller. However, when the inter-fiber space becomes smaller, air flow resistance
increases. Therefore, when air filter is used at the wind passage of air conditioning, a
trade-off occurs between the capture efficiency and air flow resistance.

② Electrostatic Dust Capture

As floating dusts in the air are charged negative, it should be possible to remove dusts
by charging the fiber electrically without making inter-fiber space smaller. Based on
this idea, electrically charged fiber is developed and called “electret fiber”. (Figure 3.37).
By applying high voltage to non-woven cloth sheet made of dielectric material such as
polypropylene, the sheet becomes electrically polarized and the surface will be
electrically charged to negative and positive.
As this non-woven cloth has high dust removal efficiency and low resistance of wind
passage, it is widely in use at the moment.

(iii) Gas Removal Technologies

There are two main aims for gas removal: one is deodorizing and the other is removing
toxic gas.
Regarding deodorizing, it is considered to be enough when passengers do not feel the
odor and performed by the following method.
① Sensory deodorization: masking by perfume and reduction of odor using deodorant
② Chemical deodorization: converting the odor gas to that with weaker odor through
oxidation by ozone, etc.
③ Absorption: absorbing and removing of odor gas using activated carbon, zeolite, etc.
④ Biological deodorization: degrading odor gas to weaker odor using soil bacteria
With automotive air-conditioning, absorption method is widely used because the
construction is simple.
Representative absorbents include activated carbon, silica gel, zeolite and alumina.
They are used according to the target gas and usage environment. For deodorizing and
removing toxic gas with car installation type, activated carbon is widely used.
Activated carbon is a porous substance that has micro-pores. It has a very large
specific surface area (approx. 600 to 1600m2/g).
Although activated carbon is an excellent absorbent, it is not an all-round player. It is
effective with neutral gas such as toluene and benzene, but not very effective with acid
gas such as SO2, with basic gas such as ammonia, with aldehyde type gas such as
acetaldehyde, or with low molecular weight gas such as CO and NO. It is effective
with toxic gas (most of them are neutral gas), but not with odor gas (most of them are
non-neutral gas). Therefore, surface treatment activated carbon, which is produced by
attaching agent which acts with gases such as ammonia, SO2, and aldehyde type, to
improve the absorbing capacity, is widely used in recent years. (Figure 3.38)

surface Chemical adsorption by attaching agent

(basic, acid gas)

Acetaldehyde

Physical adsorption by micro pore

(neutral gas)

[Fig 3.38] Surface treatment activated carbon

For example, to remove acetaldehyde, which is considered to be a major constituent of
diesel emission gas, amino group (NH2) should be attached.

(iv) Product Configuration

In the previous section, filter paper for dust removal, deodorization and absorbent for
toxic gas removal were explained. In order to use these materials for air purification,
it is necessary to process these as air purification filter. For car-installation type,
pleated filter is used because of its advantageous pressure drop and efficiency. Figure
3.39 indicates representative filters, which are currently used.

Filter paper for

dust removal

Binder

Adhesion material
for deodorization
[Fig 3.39] Filter configuration

① Air Filter
To remove contaminant in and outside the car, filters explained above are attached at
the fan inlet port of blower unit and before the evaporator in the air-conditioning system,
as indicated in Figure 3.40.
In most systems, it is possible to exchange filters easily from the cabin when the dust
removal efficiently decreases after some time of use.

② Air Purifiers
Air purifier removes dust and odor in the cabin. This is helpful when operating the air
conditioning in RECIRC mode while driving in the city.
Air purifier basically consists of the blower (ventilation function), filter (dust removal
and deodorization function), switch and control part. With the built-in type, air suction
and blow grill are installed in the cabin and the main unit of air purifier is installed in
the trunk (Figure 3.41). With general-purpose type, there are rear-dash board
installation type and ceiling type (Figure 3.42).
 Fresh air (pollen etc.)

Recirculation air
(cigarette smoke
etc.)

[Fig 3.40] Attachment of an air filter configuration

Blower motor Filter

Amplifier Smoke sensor

Resister Fan

[Fig 3.41] The example of a internal structure of an air purifier

Ceiling type

Rear-dash board
installation type

[Fig 3.42] The installation position of an air purifier

Figure 3.43 indicates the result of purification effect test, conducted by using cigarette
smoke.
As a new system, some air purifiers incorporate a particle sensor (optical or gas method),
which detects contamination of air in the cabin automatically, turns on/off the blower
and controls the air flow volume. Such air purifiers are widely used now.
 # of cigarette: 2
Vehicle type: popular car
Blower: OFF

Smoking

Natural attenuation
Density
of
particles Air purifier use

Lapsed time, minutes

[Fig 3.43] Air purification performance

(3) Trend of Air Purification

Since the healthy awareness tendency is expected to increase in the future, air
purification seems to become an indispensable part of air conditioning. As a result,
technology in this area is expected to develop further in the future. As a method to
obtain a more comfortable cabin space, automatic air-intake control (fresh
air/recirculation air) system was developed by combining the air purifier and the air
conditioning system.
In this system, suction port is automatically switched to the circulation air mode as it
detects emission gas in the vicinity of the car, thus preventing the entry of emission gas
into the cabin. As seen with this system, some technologies aiming to control the air
quality in the cabin, are commercialized in recent years.
In addition to the removal technology, such as the dust removal of the contaminant and
deodorization described so far, the technology that releases scent of passenger’s taste
and generates negative ions, which are considered to be good for the health, are also
expected to develop as one element of air purification.